Reaching and Teaching

the Child with

Autism Spectrum Disorder
of related interest
Planning to Learn
Creating and Using a Personal Planner with Young People on the Autism Spectrum
Keely Harper-Hill and Stephanie Lord
ISBN 978 1 84310 561 9
Asperger Syndrome in the Inclusive Classroom
Advice and Strategies for Teachers
Stacey W. Betts, Dion E. Betts and Lisa N. Gerber-Eckard
Foreword by Peter Riffle
ISBN 978 1 84310 840 5
Everyday Education
Visual Support for Children with Autism
Pernille Dyrbjerg and Maria Vedel
Foreword by Lennart Pedersen
ISBN 978 1 84310 457 5
Practical Sensory Programmes for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder and
Other Special Needs
Sue Larkey
ISBN 978 1 84310 479 7
Tales from the Table
Lovaas/ABA Intervention with Children on the Autistic Spectrum
Margaret Anderson
ISBN 978 1 84310 306 6
The Verbal Behavior Approach
How to Teach Children with Autism and Related Disorders
Mary Lynch Barbera with Tracy Rasmussen
Foreword by Mark L. Sundberg, Ph.D., BCBA
ISBN 978 1 84310 852 8
Assessing and Developing Communication and Thinking Skills in People with
Autism and Communication Difficulties
A Toolkit for Parents and Professionals
Kate Silver with Autism Initiatives
ISBN 978 1 84310 352 3
Understanding How Asperger Children and Adolescents Think and Learn
Creating Manageable Environments for AS Students
Paula Jacobsen
ISBN 978 1 84310 804 7
Teaching Children with Autism and Related Spectrum Disorders
An Art and a Science
Christy L. Magnusen
Foreword by Tony Attwood
ISBN 978 1 84310 747 7
Teaching at Home
A New Approach to Tutoring Children with Autism and Asperger Syndrome
Olga Holland
ISBN 978 1 84310 787 3
Reaching and Teaching
the Child with
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Using Learning Preferences
and Strengths

Heather MacKenzie

Jessica Kingsley Publishers

London and Philadelphia
 First published in 2008
by Jessica Kingsley Publishers
116 Pentonville Road
London N1 9JB, UK
and
400 Market Street, Suite 400
Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA

www.jkp.com

Copyright © Heather MacKenzie 2008

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form
(including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not
transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written
permission of the copyright owner except in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission to reproduce any part of this
publication should be addressed to the publisher.

Warning: The doing of an unauthorised act in relation to a copyright work may result in both
a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 1 84310 623 4

ISBN pdf eBook 978 1 84642 792 3

Printed and bound in Great Britain by

Athenaeum Press, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear
To Lorne and MacKenzie
who taught me so much
about autism, the world
and about myself.
 Acknowledgements

My husband, Bill, needs the greatest expression of gratitude. He supported me

on this writing journey and allowed me to remain submerged in my thoughts and
ideas for weeks on end.
I am deeply grateful to my colleagues who so graciously reviewed an earlier
version of this manuscript and provided valuable feedback. These people
include Karen Duff and Carmen Hengeveld, both expert speech-language
pathologists and valued colleagues, Johanna Brown, an exemplary teacher and
treasured friend, Susan Deike, a skilled writer and mom of twins, Janice Rigg, a
very knowing mother of three, Teeya Scholten, an important source of motiva-
tion, Allison Waks, a psychologist par excellence, Bev Appel, and Linda
Whitney, an indomitable spirit especially when it comes to her sons.
I extend a special thank you to MacKenzie Whitney who so generously
provided his thoughts on what helped him as a child and young man growing up
with autism and what he would find helpful.
 Contents

Preface 11
A new clinical perspective 11
Development of the LPS model 14
Advantages to the LPS model 15
What this book can help you do 16

Chapter 1: Reframing the Traditional Definition of Autism 19

Traditional definition of autism 19
No two people with autism are the same 20
Strengths in autism 20
Looking beyond behavior 20
Learning from those with autism 21
Autism reframed 22
Autism as a cognitive style 23
Qualitative differences between brains 24
Systematic and social brains 24
Coherent and piece-meal brains 25
Learning Preferences and Strengths 26

Chapter 2: Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 28

Learners as “crystals” 28
Learning preferences 29
Learning strengths 33
Chapter 3: Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children
with Autism Spectrum Disorder 37
Learning preferences 37
Learning strengths 44
Determining the Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile
of a child with autism 47

Chapter 4: Program Planning with Learning Preferences

and Strengths 51
Key program components 51
Where to start the LPS program 55
What motivates children with autism? 56
Consider the child’s basic needs first 58
Consider yourself 58

Chapter 5: Program Structure 61

Importance of structure 61
A. Learning environment 63
B. Schedules, plans, and routines 73
C. Tasks and activities 82
Structure to expand Learning Preferences and Strengths 88

Chapter 6: Program Content 93

Learning framework 94
Where to start 95
A. Learning/Cognitive skills (L/C) 96
B. Social/Communication skills (S/C) 114
C. Self-Regulation skills (S/R) 140
Incorporating all stages of information processing and
multiple skills 158
Chapter 7: Program Process 171
Mediated learning 171
Seven Pillars of Mediated Learning 173
Ways to begin mediating 184

Chapter 8: Behavior in Children with Autism 190

What is behavior in children with autism? 190
What is problem behavior? 191
The relationship between behavior and stress 192
Stressors in children with autism 195
Distress reactions in children with autism 195
Regaining equilibrium in children with autism 197
The ‘crisis plan’ 201
Ways to avoid distress reactions 202

Chapter 9: Putting the Pieces Together: An Overview

of the Learning Preferences and Strengths model 219
The Learning Preferences and Strengths model 219
Effectiveness of the LPS model 226
Becoming an expert in the LPS program 227
Where might the future lie for a child with autism? 228
Final words 229

REFERENCES 230

APPENDIX I: SOME FREE INTERNET RESOURCES 233

Learning activities and materials 233
File folder activities 235
Visual organizers 235
Reader’s Theatre 235
Songs and rhymes 235
Children’s book database 236
APPENDIX II: LEARNING PREFERENCES
AND STRENGTHS PROFILE 237

APPENDIX III: FRAMEWORKS AND FORMS FOR OBSERVATION

AND PLANNING 245
Observing Learning Preferences and Strengths – child alone 246
Observing Learning Preferences and Strengths – child in a peer group 247
Inventory of Child Likes and Dislikes 248
Observing Learning Processes 249
Lesson Planning Form 251
Lesson Planning and Implementation Checklists 252
Communication Skills Checklist 255
Stressors, Distress Reactions and Calming Strategies Checklist 259
Problem Solving Format 262
Sample Preschool Literature-Based Curriculum Plan 263
Story Format (simple) 264
Story Format (more complex) 265
Social Rule Format 266

INDEX 267
 Preface

A NEW CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE

Over the past 15 years, I have searched and researched current thinking and
approaches to helping children with autism. I believed that I needed to under-
stand autism from the ‘inside-out’ – that is, what the person with autism was
experiencing and why he did what he did.
When I began my career over 30 years ago, I used traditional therapeutic
approaches which, at that time, had little emphasis on teaching and learning in
the ‘real-world’. I became increasingly disenchanted with the ‘approaches of the
day’ because I was not seeing my clients learn at the rate I thought they should.
I recall reading a ‘break through’ article outlining the functional basis to
echoing behavior in children with autism. This struck a chord with me because I
believed that behavior in children with autism was neither random nor totally
egocentric. I saw and was told by parents about the ‘connectedness’ they
sometimes experienced with their child. I was determined to develop a clearer
understanding of people with autism and how to reach them. I was surrounded
by people and approaches which were being embraced by therapists and
families. The approaches were usually based on what was ‘wrong’ with the child
with autism and not what was positive and strong about him. Very often, the
content of these programs was outlined and ‘dictated’ by strict developmental
principles and/or external behavior. Little attention seemed to be focused on
what drove and motivated the child.
My desire was and is to shift the attitudes and beliefs of others who care
about children with autism. My determination and drive were given a lift from an
article about five common characteristics of leaders in the field of education. I
related strongly to these commonalities. The five features of educational leaders
were strong core beliefs, courage of conviction, a sense of social responsibility,
seriousness of purpose, and situational mastery.

11
12 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

1. Core beliefs
I have always believed that every child with autism wants to learn and wants to
feel competent.
My idealistic side knew that children with autism were trying to make sense
of their world and cope in whatever ways they could. I knew I needed a new
understanding of how children with autism think and perceive the world. I
believed that the pursuit of improved approaches for children with autism was
important and eminently worthwhile, although at times I wavered when others
shrugged off my ideas.
To my core, I knew that children with autism can achieve at a higher rate if
the program of instruction is well-suited to them. I observed children with
autism in special education and regular classrooms and saw that, for the most
part, they were underachieving. Other professionals seemed to see the children
as being disabled, ‘mentally retarded’ and unable to learn much more than
lifeskills. I believed that my work could change how others view children with
autism and that programs for these children could have more authentic
‘real-world’ potency.
I observed that a great deal of focus is placed on behavior and dealing with
behavior of children with autism. This is often done to the exclusion of
program content. For example, I have been told on many occasions by teachers,
parents and therapists, “I’m still working on behavior. As soon as I can get some
compliance, I can start teaching him.”

2. Courage of conviction
While the government and other agencies were funding and touting behavioral
approaches to autism, I continued to develop an approach which emphasized
the child and what he cared about and what things made a difference for him. I
persevered and continued to develop my concepts and constructs.
In 2003, I presented the Learning Strengths and Preferences (LPS) model, which
is the core of this book, at the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
annual convention in Atlanta, Georgia. The reception was overwhelmingly
positive. A crush of people came to speak to me at the end of my presentation
and then people stopped my husband and me on the street, in elevators and in
the halls of the convention for days after to indicate how excited they were. I
knew then that I had something special and that others could sense my passion
and understand how I was approaching children with autism.
My ‘de-pathologized’ model of autism caused quite a stir at the 2004
International Conference on Psychological Type in Toronto, Canada. An under-
 Preface 13

standing and appreciation of psychological type in children with autism is a core

concept in the LPS model. I have continued dialogue with others interested in
the area of psychological type and autism since that time.

3. Social responsibility
I have been deeply affected by the children I worked with. It seemed an injustice
to leave educational and developmental approaches as they were and are. There
are some reasonable approaches that are being used but they typically do not
focus on strategies that ensure generalization into everyday life and increasingly
independent lifelong learning in the children.
I am committed to making sure children with autism get the best education
possible and are allowed to contribute meaningfully to our world.

4. Seriousness of purpose
I have read extensively and been involved in development and implementation
of a variety of programs. The majority of these have been strongly behavioral in
orientation, broadly developmental and clearly cognitive in their approaches.
My years on this journey have prompted me to examine very carefully how I
and others approach teaching and learning in general but, especially, in relation
to children with autism. I knew I had to develop a framework that could encom-
pass at least three main features for each child:
1. learning preferences, including how the child relates to the world and
gathers information
2. learning strengths, including what modalities (visual, verbal, physical
and so on) are more efficiently processed and meaningful to the
person, and
3. the ‘inner world’ of the person, his interests and affinities.
I have searched diligently for theories, models and approaches to development
and education for both typical children and those with a variety of special needs
that would ‘fit’ with the three features above.
Having said this, I am not ignoring the fact that children with autism also
face many learning challenges. I know, however, that they want to learn. It has
become my goal, as an educator, to find and ‘harness’ each child’s Learning Prefer-
ences and Strengths to enhance his learning and development.
14 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

5. Situational mastery
Over the last 20 years, I have developed and tested my approach and techniques
with children I worked with in private practice. I have seen the developments
and ‘blossoming’ that are possible. Feedback from the parents of those children
has been extremely positive and encouraging.
Seven years ago, I took a large ‘leap of faith’ and established a preschool
program for children with autism using the LPS model. I was fortunate to find
key staff and families who believed in improving the future for children with
autism. The program confirmed my beliefs about children with autism and
provided the ‘proving-ground’ for many of the techniques presented in this
book.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LPS MODEL

In the area of learning strengths, I searched for a cognitive model that did not
simply define ‘intelligence’ as a singular factor, set of factors or a score on a test.
Given the typically uneven developmental profile of children with autism, I was
drawn to Howard Gardner’s (1983) model of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner
believes that each person possesses a number of different ‘intelligences’, each
of which can be nurtured to enhance learning.
In addition to addressing learning strengths, each person’s learning prefer-
ences need to receive attention. I not only had to address the intellectual side of
each child but also other characteristics that influence the person’s thinking,
motivation and behavior. The ‘preference’ construct had to include what each
person cared about, what made sense to him and how he wished to deal with the
world. People try to adapt to the world around them with the internal resources
they have available. The concept of learning preferences drew me to personality
theories.
The search for a model that deals with personal preferences within people
brought me to the work of Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist. Jung addressed ques-
tions such as how people gain energy, take in information, make decisions and
relate to the world. He worked to clarify the differences observed in human
behavior within his theories of psychological type. Jung’s constructs have been
applied to career planning, team building, marriage counseling, and to the field
of learning.
Starting with these theories as a foundation, I defined and refined my LPS
model. The approach focuses on reaching both brain power and heart for
learning in children with autism.
 Preface 15

I have been able to observe and measure the impact of the LPS model on
the learning of children with autism in the preschool I established. By honoring
both their Learning Preferences and Strengths, we have made a significant impact on
these learners. The intervention program based on the LPS model has proven to
be positive, effective and much more fun for parents, teachers, therapists, care-
givers and children. In addition, parents are now looking at their children as
learners rather than as people with an array of disabilities.

ADVANTAGES TO THE LPS MODEL

There are many advantages to the LPS model. The model:
• Looks at each child as unique with a specific set of learning strengths and
preferences. It emphasizes that all brains are wired to learn.
• Does not focus on pathology and deficits. Although learning and
developmental difficulties are addressed, the model does not work
from a pathological base. The diagnostic label is not the focus. Each
child’s unique profile of strengths, preferences and needs provides
the basis for the program. This helps everyone look for and find the
things the child is doing well and why. The child is helped to view
learning positively which acts to boost his motivation.
• Looks at learning from the learner’s point of view. This feature helps
everyone involved with the child understand him from a more
positive and productive point of view. Each person learns how the
child perceives objects, events and people around him and prefers to
deal with them. The child himself also learns about how his brain
works more easily and what things are a little more difficult.
• Allows principled predictions by the parents, teachers, therapists and
other caregivers about how the child will respond to different events,
settings and tasks.
• Helps understand the child more quickly. For many children with autism, a
great deal of time is spent trying to understand their learning. The
LPS model helps you get there more quickly. The warm-up and
start-up time can be reduced significantly.
• Is easily blended with other assessment information. The information from
the LPS can be used as an overlay for other data and measures.
16 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Can be used in any setting. The strategies and approaches outlined in this
book can be used in any setting, including home, day care, segregated
treatment programs, or inclusive classrooms. The knowledge gained
about the child can be used by all people involved in his life. The
same principles can be used with other learners, such as those with
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Fragile X.
• Encourages involvement of all people important in the child’s life. The
knowledge gained about each child encourages participation of the
child and his family in the learning process. The model also engages
teachers, therapists, support workers, and other caregivers. It can
also help extended family members (e.g. grandparents, aunts, uncles,
cousins) understand the child’s behavior in a more positive manner
and encourage more rewarding interactions.

WHAT THIS BOOK CAN HELP YOU DO

This book is intended for parents, teachers, therapists, and support workers
involved in the lives of children with autism. The approaches described will also
help children with autism better understand themselves. The strategies pre-
sented in this book are intended for use with children from 2 to 12 years of age.
It is my hope that the LPS model will stimulate different ways of thinking
about people with autism. It will also encourage different approaches for treat-
ment and education of children with autism. The model should prompt new
perspectives into research in the area of autism intervention.
My website is an opportunity for all of us to share questions, successes, data,
and anecdotes about our children and the LPS model. It also includes informa-
tion about presentations, conferences, and special events.
This book will help the reader view autism from a broader perspective.
Autism is part of the human spectrum and strategies focus on skills important
to lifelong learning. The model provides a comprehensive framework for under-
standing and dealing more effectively with children with autism. The reader will
gain greater insight into the person with autism as well as the ability to predict
responses and project future learning needs.
In Chapter 1, I will review the traditional defining characteristics and
symptoms of autism. I will then provide a ‘reframing’ of autism which empha-
sizes more positive aspects. The major categories and characteristics of Learning
Preferences and Strengths will be presented in Chapter 2. My research into the
Learning Preferences and Strengths of people with autism will be reviewed in
 Preface 17

Chapter 3. Chapter 4 will provide a brief overview of the major components of

the LPS program and key features. Suggestions are given for the order of
program implementation and ways to motivate and get the most from children
with autism. Each program component will be explained in subsequent chapters
along with practical applications and examples. Anecdotes will be presented to
illustrate approaches and what I have learned from the children. Chapter 8
examines Learning Preferences and Strengths of children with autism and research
on type dynamics to better understand their behavior. We will learn about
‘triggers’ for behavior problems. Understanding of Learning Preferences and
Strengths will also enable us to use appropriate resources and strategies to restore
more normalized behavior. In Chapter 9, I will provide thoughts and sugges-
tions of further directions for children with autism.
 Chapter 1

Reframing the Traditional

Definition of Autism

TRADITIONAL DEFINITION OF AUTISM

The typical clinical description of Autism Spectrum Disorder (autism) includes
the following trio of characteristics:
1. impairment of social interaction with others, including
° lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests or
achievements
° lack of social or emotional reciprocity
2. impairment of verbal and nonverbal communication, including
° using stereotyped, repetitive, and idiosyncratic language
° difficulty initiating or sustaining conversation with others
3. impairment of make-believe or social play and imaginative activities
and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior,
including
° preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns
of interest
° inflexible adherence to specific, non-functional routines or rituals
° stereotyped and repetitive mannerisms
° persistent preoccupation with objects or parts of objects.
This triad of social, communicative and behavioral features makes up the hall-
marks of autism. These behaviors pervade all aspects of the child’s life. Autism
is found in all economic, racial, educational, religious and social groups around
the world.

19
20 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

NO TWO PEOPLE WITH AUTISM ARE THE SAME

Autism is referred to as a ‘spectrum’ because the amount or severity of each of
the major characteristics varies considerably from individual to individual. Some
children may be talkative and seem to have quite good communication skills. On
digging a little deeper, it may be found that the child is using a lot of ‘scripted’
language learned from videos and/or other people. The child may also show
strong verbal fluency only when talking about favorite topics, like trains or dino-
saurs, but conversation is not truly interactive – more like a very interesting
monologue. This same child may exhibit a great deal of rigidity about how
things need to be done in day-to-day life. For example, the same route must be
driven to familiar places or the same routine for getting dressed must be
followed.
Oliver Sacks (1995), a neurologist who has eloquently written about a variety
of neurological conditions, stated, “No two people with autism are the same; its
precise form or expression is different in every case” (p.250). Given this, it is
little wonder that making a diagnosis can be complex, requiring input from a
number of individuals who know the child and have extensive experience with
autism.

STRENGTHS IN AUTISM
The most striking thing about the traditional diagnostic criteria for autism is that
they are all stated in the negative. Criteria include terms such as ‘impairment
of…’, ‘lack of…’, ‘failure to…’ Durig (2005) indicated that “autism and
normalcy have been defined as mutually exclusive” (p.18).
Savant abilities, or exceptional skills or knowledge in a particular area, such
as mathematics and geography, occur in less than one per cent of the general
population. Yet one in every ten people with autism have savant abilities. Other
strengths often observed in people with autism are interest and memory for
word strings, such as movie scripts, for visual-spatial information, such as maps,
and for music and rhythm. Affinities, or spontaneous strong interests, are fre-
quently seen in people with autism. They may include interests in flags, clocks,
maps, calendars, electrical cords, cars, and trains.

LOOKING BEYOND BEHAVIOR

Another striking feature of the criteria for diagnosis for autism is that they are
based primarily on behavior observed and little on the inner workings and per-
sonality of the individual. The behavioral criteria are important for making a
 Reframing the Traditional Definition of Autism 21

diagnosis but they are less helpful for developing a comprehensive intervention
and educational program for the child. Peter Szatmari (2004) stated, “greater
understanding of disruptions and perplexing behaviors (in children with
autism) is possible once we can see the world through the child’s eyes” (p.ix). He
went on, “the most important ingredient associated with successful outcome…
(is) having a family or a teacher understand what it’s like to be inside the mind of
a child with autism spectrum disorder” (p.x).

LEARNING FROM THOSE WITH AUTISM

We have learned a great deal about autism from people with autism themselves.
Temple Grandin is perhaps one of the most famous people with autism today.
She has autism but also has earned a Ph.D. in animal sciences and is an expert in
both areas. Dr. Grandin has revolutionized the design of animal holding facili-
ties because of her knowledge and her personal perceptions of the world. It was
not until Dr. Grandin began writing and speaking about her life that people in
the field of autism began thinking about the inner life of people with autism.
She described, with Margaret Scariano (1986), her experiences as a child with
autism. She spoke of her hypersensitivity to different sensations. For example,
she could hear and feel everything at full intensity, both relevant and irrelevant
information. Everything seemed disorganized and she could not figure out
what were regularities and rules.
Oliver Sacks (1995) pointed out that, “in autism, it is not affect in general
that is faulty but affect in relation to complex human experiences, social ones
predominantly” (p.288). In the social realm, Temple Grandin found that, as she
matured, she was able to learn simple universal emotions, often in the form of
mathematical equations. She referred to her social learning as “strictly a logical
process”. Grandin had to learn how to put pieces of information together in
order to understand social regularities, rules and motivations. For example, she
was able to work out that there were three main categories for social rules. The
first are those that are ‘really bad’, such as stealing, destruction or injuring others.
The second are those that are ‘sins of the system’, such as smoking and sex. In
the third category are ‘illegal but not bad acts’, such as speeding or illegal
parking. Grandin continues to experience difficulty with social games and social
subtleties.
22 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

AUTISM REFRAMED
Oliver Sacks (1995) reported that Temple Grandin
thinks that there has been too much emphasis on the negative aspects of
autism and insufficient attention, or respect, paid to the positive ones. She
thinks that (people with autism) unquestionably have great problems in
some areas (but) may have extraordinary and socially valuable power in
others – provided that they are allowed to be themselves. (p.290)
Without question, people with autism have areas of difficulty or ‘impairments’
but they also have many positive characteristics. Among them are:
• they are very frank, forthright and honest
• they tend to be fiercely loyal, intensely moral and have a passionate
sense of right and wrong
• they are usually perseverant and single-minded about things that are
important to them. They have a great intensity of thought and strong
passion for their affinities
• typically, people with autism are strongly visual
• they often have precise and powerful memories for music and
rhythm.
The characteristics outlined above are not typically considered to be ‘impair-
ments’ or ‘disabilities’. The features of frankness, honesty, loyalty, strong sense
of right and wrong, perseverance, etc. are honorable qualities. Within the
context of a disability, like autism, these same attributes are sometimes viewed
as problems.
Consciously or unconsciously, when we view someone as ‘disabled’, ‘im-
paired’, or ‘disordered’, we perceive that person differently. We approach him
differently and we are very likely to miss his assets. If we think of the person as
having a disability, we are much more prone to interpret his behavior as patho-
logical. In addition, our expectations of that person tend to be somewhat lower
than for others without the diagnostic label. The following example should
speak for itself.
 Reframing the Traditional Definition of Autism 23

Example: During snack at preschool, one of the children started

flapping his hands. We had not seen that behavior in the month he
had been with us. His teacher looked and thought “Well, I guess
the honeymoon is over. He is self-stimming.” She then turned
to him and asked, “Are you okay?” The child looked
toward her and said, “I’m just drying my hands!” and
rolled his eyes.
We could have left the handflapping as a behavior
consistent with the child’s diagnosis of autism or we could
try to understand what the child was experiencing. By responding neu-
trally to this child, we learned an important lesson: do not view behavior as
disordered until you have pursued all angles.

AUTISM AS A COGNITIVE STYLE

There has been increasing discussion of autism as being less a disability than a
‘cognitive style’ or ‘learning difference’. Simon Baron-Cohen (2000) cited 12
differences in children with autism to support his argument that “behaviour in
Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism is not better or worse than
that seen in typical development” (p.490); it is simply different. The list includes:
• the child spends more time involved with objects and physical
systems than with people
• the child communicates less than other children do
• the child tends to follow his own desires and beliefs rather than
paying attention to or being easily influenced by others’ desires and
beliefs
• the child shows relatively little interest in what the social group is
doing or in being a part of it
• the child has strong, persistent interests
• the child is very accurate at perceiving the details of information
• the child notices and recalls things other people may not
• the child’s view of what is relevant and important in a situation may
not coincide with others
24 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• the child may be fascinated by patterned material, be it visual

(shapes), numeric (dates, timetables), alphanumeric (license plates) or
lists (of cars, songs, etc.)
• the child may be fascinated by systems whether simple (light
switches, spigots), a little more complex (weather fronts), or abstract
(mathematics)
• the child may have a strong desire to collect categories of objects
(bottle tops, train maps) or categories of information (types of lizard,
types of rock, types of fabric, etc.), and
• the child has a strong preference for experiences that are controllable
rather than unpredictable.

QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRAINS

If we begin to consider autism a cognitive difference, Baron-Cohen (2000)
points out that the notion of a spectrum in autism is much easier to understand.
He believes that the neurological differences in people with autism cannot be
taken as evidence that one brain is better or worse than another. Baron-Cohen
stated, “if environmental expectations change, or in a different environment,
they (people with autism) may not necessarily be seen as disabled” (p.497).
Szatmari (2004) added, “in some individuals, the distinction between a disability
and a gift or talent is hard to establish” (p.61). Baron-Cohen (2000) mused that,
if we shift to the notion of autism as a cognitive difference, the diagnosis would
become akin to being told your child is left- or right-handed.

SYSTEMATIC AND SOCIAL BRAINS

Baron-Cohen and Hammer (1997) and Baron-Cohen (1999, 2002) described
the autistic cognitive style as being more object-oriented and more focused on
detail. Baron-Cohen suggested that the male brain is “more spatial (mathemati-
cal, geometric, relational) and less social (empathetic, sensitive to mental states
of others)” (Baron-Cohen and Hammer 1997, p.196). The male brain ‘system-
atizes’, analyzing inanimate things and constructing systems, focusing on details
and forming ‘if-then’ rules. Baron-Cohen cites research on male toy choice,
occupational choices and superior constructional abilities as supporting this
notion of the male systematizing brain. He indicated that the female brain is
more empathizing and socially-oriented. Baron-Cohen suggested that autism is
an example of the extreme male systematizing brain.
 Reframing the Traditional Definition of Autism 25

Baron-Cohen, et al. (2003, 2005) conducted research to examine empathiz-

ing and systematizing in autistic and non-autistic males and females. They found
significant differences between the male and female subjects in systematizing
and empathizing, as predicted. In addition, they discovered that males with
Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism received significantly higher
systematizing scores and significantly lower empathizing scores than the
non-autistic males.
Interestingly, Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright (1999) discovered that obses-
sions of people with autism also had a largely systematizing focus. The obses-
sions were most likely to relate to physics, building, categorizing and sorting.
Sensory experiences, like touching and smelling, plus films/movies, videos,
cartoons and food were also common obsessions.
Lending further support to the notion of the systematizing brain,
Baron-Cohen et al. (1997, 1998, 1999) found that fathers and grandfathers of
children with autism were twice as likely to work in the field of engineering, a
systematizing profession, as compared to families without relatives with autism.
In the families of children with autism, 28.4 per cent had at least one relative
who was an engineer.

COHERENT AND PIECE-MEAL BRAINS

Francesca Happé (1999) supported the notion that “deficit accounts of autism
cannot explain…the assets seen in this disorder” (p.216). She went on:
“progress in understanding this disorder…will arise chiefly through exploration
of what people with autism are good at” (p.216).
Frith (1989, 2003) proposed the theory of Weak Central Coherence to
explain the uneven profile of abilities typically seen in autism. Frith (1989, 2003)
and Happé (1997, 1999) hypothesized that, on tasks that required relatively
piece-meal processing with little emphasis on central coherence or bringing the
pieces into a whole, people with autism would have an advantage. If a task
required recognition of global meaning or ‘the big picture’ such that there was
stronger emphasis on central coherence, people with autism would perform
more poorly.
Happé (1997) found that people with autism exhibit superior performance
on visual-perceptual problems, like block design tasks, and visual illusions, like
Ebbinghaus circles, as compared to non-autistic and learning disabled subjects.
Because people with autism tend to see the pieces and not the whole, they are
not ‘seduced’ by the desire to integrate information into a gestalt, or whole.
26 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Frith, Happé, and Baron-Cohen clearly show that people with autism can
have superior abilities in specific areas.

LEARNING PREFERENCES AND STRENGTHS

The Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) model presented in this book arises
from my desire to account for the ‘person’ with autism. I believe we have a
responsibility to respect and honor each child’s interests and affinities as well as
his Learning Preferences and Strengths. Temple Grandin (1995, p.100) stated, “I
think there is too much emphasis on deficits and not enough on developing abil-
ities.” We cannot and do not ignore areas of difficulty but we can increase our
effectiveness in addressing those areas of need by adopting the LPS model.
Any model of teaching or therapy should have at least five key features,
including:
1. a comprehensive model of thinking and learning that focuses on the learner
through to adulthood
2. a clear philosophy of learning and education
3. goals that follow logically from the model and philosophy
4. strategies that are consistent with the model, philosophy, and goals
5. goals and strategies that are applicable to all settings in the life of a person
with autism and all aspects of his learning and development,
including behavior and motivation.
Each of these key features is included within the LPS model. The five features
will unfold as you proceed to the chapters describing program components.
The LPS model gives an entry point for planning intervention, not an
end-point. It provides a positive approach to teaching and learning. LPS is both
practical and effective in matching intervention goals and strategies to individual
children. The LPS model provides principles and frames for action to optimize
learning in people with autism. The ‘match’ between learner preferences and
strengths and teaching structure, content, and processes creates a remarkable
synergy among learner, teacher, task, and environment. The model does not,
however, set out a script for the adult to use. The focus, instead, is on forming a
productive, dynamic relationship with the child which centers around specific
goals and principles.
 Reframing the Traditional Definition of Autism 27

Overall, the LPS model differs from other programs for children with
autism in terms of:
• how to teach
• what to teach
• the child’s participation
• goals of teaching/intervention
• role of the teacher/parent.
The impact of the LPS model on learning in children with autism at the pre-
school I established has been powerful. The changes it has induced in teachers,
therapists, parents, and support workers and their feedback have also been
extremely compelling. Typically, we have seen one-and-a-half months’ gain in
development for every month of enrolment in the LPS program, based on
results of the Psychoeducational Profile – Revised (1990). Greater gain tends to be
seen in children who showed evidence of autism from an early age, versus
children who exhibited typical early development with later regression.
The LPS model is not prescriptive. It permits us to make educated assump-
tions and projections about children with autism while keeping in mind that
each child is a unique individual.

There is something that is much more scarce, something rarer than ability.
It is the ability to recognize ability.
– Robert Half (undated)
 Chapter 2

Learning Preferences
and Strengths Model

LEARNERS AS “CRYSTALS”
A few years ago, a colleague, who views people through feelings and images,
referred to children as “crystals”. I was initially skeptical about the rather
esoteric nature of her comment. After a great deal of thought about this
metaphor, I began to realize how this notion fits with my own beliefs.
I believe that each learner should be valued and approached as an individual
who has many strengths and abilities. Learners, from this viewpoint, are
like crystals. Each learner:
• is multi-faceted and complex
• gives different reflections and refractions dependent
upon the situation, setting or activity
• has physical and optical properties that vary dependent upon
how you view them
• is unique yet shares universal characteristics and tendencies.
Hold a crystal up to the light. Examine these features and properties. It becomes
apparent that a learner, with the right focus and direction, can take on the same
glistening quality. By viewing him in certain ways, you can see the potential he
has and his unique qualities – or you can focus on his flaws.
Commonalities in Learning Preferences and Strengths of children with autism
permit us to make educated projections about how to approach each child more
effectively and efficiently. It must always be kept in mind that each child has his
own unique features and facets. The Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) model
is intended to give us a head start and clearer conceptual framework for planning
and implementing teaching and learning programs.

28
 Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 29

LEARNING PREFERENCES
The learning preferences presented in this book are based on the work of Carl
Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, and the interpretation and extension of his work by
Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Briggs.
Katharine Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, studied and elabo-
rated the work of Carl Jung. Myers began developing the Myers-Briggs Type Indica-
tor (MBTI®) after seeing “waste of human potential in World War II” (1998,
p.5). Briggs noted that some people were more comfortable and suited to
certain types of work than others. Briggs and Myers then set out to examine
work and careers relative to personality type. They took on the challenge of
meeting the demands of tests and measurement while honoring Jung’s theory.
The MBTI® is a self-report questionnaire for adults designed to make Jung’s
theory of psychological type understandable and useful in everyday life. The
MBTI® is the most widely-used instrument for understanding normal person-
ality differences. It is used to examine career choices, work satisfaction, group
dynamics, marital satisfaction and education.
Learning preferences are derived from the MBTI® model. The four pairs of
preferences include how the learner prefers to maintain or re-establish his
energy for learning, gather information, make decisions and relate to the world.
The preferences combine to make up 16 possible ‘personality types’. Before
reviewing the four pairs of preferences, it is critical to keep a few things in mind.
These include:
• All people have one preferred set of type pairs.
• Type is inborn. The way we gain energy and relate to the world are
enduring throughout our lives. The manner in which we gather
information and make decisions tends to change over time and with
life circumstances, cultural values, family influences and educational
practices.
• Preferences are not abilities. They are preferred ways to use your abilities.
• One’s true type is natural, automatic, effortless and easy to use. Living your
‘true’ type is like using your preferred hand: you can use your other
hand but generally not as easily and effortlessly.
• One type is not better than another. Briggs and Myers refer to the types as
“gifts differing”. Different type preferences have slightly different
ways of viewing and interacting with the world but each type
uniquely contributes to and blends with other types. In addition,
30 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

having a type preference does not mean you cannot use other
preferences. The 16 type combinations are like a 16-room house: you
can enter and exist in all 16 of the rooms but there is one room
where you are most comfortable.
• All 16 types are found in every culture. The distribution of type
preferences varies in different populations and population
subgroups, however.
Most people teach or intervene in a manner that is consistent with their own pre-
ferred type. As you read through each description below, try to determine your
preferences for each pair. You may want to locate a qualified MBTI® practitio-
ner to obtain more valid and extensive results. There are a number of quick
on-line type questionnaires you might try. Keep in mind, however, that their
validity and reliability in relation to the MBTI® are not established.

Four learning preference pairs

1. ENERGY SOURCE
The first preference refers to how and where a person recharges his
personal battery. This type pair describes how we prefer to interact with
the world and receive stimulation and energy.

Introversion
The term ‘Introversion’ is used to indicate that the person prefers to gain
personal energy from internal (‘intro-’) sources. The person with Introversion
preferences needs some ‘down’ time to refresh himself. He needs a little more
time to take in information and to reflect on it before being asked to respond.
He may have to reflect on and rehearse what he wants to say before expressing it.
The Introvert also prefers to watch an expert or view an example before
attempting a task. He needs time to warm up to new situations or activities
before he decides whether or not to join in. He can appear somewhat extro-
verted and more talkative when in comfortable familiar situations with people
he knows and/or when talking about favorite topics. The Introvert prefers to
work in quiet with few interruptions. He looks inward for energy and satisfac-
tion and may resent having someone watch over his shoulder. He typically can
work without a great deal of encouragement or praise; in fact, he may become
suspicious if a person is too complimentary.
Introverts can be mis-perceived as aloof, inhibited, insensitive, unfriendly, or
withdrawn.
 Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 31

Extraversion
The term ‘Extraversion’ is used to indicate not that the person is outgoing but
rather that he seeks personal energy from the outside (‘extra-’) world. The
person with a preference for Extraversion gains energy from being around
other people and tends to be attuned to the external world. His personal battery
will deplete if he is required to spend extended time alone. He becomes restless
when alone because he lacks the group which helps him form his own identity.
He is usually energetic and vocal but may seem to ‘open his mouth before he
engages his brain’. Thinking out loud is very important to helping him clarify his
ideas. Often, he will have difficulty knowing what he thinks unless he is given a
chance to express it. Sometimes it is easier for an Extravert to talk than listen.
Extraverts tend to be responsive and enthusiastic and plunge readily into new
and untried experiences.
The Extravert can be mis-perceived as being boastful, intrusive, a social but-
terfly, flippant or loud.

2. INFORMATION GATHERING
The next set of preferences deals with how the learner prefers to
gather or take in information about the world.

Sensing
The person with a Sensing preference needs to learn about things by using his
five senses. He may need to touch, see, taste, hear, smell something before he can
truly understand it. This means he prefers to watch tasks and touch materials
before trying them out himself. He typically prefers tasks and activities that have
tangible results or end-products without surprises. He notices details others may
not; that includes details that may or may not be relevant, like whether the
picture on the wall is straight. He tends to be a ‘bottom-up’ processor preferring
step-by-step, detail-by-detail approaches to tasks and activities. He may become
stressed if a task is too open-ended. He may not notice the ‘big picture’ (the
forest) and just recognize the next step (the trees).
The Sensing person can be mis-perceived as being fussy, concrete, picky
about details or obsessive.

Intuiting
The person with an Intuiting preference tends to enjoy new ideas and is very
good at seeing the big picture or overall concept (the forest) before the individ-
ual details (the trees). He is not particularly interested in small details but enjoys
looking for new possibilities. He prefers to scan situations and information in
32 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

order to see relationships among thoughts or ideas. The Intuiter is more likely to
trust and act on hunches and may become irritable when pushed for details. He
likes to think about future possibilities and may seem uninvolved and inattentive
to the present.
The Intuiting person can be mis-perceived as being a dreamer, imprecise,
impractical or unrealistic.

3. DECISION-MAKING
This set of preferences deals with how people make decisions about
information they gather from the world.

Thinking
The learner with a Thinking preference values logic, fairness and truthfulness
for making decisions. He is naturally quite brief, businesslike and to the point.
The Thinker makes decisions based on what is fair and truthful. He places great
value on being right and is only secondarily concerned about how others may
feel about what he does or says. He does not readily pick up on the feelings of
others and may be unaware of the emotional climate around him. Thinkers do
not easily express emotions and may be unaware of how they feel.
The Thinker can be mis-perceived as being blunt, argumentative, cold,
tough-minded or unfeeling.

Feeling
The learner with a Feeling preference values harmony and good feelings among
others. It is important to remember that the term ‘feeling’ does not mean ‘emo-
tional’ and having a feeling preference does not preclude his ability to use logic.
The Feeler places value on meeting others’ needs and on being liked; being right
is usually secondary. He takes others’ feelings into account when making a
decision and will sometimes overextend himself in order to meet others’ needs.
He usually performs small services for others and is heartened by appreciation
and recognition.
The Feeling person can be mis-perceived as being hypersensitive,
wishy-washy or evasive.

4. RELATING TO THE WORLD

The final set of preferences deals with how the person prefers to
respond to the world and events around him.
 Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 33

Judging
The learner with a Judging preference likes to be decisive and to finish tasks. The
term ‘judging’ does not mean judgemental; it refers to the person’s acting like a
judge in wanting things to be decided and finished. The Judger likes to have
things settled and finished and takes pleasure in completing a task or activity. He
will often forego play until he finishes what he started. The Judger prefers orga-
nized and predictable environments and may balk at surprises and changes. He
prefers clear rules and may try to ensure that others also follow them.
The Judging person can be mis-perceived as being impatient, rigid or
compulsive.

Perceiving
The learner with Perceiving preferences likes to keep his options open and may
balk at too much structure. He prefers to live in the moment and can readily
adjust to the unexpected, being flexible, adaptable and tolerant. He may feel he
does not have enough information in order to make a decision and may find it
stressful to come to closure. The Perceiver is energized by starting things but
enthusiasm and attention may dwindle as the task or project proceeds. He may
leave work until later if new and more exciting options present themselves.
The Perceiving person can be mis-perceived as being unreliable, scattered or
a procrastinator.

LEARNING STRENGTHS
Learning strengths derive from the work of Howard Gardner. Gardner (1983)
developed the theory of Multiple Intelligences as an explanation of how differ-
ent minds work. He originally proposed seven distinct forms of intelligence. He
arrived at this conclusion after examining patterns of strength in people with
brain injury, idiot savant and giftedness. The different intelligences are distinct,
neurologically verifiable, have discernible stages of development and a core set
of information-processing operations or modalities.
Learning strengths or intelligences are neither good nor bad. One is not
better than another but our educational programs and curricula do show a clear
bias for Verbal-Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical strengths. Gardner
believes that most people have highly developed skills in some intelligences,
moderately developed skills in others and they have some areas that are relatively
undeveloped. Given appropriate encouragement, enrichment and instruction,
most people can develop all intelligences to at least a moderate degree. The same
intelligence may, however, be expressed in different ways by different people.
34 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The seven different types of learning strengths Gardner originally proposed

include: Verbal-Linguistic, Visual-Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical-
Rhythmic, Logical-Mathematical, Interpersonal and Intrapersonal. These
strengths and their implications for learning and teaching are presented below.

Seven learning strengths

1. VERBAL-LINGUISTIC
Verbal-Linguistic learning strengths are seen in the learner’s ability to
think in words, to use words to express what is on his mind and to
understand language. He may use his abilities in reading, writing
and/or speaking. He enjoys playing with language, manipulating the sounds,
words and structure with relative ease. Listening tends to be a strength and he
can easily understand, interpret and remember what has been said or read. His
ability to communicate clearly and precisely with others is strong both verbally
and in writing. The person with Verbal-Linguistic strengths likely learns other
languages with relative ease. He is interested in language and strives to refine and
enrich his language skills.
Poets, writers, journalists, newscasters, orators, speakers and lawyers tend to
have strong Verbal-Linguistic intelligence, for example: Shakespeare (author),
Maya Angelou (author), Mark Twain (author), Martin Luther King (orator),
Winston Churchill (orator and author).

2. VISUAL-SPATIAL
Visual-Spatial learning strengths are seen in the learner’s ability to
envision, create, manipulate and remember things he sees or imagines in
his mind. He can create and recreate visual experiences in his mind. He
can perceive and/or produce designs and crafts, showing sensitivity to color,
line, shape, form, space and the relationship among them. He tends to
remember visual details readily and use visual images to aid his recall. A learner
with Visual-Spatial strengths enjoys learning and using visual representations
like graphs, maps, diagrams and charts. He may like to doodle or draw pictures
about his thoughts and feelings.
Engineers, architects, pilots, chess players, dentists and sculptors tend to
have strong Visual-Spatial intelligence, for example: Pablo Picasso (artist),
Frank Lloyd Wright (architect), Coco Chanel (designer), Garry Kasparov (chess
master).
 Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 35

3. BODILY-KINESTHETIC
Bodily-Kinesthetic learning strengths are seen in the learner’s ability to
use his body or parts of his body to express ideas and feelings and to
produce things. He exhibits strong fine or gross motor coordination
and dexterity. He can think in terms of movements and use his body in skilled
and complicated ways. He may be very skilled at acting, dancing, sewing, sculpt-
ing, track and field, bike-riding, skateboarding or keyboarding. The person with
Bodily-Kinesthetic strengths prefers to explore the world around him through
touching and moving.
Athletes, gymnasts, surgeons, sculptors and dancers have strong
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence, for example: Alvin Ailey (dancer, choreogra-
pher), Marcel Marceau (mime), Laurence Olivier (actor), Hank Aaron (athlete),
Tiger Woods (golfer), Wayne Gretzky (hockey player).

4. MUSICAL-RHYTHMIC
Musical-Rhythmic learning strengths are seen in the learner’s ability
to appreciate and understand music, rhythm, and rhythmic
movement. He may be able to compose, play or conduct music. The
person with Musical-Rhythmic strengths will seek out music and listen with
great interest. He may enjoy listening to a variety of sounds, including music and
environmental sounds. The learner may develop the ability to play an instrument
on his own and/or remember songs, rhythms and melodies after only one or
two exposures. The person may be sensitive to pitch, rhythm, melody and tone.
He can hear patterns and recognize, remember and manipulate them. He can
more readily express his thoughts, perceptions and feelings through music,
rhythmic movement or dance.
Composers, orchestra conductors, instrument makers, singers, musicians,
and audiophiles have strong Musical-Rhythmic intelligence, for example:
Leonard Bernstein (conductor, composer), Andrew Lloyd-Webber (composer),
Itzhak Perlman (violinist), Luciano Pavarotti (opera singer), Eric Clapton
(singer, composer), Oscar Peterson (pianist).

5. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL
Logical-Mathematical learning strengths are seen in the learner’s
ability to use and reason with numbers and mathematical operations.
He may see logical relationships and patterns among objects and
events around him. He can use reasoning to solve problems and discern rules
and regularities. The learner with Logical-Mathematical strengths likely enjoys
gathering information, forming hypotheses, developing paradigms and building
36 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

arguments. He can understand numerical and quantitative abstractions quite

readily and is keen to engage in activities involving them.
Engineers, computer programmers, mathematicians, accountants, and sci-
entists have strong Logical-Mathematical intelligence, for example: Albert
Einstein (scientist), Stephen Hawking (scientist), Carl Sagan (astronomer), Bill
Gates (founder of Microsoft).

6. INTERPERSONAL
Interpersonal learning strengths are seen in the learner’s ability to think
about and understand people and to empathize. He may have a great
capacity to understand the moods of others, their intentions, motiva-
tions and feelings. He interacts, cooperates and communicates effectively with
others. He readily forms and maintains friendships and social relationships and
builds rapport. He may be able to influence others’ actions and opinions. He
adapts well in different situations, easily determining the expectations and rules.
He also understands different perspectives on social or political issues.
Skilled therapists, religious leaders, teachers, actors, skilled salespeople and
politicians tend to have strong Interpersonal intelligence, for example: Mahatma
Gandhi (peacemaker), Helen Keller (educator, humanitarian), Oprah Winfrey
(talk show host), Tony Robbins (life coach and motivational speaker).

7. INTRAPERSONAL
Intrapersonal learning strengths are seen in the learner’s awareness of
himself. He has a deep understanding of himself, his strengths, limita-
tions, intentions, motivations, emotions and desires. He exhibits the
ability to control and develop his feelings and thoughts. The Intrapersonal intel-
ligence encompasses many of the features of executive functions. Among these
are impulse control, persistence, judgement, decision-making, goal-setting and
self-regulation. The learner with Intrapersonal strengths tends to be motivated
to identify goals and pursue self-actualization. He develops a strong ethical value
system and ponders issues such as meaning, purpose and relevance of life
events.
Philosophers, theologists, psychiatrists, mediators and psychologists tend to
have strong Intrapersonal intelligence, for example: Carl Jung (psychiatrist),
Mother Teresa (humanitarian, spiritual leader).
 Chapter 3

Learning Preferences and Strengths in

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

LEARNING PREFERENCES
When examining each learning preference, I was struck by the parallels between
the features of Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) type and
the key characteristics of autism. Examination of each preference is presented
below and examples within the realm of autism will be highlighted.

Introversion
A person with an Introversion preference, as an energy source:
• is slow to warm up to new settings, people, information, and activities
• feels more comfortable receiving input than initiating contact and is
generally selective about sharing thoughts
• focuses in depth on specific, selective interests
• is not easily influenced by others’ desires or beliefs
• takes initiative if an issue is very important to him
• likes to work alone or with others he knows well
• dislikes being singled out.

Example: Time to warm up to new situations can be protracted for

children with autism. One child I worked with walked the perimeter of
my office exactly two times before he was able to focus on people and
activities. If I quietly stood back and let him do his two laps, he was
then able to settle into work. If I disrupted the perimeter walk, he
became upset and was not ready to work for a considerably longer
period of time.

37
38 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The characteristics listed above for Introversion are all frequently observed in
children with autism. They also capture many of the features considered to be
‘social impairments’ in children with autism. The children are slow to warm up
and tend to need prompting to initiate contact with others, preferring to play
alone. They often have intense interests in specific areas which they are willing to
share with others.
Hans Asperger himself stated, “The literature on personality types certainly
includes those who show similarities to the autistic personality…above all, the
introverted personality described by C.G. Jung. Introversion…may well be
autism in essence” (translated by Frith, 1991, p.90).

Sensing
A person with a Sensing preference, as a means of gathering information:
• focuses more on objects, facts and concrete information than people;
is grounded in the tangible world
• prefers familiar and practiced methods
• is observant, noticing and remembering specific details others may
not but does not easily see relationships among details
• understands ideas and theories through practical applications and
experience with them
• trusts information gained through the senses; as young children, they
have clear likes and dislikes in relation to food
• distrusts others who are not careful about facts.

Example: Concreteness and living in the ‘here and now’ are fre-
quently observed in children with autism. One day, a teacher
noted that one child had removed his shoes and socks rather
than put on his indoor shoes. She said, “Oh look, Bobby, you
have bare feet.” The child looked at his feet and grew angry,
snapping back with: “I don’t got no bear’s feet!” This clearly
exemplified his concrete interpretation of language.
 Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 39

The focus on objects rather than people is reminiscent of Baron-Cohen’s

description of the ‘male systematizing brain’ in autism. The ability to under-
stand ideas and theories through practical applications also captures central
features of his theory.
The preference for using familiar and practiced methods could readily be
equated with the ‘stereotyped patterns of behavior’ noted in people with autism.
The distinct food preferences are frequently a source of great frustration to
parents with a child with autism.
The tendency of Sensing people to notice and remember details provides
support to the theory of Weak Central Coherence. People with a Sensing prefer-
ence tend to notice the ‘trees’ (details) and may miss the ‘forest’ (overall concept
or configuration). The detail orientation is frequently reported in children with
autism where they notice even minute changes in the arrangement of their envi-
ronment. Temple Grandin reported having difficulty sorting out relevant and
important information from the onslaught of details coming at her.

Thinking
A person with a preference for Thinking, as a process for decision-making:
• identifies what is wrong or different in a person, event or situation
• is ‘tough-minded’ and less concerned about what his social group is
doing and may seem detached
• is analytical and interested in routines and rules
• prefers logic-focused rather than people-focused activities, valuing
fairness and consistency.

Example: Frequently we find children with autism are ‘enforcers’ of rules

because they value fairness and consistency. One child in class was
remarkably tall and muscular for his age. He was prone to outbursts
that included hitting, biting and scratching others. The outbursts
were often difficult for a full-sized adult to deal with. At the
‘welcome’ circle time, he took a calendar card from the
teacher. A child beside him, who was slight and decidedly
small for his age, blurted out, “You’re not s’posed to grab!”
We all held our breath, ready to intercede as needed because we
expected the smaller boy to receive a thrashing. Fortunately, the
larger child simply gave the card back.
40 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The decreased concern for social matters of the Thinking person parallels the
lack of empathizing Baron-Cohen found in autism. In addition, the analytical,
logical mind and interest in systems capture important features of his ‘male sys-
tematizing brain’ theory.

Judging
A person with preference for Judging, as a way to relate to the world:
• likes to live in a planned and orderly way, with orderly details, orderly
categories and functions better with schedules, routines and rules
• prefers to finish what he starts, persisting in his pursuit of what he
desires
• is dependable and perseverant in relation to things that are important
to him
• likes to have things decided, finding it hard to switch gears with short
notice and to concentrate if time-pressured.

Example: We have found that categorizing can be some children’s attempt

to make sense of and control their world. One boy spontaneously began to
organize people into either “circle-face people” or not. We found that
“circle-face people” had round face shapes. He decided he did not like
“circle-face people” so would have nothing to do with his nanny and
his baby brother plus a few other people who had round faces. He
made a sign for his bedroom door to make sure no “circle-face people”
entered.

Temple Grandin speaks about the need for planfulness and orderly categories in
her life. Her persistence with things of importance to her are apparent in her
autobiographies. She uses schedules, routines and rules to help herself cope
with and learn more about the world around her. When you see Dr. Grandin
speak, she follows a script quite carefully and does not seem to switch topics or
trains of thought easily.
To this point in my thinking, I was projecting from what I knew about per-
sonality type, or learning preferences, and what I knew about autism to arrive at
 Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 41

my belief that autism may be an extreme form of Introversion-Sensing-

Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) preferences.
To investigate the ISTJ hypothesis, I developed a parent survey to obtain
learning preference and strength profiles of preschool and elementary
school-aged children with autism. The Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile can
be found in Appendix II. It was necessary to develop the survey because there
are no standardized measures for examining learning preferences in children
whose reading comprehension is below the grade two to three level. However,
type preferences are identifiable by as early as two years of age.
The parents were asked to complete the Learning Preferences and Strengths
Profile in relation to how their child responds most of the time. As indicated
earlier, we can all use different preferences at different times, dependent upon
the demands and expectations. I was looking for the typical and most natural
responses for each child.
The data from 71 parent surveys are shown in Figure 3.1. The trends
support the ISTJ–autism connection:
• Over half of the children were reported to have a preference for
Introversion. The relatively high per cent with a preference for
Extraversion was a rather curious result. Then I recalled that Lorna
Wing (1997) found children with autism to fall into three main
categories: socially aloof, passive or odd. The latter category may
capture some of the children reported to have an Extraversion
preference: these are verbal children who use a lot of highly scripted
language and/or who speak at length on their favorite topic.
• Eighty per cent of the children had a Sensing preference.
• Over 60 per cent had preferences for Thinking.
• Over 60 per cent had preferences for Judging.
These data support the view that children with autism have a preference for
Introverted-Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) type. It must, however, be kept in
mind that having preferences for ISTJ does not mean someone is ‘autistic’!
I then examined this information in comparison with existing data for inci-
dence of the ISTJ type in the general population, using the extensive research
database on Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (Macdaid, McCalley and Kainz 1995).
This was compared to the rates in men in general and different types of
engineers and computer professionals to see if a relationship existed with
Baron-Cohen et al.’s (1997, 1998, 1999) studies. The results are shown in
Figure 3.2.
42 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

90

80

70

60
Per cent children

50

40

30

20

10

g
g

g
g
n

g
g
n

in
in

gin

v in
t in

in
o
io

rsi

el
ns

nk
rs

ei
Fe
tu
ve

Se
ve

Ju
i

rc
Th
In
tra
tro

Pe
Ex
In

Learning preferences

Figure 3.1 Summary of learning preference data obtained from parent responses on the Learning
Preferences and Strengths Profile (N=71)

100
90
80
70 General Population (N= 232,557)

60 Men (N= 15,791)

Per cent sample

50 Engineer - Electrical (N= 54)

40 Engineer - Mechanical (N= 77)

Engineer - Chemical (N= 52)
30
Computer Professionals (N= 1,229)
20
Children with ASD (N= 71)
10
0
Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging
Different populations

Figure 3.2 Per cent preference for ISTJ in different populations

 Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 43

The strongest trend was increased Thinking preference for all comparison
groups relative to the general population. Electrical engineers and computer
professionals also showed increased preference for Introversion.
Within the general population, 16.4 per cent of men have a preference for
ISTJ but only 6.9 per cent of women have that preference. This lent support to
Baron-Cohen’s notion of the ‘male systematizing brain’.
Further analysis was completed in my study looking at the relationship
between learning preference and autistic characteristics in the normal adult pop-
ulation. Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) developed Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and
used it to examine the normal adult population in England. The AQ is a brief,
self-administered instrument for measuring the degree to which an adult with
normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. It is com-
prised of 50 items with ten questions in each of five areas: communication skills,
social skills, attention to details, attention switching, and imagination. Each item
scores one point if the respondent ‘agrees’ or ‘disagrees’ on the autistic-like side.
Half of the items are worded to produce ‘disagree’ responses and half to
produce ‘agree’ responses.
In my study, 89 Canadian adults of normal intelligence completed the AQ in
addition to a learning preference screener. The overall results showed a close
relationship between my data and those obtained by Baron-Cohen. In both
studies, 2.3 per cent of the total adult group reported characteristics of the
autism spectrum without any significant distress in daily life. I found a signifi-
cant relationship between some learning preferences and total AQ scores. Sig-
nificantly more people with preferences for Introversion and for Thinking had
elevated scores on the AQ. Even though the number of subjects was somewhat
small (N=89), these results suggested that at least these two preferences, Intro-
version and Thinking, are associated with autistic characteristics. When the five
areas examined in the AQ were analyzed, a significant relationship emerged
between Introversion preference and weak social skills and between Thinking
preference and weak social skills as well as weak imagination (see Figure 3.3).
In summary, there appears to be consistent empirical support for people
with autism to have preferences for Introversion and Thinking. Children with
autism also exhibit a strong preference for Sensing which may not be apparent
among adults. Anecdotal information from adults with autism lends support to
the Judging preference.
44 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

20
18
16
14
12
Total AQ score

10
8
6
4
2
0
n

g
n

ng
ng
g

g
o

tin

in
sio

in

in
rsi

vi
gi
k

el
ns

ui
er

ei
in

d
ve

Fe
Se

Ju
v

rc
Th
In
tra

ro

Pe
t
Ex

In

Type preference

Figure 3.3 Summary of total scores on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) survey and learning
preferences (N=89) (*Significant at p<0.01)

LEARNING STRENGTHS
When examining each learning strength, I hypothesized that children with
autism would exhibit strengths in the areas of Visual-Spatial, Musical-
Rhythmic and perhaps Bodily-Kinesthetic modalities. This view was based
on years of work with children with autism.
Each of these learning strengths will be reviewed and their relationship to
autism will be discussed below.

Visual-Spatial
A person with Visual-Spatial strength, as a means of learning and making
sense of the world:
• readily understands, retains and remembers information he can see
• is able to create visual experiences
• shows sensitivity to color, line, shape, form, space, and relationships
among them, often noticing minute details
• prefers orderly, tidy environments.
 Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 45

To a child with autism, seeing is believing. If visual schedules, plans, rules and
Social Stories™ are employed with children with autism, they seem to under-
stand and remember better. Some children can re-run entire videos in their
heads. Attention to details and orderliness are two common features in autism.

Example: Strong Visual-Spatial reasoning can sometimes confound

well-meaning adults. One day I was working with a child on a worksheet
where the child was to place the number of small stones beside the
corresponding printed numeral. The child kept placing one stone
beside each numeral from top to bottom. I watched him complete
the task several times when it finally dawned on me that we had con-
structed the task incorrectly for what we intended. The child was
using quite flawless visual logic: going vertically the numerals
matched the number of stones: one stone beside 1, add one more
stone below and it adds up to two. If you looked at the worksheet
logically, the sum of the stones matched the numerals only when
you worked left to right. I put the numeral strip on the right-hand side and
the child quickly completed the sheet in the manner we had intended.

Musical-Rhythmic
A person with Musical-Rhythmic strength, as a means of learning:
• seeks out music and rhythm and listening with interest
• enjoys and responds to a variety of musical and rhythmic sounds
• attends to, recognizes and remembers music, musical patterns
and/or rhythm readily
• is sensitive to pitch, rhythm and melody, perhaps showing distress
when music is off-pitch.

Example: Very frequent evidence of Musical-Rhythmic

strengths are seen in children’s response to their names.
More often than not, if you sing the name of a child with
autism, he will respond. If you just speak his name, he is
considerably less likely to display attention.
46 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Temple Grandin (1995) indicated that, “in some people, the brain circuits used
for singing may be more normal than the circuits used for speech. Possibly the
song rhythm helps to stabilize auditory processing and block out intruding
sounds” (p.72). It is not unusual to find children with autism who can recall
entire songs after one or two exposures. A number of parents have warned me
that their children with autism will fuss, yell, cover your mouth if you sing
off-key. This indicates a sensitivity to pitch and melody.

Bodily-Kinesthetic
A person with Bodily-Kinesthetic strength, as a means of learning:
• learns more readily when he can move his body or parts of his body,
finding it stifling to sit still for periods of time
• retains information more readily when he can associate it with
movement
• prefers to touch, smell or taste objects before using them
• is calmed and soothed or stimulated and enlivened by movement.
This strength overlaps considerably with the Sensing preference so I was not
entirely certain that Bodily-Kinesthetic would be a distinct strength for children
with autism. Sensory hypo- or hyper-sensitivity seen in many children with
autism may be the source of some of the movement and sensory patterns
observed.
To investigate the hypothesized learning strengths, I asked parents to
complete the Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile and to indicate which state-
ments in the learning strengths section best described their child. Each parent’s
checkmarks were added up and the category with the most checks was deemed
the ‘first rank’ strength for that child. Only the top strength was identified for
each child to simplify profiling. The data from 40 parent surveys are shown in
Figure 3.4.
Trends found for the learning strength–autism connection were:
• Forty per cent of parents indicated that Musical-Rhythmic strengths
were top-ranked for their children.
• Almost 40 per cent of the parents reported Visual-Spatial strengths
as being top-ranked for their children.
 Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 47

100

90

80

70

60
Per cent children

50

40

30

20

10

ic

l
ic

ic
l

na

na
l
ic a

tia
ist

et

so

rso
at

th

th
pa
gu

er
m

es
hy
-S

pe
in

rp
he

al

Kin
l-R
L

tra
al-

te
su
at

ic a

ly -

In
In
rb

Vi

di
us
Ve

al-

Bo
M
gic
Lo

Learning strengths

Figure 3.4 Summary of learning strength data obtained from parent response on the Learning
Preferences and Strengths Profile (N=40)

• Interestingly, 17.5 per cent of the children were indicated to have

Verbal-Linguistic strengths. This was not anticipated but likely was a
reflection of the high levels of ‘scripted’ language used by some of
the children.
• Only 5 per cent of the children were rated to have primary
Bodily-Kinesthetic strengths.
With clear strengths in two main areas, Musical-Rhythmic and Visual-Spatial,
children with autism have what is referred to as a ‘laser’ profile of intelligences
or strengths. That is, they have a small number of clearly-developed peak
intelligences. These results did not support all of my predictions but provided
interesting and useable data for program planning.
48 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

DETERMINING THE LEARNING PREFERENCES AND

STRENGTHS PROFILE OF A CHILD WITH AUTISM
Observing the child
The most important way to begin to understand a child with autism is to observe
him. This should always be your first step. Watching him in everyday life helps
you see how he tries to understand and make sense of the world, events and
people around him.
Before you start, set aside all information you may have heard or read about
the child. Do not think about him in terms of impairments or delays. Think
about him in terms of how he may be trying to make sense of his world and
make it more tolerable.

OBSERVING THE CHILD ON HIS OWN

Observe the child on his own at home where he is most likely to be at ease. Just
sit back and watch to see what he does.
Ask yourself questions like:
• Does he approach as soon as I enter his space?
• Does he try to share an object or event with me?
• Does he spend more time with objects than people?
• Does he become upset if I try to re-arrange a toy or object he is
playing with or I try to do something in a different order?
• Does he respond if I laugh or pretend to cry?
• Does he become upset or resistant if I suggest doing something
different or if I suggest we go somewhere else?
• Does he resist putting away a toy or object he is playing with when I
suggest it?
An example framework for observing the child alone is in Appendix III.

OBSERVING THE CHILD WITH PEERS

Observe the child with other children in his age group. Arrange the situation so
that there is one main toy for them to play with and contribute to, such as
Lego®, Duplo®, Meccano® or Marbleworks®. Using this kind of toy
increases the likelihood of the children building a joint project.
 Learning Preferences and Strengths in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 49

Ask yourself questions like:

• Does he approach the other children as soon as he enters the space?
• Does he try to share an object or event with them?
• Does he spend more time with objects than the other children?
• Does he become upset if another child tries to re-arrange a toy he is
playing with or try to do something he is doing in a different order?
• Does he respond to the emotions of the other children?
• Does he become upset or resistant if another child suggests doing
something different?
• Does he resist putting away a toy or object he is playing with?
An example framework for observing the child with peers is included in
Appendix III.

Gathering information about likes and dislikes

By obtaining information about the child’s likes and dislikes, you can learn a
great deal about his preferences and strengths. Also, if you include some of his
strong interests in activities and tasks, you are more likely to ‘hook’ him and gain
his attention and cooperation.
Ask his parents and other people who know him well:
• what are his favorite:
° videos
° games
° TV shows
° computer programs
° books
° toys
° characters from videos, TV, computer games and/or books?
• what things does he dislike in relation to:
° videos
° games
° TV shows
50 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

° computer programs
° books
° toys
° characters from videos, TV, computer games and/or books?
An example form is included in Appendix III.
Most commonly children with autism exhibit very strong likes and dislikes.
Favorite things tend to be trains, dinosaurs, cars, computers, fans, flags, pipes,
cartoon characters of the moment, letters, alphabet and numbers.

Completing the Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile

The Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) Profile in Appendix II is designed to
provide information on the child’s preferences and strengths in day-to-day life.
The LPS Profile is intended to capture a picture of the child when he is relaxed
and well-rested.
To ensure that you obtain a balanced picture of the child’s Learning Preferences
and Strengths, the profile should be completed by:
• parents, particularly the parent who spends the most time with the
child
• teachers who have known and worked with the child for at least a
few months
• support workers and other caregivers who have known and worked
or lived with the child for at least a few months.
Information from therapists may be helpful but their exposure to children tends
to be structured around specific therapeutic tasks. Often, therapists have only
‘snap shots’ of children because their time is typically briefer and more
time-constrained.
Prompt everyone to complete the profile with the target child in mind. They
must think about how he responds most of the time and look for trends. They
should try not to become too focused on specific situations, responses or behav-
iors.
Once everyone has completed the profiles on a child, look at the consisten-
cies and inconsistencies. If there is a marked difference in any area, discuss it
with the person who completed the form in order to understand what they see in
the child that others do not. Once you reach consensus or are able to achieve a
reasonable profile for that child, you are ready to start planning his program.
 Chapter 4

Program Planning with Learning

Preferences and Strengths

KEY PROGRAM COMPONENTS

The Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) model is comprised of three key com-
ponents: structure, content and process (see Figure 4.1). Excellent teaching is
the fine art of connecting and integrating these key components for each child.

Structure

Process Content

Figure 4.1 Learning Preferences and Strengths model key components

The individual child’s preferences and strengths are at the heart of this model,
guiding the structure, content and processes of his program. When there is a
match between Learning Preferences and Strengths and program structure, process
and content, a synergy is created that is greater than the sum of the parts. When
the child’s Learning Preferences and Strengths are engaged, his learning can be opti-
mized and used in tandem to enhance other areas of preference and strength.

51
52 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Emphasis on metacognition
Throughout the book, metacognition is a central focus. Metacognition refers to
the child’s being able to think about his own thinking. Metacognitive awareness
helps the child become conscious of his thought processes and more engaged
and in control of his own learning. By emphasizing metacognition, the child
develops conscious understanding of:
• focusing and shifting attention
• identifying and defining important elements in a task, activity or
event
• organizing, prioritizing and sequencing tasks and activities
• remembering and retrieving information from memory
• monitoring, checking, evaluating and revising his approach to tasks
in addition to regulating his alertness and sustaining his efforts and managing
frustration, which are described under “Focus on self-regulation” below.
The initial goal is to help the child become conscious of his thinking and
effective learning strategies he has learned to use. He then must progress to
independent use of appropriate strategies. Ultimately, we want to help the child
begin to reflect on his thinking and problem solving so that he can improve on
his own.
Metacognitive learners become intentional learners who take control over
their own learning and monitor their own progress. With metacognitive
approaches, thinking is made explicit, visible and public. Bransford, Brown and
Cocking (2000) have found three important developments in children who use a
metacognitive approach:
1. learning is more efficient
2. learning outcomes are improved
3. transfer of learning, or generalization, to new situations is increased.

Focus on self-regulation
An important overall goal within the LPS model is to help the child become a
self-directed learner. He must learn how to assume control of his body, his
thinking and his emotions. The child must learn to shape his attitudes and
efforts in order to achieve goals without adult reminders or cues.
 Program Planning with Learning Preferences and Strengths 53

Self-regulation means that the child learns to inhibit, subdue, maintain or

enhance his own physical, emotional and cognitive awareness and arousal. He
needs to learn how to reduce or increase the intensity of his actions, thoughts
and feelings as well as slow them down or speed them up.
Self-regulated learning can be fostered through providing the child with
choices, giving him responsibilities in the learning process and ensuring that the
atmosphere around him is one that accepts errors as part of learning. He must
learn that it is safe to take risks. The adults around him model these behaviors as
well as teach the child self-regulation strategies directly.
Self-regulation is a critical skill in becoming a more reflective and thoughtful
metacognitive learner. It allows the child to tolerate, adapt or react to everyday
demands. Self-regulation also helps the child maintain his motivation and
interest in learning.

Use of compartmentalization
I have found that there is a subtle but critically important way to refer to the child
during learning. ‘Compartmentalization’ of a body part involved in an activity
from the child himself can make the difference between his continuing to try
and his resisting. This notion plays into the increased awareness of self we
emphasize within the LPS program. Children with autism seem to accept more
positively the healthy detachment of their body parts from their central selves.
Compartmentalization seems to help us take personal judgement out of the
learning process. It sets a boundary between the child and his behavior. Over
time, the compartmentalization is reduced as the child gains greater control over
his body and mind. The early effectiveness of this approach may be part of the
concreteness children with autism prefer in their Sensing self in addition to their
discomfort with being singled out.
I strongly recommend talking about the brain rather than just ‘you’. For
example, the child is prompted: “Tell your brains: don’t get distracted, brain!” In
the case of self-regulation, the body part is referred to as requiring help in con-
trolling itself, not the child. He is prompted with statements like, “Tell your
hands: ‘you need to be gentle, hands!’.”

Use of self-talk
As part of the development of metacognition and self-regulation, children are
prompted to talk to their ‘brains’. This self-talk is intended to help the children
monitor and guide their own learning and use of strategies. When used
54 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

effectively, it will assist the child in correcting himself, coping and using
metacognitive strategies.
In young children, spontaneous self-talk is usually irrelevant to the task, such
as about something that happened in another setting. Over time and with
prompting and modeling, self-talk becomes more focused on the task, although
the early content may not help the child complete the task. With further persis-
tence and consistency, the child’s self-talk will become more metacognitive and
helpful to his learning.
In typical development, self-talk becomes internalized, or not spoken out
loud, by middle childhood. However, when tasks are more difficult, both
children and adults are more likely to talk out loud to help themselves focus and
complete the activity successfully.

Importance of interpersonal trust

An important cornerstone to the LPS model is interpersonal trust. Trust refers
to the child’s confidence in the adults around him. If he can trust people he lives
and works with, the child will be able to relax and learn more optimally.
Research has shown that four major elements combine to create interper-
sonal trust (Perrin 2007). These four elements include:
1. Acceptance – this means that the child is accepted for who he is. He is
not viewed as being inferior or less able. The child must at all times
receive the message that he is important to you. In everything the
child does, he should be given the benefit of the doubt and his
behavior should be carefully examined to try to understand why he
did what he did without prior judgement.
2. Reliability – this refers to your doing what you say you will do when
you say you will do it. The child can rely on you to do what you say
and show him you will do. You can be trusted to keep promises even
when it is inconvenient or circumstances change somewhat. The
other important aspect of reliability is taking responsibility for
yourself. That means that you will not attempt to blame someone or
something else for your own feelings and actions.
3. Openness – this refers to honesty and willingness to provide candid
feedback to the child about him and about you. If you make an error
when working with the child, you should let him know. If he makes a
mistake, he should be helped to understand it.
 Program Planning with Learning Preferences and Strengths 55

4. Congruence – this means that what you say and do is in line with what
you believe and feel. There is a genuine and sincere interest in the
child and his well-being in everything you do with and for him.
As you read this book, you will see how these four elements are carefully incor-
porated into all aspects of the LPS model. Those involved in implementing the
model must commit themselves emotionally and cognitively to developing and
nurturing trust in their relationship with each child.

WHERE TO START THE LPS PROGRAM

It is assumed that the child has already had all of the standard diagnostic and
developmental assessments before you start. These pieces of information are
important for obtaining ideas about where to start from a content point of view.
The most important thing that I have found over the years is not to let standard-
ized assessment information lower your expectations or change the way you
view the child. The child is still the same person he was before the diagnosis.
Most importantly, we know that he is motivated to learn and is capable of a great
deal of learning.
In terms of the LPS model, structure, content and process are critically
intertwined to form a solid program. It may seem like a complex and daunting
task but I recommend not trying to do everything at once. The following
chapters will introduce you to each component and provide guidelines and
examples. I will lead you through understanding and developing each
component.
I recommend starting with Structure, which is discussed in Chapter 5. You
will see in that chapter, when the home and school environments are well orga-
nized around the child’s Learning Preferences and Strengths, his anxiety and stress are
reduced considerably. Because of this, his learning potential is enhanced.
The next step should be to develop the Content, described in Chapter 6.
Content presented in this book will focus on the three main areas of need in
autism: Learning/Cognitive, Social/Communication and Self-Regulation skills.
Other content in each child’s individual plan should follow national, state or pro-
vincial educational and developmental standards.
Finally, the Process component, described in Chapter 7, should be inte-
grated. Process will focus on mediating the child’s learning rather than teaching
him. This requires active interaction on the part of the teacher using the Seven
Pillars of Mediated Learning. It is within this component that the child’s
56 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Learning Preferences and Strengths are challenged most, prompting him to draw on
less-preferred areas and modalities.
Within each section on structure, content and process, ways of ‘challenging’
the child in order to engage non-dominant preferences and strengths will be
presented. For children with autism these other preferences and strengths
center around learning such things as:
• determining the ‘big picture’ or main idea and constructing meaning
from information they hear or see
• ‘going with the flow’ and becoming more flexible and less
rule-bound
• dealing with uncertainty and change and accepting risk
• listening to and continuing conversations on a wide range of topics
• accepting other people’s differences of opinion, appearance and
thinking
• filtering out unimportant or irrelevant information
• self-regulating behavior, cognitive processes and emotions.

WHAT MOTIVATES CHILDREN WITH AUTISM?

Earlier, it was stated that children with autism have a desire to learn. Some would
likely dispute that statement if they have worked with ‘difficult to motivate’
children with autism. Research into ways to appeal to and interest people with
Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) preferences, conducted by
Quenk (1993, 2000), provides us with some insight into motivating children
with autism.
Things that motivate and energize children with autism closely follow their
Learning Preferences and Strengths. Think about Introverts and their need for
warm-up time, Sensers and their preference for gathering detailed information
through their senses, Thinkers and their valuing logic and analytical approaches
to making decisions, and Judgers and their preference for predictable settings
and finishing tasks. Visual-Spatial learners are energized by use of visual images
that are clear and precise. Musical-Rhythmic learners are motivated by songs,
melodies and rhythms.
 Program Planning with Learning Preferences and Strengths 57

Factors that typically motivate ISTJs with Visual-Spatial and Musical-

Rhythmic strengths are presented in Table 4.1 below. Example activities are also
included.

Table 4.1 Motivators for children with autism and examples

Motivators Example Activities

permitting him to use his learning strengths visual matching, visual schedules and plans

incorporating his affinities and areas of high use dinosaurs, trains, computers
interest

allowing him time to warm up to and become watch others perform a task, present a model
familiar with activities and tasks before or picture sequence of how a task is to be
participating completed

permitting him to gather information by using smell playdough, touch or sniff a toy, watch
his senses before trying an action, swing, spin

valuing his ability to gather detailed providing opportunities to tell others or

information demonstrate to others areas of strong
knowledge

providing an environment that is predictable, use consistent ‘rhythm’ for working, break,
organized and well-structured working, break and so on

clarifying responsibilities and roles use models to show the process for
completion of tasks and the desired
end-products

clarifying and agreeing upon goals, make plan with pictures or words
expectations and deadlines before starting a
task or activity

finishing one task before moving on to remove items done from plan before starting
another next item

permitting him to be in control of his child decides every second item on his
schedule schedule or child decides the order of tasks
assigned

making sure tasks have concrete, tangible child needs to print ten words, cut two circles,
results eat three spoonfuls

These motivators will be incorporated into structure, content and processes

within the LPS model. Further discussion and description will be detailed in
each chapter.
58 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

CONSIDER THE CHILD’S BASIC NEEDS FIRST

Before starting work with any child with autism, basic physiological needs must
be addressed. Ensure that the child:
• has had sufficient sleep
• has eaten and continues to eat every two to three hours
• is wearing comfortable, dry clothing
• is warm or cool enough
• is not thirsty
• is feeling well.
Keep in mind that children with autism are particularly sensitive to these needs.
Failure to attend to these can significantly reduce the child’s ability to learn.

CONSIDER YOURSELF
Before starting work with a child with autism, it is important to look after
yourself. The child with autism requires the adults around him to have a great
deal of patience, understanding and energy to work effectively. Ensure that you:
• have had sufficient sleep
• are not feeling frustrated or on edge.
At the least, it is critical that you can behave in a calm and relaxed manner. This
does not mean that you cannot express your feelings and emotions. They must,
however, be related to the child and task at hand and not something extraneous
to the situation.
Also, from a sensory point of view, it is best not to wear highly scented
perfumes, deodorant or cosmetics as these may distract or irritate the child. The
issue of body odors is also important in that halitosis (‘bad breath’) can stop
some children with autism in their tracks.
It is essential that all people involved with children with autism develop an
understanding of their own Learning Preferences and Strengths. Most of us likely
enjoyed teachers at school who most closely matched our own preferences and
strengths. We also tend to teach others using our own preferences and strengths.
Because of this, we have to be keenly aware of our own learning profile. In Table
4.2 are some suggestions for monitoring your behavior in relation to the
learning preferences typically found in children with autism.
 Program Planning with Learning Preferences and Strengths 59

Table 4.2 Balancing child and adult learning preferences

The child has a You have a

preference for preference for Things you will need to monitor in yourself
Introversion Introversion talk out loud about your thinking and feelings and what the
child is experiencing
make sure you allow yourself some ‘down-time’ either midday
or at the end of the day to recharge your personal battery

Extraversion keep your talk relatively short, concise and clear

remember that you have increased tolerance for noise and
interruptions but they cause considerable stress for children
with autism
try to tone down your energy, enthusiasm and excitement
about things to a level that is more tolerable to the child;
make sure you find other outlets for your wonderful zest
do not worry that the child is not interested in joining groups
or organized activities – work on a compromise over time

Sensing Sensing focus on the overall goal with the child

be sure to help the child see the ‘big picture’ and broader
implications of learning
help the child not become too ‘locked into’ old procedures,
slowly introduce change and flexibility

Intuiting ensure you do not miss or downplay details important to the

child
ensure the child has time for hands-on experiences
help the child establish what he already knows before
presenting new concepts or ideas
pay attention to the child’s need for using established
procedures and predictability; be cautious when introducing
new approaches

Thinking Thinking do not become too task-oriented and forget the relationship
(emotional) side of your role with the child
do not impose your need for truth and fairness on the child,
especially when he is stressed; restore equilibrium first
60 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 4.2 continued

The child has a You have a

preference for preference for Things you will need to monitor in yourself
Feeling be careful your feelings are not hurt when the child says
something ‘blunt’ or is uncooperative
maintain objectivity and calmness when explaining rules, roles
and reasons
do not feel unappreciated or rejected if the child does not
behave warmly toward you
try not to feel harsh when you enforce a rule with the child

Judging Judging take your time in completing tasks to ensure the child
understands and that he experiences a sense of ‘ being
finished’
do not become stressed if things do not follow the procedure
or time-line you had planned; flow with the child’s energy –
you may be surprised where it leads
help the child learn about coping and dealing positively with
change

Perceiving do not be too ‘go with the flow’; the child needs predictability
and consistency in expectations, rules, routines, schedules and
plans; a casual approach to day-to-day life can make the child
feel insecure and uncared for – he may wonder who is in
charge
carefully forewarn the child of where, when and why things
may change
finish one thing before moving on to the next
 Chapter 5

Program Structure

IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE
The structure of the learning environment must provide opportunities for the
child to experience independent discovery, thinking and problem solving. Our
overall goal is for the child to become a more autonomous learner and to
develop skills and strategies for lifelong learning.
The term ‘structure’ refers to setting the learning stage so that it is more
inviting and easier for the child to understand. It does not refer to rigid boot
camp-like regimentation with adults controlling every aspect of the child’s
behavior. For children with autism, well-structured settings provide a sense of
safety, security and certainty. They can then relax and learn more optimally.

Note on structure: Without a well-organized learning environment, the

child seems to feel like you or I would when walking alone down an unlit
lane at midnight: our every sense is on hyper-alert in a ‘fight-flight’ mode.
This is not a situation where learning can readily take place.

Of all thinkers and investigators in the field of autism, the Treatment and Edu-
cation of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped CHildren
(TEACCH) model is by far the most advanced in honoring the needs of people
with autism for clear program structuring. Important concepts from TEACCH
have been extended and incorporated into the Learning Preferences and Strengths
(LPS) model.
To understand the notion of structure a little better, think about the Learning
Preferences and Strengths that are anticipated for children with autism and what they
may mean for desirable structural features. Here are some key examples:

61
62 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• sensory-reduced environment where sounds, sights, smells and other

sensations are controlled so as not to overwhelm or distract the child
• organized and orderly environment so the child is not drawn to
extraneous, irrelevant information
• clear, visually-obvious structure and organization so the child can see
what he is supposed to do, when and where
• logical and clearly-planned structuring of tasks and activities so the
child knows what to do and when he will be finished
• opportunities for down-time and privacy so the child can recharge
and refresh himself and be ready for more learning.
Program structure occurs on three main levels. They include:
A. learning environment
B. schedules, plans and routines
C. tasks and activities.
The key to developing program structure is that, just by looking, the child
should be able to understand the expectations.
Please note, you will not be keeping all environmental structuring features in
place forever. The idea is to start the child’s program with as much structure as
possible and then slowly and progressively, as the child relaxes and learns to trust
you and himself as a learner, reduce the amount of structuring.
Our ultimate goal is to make it possible for the child to exist in the real world
while optimizing his learning. Some children will require a fair amount of struc-
turing over the longer term. Some children will require more structure only on
‘not-so-good’ days.
The main emphasis of this chapter is program structure that honors the
Learning Preferences and Strengths of children with autism. At the end of the
chapter is a section intended to help the child develop non-dominant prefer-
ences and strengths, such as dealing with uncertainty, new activities and events
and change in general.
 Program Structure 63

At the end of each section in this chapter will be a Checkpoint. These will
be used to summarize the Learning Preferences and Strengths incorporated
within the strategies and provide any needed explanations. In addition,
other preferences and strengths not typical to children with autism will be
noted and described as Challenges.

A. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
To engage strong Visual-Spatial abilities of a child with autism, the physical
setting should be organized so that the child will know just by looking where dif-
ferent activities take place and where to find the needed materials. It is similar to
the situation you would face traveling to a country where you do not speak the
language and do not know cultural and social expectations. How do you figure
out what to do? You watch very carefully, seeking out understandable signs and
signals. I believe the child with autism feels very much this way so we must
reduce his anxiety and provide him with information that makes sense to him.
The typical Learning Preferences and Strengths of children with autism suggest
that the learning environment should include sensory-reduction, order and
organization, visual designation of areas, reduced verbal language load and
attention to the organization of seating. Each of these is described below.

1. Sensory-reduction in the learning environment

At the beginning of the program or school year, the environment should display
only relevant and important information and materials.
Noise levels should be reduced as much as possible. Try to ensure that the
child with autism is not seated next to an air vent or other source of noise. Even
the sound of forced air can disrupt his ability to concentrate and work optimally.
Having part of the room carpeted helps to reduce reverberation of sounds. Car-
peting that is a simple weave without a discernible pattern is best. A pattern can
be a visual stimulator for some children which will distract them from learning.
Carpeting is important but you will also need a hard surface area for wash-ability
purposes where painting and other ‘messy’ activities can take place.
Paint color and paint type for walls are issues that should be considered.
Some paints smell more than others and the aroma may be overwhelming to
children with autism, making it difficult for them to learn. In relation to color,
neutral and relatively calming hues are preferable.
64 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

I recall working in one agency where the architects thought a child area
should have a full range of primary colors depicting nursery rhyme charac-
ters. This was on the walls of a program area for children with autism. I
arranged to have the walls painted a warm white. Some people were
shocked that I had the works of art covered but the impact on the children
of the now-muted walls was really noticeable. They seemed to be calmer
and less readily aroused.

Lighting should include as much natural light as possible. If you are blessed with
a lot of windows, you have an advantage. Some people with autism find fluores-
cent bulbs sufficiently bothersome that they cannot concentrate. Newer fluo-
rescent lights have electronic ballasts that eliminate the old ‘buzz’ and they emit a
full light spectrum.
If you cannot control all of these factors, do your best to be creative. Simple
inexpensive drop-cloths or old bed sheets can cover busy walls as well as reduce
some sound reverberation.

Checkpoint for sensory reduction: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3

Challenge:

2. Order and organization in the learning environment

One of the most important things to remember is: Put things away! Storage cup-
boards and shelves are critical to maintaining a well-organized environment.
Use whatever you can afford to ensure that non-critical things are out of sight.
Some of the flat-pack stores have simple and relatively inexpensive systems that,
along with drop cloths, can be all you need.
The parent, teacher, therapist or caregiver should have all needed material
close at hand but out of sight to the child. Simple drop cloths, stop signs and
other symbols can be used to indicate to the child that an object or area is a
‘no-go’ zone. A stop sign can be placed on a door of the house or classroom to
indicate the door stays closed. Drop cloths can be used to drape just about
 Program Structure 65

anything you do not want the child to touch. Simply state, “The cloth is on so
that’s not available right now,” or, “The stop sign is on so it tells us we can’t go
there right now.” Point to the object or sign as providing the direction to the
child and not you. It is a subtle but important difference that appeals to the con-
creteness and objectivity of the child with autism’s thinking preferences. It can
also keep you out of a tug-of-war with the child: After all, there is nothing you
can do, it is the cloth, stop sign or symbol that is telling us!

A simple drop cloth or A curtain with a stop sign

old sheet acts to signal to placed on a computer
the children that this monitor signals that the
object is not avalable right computer is not available
now right now.

Figure 5.1 Examples of stategies for restricting child access

The child’s individual belongings and materials must have an organizational

system both at school and at home. He needs a well-marked place to put his
outdoor clothing and other belongings. Do not respond, “Oh, he can use any
hook/shelf/drawer he wants, there are lots!” The child with autism needs help
with organization and this will be one less stressor for him. Be sure to have:
• well-spaced out hooks, shelves or cubby-holes
• the child’s name in print and his photograph, if needed, placed above
the hook or on the shelf or cubby, keeping in mind the child needs
to be able to see his name and picture even when his belongings are
in place

Simple coat hook, labelled Individual cubby-hole for Shelf unit with one shelf Individual boxes for
for the specific child, and a clothing, shoes or boots, for each school subject different materials the
mat for shoes or boots and backpack, labeled for area. child needs to
the child. remember.

Figure 5.2 Examples of different organizational systems

66 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• shelving for older children, divided by school subjects so that they

can remain organized; also, the child should be able to put a
completed subject back on a shelf which will give him a sense of
closure and completion while keeping him organized
• bins with printed labels and pictures; for younger children, the bins
may be for snacks brought by the children and for communication
books; for older children, the bins may be for homework and
communication sheets to be taken home for their parents.

Checkpoint for order and organization: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge:

3. Visual designation of areas in the learning environment

Just as houses are divided into function-related spaces so should the learning
environment for children with autism. Use signs, barriers and furniture place-
ment as dividers. I prefer to use barriers high enough so the children are not
distracted but short enough so I can stand up and look around the room and see
where everyone is. You can also use tri-fold cardboard presentation boards or
cut-out cardboard boxes to act as individual screens.
Each space should have its own large label, along with a picture associated
with that area. These should be posted at each area and the child’s individual
schedule should have a smaller version. This allows the children to use their typi-
cally powerful desire to match objects and pictures to guide them to the area of
the room shown on their schedules.

AT SCHOOL
Typical areas at school include:
• Entrance where belongings, such as shoes, coats, backpacks or
rucksacks, are placed on hooks, shelves or in cubby holes.
• Schedule and transition area where each child can learn what is going to
happen for part or all of the day. This is the place where each child
 Program Structure 67

returns repeatedly to determine what to do next. As an extra benefit,

allowing the children to get up, walk to the schedule, check and then
go to the appropriate area will give them a chance to move and
energize themselves.
• Circle or group gathering area where the children can get together for
instruction, sharing and other activities.
° Children usually respond best if there is a spot designated for each
child within the group gathering area rather than having them sit
anywhere. Carpet squares, free from most carpet dealers, or chairs
with the children’s names on them tend to work well.
° Keep the area clear of too many objects. Activities and props should
be obscured from the children’s sight in a box, bag or cupboard that
is close at hand.
• Group activity area. Each child should have a clearly demarcated space
in which to work. It can be chairs at a table or desks. His picture
and/or name should be shown clearly at the spot where he is
supposed to be.
• One-to-one and independent work area.
° The child should have his picture and/or name shown on the table or
desk where he is supposed to work.
° Tape can be placed on the floor to demarcate the child’s working
space that cannot be intruded by others.
• Snack or eating area. Ensure that each child has a specific place
designated by his picture and/or name. If he is expected to eat in a
cafeteria or other large room with many other students, I would
re-think that plan. Most children with autism experience sensory
overload in those types of places and simply cannot eat. You might
form a ‘lunch club’ where a few students, including the child with
autism, get to eat in a smaller room. The other students can be
rotated so that it is a special privilege to join the ‘lunch club’.
Through the year, as the child with autism adapts to eating in a group
of friends, he can be introduced to the larger room.
• Toileting area. Ensure that the bathroom has appropriate signage or
the directions to it that are visually obvious. If the toilet is outside the
classroom, use ‘bathroom buddies’ for younger children. This will
68 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

ensure that the child with autism has support and does not go astray
or end up experimenting with bathroom acoustics, just how much
can be flushed down a toilet or what fun it is to play with water.
• Play or hands-on experiential learning area. Ensure that only necessary toys
and objects are available. Having just one or two main toys or objects
out can encourage the children to play in closer proximity to each
other, perhaps even cooperate.
• Break area. There should be a place where any child can go to ‘chill
out’ and regroup if he is becoming stressed. It can be an inexpensive
tent purchased from a flat-pack store, cardboard box or a cut-out
barrel available from large fruit juice companies.

Figure 5.3 Examples of settings for break areas

The schedule and group gathering areas should be like the ‘hub’ of the class-
room. This is where everyone meets and greets, planning is done, completed
tasks are checked off or removed from the list and where learning is summa-
rized. The day should start and finish in this location. It is the central spot for
checking the ‘pulse’ of the group.

AT HOME
Typical areas at home include:
• Entrance where belongings, such as shoes,
coats, backpacks/rucksacks, are placed
on hooks, shelves or in ‘cubby-holes’.
• Bedroom where all of his clothes should be
organized by type and labeled. A
well-organized and labelled dresser can
help the child:
 Program Structure 69

° remain calmer because everything is in its place

° get dressed with greater ease, and
° become increasingly independent.
The child’s bedroom should be his special ‘private’ space and is best
not used for work. It should be designated only for dressing, sleeping
and quiet time. The child can go to his room to take a break if he is
stressed or tired.
• Bathroom where the child will wash, brush his teeth, toilet and bath.
This is an important place to work on consistent hygiene routines
from an early age because ways of doing things, both effective and
less effective, become solidified and less amenable to change.
• Laundry where the child can be helped to sort his dirty clothes for
washing. Having a number of different-colored laundry hampers
bearing labels can simplify sorting in preparation for washing and can
ultimately increase the child’s independence and accuracy doing the
laundry himself. For example, one mother used a white hamper for
whites, beiges and greys, a grey hamper for blues, greens and blacks
and a third hamper for towels and all other colors of clothing.
• Work area where the child will do one-to-one and independent
learning. The child should have a designated area that is not used for
anything else. If that is not possible, use special cues like setting up a
carrel for him to work.
• Play area where play is distinguished from work and all visual cues
indicate this to the child.
• Kitchen which may act as the central point for schedules and plans.
This is where the child can come to find out what will happen next
and to remove pictures or printed words of activities already
completed.
Children with autism find safety and comfort in certainty and predictability.
Because of this, the location of activities should be the same every day for at
least the first few months. After that, determine if the child is feeling relaxed and
comfortable with the arrangement and then begin to make small progressive
changes. If the child displays increased anxiety or off-task behavior, you can
back up and replace the visual supports if needed. By slowly removing them, we
are helping him learn flexibility but certain children will continue to need some
types of visual supports.
70 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Checkpoint for visual designation of areas: What Learning Preferences and Strengths
did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge:

4. Reduced verbal language load in the learning environment

Children with autism have difficulties dealing with language for a number of
reasons. Among them are extended processing time and difficulty understand-
ing nonverbal cues. The learning environment can be arranged to help the child
in these areas.
Children with autism tend to process verbal language slowly, especially when
new ideas or topics are presented. In normal everyday conversation, we expect
each other to understand and respond within less than five seconds. I have seen
children take 30 minutes or more to take in and understand things said to them.
Very often it looks like the child with autism was not even paying attention.
Minutes or sometimes days later, you will find that he did take in the information.
Children with autism also have difficulty understanding differences in tone
of voice, body language and gestures. Even if you say something with an
emphatic tone and gestures, the child may not understand it is important.
These characteristics mean that you must be sensitive and tuned into each
child’s characteristics. Observe the child carefully to see how quickly and
accurately he processes information. Look at how consistently he takes in and
understands what you say. Do not reduce and simplify your language level too
much because you need to balance what and how you say things with the child’s
understanding. Be very cautious about speaking to a low verbal or nonverbal
child in too ‘baby-like’ a manner; his comprehension may be quite good. Also,
do not take for granted that a highly verbal child will understand everything you
say. Test it out and consult with your speech-language pathologist.
Always use visuals to reinforce what you say, whether in printed words or in
print and pictures. Visual support can be in the form of environmental signs and
visual schedules, plans and routines. It also includes writing or displaying impor-
tant points on the blackboard or overhead projector or SMART Board™ and
providing the child with an outline of the schedule or lesson plan. I have found
that teaching very young children, five to six years of age, how to take brief
notes during presentations and discussion helps them maintain their focus and
 Program Structure 71

increases their construction of meaning. Chapter 6 on Program Content

provides more information in this area.

Checkpoint for reduced verbal language load: What Learning Preferences and Strengths
did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3

Challenge:

5. Organization of seating in the learning environment

The organization of seating is one more factor to consider when teaching
children with autism. The orientation of the adult in relation to the child
changes the dynamic and either increases or decreases the number of variables
presented to the child. Each major seating arrangement and its implications for
learning are presented in Table 5.1.

I was asked to assess an elementary school-aged child with autism. I had

read over his file and then chatted with the boy and his mother. I asked
about some assessment results from the past, in particular an intellectual
assessment that depicted the child as being severely delayed. Those results
did not seem to go along with other assessment information and certainly
did not fit the young fellow I was talking to. I asked his mother and she
stated that the results were what the psychologist found. I then asked the
child about being assessed by the psychologist. After chatting with him for
a while, he finally told me that the psychologist had really bad breath and he
just wanted to get out of the face-to-face setting with her. He said that he
just did as little as possible so the assessment session ended quickly!

If you are working on early imitation skills, the side-by-side position is likely
easier for the child. If you are working on reciprocity and social responsiveness,
the face-to-face position is more appropriate. In the early stages of face-to-face
work, lessen the task demands or the amount of reciprocity expected. This will
ease the load on the child. In early stages of group work, the main focus should
72 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 5.1 Different seating arrangements and their implications

Seating arrangement
(gray = adult) Implications of the configuration
Face-to-face in group In face-to-face arrangements, there is an expectation that
Often used for group your partner(s) will listen and respond consistently. That
instruction. means each person must listen, watch and respond to the
group leader. This is in addition to dealing with sensory
issues related to the physical closeness of other people and
sounds, noises and actions other children may make.
A multitude of demands in relation to paying attention and
responding to the group leader while ignoring other factors
are placed on the child in this type of arrangement.

Face-to-face in 1:1 In the face-to-face setting where an adult works individually

Often used for assessment, with a child, each is expected to pay attention and respond
communication and social to verbal and nonverbal behavior of the other person. The
activities. child also has to deal with sensory issues related to being
physically close to another person. These are in addition to
working on a task.
Again, a multitude of demands are being placed on the child
simultaneously. In the 1:1 situation, the demands are
reduced somewhat from the group setting because the child
has only one other person to be concerned about.

Side-by-side When we are side-by-side, the focus on the task and the
Often used in helping a child materials on the table is increased.
develop new skills. This is a This configuration places considerably less focus on social
good configuration to use when interaction. It allows more specific attention to the
teaching imitation because the directions, materials and task at hand. The adult and child
adult model is parallel to the are looking from the same vantage point. This helps the
child. He does not have to adult understand how the child is perceiving the situation
provide a mirror image of the and the task. The child’s role is simplified by reducing
model. expectations for social interaction.

Teacher behind, child at Presence of the teacher is lessened but close monitoring of
table the child can continue.
This configuration promotes independence in the child and
attention to the task, reducing reliance on adult cues. The
arrangement can allow the adult to prompt the child
physically, such as by pointing, nudging his elbow to start an
action or by providing hand-over-hand assistance.
 Program Structure 73

be on increasing the child’s comfort level in sitting close to a cluster of other

people. Tasks presented in these early groups should be relatively simple and
adult support and assistance should be readily available.

Checkpoint for organization of seating: What Learning Preferences and Strengths

did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3

Challenge: Interpersonal

Notes: Organization of seating stretches the Learning Preferences and Strengths in

the following ways:
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths maintains and
forms cooperative relationships with others, adapting well to
different situations. The different seating arrangements challenge the
child to become more responsive to others during interactions.

B. SCHEDULES, PLANS AND ROUTINES

For children with autism, a predictable and consistent environment feels safe
and secure. When key people support the predictability by using schedules,
plans and routines, the children are better able to relax, learn and become inde-
pendent.
Well-structured visual schedules, plans and routines provide:
• advance warning of tasks and activities
• support during tasks and activities
• support for verbal directions and instructions
• isolation of key information
• clear expectations.
In this section, examples of schedules, plans and routines will be presented.
74 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Note on schedules, plans and routines: When I bring up the subject of

visual and/or written schedules, plans, and routines, I get a variety of
responses. A fair number of people have said to me, “Oh, he doesn’t need
it. He understands everything.” I have three main comments to that: (1) are
you truly gauging the child’s stress level accurately since children with
autism can internalize a lot of anxiety, (2) why not support the child in ways
that make it easier for him to understand, remember and learn and (3)
adults tend to make lists to help themselves remember so why not allow the
child this opportunity? If you really want to give the child with autism an
optimal learning environment, use visuals. It takes nothing away and
provides a critically important element.

Schedules
Schedules are the master plan for part or all of a day. They should be organized
such that the child knows what activity he is supposed to do and in what order.
Well-organized schedules allow the child to gain greater independence, handle
transitions more calmly and become more flexible.
After each component on a schedule is completed, the child should be
brought back to his master schedule where the completed task is removed and
he checks what is next. This sense of rhythm during the instruction period
should be: check your schedule, do the task, remove the picture of the com-
pleted task from your schedule and then go on to the next task or activity. Such a
cycle is shown in Figure 5.4.

Schedule
Look ahead Do

Remove
Remove

Do Look ahead
Schedule

Figure 5.4 Rhythmic cycle of schedules

 Program Structure 75

For younger children, it is best to start with schedules having fewer items. You
may start with a simple ‘first–then’ card displaying just two activities. As the child
progresses and is able to deal with and understand more information, the sched-
ules can become more elaborate and lengthy. For older children who are com-
fortable with following schedules, the schedules can be more open-ended so the
child is responsible for completing them. Examples and explanations of a
variety of schedules are shown in Table 5.2.

Plans and routines

Plans and routines may involve activities that have a specific sequence or set of
features, subroutines and/or more loosely-timed activities. Some examples are
shown in Table 5.3.
The seemingly simple act of transitioning from one task to the next can be
highly disruptive to children with autism. Music can help bridge this gap. Make
up or adapt a simple song to signal the start of different activities or transitions
from one activity to the next. Appendix I provides sites to stimulate your
musical talents.

We have used a clean-up song to the tune of “Twinkle Twinkle” that went:
“Twinkle twinkle little star, stop and clean up where you are, time to put our
toys away, we can play another day, twinkle twinkle little star, stop and clean
up where you are.” Each child who helped clean up was given a star which
he would use to replace his snack card on the ‘Clean-up Star’ chart. He
would then take the snack card to the snack table. One parent wrote in the
communication book that, over the weekend, her child was playing con-
tentedly. On the television, “Twinkle Twinkle” was played. The child
immediately put away all of his toys. He usually struggled with his mother
when she asked him to clean up but did it spontaneously when he heard the
‘clean-up’ tune.

Children with autism do not automatically figure out rules in social situations.
This includes things like looking at the person talking, listening when another
person is talking and imitating the adult when she asks. We found during group
work that, even when the teacher was tremendously animated and encouraging
to the children, their responses were only intermittent at best. They loved the
stories and songs but usually just sat there and sometimes even got up and went
76 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 5.2 Examples and explanations of different schedules

First Then The first example is a simple ‘first-then’ schedule. In the early
stages, start with one brief task followed by a highly desirable
activity. As the child develops an understanding of ‘first-then’,
extend task time and consider adding another step.
Pictures with printed words are attached by hook-and-loop
circles. This makes it possible to use the base first-then card for
different tasks and the child can remove the picture of a task
color sing once it is completed.
The second example is a partial schedule for a half-day preschool. Initially, each segment will
last for only two to five minutes but some might extend to a maximum of 15 minutes. As the
child becomes accustomed to using schedules, duration of each activity can increase.
Pictures with printed words are attached by hook-and-loop circles. This makes it possible to
change tasks and order of tasks and permits the child to remove the picture of each task he
completes.

Calendar Thinking Science center Computer center Snack

The third example is a partial schedule I made up for a junior high school student. We were
working on helping him equate digital and analog time so he was expected to draw in the clock
hands.
Because he had significant fine motor difficulties, I made up stickers for each school subject.
He could then just peel and stick.
In the “work I need to do” column, the boy was expected to print basic directions or dictate
them to a scribe. The teacher could then check if the boy understood the task.
The “check if done” column allowed the boy the satisfaction of checking off work completed.
The “what I need to do for homework” column was added so that (1) he would not fret about
unfinished work (he had some place to put it) and (2) he took responsibility for completing his
work.

Day_____________________ Date___________

Work I need What I need to do

Start Subject to do Check if done for homework
 Program Structure 77

Table 5.3 Examples and explanations of different plans and routines

The first example is a set of task completion steps. It includes each major activity for
completion of a craft as well as the model in the fourth square of what it should look like when
finished. Each picture with printed word is secured with hook-and-loop circles so the child can
remove the step as he completes it. Also, the numbered card can be used for other tasks. You
can also fold over numbers for tasks with fewer steps.

1. 2. 3. 4.

color cut glue all done

This example is a mobile planner that is made from a file

folder. There is a storage envelope on the back for other
activity options. These are ideal for situations where the
child will be changing locations, such as home to school or
around the home.

This example is a reminder for the special helper of the day. It reminds the child that he gets to
help with the calendar and lead the line of children when they leave the classroom. Some
children on their helper day try to wrest control from everyone else. This visual helps define
roles more clearly.

Special Calendar Line leader

helper helper

This example is a ‘safe eating’ routine I made up for a child who typically took an entire muffin
in his palm and stuffed it whole into his mouth. Then he chomped on the muffin with his
mouth open and crumbs fell everywhere. We were concerned he might choke. Also, other
children were commenting on how messy he was. I incorporated a number of strategies into
the rules. By prompting him to take a pinch of food, it was physically difficult to pick up an
entire muffin. I also provided him with a size gauge which gave him a concrete, physical
referent for bite size. Then he was cued to close his lips and chew three times before
swallowing and starting the sequence again.
78 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The child was initially frustrated with the new rules. Within 10 minutes, he was following the
sequence with support from an adult. The other children spontaneously followed the rules and
cheered each other on.

Rules for safe eating

Take a pinch. Same size as this. Close my lips. Chew 3 times.

This example is specific to hand-washing. It displays the most important steps in the process.
By placing this sequence next to the sink in the bathroom, children can be more independent.
The rules also help remind the children to control the amount of soap and number of paper
towels they use.

Turn on Get 1 push Rub my hands Turn off the Dry my hands
the water. of soap. under the water. water. with one piece
of towel.

This example is a specific routine I set up for a junior high school student whose teachers said
that he spent an hour or more to get himself ready to work each morning. I suspected that the
student was not entirely certain what he was supposed to do and then became distracted by
more interesting things. It concerned both his mother and me that he was being allowed to
miss almost one-quarter of his instructional day in wandering.
I made up this routine strip and, as soon as it was implemented, he completed the tasks each
morning within about ten minutes. Also, he needed little reminding to complete the routine.

Put my laptop Plug in my Turn on my Plug in the Go back to my

on the table. laptop. laptop. earphones and desk.
microphone.
 Program Structure 79

This example is a routine used at home to increase the child’s independence in getting ready for
school. It was made up into a four-page booklet that started in the bathroom, moved to the
bedroom, then to the kitchen and to the back hall. Time limits can be set for each page so that
the child starts learning a sense of time passage as well as time management.

Get up and go to Wash my face and hands. Brush my teeth.

the bathroom.

Go back to my room and Get dressed.

make my bed.

Go to the kitchen and eat Take my vitamins.

my breakfast.

Pack my backpack with my Look outside to see if I Hang up this book

lunch and everything I need need to wear a coat. and go to school.
for school.
80 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

This example is a routine used by a parent to ensure that

30 30 the child brushed all of his teeth. The mother took a tooth
seconds seconds chart, obtained from the child’s dentist, and visually
sectioned it off into quadrants with time designated to
each quadrant. You could be more specific by indicating
1 2 that each tooth surface must be brushed for ten seconds:
3 4 ten on each side and ten on top. Set up a timer, number
each quadrant of the mouth and help the child learn to
follow the routine.
30 30 What prompted setting up this routine was that the
seconds seconds
mother had found that her son was brushing only his front
teeth because those were the teeth he saw most.

to another area of the classroom. I observed the children and it occurred to me:
maybe the children did not understand the social rules and expectations. I made
up the rule chart shown in Figure 5.5.
Before the next group session, the teacher explained the new rules: the
teacher sits and the children sit, the teacher talks and the children look and listen,
the teacher sings and the children sing, the teacher claps and the children clap. As
the group proceeded, the teacher simply tapped her finger on a picture if
children forgot. The children responded amazingly positively, almost like “Oh,
so that’s what you want!” Participation by all children increased exponentially.
It is critical to remember that rules and regularities may seem obvious to you
but, to the child with autism, they need to be made explicit. Once a simple expla-
nation is made, you will often see the child relax or show a response like “Oh, so
that’s how it goes!” We have occasionally found pictures from schedules, plans
or routines missing, later to find them in the garbage or toilet. A child was simply
making a comment that he did not want to do that, thanks very much! It was also
an indication of how powerful visual cues are to children with autism.

This chapter has demonstrated how a well-structured program helps the

child relax because he can see what is going to happen and when.
The mother of the student for whom I made the class schedule
provided strong support for this concept. She sat down with her son each
night and made up the schedule for the next day at school. She said that,
after doing that, her son slept considerably better. He was no longer
anxious about what the world held for him the next day.
 Program Structure 81

Teacher does Children do

Sit Sit

Talk Listen and look

Sing Sing

Clap Clap

Figure 5.5 Example of group participation rules

When developing visual schedules, plans and routines, there are some very prac-
tical things to do:
• Use pictures or photos and printed words or printed words alone for
children who are readers.
82 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Set up the schedule, plan or routine in a left-to-right or right-to-left

orientation so we can continually emphasize directions used in
reading, printing and writing in the child’s dominant language.
• Laminate all picture and print cards to ensure they last through
everyday use; the cost of laminating will be out-weighed by the time
and effort saved in making new cards.
The planning component should become an increasingly dynamic process.
Children with autism learn by touching and doing so they need to be engaged
physically and sensorally in schedules, plans and routines. The planning process
should increasingly be shared with the children. They should help remove the
picture of an activity completed and help make up schedules and plans. This will
keep them involved and focused and feeling a sense of control.

Checkpoint for schedules, plans and routines: What Learning Preferences and Strengths
did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3 3

Challenge:

C. TASKS AND ACTIVITIES

One of our long-term goals with children with autism is for them to be able to
work independently. That is, the child will be able to organize the task, systemati-
cally complete it, check for any errors and then put the activity away.
From the beginning of each child’s program, we ensure he has opportunities
for self-directed work in addition to one-to-one and group work. You can intro-
duce more complex and challenging work in adult-assisted and group work
situations. However, the tasks and activities for independent work have to be
designed and set up so that the child experiences error-free learning. This means
that independent work tasks and activities are initially very simple.
All tasks and activities, especially independent work, should have clear
expectations and a clear beginning and end. They should be well-organized and
only important and relevant information should be available.
 Program Structure 83

1. Clear expectations for tasks and activities

At school and at home, the child must have clear expectations. Expectations
center around a number of different features, including:
• Time, such as how long he is expected to spend with a task or activity
until he must move on to the next item on his schedule. Use a timer
so that the feedback to the child is concrete and objective.
Different timers work better for some children than others. For
children who love numbers, a digital timer is usually not the best
choice: the child may simply watch the numbers on the timer rather
than complete his work. A mechanical kitchen timer might be a rea-
sonable substitute so long as the bell or buzzer is not too loud. For
children with little internal sense of time, the use of time-passage
clocks or sand/liquid timers is generally more helpful. With the
time-passage clock, the overlay is moved back from the top zero
point for whatever number of minutes you need. The overlay then
moves toward the zero-point as time passes, closing the gap when
time is up. With time-passage clocks and sand/liquid timers, time is
seen as a concrete physical quantity.
• Quantity, such as how many activities he is expected to complete or
how many items he must do before he is finished. Give him only the
amount of work you want him to do and/or you believe he can
reasonably accomplish. I recall the story of a young man with autism
who started a job and was told his task was to sort a roomful of
parts. He was not told that it should take him a week to complete
everything. He refused to go home until he sorted all of the parts!
• Quality, or the precision and accuracy with which the task needs to be
done. Providing a model of the completed task will allow the child to
see what the end-product is supposed to look like. Some children try
to complete tasks as quickly as possible, others work painstakingly
for precision and finish very little. Each child’s standard for quality
must be individualized to reflect these differences. Placing quality
reminders in front of the child can help. Examples are shown below.
84 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Reminder for the Reminder for the perfectionist

speed demon
I need to tell my brain to It’s okay to be a little bit jiggly.
slow down and do my best My hand and my brain are just
work learning

Figure 5.6 Examples of different quality reminders

Checkpoint for clear expectations: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge:

2. Orderly and organized tasks and activities

For all tasks and activities, only the materials needed to complete the task or
activity should be visible in the work area. Use of a visual plan, as discussed
earlier in this chapter, makes it easier for the child to follow the sequence in a
multi-step task.
For independent tasks, the work area must be organized so that, just by
looking, the child knows what to do, how much to do, when he is finished and
what to do when he is done. Tasks should be organized physically so that:
• each task is separate and distinct: this can be accomplished by putting
each task in a separate container such as a tub, binder, project case,
file or box
 Program Structure 85

• one task is completed at a time: the shelf holding the containers is

numbered so that task 1 has “1” on the shelf below its container,
task 2 has “2” on the shelf below its container and beside task 1 and
so on, working left to right across the shelf or right to left if the
child’s dominant language in education follows that direction

Figure 5.7 Example of left-to-right task organization

• new activities are picked up on the left/right side of the work area
and, once completed, placed on the right/left side. On the right/left
side is either a shelf or box marked “done”
• each activity is independently understandable in terms of what the
child needs to do: this can be accomplished by including printed
instructions if the child reads, a plan card with the sequence of
actions and/or a model of the finished product
• each individual task or activity should be designed so that the child
works from left to right or right to left and from top to bottom or
bottom to top, whichever is the direction used with his dominant
language.
Some basic types of independent tasks are shown in Figure 5.8. Put-in tasks are
generally the ‘easiest’ and most successful for the early stages in the child’s
program. Sorting tasks can become complex, such as by incorporating two- and
three-dimension categorization.
The tasks shown in the pictures above appear very simple but you have to be
cautious in their design. It is usually best to mock up a task and try it out with a
child before you commit a lot of time and effort to it.
86 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Put-in task Stacking task

Pull-apart and Sorting task

put-in task

Figure 5.8 Examples of different types of independent tasks

We had a sorting task using red and black dominoes. The set-up was similar
to the sorting task shown above. A photo of a red domino was placed
above the hole where the child was to place the red dominoes. A photo of a
black domino was placed above the hole where the black dominoes were to
go. An education assistant was working with a nonverbal child who
appeared to have significant learning challenges. She tried the domino
sorting task and the child either placed the wrong color in the hole or
squawked. We both watched him for a while and then I ran to get some
white correction fluid. I added white dots to some of the dominoes to
match the photo models and the child successfully sorted by color. He was
attempting to sort by color and number even though we had not intended
him to do anything other than sort by color. We learned yet another good
lesson about visual learners.
 Program Structure 87

File folder games are well-suited to independent work tasks. If you are not
familiar with them, you use a simple file folder and organize one activity per
folder. Some printable file folder games and activities are included in Appendix
I. File folder activities typically involve matching color to color, object to
category, object to printed name, letters to letters and rhyming words.

Checkpoint for orderly and organized tasks and activities: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge:

This discussion of Program Structure has focused on honoring the Learning

Preferences and Strengths in children with autism. The learning environment,
schedules, plans and routines and tasks and activities incorporated many of the
following:
• Introversion – people with Introversion preferences need extended
time to process verbal information. The incorporation of visual
information permits the child to use his strength in visual processing
to support the slower, less certain auditory process. Visual
information also allows the child opportunities to warm up to
activities by looking ahead to see what is going to happen. People
with an Introversion preference also need some solitary time to
recharge and refresh. The use of one-to-one and independent tasks
and activities affords them this opportunity. Incorporation of places
for breaks and quiet time at school and at home help ensure the child
re-energizes so his learning is more optimal and he remains calmer.
• Sensing – people with Sensing preferences focus on details and notice
even small sensory details. By reducing sensory distractions, the child
is more likely to be calm and focus on important information. By
ensuring that the environment is orderly and organized, the child is
less likely to be distracted by irrelevant information and cues. He is
drawn to the tangible nature of the signs and pictures. Incorporating
visual with verbal, the child is more likely to attend and understand
more accurately and completely.
88 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Thinking – people with Thinking preferences value analysis and logic.

The systems used in this chapter appeal to these features and make
an enormous difference to the child’s feelings of safety and security.
The clarity provided by a well-structured environment, task and
activity makes a significant difference to the child’s willingness to
attend and learn.
• Judging – people with Judging preferences like living and working in
planned and orderly settings where things are decided and settled.
The systems presented in this chapter are calming and assuring to
Judgers.
• Visual-Spatial – people with Visual-Spatial strengths are sensitive to
visual images and enjoy organized systems. The strategies provide a
more naturally appealing situation because they emphasize what is
important and reduce distracting elements. The use of visuals to
reinforce and support verbal information acts to put the child more
at ease because the visual modality is easier to use. The child is more
likely to take in complete and accurate information. People with
Visual-Spatial strengths are sensitive to color, form and space around
them. By reducing or neutralizing sensory features, the child will
more likely focus on learning-relevant information.
• Musical-Rhythmic – people with Musical-Rhythmic strengths are drawn
to tunes and rhythms and seem to be able to process and retain
melodic information more readily. Using simple songs can smooth
the child’s move from one task or area to another and reinforce the
‘rules’.

STRUCTURE TO EXPAND LEARNING PREFERENCES AND

STRENGTHS
We have focused thus far on engaging each child through his learning prefer-
ences for Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging and his learning strengths for
Visual-Spatial and Musical-Rhythmic information. We want to promote the
child’s developing some of the qualities of Extraversion, Intuiting, Feeling and
Perceiving and some of the other learning strengths. This will help him become
more ‘balanced’ and less firmly entrenched in his specific Learning Preferences and
Strengths.
 Program Structure 89

We do not, of course, attempt any of these ‘challenges’ to familiar and com-

fortable ways of thinking and doing things until the child has shown us that he
feels safe with us. He must have complete and sincere confidence in people who
work with him before any attempts are made to help him use non-dominant
preferences and strengths. He will show that he is relaxed by flowing from task
to task and activity to activity with relative ease and independently using strate-
gies taught to him.
In terms of structure, we need to help the child learn how to deal calmly with
uncertainty, with new activities and events and with change and unplanned
events. Introduction of any of these can be highly unsettling for a child with
autism so great care must be taken when planning for and trying any of these
changes.

Dealing with uncertainty

Children with autism feel greatest sureness and comfort when they know what is
going to happen. Introduction of uncertainty can be done only after the child
has grown used to his regular schedule and follows it flawlessly. Then a bit of
uncertainty can be brought in by adding a question mark to his regular schedule
card. Referring to it as a ‘surprise’ gives the uncertainty a positive ‘twist’. Follow-
ing the surprise with a favored activity will also help him deal more positively
with the uncertainty.

Calendar Thinking Surprise Computer Snack

Figure 5.9 Example of visual schedule with introduction of a surprise activity

In the beginning, make the ‘surprise’ something fairly innocuous. For example,
you may bring in a new book or toy or re-introduce something that has been put
away for a while.
As the child begins to feel comfortable with ‘surprises’, you could help him
prepare a surprise for someone else. You can also begin to make the ‘surprises’
more intense, such as by having a special visitor or going to a different location.
90 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Dealing with new objects, activities and events

The child with autism likes to have his consistent routines and predictable ways
of doing things. I have seen children with autism reject things I know they would
like just because they were new and/or unexpected. Life is full of new things and
we must help the child cope positively with them. Central factors in helping
children with autism deal with new activities and events include giving them time
to warm up to the idea and by putting a positive ‘spin’ on the idea of newness.
One successful way to help the child deal with change is a ‘new is good’
campaign. When I introduced this concept to a preschool, the staff just laughed
and thought I was a little wacky. In this campaign, the adults around the child ini-
tially comment, the adults around the child comment on something about them-
selves, such as a new shirt, and say: “I have a nice new shirt. I like it. New is
good!” After a couple of weeks of using the ‘new is good’ campaign, the adults
comment on things the children had or did that are new. They might comment
on a child’s snack saying, “Oh look, Bobby has an orange today. He usually has
an apple. New is good!” After the child gets used to the concept, try introducing
something new for him. At first, you might try something small that he typically
does not find objectionable. Over time, try more adventurous ‘new’ things.

Dealing with change and unplanned events

In life, plans and schedules may suddenly change because of unforeseen events.
You may be on the way to shop for groceries and the car develops a flat tire. You
have to stop, change the tire and, perhaps, abandon the idea of going to the store
because there is no more time. A friend may drop by your house just after you
promised the child you both would go to the park. You will have to delay or
reschedule the trip to the park in order to visit with your friend.
These changes can cause huge meltdowns in children with autism. The child
is focused on the plan or schedule and then, suddenly, it may not happen or is
delayed.
Children with autism can be progressively introduced to the idea of
‘changing one’s mind’. Start off with something very familiar to the child where
change is relatively inconsequential. Slowly help him become used to the notion
that you can change your mind. Prompt him to ‘change his mind’ about familiar
things (see the anecdote below). As he becomes more comfortable with this
concept, make changes that are more important to the child such as altering a
sequence of events or delaying an activity previously planned. Always be
prepared to back out of the change if the child becomes overly stressed. You can
just indicate you ‘made a mistake’ and then put things back as they were. Try
again another time but keep trying.
 Program Structure 91

A number of years ago, I was working with a boy with autism who took
great comfort in consistent routines. Every time we worked together, I
would put out four pictures and indicate to him we would do four things
during our hour together. I then had him place the pictures on the
hook-and-loop circles in the order he wished. I was concerned that he was
becoming too deeply entrenched in this system. One day I looked at him
after he had organized our plan and said, “I changed my mind.” I then pro-
ceeded to switch the order of two of the pictures. He looked incredulously
at the new plan. I explained that sometimes people change their minds and
that is okay. I did this every time for the next three or four sessions until one
day he turned the tables on me. After he finished setting out his plan, he
stopped and said, “I change my mind [sic]” and switched the order of two
items. I was thrilled. He had gotten the idea and was comfortable enough to
use it on his own.

Checkpoint for dealing with uncertainty, newness and change: What Learning Preferences
and Strengths did we challenge?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

Challenge: Extraversion Interpersonal

Intuiting Intrapersonal
Perceiving

Notes: Introduction of uncertainty, newness and change stretches the Learning

Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with an Introversion preference need time to
warm up to new ideas and typically are uncomfortable with
uncertainty. The introduction of uncertainty, newness and change
emphasizes Extraversion where novelty is more positively viewed.
• Intuiting – people with Sensing preferences like detail and tangible
facts. The introduction of uncertainty, newness and change pushes
the child to look at the broader concepts like ‘new is good’ or ‘I
92 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

changed my mind’ to deal with the uncertainty which is more natural

for people with an Intuiting preference.
• Perceiving – people with Judging preferences like to have everything
planned and decided. By bringing in uncertainty, newness and
change, the child is learning to ‘go with the flow’ more and be more
flexible like a person with a Perceiving preference.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths maintains and
forms cooperative relationships with others, adapting well in
different situations. The introduction of uncertainty, newness and
change helps the child with autism learn some beginning skills in this
area.
• Intrapersonal – the person with Intrapersonal strengths has great
awareness of himself, his needs and emotions. The introduction of
uncertainty, newness and change challenges the child’s ability to
regulate his thoughts and emotions and develop a greater
understanding of the relevance of uncertainty in his life.
 Chapter 6

Program Content

Content of each child’s program will typically follow the expected developmen-
tal sequence for young children for improving the child’s:

• pre-academic knowledge
• speech production, receptive and expressive language skills
• fine motor development
• social skills
• gross motor development
• self-help skills
• behavior

With older children, the content will also reflect national, state or provincial edu-
cational standards. Subjects typically include:

• language arts
• math/maths
• social studies, history, geography
• science
• health and physical education

93
94 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• art and design

• technology design, information and communication technology
• music

The educational and developmental areas noted above can be addressed within
the structure and process described in this book.
For the present discussion, content will focus on the three main areas of
need in children with autism:
A. Learning/Cognitive skills (L/C)
B. Social/Communication skills (S/C)
C. Self-Regulation skills (S/R).

LEARNING FRAMEWORK
Content will follow an information-processing model, while honoring the
Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging learning preferences and the
Visual-Spatial and Musical-Rhythmic learning strengths shared by many
children with autism. The strategies will, unless otherwise noted, include the fol-
lowing Learning Preferences and Strengths:
• Introversion – people with an Introversion preference need extended
time to process information. The child is provided the extended time
to view and review the information presented to him before
expecting him to respond.
• Sensing – people with Sensing preferences like to proceed in a
step-by-step manner while focusing on detail and tangible facts. The
child is helped to use his sensory systems to gather information and
then note important and relevant facts.
• Thinking – people with a Thinking preference like to understand the
logic and rationale for things they are expected to do. Reasoning is
emphasized in the strategies presented in this chapter as is the child’s
preference for being analytical.
 Program Content 95

• Judging – people with Judging preferences like to have a clear

beginning and end to a task and to approach things in a planful and
orderly way. The approaches described in this chapter provide these
within a productive and useful context.
• Visual-Spatial – people with Visual-Spatial strengths more readily
understand and remember information they see. Strategies in this
chapter are strongly visual and spatial and the child is helped to
become more selective in his application of this learning strength.

At the end of each section in this chapter will be a Checkpoint. These will
be used to summarize the Learning Preferences and Strengths incorporated
within the strategies and provide any needed explanations. In addition,
other preferences and strengths not typical to children with autism will be
noted and described as Challenges.
Because of the strong emphasis on metacognitive awareness, or
helping the child become aware of his thinking and reasoning, all strategies
presented in this chapter prompt development of Intrapersonal strengths.
Intrapersonal strengths involve understanding your personal assets and
limitations and your ability to apply your thinking. Special focus is on the
child’s developing more self-awareness of his thinking processes.

WHERE TO START
When trying to determine where to start with any child, we must consider a
number of factors, including:
• his skills in major areas of development
• his Learning Preferences and Strengths
• his likes and dislikes
• information from your observations of the child
• family priorities and needs.
This information must be carefully reviewed and blended to determine the
child’s main goals and strategies. Keep in mind that only so many things can be
targeted at once. Briefer, well-planned Individual Program Plans or Individual
Educational Plans typically are more do-able and usually more effective.
96 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

In terms of the Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) program,

Learning/Cognitive skills are the foundation for many other areas of develop-
ment. Work in this area should start early in the child’s program. Even if you
believe the child works systematically and notices only important and relevant
information, he should practice these skills so that he becomes aware of them
on an explicit level. This metacognitive awareness is critical to transfer and gen-
eralization to other tasks and settings and to the child’s using the skills
independently.
The early Self-Regulation skills, which focus on the child’s controlling his
own body, go hand-in-hand with many of the Learning/Cognitive skills. So,
Self-Regulation can be worked on at the same time as Learning/Cognitive skills.
Social/Communication skills involve receptive and expressive language
skills and dealing with verbal information in learning and social settings. Some
of the more straightforward skills in this area should be progressively intro-
duced into early programming.
More complex Social/Communication, Self-Regulation and Learning/
Cognitive skills take longer periods of time to develop. They should be progres-
sively introduced once the child is showing readiness for more complex levels of
information processing.

A. LEARNING/COGNITIVE SKILLS (L/C)

The Learning/Cognitive skills section will focus primarily on visual informa-
tion. An overview of the skills focused on and strategies taught within the
Learning/Cognitive area is shown in Figure 6.1.

L/C.1. Intake of information

We have to help the child with autism learn to take in information more com-
pletely and accurately. We also have to help him focus only on what is relevant
and important and not become overfocused on inconsequential details. The
child must then learn to determine what he is expected to do and to remember
important information.

L/C.1A. TAKING IN COMPLETE AND ACCURATE INFORMATION

Our main goal in this area is to make sure the child works systematically. The
program structuring described in the previous chapter provides support for sys-
tematic work habits. Now, the child needs to learn this strategy for himself so he
can apply it independently in any situation.
 Program Content 97

L/C.1.
INTAKE

Skill focus Strategies

L/C.1a. Taking in complete and accurate Working left to right/right to left
information Working top to bottom/bottom to top
Using your ‘finder finger’
Labeling

L/C.1b. Taking in relevant and important Determining what is important

information Ignoring

L/C.1c. Determining what is expected Using signs and clues

Using models

L/C.1d. Retaining information Rehearsing

L/C.2.
INTEGRATION &
ELABORATION

Skill focus Strategies

L/C.2a. Connecting other knowledge Grouping, categorizing
Finding and using patterns
Connecting past tasks and events

L/C.2b. Comparing and contrasting Looking for similarities and differences

L/C.3.
EXPRESSION

Skill focus Strategies

L/C.3a. Understanding other perspectives Learning about perspective
Taking another’s perspective

L/C.3b. Making a plan for clear and precise Planning precise responses
responding

Figure 6.1 Learning/Cognitive Skills (L/C)

98 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Strategies for taking in complete and accurate information

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child be systematic so he does not
miss anything. The emphasis on left to right and top to bottom approaches to
tasks provides foundations for more systematic English reading and printing. If
the child’s dominant language in educational settings operates from right to left
and/or bottom to top, these orientations should be used instead.
1. Working left to right or right to left: In every activity or task, without fail,
emphasize that the child must start from the left/right side and work
toward the right/left. Set up tasks so the child is naturally guided to
work left to right or right to left. Emphasize this systematic approach
on schedules, plans and routines, when eating and when doing any
task or activity.
For learners with directionality problems and for young children
just beginning their programs, use a visual reminder of where to
start. Place a green ‘go’ dot at the starting point of the schedule, plan,
routine, task or activity. Emphasize that “Green means go so that’s
where we start.”
Praise the child for being “systematic”. Do not be afraid to use
such a sophisticated word. It describes what we want the child to
learn. Also, state the rationale: “We are systematic so we don’t miss
anything.”
This strategy not only helps the child learn careful intake of
information but also coordination of vision with thinking.
2. Working top to bottom or bottom to top. After the left to right or right to
left pattern is solidly established and the child is starting to use it on
his own without prompting, introduce working from top to bottom
or bottom to top dependent on the direction of the child’s dominant
language. Help the child understand that, once we finish the first row,
we go to the next row just below/above it. Use sticky notes to cover
up all but the first one row on a worksheet. Let the child complete it
and then ask him where we should go next. If he points to the next
row, praise him for being systematic and let him know “that way we
won’t miss anything”.
Reduce the use of sticky notes over time but give the child the
option of using them or not. The majority of even older children will
want to cover up the options; they have indicated that the other
details ‘bug’ their brains and make it hard to concentrate.
 Program Content 99

3. Using your ‘finder finger’. To help the child scan all information
systematically, prompt him to use his ‘finder finger’. Introduce this
concept by telling the child he has something special on his hand that
can help his brain: it is his index finger of his right hand. That is his
‘finder finger’ which helps his brain find all the important
information he looks at. Practice together moving his ‘finder finger’
systematically across and vertically with pictures, worksheets or other
activities.
If the child talks about something that his ‘finder finger’ is not
pointing to, draw him back to talk only about what his finger is
finding.
Praise the child for being “systematic” and state the rationale:
“We are systematic so we don’t miss anything.”
This strategy works on the child’s systematic search strategy as
well as use of pointing and coordinating vision with the pointing
finger.
4. Labeling. In conjunction with the ‘finder finger’, prompt the child to
name each important thing he sees. By stating the name of each
object, action, location or person, he is more likely to maintain his
focus of attention. It also prompts him to combine vision and
language. This can also provide you with an opportunity to learn
more about the depth and breadth of the child’s vocabulary and
where there may be gaps.

I worked with one child during his early elementary school years. We
worked diligently on systematic work habits. I am sure that, at times, I
sounded a bit tedious and repetitive when I prompted him, “What are you
supposed to do when you look at a new task?” He responded positively and
seemed to understand and use systematic search, his ‘finder finger’, labeling
and the other strategies. When he was seven and a half, he needed a
psycho-educational assessment for his school so one of the psychologists
in my office administered the typical standardized measure. The boy and
the psychologist allowed me to sit in during part of his assessment. As I
watched the boy work, I was thrilled to see what he was doing. He used all
of the strategies: he was systematic, worked left to right and top to bottom, labeled
important features and examined the whole task to determine what he was supposed to
100 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

do. I could see that whatever the final outcome of the testing, the psycholo-
gist was obtaining an optimal picture of his abilities.
When the boy was assessed at just under four years of age, he received
quotients at 50, ‘Extremely Low’, from all therapists who worked with him.
The parents were given the impression by the team not to expect a great
deal in the future.
When he was assessed at seven and a half, he received an overall
quotient within the High Average range; on some subscales, his scores were
in the Gifted range.
When he was 18 years of age, he graduated with distinction from high
school. He had attended regular schools since grade one and, even though
there were occasional social ‘glitches’, he did very well academically. He is
now enrolled in university.

Checkpoint for taking in complete and accurate information: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Extraversion Verbal-Linguistic

Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to take in complete and accurate informa-
tion stretches Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with an Extraversion preference like to think
out loud. Having the child name each object and action he finds with
this ‘finder finger’ presses him for greater amounts of Extraversion.
This can cause him some stress because of the speed of processing
required as well as coordinating vision and language so patience and
perseverance are needed.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. Typically, children with autism do not have
 Program Content 101

primary strengths in the Verbal-Linguistic area but naming objects

and actions prompts them to use this modality.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic – people with Bodily-Kinesthetic strengths use their
bodies or body parts to explore the world around them through
touching and moving. Use of the ‘finder finger’ incorporates this
modality to help the child focus his attention.

L/C.1B. TAKING IN RELEVANT AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION

Our main goal in this area is to make sure the child takes in only the information
that is relevant and important to the task at hand. The program structuring
described in the previous chapter increases the likelihood that the child will note
the more relevant and important information. However, he needs to develop
explicit knowledge of this strategy so he can apply it independently in any
situation.

Strategies for taking in relevant and important information

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child focus on only the most
relevant and important information in a task or situation. That means not only
attending to specific things but also ignoring other unimportant and/or irrele-
vant details.
1. Determining what is important. Help the child determine what the task,
picture or worksheet is about. As the learner is scanning and labeling
each object and action, ask: “Is that important to what we are
doing?” or “Is that what we are working on right now?” Respond as
positively as possible: “That’s right, that is important because we are
looking at numbers and that is a number.” If the child is distracted by
something that is not relevant or central to the task, respond
positively by saying: “That is interesting but we’re not thinking about
that right now. Can you think of something that is important right
now?” For example, if the child is focusing solely on a dinosaur on
the worksheet, we let him know that it is interesting but then redirect
him to more central features.
After some success on the child’s part, select something ‘silly’ or
absurd and model how to redirect your thinking. For example, “Oh,
look, there’s a hole in the paper…oh-oh, brain, that’s not important
right now. Find something important.”
After prompting and reinforcing the child’s attempts, start asking
him to explain: “Why do you think that is important?” Having him
102 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

express his reasoning will help solidify the rationale for looking for
and thinking about only what is important.
2. Ignoring. Teach the child the notion of ‘ignoring’ things that are not
important. The rationale is: “If we ignore things that are not
important right now, that can help our brains think better.” For
example, the ring of a telephone while we are working is not
important. The child is prompted: “Tell your brain: don’t get
distracted, brain. I can just ignore it. It’s not important right now.”
Use a visual cue like that shown to help remind him. If some aspect
of a task is distracting the child, ask him what he could do to help
himself. You can offer ideas such as covering up some things so they
do not distract his brain. Place sticky notes on top of the distracting
images. Prompt the child to make those decisions for himself.

Don’t get
distracted

Checkpoint for taking in relevant and important information: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to take in relevant and important informa-
tion incorporates and stretches the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the follow-
ing ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child with autism to determine if an
object, event or person is important to what he is doing, he is being
pressed to look at a broader scope.
 Program Content 103

L/C.1C. DETERMINING WHAT IS EXPECTED

Our main goal in this area is to help the child look at a task or situation and
determine what may be expected of him. We all develop expectancies from our
experiences. For example, if we are handed a sheet of paper, we can quickly
determine with a brief glance whether it is a survey, test or request for informa-
tion.

Strategies for determining what is expected

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child look for signs, clues and
models in his environment that may help him understand what is expected.
1. Using signs and clues. Help the child understand that signs let us know
where to go, what to do and what is happening. You may wish to use
the word ‘clues’ if it sparks the child’s imagination. Tell him that clues
are like signs but they are ‘sneakier’. Sometimes, clues are hiding
things and we have to be detectives.
Guide the child to examine the work presented to him. Ask him:
“What do you think we are going to do here?” or prompt him with
statements like, “I see N-A-M-E and a line. That’s a sign telling us
what to do.” (print your name) or, “I see six people and only five
chairs. That’s a sign telling us to do something” (get another chair).
Further guidance and practice may be necessary to help him notice
the most important and relevant clues and signs.
Once the child starts to identify clues and signs, praise his
attempts. Since many formats for worksheets and independent tasks
are similar, the child will have repeated opportunities for success.
Once he experiences success, prompt him to explain how he knows.
Use a surprised tone of voice and say, “Boy, your brain and eyes are
really working! How did you know that?” This is really an attempt to
prompt him to explain his rationale but it is said in a non-threatening
and playful way. Having him state his rationale solidifies his
understanding and use of the strategy.
2. Using models: Help the child understand: “Models show us what to
do.” Start with highly concrete examples like a simple craft or
assembly toy. Prompt and praise the child for looking back and forth
from his work to the model: “That’s a good way to help your brain
remember.”
As he shows that he is understanding the notion of a ‘model’,
provide him with some materials and ask him how he can figure out
what to do. Help him look for a model and praise him: “You’re right,
that is a model and that shows us what to do.”
104 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Checkpoint for determining what is expected: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intrapersonal

L/C.1D. RETAINING INFORMATION

Our main goal now is to help the child learn specific strategies for holding infor-
mation in his memory. For effective information processing, the child needs to
hold on to the information long enough for it to enter into his memory system.
Then it can be integrated with other information and/or elaborated to form
new concepts.

Strategies for retaining information

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child hold information in his tem-
porary memory bank. One strategy may work better than the others for particu-
lar children. It is best to try them out and see what facilitates his remembering.
As the child’s attention and/or language skills improve, other strategies may
become helpful as well.
1. Rehearsing. Rehearsing means saying something over and over long
enough to help short-term recall. As adults, we often use rehearsal to
remember phone numbers long enough to dial the call.
Prompt the child to: “Say the names over in your brain to help it
remember.” Start with simple things, such as when he needs a tissue,
prompt him to say “tissue” in his brain all the way to the tissue box.
Saying the name or phrase in a sing-song manner may help increase
his retention. Rehearsal not only helps the child remember important
information but also to stay focused.

Checkpoint for retaining information: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Extraversion Verbal-Linguistic

Intrapersonal
 Program Content 105

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to retain information stretches the Learning
Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with Extraversion preferences like to think out
loud. Labeling and/or rehearsal strategies prompt the child to
verbalize his perceptions and thoughts.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The labeling strategy prompts the child to
use this modality.

L/C.2. Integrating and elaborating information

Once the child has completed the intake phase of information processing, the
information must be integrated with other things he knows. The information
may also be used to elaborate or expand on his knowledge.
This is a particularly important phase of information processing for
children with autism. Often, they appear to learn facts but the facts are often not
well-organized or combined in useful ways with other things they know.

L/C.2A. CONNECTING OTHER KNOWLEDGE

The main goal in this area is to help the child form connections among pieces of
information.

Strategies for connecting with other knowledge

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child notice clustering and
grouping of facts and information and use this to integrate with and elaborate
on what he already knows. The brain of a child with autism is like a clothes closet
that has a lot of thoughts and ideas stuffed into it. When the child wants to find
that other matching item, the search can be long and uncertain. If there was a
good set of shelves and some drawers, it would be much easier to find the things
he wants when he wants them. The following strategies are focused on helping
the child develop such organizational systems.
1. Grouping, categorizing: Tell the child: “If we put things together, it is
easier to remember them.”
Practice grouping objects by the characteristics shown in Table
6.1. Categorizing by color, shape and size are perhaps the ‘easiest’
groups to start with. It is best to start with one descriptor at a time
and then begin combining them, such as color plus shape. Other
106 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

concepts presented in the table are more complex and will require
time and practice for the child to become proficient.
Use American Sign Language for the word ‘together’ as you note
things that go together. The sign provides visual support for the
concept and helps the child single it out. Children will often
spontaneously self-cue with the sign while they think about how
things go together.
Categorization worksheets and other tasks are quite easy to make
using sorting activities with real or pictured objects. There are also
many categorizing worksheets you can download from the internet.
Look at Appendix I for suggestions.

American Sign
Language for key
concept ‘together’.

Together

Table 6.1 Major categories for organizing information

color (red, blue, white) size (big, long, huge, medium-sized)

number or quantity (one, first, full, some) shape (round, square, rectangle, like a snake)

quality (clean, hungry, dry, thirsty, sticky, hard, present or typical location (on the table,
fast, hot) high, at the grocery store, in the sky)

parts of the object (wheels, windows, spots) use (for cutting, riding, eating)

action (sleeping, running) category (animals, clothes, adult)

social-emotional qualities (happy, bad, nice, material (wood, paper, cloth)

mad, quiet, old)
 Program Content 107

2. Finding and using patterns: Help the child understand that patterns are
things that repeat themselves and, if we look and think carefully, they
can help us figure out what comes next.
Patterns can involve colors, shapes, numbers, quantity or other
features. Incorporate patterns into a variety of daily activities like
calendar time where the date is printed on different shapes, colors or
textures. Start with a two- or three-part pattern. Point to each part
and rhythmically name its feature, giving different emphasis to the
words so that the pattern becomes more obvious:
yellow-red-yellow-red-(pause) what comes next?
The calendar activity example shown here is a
two-step pattern. It would be presented as
“striped-grey-striped-grey-striped…what comes
next?”
Incorporate patterns into other activities such
as placemats at the table or blocks in a tower.
Point out patterns you notice: “I just saw a black
car, then a blue, then a red, what should come next?” Helping the
child learn time patterns, such as patterns in daily, weekly and
monthly plans, is a potential stress-reducer for him.
3. Connecting the present with past tasks and events. The child is asked to
think of other things that are like the present task, object, person or
event. Ask things like: “When else did you do something like this?”
or “What does that look like?” Keep the comparisons fairly concrete
initially, such as by asking when else he did a dinosaur activity or
when he circled objects on a worksheet. Progressively, focus on the
cognitive concepts, such as ‘patterns’, ‘categories’, ‘clues’ and
‘models’.

Checkpoint for connecting with other knowledge: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did
we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Intrapersonal

108 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to connect current information with other
things he knows stretches the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following
ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to group and interconnect ideas and
concepts, he is being pressed to look more broadly at his learning.

L/C.2B. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

Our main goal in this area is to help the child learn that objects, people, actions
and events around him can be connected by similarities and differences. This
helps him group and categorize – two functions that can facilitate his memory
and recall.

Strategies for comparing and contrasting

The rationale for this strategy is to help the child learn to look for and notice
how things are similar or different on varying dimensions.
1. Looking for similarities and differences. Start with simple tasks, like those
suggested earlier for categorizing, to find out how features are the
same. It is generally best to start with the concept of ‘same’ and
solidify it before moving on to ‘different’. When the child detects
something the same, praise his response: “You’re right, those are the
same.” Pair the word ‘same’ with the American Sign Language sign.
Use of the sign helps highlight the concept for the child. Once the
child seems to have a solid understanding of ‘same’, begin using
synonyms like ‘alike’, ‘like’ and ‘identical’ and point out to him “that
means the same”.

American Sign Language for key concepts

‘same’ and ‘different’.

Same Different
 Program Content 109

For the concept ‘different’, start with simple tasks, like those
suggested earlier for categorizing. As the child becomes more
proficient, practice with simple pictures that the child can examine
with his ‘finder finger’. Take two similar pictures which you can alter
by changing colors, shapes, sizes and objects and people and by
adding or deleting objects. Have the child note differences, using one
index finger from each hand to examine the two pictures
simultaneously. Use the American Sign Language sign for ‘different’
to help emphasize that you are no longer looking for similarities.
Children with autism will often become confused by the terms
‘same’ and ‘different’ so the signs help reinforce distinctions between
them. The signs can also help organize the child’s thinking when used
consistently. Typically, children will begin self-cuing by using the signs
spontaneously.
Increasingly, ask the child to tell why the things are the same or
different. Use a positive tone, like, “Wow, how did you know that,
you sneaky guy!” This helps ensure that the child does not feel he is
being interrogated or put on the spot while being prompted to
express his reasoning.
In everyday life, draw the child’s attention to things that are ‘the
same’ or ‘different’ from other things he knows. Prompt him to
explain how or in what way they are the ‘same’ or ‘different’.

Checkpoint for comparing and contrasting: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Extraversion Bodily-Kinesthetic

Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to compare and contrast stretches the
Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with Extraversion preferences like to think out
loud. This is not a natural preference for the child with autism but he
is prompted to use labeling while noting similarities and differences
and when explaining his reasoning.
110 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big

picture. Prompting the child to look for similarities and differences
presses him to examine broader concepts.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic – people with Bodily-Kinesthetic strengths use their
bodies or body parts to explore the world around them through
touching and moving. Use of the ‘finder finger’ incorporates this
learning strength to reinforce other preferences and strengths.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. Typically, children with autism do not have
primary strengths in the Verbal-Linguistic area but naming
similarities and differences prompts them to use this modality.

L/C.3. Expressing information

The final phase in information processing requires the child to plan and express
his thoughts and ideas. It involves considering the perspective of other people
and then planning and forming clear and precise responses.

L/C.3A. UNDERSTANDING OTHER PERSPECTIVES

Our main goal in this area is to help the child understand that not everyone sees
things the way he does and that those other perspectives can be valid.

Strategies for understanding other perspectives

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child experience increasing
success in expressing his thinking as well as communication breakdown.
1. Learning about perspective. One creative teacher I worked with used a
visual, concrete way to help children with autism learn that their
perspective is not the only one. The teacher decorated a box where
each surface was covered with a different color of paper. She sat the
children in a circle and, in turn, asked each child what color the box
was. Each child, as expected, said the box was the color he could see.
She then rotated the box and asked again. By repeating this process,
the children learned that what they see is not necessarily what
everyone sees. Use the term ‘perspective’ with the children so they
can learn the correct word for the phenomenon they are learning.
Barrier activities, described in the Social/Communication section,
are other ways of helping the children learn about perspective.
 Program Content 111

2. Taking another’s perspective. Once the children have some understanding

that what they see is not necessarily what someone else sees, begin
activities that press them to use that information to adjust their
responding.
Role-playing is one strategy that helps the child take different
perspectives. Allow the child opportunities to be ‘teacher’ so he can
assume a ‘safe’ but different perspective. This type of reciprocal
teaching also reinforces the child’s sense of control and competence.
Role-playing can be expanded to include characters from a
familiar book. This can be done with young children’s books as well
as more advanced novels. In our preschool, I have used a literature-
based approach where one key book was chosen for each month of
the year. All needs identified on individual plans were integrated into
the literature theme. The children found comfort in the repetition of
the same book and, after becoming familiar with it, were willing to
play different roles. For your interest, a sample literature-based theme
is included in Appendix III. An extensive book database which can
be searched by concept, theme or other key word is included in
Appendix I.

Checkpoint for understanding other perspectives: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did
we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Interpersonal

Feeling Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to understand other perspectives stretches
the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to understand and take someone
else’s perspective, he is being stretched to go beyond the details that
may be visible or apparent to just him.
• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and
want to meet them. The issue of perspective-taking is a largely
112 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Feeling concept because sensitivity to other people and their

perceptions is central to being successful.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. In
perspective-taking, the child has to ensure he is sensitive to
similarities and differences in what other people experience.

L/C.3B. MAKING A PLAN FOR A CLEAR AND PRECISE RESPONSE

Our main goal in this area is to help the child plan and provide responses that are
clear and understandable to others. In addition, we strive to ensure that the
child’s responses are a more precise representation of his thinking and abilities.

Strategies for making a plan for a clear and precise response

The rationale for this strategy is to help the child reduce impulsive responding or
reticence to respond.
1. Planning precise responses. The child is helped to determine different
ways he might respond. He may balk at responding, respond
imprecisely or dive right in without reflecting on what he should do.
If the child does not want to respond, ask him if he has a
problem. Point out clues or models that can help him determine how
to respond. For example, if he is having difficulty forming letters or
numbers, you can model those letters or numbers or point out
models, such as the alphabet on a placemat. If he continues to be
reticent, remind him of similar work that he has done before. If he
continues to balk, it is time to negotiate. Negotiation starts with
“How about…?” and includes things like, “I do the first one and you
do the next one?” or “You do two and then you can be done?” Try to
avoid coming to an impasse or battle of wills with the child; see
Chapter 8, Behavior in Children with Autism, for more discussion
on approaches to behavior.
If the child responds imprecisely, keep in mind that some
children are just learning so there is an acceptable level of
imprecision initially. If he is capable of more precise and accurate
work, ask him to judge for himself if that is his best work or if that
is what he was supposed to do. Guide him to more precise work by
providing models, clues and other visuals.
If the child tries to respond impulsively, prompt him to stop and
think. Remind him: “That way you can do your best work,” and/or
“That gives your brain a chance to do good thinking.” Ask him to tell
 Program Content 113

his brain to slow down and think really hard before responding. A
visual reminder may be helpful.
Over time, the child needs to begin self-monitoring his work and
judging the accuracy and adequacy of responses without adult
prompting. Help him learn to use a visual checklist, like that shown
below. The checklist sets out a process the child should use to review
his work. In the example, the child is prompted to ask himself if he
took in all important information, knew what was expected of him,
retained that information, responded as accurately and precisely as he
could and then double-checked his work. The content of the
checklist can include whatever is important for individual children to
produce more precise and accurate responses. The child can put an
‘X’ through things he has checked or remove the picture from
the list.

Did I…?

look at all of the understand what remember all do my best check my

important I was supposed the important work? work after I
information? to do? parts? finished?

Figure 6.2 Example of visual checklist for self-monitoring

Checkpoint for planning precise and accurate responses: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intrapersonal
114 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

B. SOCIAL/COMMUNICATION SKILLS (S/C)

Before starting to work on social and communication skills, the child’s skills and
knowledge must be well understood. Standardized assessments are helpful for
receptive and expressive language skills but generally less helpful for social skills.
Children with autism are often able to acknowledge and/or recite social rules
but not use them spontaneously.
Gather information about social and communication skills using a form
such as the Communication Skills Checklist included in Appendix III. This form
should be completed by the child’s parents, teachers, support workers and other
caregivers who know the child well. These will provide multiple viewpoints. The
information can then be blended to look for the trends and determine which
areas are most important to different people and/or in different settings.
Before developing goals, watch other children in the same age group as your
target child. See how they behave and what they do and say. We well-meaning
adults must be careful to teach the child with autism to act and speak in ways that
will help him ‘blend’ with his peer group.
Narrow down the child’s social/communication goals to three or four.
When developing strategies, look at what the child may be comfortable doing.
Some of our children do not mind standing up in front of others and taking
risks. Many others, however, need prompting, rehearsal and more subtle ways of
accomplishing their social and communicative goals. Look at each situation and
setting from the individual child’s point of view – look through his eyes and his
heart.

I worked with a team of therapists and teachers who wanted a child with
autism to walk up to another child and say, “Can I play with you?” It looked
a little awkward but I was not sure why. I spent the morning in a regular kin-
dergarten class and found out why. As I watched the children, I noted how
nonverbal they were. If a child was interested in playing with a toy another
child was using, he typically just stood near the other child and looked on.
If he did not receive an invitation, the child continued to watch but added a
smile. If he was still not invited, the child would comment on the toy,
usually with a compliment like: “That’s a cool car!” If that did not work, the
final strategy was for the child to ask directly to play.
 Program Content 115

S/C.1
INTAKE

Skill focus Strategies

S/C.1a.Taking in complete and accurate Attending to specific words
information Developing specific listening behaviors

S/C.1b. Taking in relevant and important Ignoring

information

S/C.1c. Retaining information Rehearsing

Visual frames
Recalling object descriptions
Constructing meaning from longer paragraphs
and passages
Visualizing
S/C.2
INTEGRATION
&
ELABORATION

Skill focus Strategies

S/C.2a. Determining if the information is Monitoring comprehension
understood Asking for repetition and/or clarification
S/C.3
EXPRESSION

Skill foucs Strategies

S/C.3a. Making a plan for responding Using visual frames

S/C.3b. Considering other perspectives Playing ‘teacher’

Using barrier tasks
Developing situationally-appropriate
communication
Developing situationally-appropriate behaviour

Figure 6.3 Social/Communication Skills (S/C)

116 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

S/C.1. Intake of information

Children with autism often do not know when they are supposed to pay atten-
tion to things said to them. They are also expected to take in and remember all of
the relevant and important information. This is particularly difficult with
spoken directions for a number of reasons. Unlike visual information which can
remain visible to you, once something is said, it is gone. Also, the processing of
verbal information is typically slow and inconsistent for children with autism.

S/C.1A. TAKING IN COMPLETE AND ACCURATE INFORMATION

Our main goal in this area is to make sure the child focuses his attention on the
information being presented. The visual supports and structures described in
Chapter 7 provide assistance to the child. He must, however, develop strategies
for dealing with verbal information in a variety of settings.

Strategies for taking in complete and accurate information

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child learn basic behaviors and
attitudes associated with listening to verbal information.
1. Attending to specific words. Once the child has become familiar with a
story, you can use it to develop his attending and alerting to specific
words. Every so often, stop at a key word and prompt the child to fill
it in. You may start this type of listening with pictures that support
recall of the key words. If the child does not immediately fill in the
missing word, you can then point to the picture to help him.
Songs that require actions also help the child to learn to attend to
spoken language. Action songs, such as “If You’re Happy and You
Know It” can be found on the internet; see Appendix I for
suggestions. As you sing the song, slow down and wait for the child
to fill in the action before you join him.
2. Developing specific listening behaviors. The child with autism needs help in
becoming aware of ‘good listening’ behaviors. By this point, the child
has begun to develop listening skills but he must now become
explicitly aware of them. Ask the child: “How can you help yourself
listen?” Make a visual reminder list with the child, like those shown
here, and then practice the strategies with him. Practice should be
done playfully and positively. You can start by calling his name when
he is looking elsewhere. Prompt him to provide an exaggerated
response, such as by rapidly turning his head toward you. Keep the
visual reminder available at all times. If the child forgets to look or
listen, tap your finger on the appropriate picture to remind him.
 Program Content 117

An activity that can help the child learn that looking is Listening Rules
important when others are speaking to him is to use direc-
tions that require visual attention. Such directions involve
paying attention to the speaker’s words and nonverbal cues.
A list of example directions is included below. These should Look
be done with a ‘watch out, I might trick you’ attitude which is
fun-filled and enjoyable.

Listen
Figure 6.4 Example of visual reminder for beginning listening skills

Directions requiring visual attention

1. Put that (object you point to) in my hand.
2. Put this (object in your hand or close to you) over there (point).
3. Put that (object you point to) over there (point).
4. Put three of these (object in your hand or close to you) on the
floor.
5. Walk over there (point) and then come back.
6. What color is this (object in your hand or close to you)?
7. Give me one of those (objects you point to).
8. Tell me what shape this (object in your hand or close to you) is.
9. Wait over there (point).
10. Make your face look like this (any facial expression).
11. Do this (wave, nod, wink, blink, fold your arms, stick out your
tongue).
12. Tell me where to put this (object in your hand or close to you).
13. Put this (object in your hand or close to you) in your pocket.
14. Look at this (point to object close to you).
15. Tell me what this (object in your hand or close to you) is called.
16. Do you want this (object in your hand or close to you)?
118 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The child may need direct teaching of nonverbal cues before he is able to
respond consistently to directions requiring visual attention. Most children with
autism do not know to look for nonverbal cues and they do not easily interpret
them. I developed the Do-Say What-Say© game to help children learn nonver-
bal cues in social gestures and pantomimed actions. The game uses a set of “Say
What” cards that direct the player to demonstrate an action, like throwing a ball
or cutting, for other players to interpret. The “Do” cards ask each player to show
how to say things ‘with your body’, like how to say “stop” or “look”. Each
person gets a chance to act out an action for other players to guess. One child
discovered that, by pointing, he could induce people to look where his finger
directed them. It was such a powerful revelation to him; he did not want to stop.
When children with autism reach school age, they often have little idea of
when to listen to the teacher and when that is not necessary. They need help in
understanding that teachers typically ‘mark’ important information in specific
ways. The teacher may say “class”, “children”, “this is for homework”, “please
don’t forget”, “there are three main things”, all of which should signal the child
to pay attention. The child with autism should be taught these ‘signal’ words and
phrases so he will know when to stop and pay attention. Visit the child’s current
and/or prospective classroom so you can learn the teacher’s typical ‘signal’
words and phrases. Then practice them with the child so he is well-prepared for
success. Consider printing them on a list of ‘signals’ for the child.

Note on eye contact: The type of ‘looking’ we are emphasizing at this phase
is to have the child make at least a momentary glance in the direction of the
speaker. Demanding more than brief eye contact can overload the child’s
ability to process any information. The goal is to have the child let the
speaker know he is listening by looking in the direction of the speaker.
Praise any eye gaze or eye contact with: “Wow, you looked at me. That tells
me you are listening. Good job!” Place more emphasis on helping the child
understand why we make eye contact, such as to let the other person know
we are talking to him or her, than on commanding eye contact. Typically,
the child’s eye contact will increase naturally once he relaxes, trusts you and
understands the situational expectations. Also, when he learns the specific
reasons and rules for looking, he is more likely to use consistent, meaning-
ful eye contact.
 Program Content 119

Checkpoint for taking in clear and complete information: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic

Interpersonal
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to take in clear and complete information
challenges the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child with autism to determine and use
broader concepts involved in listening, he is being pressed to look at
the bigger picture.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. Prompting the child to attend specifically to
verbal language focuses him on this modality.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. The strategies
presented in this section help the child learn some beginning skills in
being more responsive to other people.

S/C.1B. TAKING IN RELEVANT AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION

Our main goal in this area is to make sure the child determines and focuses only
on the information that is relevant and important to the task or situation at hand.
The structures described in Chapter 5, Program Structure, increase the likeli-
hood that the child will note the most relevant and important information.
However, the child needs to learn strategies he can use in any situation to help
himself deal effectively with verbal information.

Strategies for taking in relevant and important information

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child focus on the most relevant
and important information in a task or situation. That means not only attending
to important things but also ignoring the unimportant and/or irrelevant details.
For a child with autism, distractions can be external, such as things that
happen in the environment around him, or internal, such as thoughts, songs,
120 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

jingles, or scripts that keep running through his head. We need to help him deal
with both external and internal distractions.
1. Ignoring. The child is taught not to let his brain get distracted. A new
picture is added to the “Listening Rules” as shown on p.123. To
practice this, engage the child in a task and produce a noise or have
another person enter the room. If the child becomes distracted,
prompt him with: “Is that important right now? What do we need to
tell our brains?…Don’t get distracted, brain!” After a few practices
with the verbal prompt, try just tapping your finger on the picture of
‘Don’t get distracted’ to remind him. Promote the child’s use of
self-talk to remind himself “don’t get distracted, brain”.
Once the child has a fairly solid understanding of what ‘don’t get
distracted’ means, you can introduce the notion of ‘ignoring’. Help
him learn that he can tell his brain to ignore things that are not
important and/or that ‘bug’ him. The rationale we use with the child
is: “We can ignore things so they don’t bug us.”
An important area to address is listening in ‘noise’ . Children with
autism have tremendous difficulty listening when there is background
noise. This does not bode well for classroom and other group
settings. Practice listening to and following
directions in background noise, like people talking Listening
and sounds from streets, cafeterias, malls, bus Rules
depots, train stations and anywhere the child may
frequent. You can record these sounds and play
them during listening practice so that the child
learns how to tune them out.
Look
Be careful with the concept of ‘ignoring’. The
child needs to learn he can ignore some things and
not others. You might write a short Social Story™
with the child or make up a social rule about when he
cannot ignore what is said. The list could include such Listen
things as when his parents say it is time for bed, when
his teacher says it is time for snack and when the fire
bell is sounded.
Don’t get
Figure 6.5 Example of visual reminder for developing listening skills distracted
 Program Content 121

Children with autism often need more concrete support to ignore external and
internal distractions. Table 6.2 lists strategies that can provide that support.

Table 6.2 Examples of strategies for dealing with external and internal distractions

Visual Type of
support distraction Strategy
Internal Using Social Tickets.
Make ticket-shaped cards like that shown. They are approximately 2 by 3
inches.
Stop that Practice helping the child say “stop that please” while holding the card to
please cue him. Then, when he encounters a situation, give him the card to
prompt use of the words on his own or show the other person what he
wants. Have the cards available to the child at any time. As he becomes
accustomed to the use of Social Tickets, praise him when he uses them
on his own or prompt him to get the ticket to “help his brain”.

External Making a shield to “protect us”.

Make a cardboard shield and let the child decorate it. Tell him that shields
protect people so other things and/or people cannot ‘bug’ him. With
some children, gluing small plastic bugs to the shield can be a fun physical
reminder of what they are fending off.
Practice helping the child put the shield in front of his face when
something or someone bugs him.
This strategy will appeal to those children who are interested in knights,
ninjas and other ‘warriors’.

External Marking a force field around our bodies so “nothing can get in to bug
us”.
Use a hula hoop or another prop to mark a ‘force field’ around the child
and/or his desk or other work area. Help him understand that this can
protect him so other things and people cannot ‘bug’ him.
Practice helping the child sense ‘power’ in his force field. Then put it to
use when something bugs him.
This strategy will appeal to those children who enjoy Star Trek and other
science fiction programs or books.
122 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 6.2 continued

Visual Type of
support distraction Strategy
Internal The Brain Box©.
This is a small box with a picture of a brain on it. It is used to put things
in that are “bugging your brain”. The Brain Box© is used prudently and
very sincerely.
If the child appears to be bothered by some internal song or script that
keeps running through his mind, indicate that we need to put it in the
Brain Box©. Very sincerely pretend to take the thoughts from his
forehead. Either place the ‘thoughts’ directly in the box or write them on
a piece of paper and then put it in the box. Announce to the child: “now
we took them out of your brain so they don’t bug you anymore. They can
stay in the Brain Box©”.
If you do not have your Brain Box© available, you can write the thought
or idea on a sticky note. Show the child how you have taken it from his
brain, put it on paper and then place it out of sight so it does not ‘bug’
him anymore.
You can give the thoughts back to the child by taking them off the paper
or out of the box and putting them back into his head. This can be done
at the end of his work, session or day.

An example of the effect of the Brain Box© concept will help you under-
stand how powerful it can be.
One day, a child arrived at school repeatedly singing the chorus lines
from Robert Munsch’s book Mortimer Be Quiet: “Clang clang rattle bing
bang. Gonna make my noise all day.” He repeated and repeated the chorus
until finally the teacher said, “Wow, that really seems to be bugging your
brain. How about if we take it out?” She proceeded to sincerely remove it
from his brain and put it in the Brain Box©. He immediately stopped
singing the chorus. For the rest of the afternoon, he did not sing the
chorus. Then his bus ride came. The child started screaming. The teacher
ran over to him and asked what the problem was. The child said: “I need my
words back!” The teacher opened the Brain Box© and put the invisible
words back into his brain. He trotted off happily singing the chorus once
again.
 Program Content 123

Checkpoint for taking in clear and complete information: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to take in relevant and important informa-
tion challenged the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to determine if an object, event or
person is important to what he is doing, he is being pressed to look
at the bigger picture. The child is helped to learn what should be
attended to and what should not.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. The strategies
presented in this section help the child learn some beginning skills in
learning to deal with other people.

S/C.1C. RETAINING INFORMATION

Our main goal in this area is to help the child learn specific strategies for holding
spoken information in his memory. From an information-processing point of
view, the child needs to hold on to the information long enough for it to be
entered into his memory system so that it can be integrated and elaborated.

Strategies for retaining information

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child to hold information he
hears in his temporary memory bank. One strategy may work better than the
others for different children. It is best to try them out and see what facilitates
each child’s remembering. Other strategies may become more helpful at differ-
ent points in his development, such as when the child’s attention improves or his
language skills expand.
1. Rehearsing. Rehearsal means saying something over and over long
enough for us to accomplish what needs to happen. The child should
be prompted to use rehearsal as one strategy to assist retention.
Prompt him: “Say it over in your brain to help it remember.” Add a
124 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

‘say it over in my brain’ picture to the listening rules as shown in the

Listening Rules below. Prompt the child to say the words out loud. It
takes a lot of practice before he will be able to use silent rehearsal. It
is helpful to hear what he is saying to himself: sometimes what the
child repeats may be different from what was said or intended.
Rehearsal is effective for relatively short statements or simpler pieces
of spoken information.
2. Visual frames. This involves using categories of information which
can extend the amount of information the child retains. The intent is
to set up an expectancy in the child that this information is going to
be coming his way. The frame also shows the child that only a certain
number of pieces and kinds of information are important.
Visual frames can include pictures and/or printed lists of details
and story outlines. These can help the child construct meaning from
information he hears. Construction of meaning is the process of
putting together the pieces of information and making a complete
picture from them.
Recalling object descriptions. A visual framework of
important features should initially include the name Listening Rules
of the object (“what is it?”), the number (“how many
are there?”), the shape (“what shape is it?”), the size
(“what size is it?”) and the color (“what color is it?”).
Show the child the visual framework and use it
while you describe an object. Prompt him to Look
“remember in his brain” each feature as you
describe it. Tap each square on the picture strip as
you describe the object. Then ask the child to tell
you what you described. Tap on a picture if he Listen
forgets to tell that feature.
Over time, add more features to descriptions,
like what parts the object has, where it is or where
you find it, what you use it for, what it is doing and
Don’t get
what kind of thing it is. distracted

Figure 6.6 Example of visual reminder for more developed Say it over in
listening skills my brain
 Program Content 125

What is it? How many are What shape is it? How big is it? What color
there? is it?

Figure 6.7 Example of visual framework to help retention of descriptions

Constructing meaning from longer paragraphs and passages. Visual formats

are described below for improving retention of information from
longer paragraphs and passages.
The ‘Story Hand’ is used for constructing meaning from stories
or experiences. Each finger of the child’s left hand is associated with
a major component of a simple story structure. They include when
(“once upon a time”), who (“there was a boy named Jack and a girl
named Jill”), where (“who went to the well”), what happens (“they climb
the hill to the well, Jack falls down and cracks his head and then Jill
falls down”) and how it ends (“they were both sad”). Add symbols to
each part of the Story Hand if necessary to help the child
understand.

Where
What
happens
Who

When How it
ends

Figure 6.8 Story Hand for retention of simple stories

Start with a relatively short, familiar story, rhyme or real event from
the child’s life. Make sure not to have too many characters or events
in the story during the early stages of learning. Tap each finger on
the Story Hand as you tell that part of the story.
126 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Once the child demonstrates an understanding of the Story Hand

format, add a feelings statement at the end. The feelings statement is
a traditional part of stories like “…and they lived happily ever after.”
Initially, keep the feelings statement fairly simple, like “and they felt
happy”. Then expand the feelings statements with a wider range of
emotions and the reason why the characters felt that way.
Next, add more events to the stories: use the first joint on the
index finger for the first event or the problem that gets the story
going, the middle joint for what happened next and the knuckle for
the third major event.
Once the child has demonstrated success using the Story Hand,
introduce the Story Format in Figure 6.9. The Story Format is a
linear form of the Story Hand.

When – setting (time)

Who – main characters

Where – setting (place)

What happens - three main events:

1. Beginning

2. Middle

3. End

How does it end?

How do the main characters feel? Why?

Figure 6.9 Story Format for retention of simple stories

 Program Content 127

The Story Format can be used for longer and more complex stories
and can be combined with other strategies, like note-taking. Even
fairly young children, five and six years of age, can be taught to jot
down in pictures or words the main pieces of information in each
category of the Story Format. Note-taking can enhance retention of
the information greatly if it is taught carefully and practiced
frequently. The simple and complex Story Formats are included in
Appendix III.

Title/topic

Meaning/connection to other things I know

Main idea

Important details:
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

What’s most important to understand about this topic?

Figure 6.10 Story Format for retention of more complex stories

128 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

A more advanced format for retaining information through

note-taking is shown in Figure 6.10. The note format prompts the
child not only to determine the main idea but also to tell how the
information relates to other things he knows. He then notes
important details from the information he hears. He must also
summarize the information to determine the main idea. He is also
expected to decide what is most important for him to understand.
Visual or graphic organizers can be introduced as the child
becomes more able to deal with multifaceted and less linear
information. Visual organizers can be used to arrange a hierarchy, as
shown in the first diagram on p.130 for dinosaurs, a sequence or
cycle, as shown in the second diagram for butterflies, and
relationship, as shown in the third (Venn) diagram for food
preferences. Visual organizers can also be used to depict a time-line,
comparison, cause-effect, story details, concepts, characteristics or
attributes and decision making or problem solving. Bar graphs can be
used to display frequency or magnitude of characteristics, like hair
and eye color, height and gender. Web resources for visual organizer
templates are included in Appendix I.

Egg

Butterfly Caterpillar
Dinosaurs Heather likes
yogurt
Chrysalis
Meat eaters Plant eaters Eat food

Bobby likes
ice cream
Spinosaurus Tyrranosaurus Ankylosaurus

Figure 6.11 Example of visual information organizers

3. Visualizing. This strategy requires a little more sophistication on the

child’s part but it can be tremendously effective. Prompt the child:
“Let’s make a picture in our brains to help us remember.” Sometimes,
it helps to associate the picture with a camera or video in his brain if
that is meaningful to him.
 Program Content 129

Start out with descriptions of common objects or simple stories

for him to remember. Use the same format for description of objects
and story construction described earlier. This time, the emphasis is
on making a picture. Prompt the child to draw a picture on paper.
Even children with fine motor difficulties can be convinced to draw a
picture. Stress to them: “The picture’s just for your brain so it doesn’t
matter what it looks like, it just has to make sense to your brain.”

Checkpoint for retaining information: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic

Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to retain information stretches the Learning
Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to look at categories or structure of
information, we are prompting him to look at a broader scope.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. Typically, children with autism do not have
primary strengths in the Verbal-Linguistic area but using language to
help retention prompts them to use this modality.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic – people with Bodily-Kinesthetic strengths retain
information more readily when they can associate a body movement.
By teaching the child to sketch or print information he hears, the
movement patterns are likely to help him remember.

S/C.2. Integrating and elaborating information

S/C.2A. DETERMINE IF THE INFORMATION IS UNDERSTOOD
Our main goal in this area is to ensure that the child knows when he understands
something and learns what to do when he does not.
130 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Strategies for determining if the information is understood

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child monitor his understanding
of spoken information and learn how to help himself. These same strategies can
be extended to reading.
1. Monitoring comprehension. The child is prompted to follow the ‘Good
Listening’ rules and to reflect on his comprehension of information
he hears. Most children with autism have minimal to nonexistent
comprehension monitoring. They need clear and concrete
opportunities to learn these skills.
Requests versus comments. Some children need the chance to
understand the difference between a comment and a direction. For
example, if you said “that’s a neat car”, the child might go and pick it
up and/or start playing with it. We have to help him understand that
a comment does not require a physical response. If you said, “Can
you give me that cat?”, you expect a physical response from the child.
A child with autism can often tell you words a teacher or other adult
said but he does not realize that he is supposed to do something with
them. One mother told me that, by careful questioning, she was able
to help her child recall what the teacher told ‘the children’ to do; her
child, however, did not understand that she was part of the group
being addressed.
Make up a list of comments and directions in relation to a
worksheet, picture or objects. In a playful and positive manner, like “I
am going to try to trick you”, use a variety of comments and requests
in relation to the material at hand. Help the child understand the
difference between the two types of statements so that he acts only
after a request is made. If he acts on a comment, ask him, “Did I tell
you to do something? I think I tricked you. Let’s listen again.”
Incomplete requests. With these activities, the child is helped to
determine when he hears enough information to be able to respond.
Start by practicing in a situation where it is not possible to hear all of
the information. This provides a clear opportunity for the child to
experience communication breakdown and where you can be certain
that he does not know what to do. While working with objects, a
worksheet or picture, produce a noise, like a cough, sneeze or book
hitting the floor, or whisper when a key word is said. For example,
“color the (cough instead of the object name) yellow” or “put the
(whisper the object name) in the cup”. Let the child attempt to deal
with the dilemma before you help him. Ask him, “Do you know what
 Program Content 131

to do?” If he attempts to act on the incomplete information, ask

him: “Do you really know what to do? I said… (repeat the direction
with ‘obscured’ information).” Keep the practicing positive and
playful but our goal is to help the child develop clear ‘on-off ’
responses.
Unknown words. Before starting this type of request, be sure the
child is responding consistently to incomplete requests.
Our goal with requests containing unknown words is to have the
child determine if he understands all of the words stated. This is a
large increase in complexity from the previous step because the child
now has to decide whether he knows what each word means.
The child is provided alternately with directions that contain
words you are certain he does not know, for example “color the stifle
he hurt” or “put the spatula on the floor”. Wait for the child to
respond. If he tries to respond to a request he did not understand,
probe his knowledge of all of the words you stated (e.g. “What are
you supposed to do? Do you know what…is?”). If he stops himself
and does not attempt to follow the direction, tell him that was a really
smart thing to stop himself because that is a weird word.
Lengthy requests. The goal with this type of request is to have the
child develop a clearer understanding of when he is not able to
remember all of the words. Use reasonable requests and ones that are
longer than the child can retain. Start with requests that are nine or
more words in length, shortening or lengthening the statements as
needed. If the child attempts to follow a request when he is truly
uncertain about what to do, prompt him: “That was a good try but
do you remember everything I said?” Make sure the child knows that
he should always use his ‘good listening’ rules but sometimes we
cannot remember everything someone says.
2. Asking for repetition and/or clarification.
Incomplete requests. Once the child understands when he cannot
hear all of the direction, prompt him to say “say again please” or:
“Can you say that again, please?” dependent upon his expressive
language skills. These are referred to as requests for repetition.
Setting the requests to a melody can make it easier for the child to
say. The intonation pattern helps ‘glue’ the words together into a
simpler melodic stream.
Unknown words. Asking for clarification is typically used when you
do not understand specific words. Once the child learns to stop when
132 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

he hears a word he does not know, prompt him to ask: “what

does…mean?” or “what’s…?”
Lengthy requests. When the child cannot remember all of the
request even though he used his good listening skills, prompt him to
request repetition or clarification. For example, have him say: “Can
you say that again, please?” or “did you say…?”

Checkpoint for determining if information is understood: What Learning Preferences and

Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Verbal-Linguistic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to determine if he understands informa-

tion stretches the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. Prompting the child to monitor his
understanding of information and requesting repetition or
clarification prompts him to use Verbal-Linguistic strengths.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. Requesting
repetition and clarification presses the child to be responsive to
others.

S/C.3. Expressing information

The final phase in information processing requires the child to plan and verbally
express his thoughts, ideas and experiences. It involves organizing the response,
considering the perspective of the other person and then forming a clear and
precise statement or story.

S/C.3A. MAKING A PLAN FOR RESPONDING

Our main goal in this area is helping the child put his thoughts and ideas together
to form coherent and understandable responses.
 Program Content 133

Strategies for making a plan for responding

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child learn some basic forms of
response. Once the child can use the basics, he can be assisted to extend these
into longer and more complex explanations. The idea is not to stifle ideas but
help the child figure out how he might express them more precisely. Initially, the
child may experience frustration. With repeated practice, he will become accus-
tomed to and more facile with the strategies.
1. Using visual frames.
Description of objects. Use a visual frame like that shown in Figure
6.7 to guide the child in organizing and expressing his descriptions.
Once the child is successful with the basic categories, add further
information like parts the object or animal has, where it is or where
you find it, what you use it for, what it is doing and what kind of
thing it is.
Games like Go Fish can be used to practice describing. Cards can
be made up so they follow a progression from ‘simpler’ to more
complex:
° pictures of objects or animals that vary by color and number (“Do
you have three brown dogs?” versus two brown dogs or three black
dogs)
° pictures of objects or animals that vary by location (“Do you have a
squirrel in a basket?” versus a cat in a basket or a squirrel behind a
basket)
° pictures of objects or animals that vary by color, size and features
(“Do you have a medium-sized cup with green spots on it?” versus a
large cup or one with pink hearts)
° pictures of objects or animals that vary by fine details (“Do you have
a blue car with a black top and three green stripes on the side?”).
Initially, you will find some children provide lengthy and highly
detailed descriptions. To help decrease this, examine the deck of
cards with the child before starting the game and help him note
which things are the same on each card. Then, prompt the child that
the ‘same’ things are ones that we do not have to talk about because
we know they are there. For example, if all of the pictures are of
squirrels, then we do not have to use the word ‘squirrel’ in
descriptions.
134 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Games like Guess Who™, Headbanz™, and I Spy™ are also fun
ways to practice describing objects.
Another ‘twist’ to describing can be teaching the child how to
form riddles. Use the visual frame, shown in Figure 6.7, fold over the
“what is it?” square and prompt the child to use the other categories
to describe an object. Most children will need the concrete prompt
of folding the “what is it?” category away to suppress their desire to
provide the label. An example activity could involve placing an apple
in a ‘riddle bag’ so others cannot see it. Using the visual frame, the
child could give the following clues: “There is one, it is round, it is
sort of small and it is red.” Other people must guess what it is he is
talking about.
Construction of stories. Practice using the Story Hand, in Figure 6.8,
and Story Frames, in Figures 6.9 and 6.10, for organizing ideas. Start
with simpler tasks like describing a picture sequence of a familiar
story or activity. An example including all major components is as
follows: time (“one day”), place (“at home”), main character (“a
boy”), major events (“mixes”, “rolls”, “cuts out cookies”) and how
the main character felt (“happy”).
Then progress to a scene from a familiar story or real-life
experience for the child to describe. Over time, introduce made-up or
imaginary stories. Imaginary stories can prove extremely difficult for
some children so you can set up the Story Hand or Story Frame with
a variety of pictured options for each major category. The child
selects one or more pictures from each category: time, characters,
place, actions, and ending. Then, he can construct a story based on
the cards he selected.

Checkpoint for making a plan for responding: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic

Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to make a plan for responding stretches the
Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
 Program Content 135

• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big

picture. By prompting the child to plan his response from main
information categories, he is pressed to determine the broader
concept.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The strategies described in this section
prompt the child to use language skills to plan and think ahead.

S/C.3B. CONSIDERING OTHER PERSPECTIVES

This is a major area of difficulty for children with autism. They have significant
ongoing problems considering that other people may see or understand things
differently from them. This then greatly impairs their ability to adjust their
behavior in appropriate ways.
Our main goal in this area is to help the child with autism understand that
other people may have a different perspective and see things in another way.
Then he needs to learn to adjust his message to improve the other person’s
understanding.

Strategies for understanding perspective

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child experience success in com-
municating his message as well as communication breakdown. Communication
breakdown occurs when a person misunderstands or misinterprets your
message.
1. Playing ‘teacher’. Provide the child with opportunities to be ‘teacher’.
This gives the child a chance to role-play and take on the perspective
of the adult. Use activities and tasks that are familiar to the child and
that have been successful in the past. Then prompt him to be the
‘teacher’ for you.
Playing ‘teacher’, also referred to as reciprocal teaching, can be
increasingly extended to include other children. This allows the child
an opportunity to use familiar content in face-to-face interactions
with peers where he can give feedback and acknowledge their
successes.
2. Using barrier tasks. One of the best ways I have found to help the
child understand how others interpret his words is with barrier tasks.
These activities involve two people with a barrier between them that
obscures their view of each other’s task. Both people have the same
task but one person must clearly and precisely tell the other person
136 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Figure 6.12 Example barrier task setup

what to do. The ‘barrier’ makes sure that only verbal information is
used to complete the task.
Start with simple coloring tasks. Construct a barrier between the
child and you using a binder or file folder. Make sure that each
person has the same picture and his own set of crayons or markers.
Model instructions for the child: “Color the boy’s hair black.” Then
compare your pictures and provide verbal feedback to the child, like:
“Wow, you listened really well and I used clear words so you could
understand.” Then the child has a turn. Introduce more complex
materials by using pictures that depict multiples of the same objects
so the child has to describe distinguishing features and/or the
locations.
Other activities include dressing dolls and building structures. A
popular activity is constructing monster faces with different patterns
and shapes of hair, hats, eyes, noses and mouths. The various
features for the monster face provide opportunities not only for
using precise language but also for using comparisons, such as: “Use
the nose that looks like a pear.”
3. Developing situationally appropriate communication. A child with autism
must be taught social cues that signal the need for changes in what he
says or how he says it. The first stages should include helping him
learn common social phrases and nonverbal cues.
Develop a list of social situations and emotions the child will
likely encounter. Make up statements and/or nonverbal actions that
would typically be used in those settings and to express those
emotions. Practice social phrases with the child by using prompts,
such as: “Say what you say when someone is mad,” or, “Say what you
say when someone has done a good job.” Help him use key phrases
and incorporate different tones of voice to go with each statement,
 Program Content 137

for example, praising versus reprimanding. Phrases most useful to the

child can be put onto Social Tickets, as described in Table 6.2 in daily
situations. The child will get a chance to use verbal and nonverbal
communication skills, including changing his tone of voice for angry
versus happy tone.
For social cues, practice nonverbal gestures with the child,
prompting him: “Show how to say ‘look there’ with your body,” or
“Show how to say ‘I don’t know’ with your body.” Use reciprocal
teaching so that the child begins to recognize nonverbal gestures in
other people. In real-life situations, ask the child questions, like:
“What is the other person’s body saying?”
Reader’s Theatre can provide more opportunities to role-play.
Reader’s Theatre is minimal theatre: there are no stage sets, no
costumes and no memorizing parts. The children are given copies of
the scripts, parts are selected and then the children read the scripted
lines for their individual roles. Reader’s Theatre is a good way to
develop responsiveness to others’ comments and statements within a
preset context. Repeated readings improve each child’s speed of
response as well as their reading fluency. Scripts for Reader’s Theatre
are available on the internet; some sites are listed in Appendix I.
4. Developing situationally appropriate behavior. Understanding other people’s
feelings and emotions is an area of significant difficulty for children
with autism. One way to help the child interpret emotions in others is
to develop a Feelings Book. This is an analytical approach to learning
the main distinguishing facial characteristics of different emotional
states.
Find photographs of people expressing different emotions and
organize them into side-by-side comparisons. Start with happy, angry
and sad. Try to have a range of intensity within each group, such as
simply smiling versus grinning. Help the child identify a few key facial
features and cues that help us know how a person feels. Start by
working on three major cues, including eyebrows, eyes and mouth, to
narrow down what the child should look for. Try out the different
emotions in a mirror so the child can see his own eyebrows, eyes and
mouth. Compare different emotions in relation to the physical cues
as shown in Figure 6.13.
138 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Happy Angry

Eyebrows: raised a little Eyebrows: down in the middle

Eyes: open wide Eyes: a little bit closed
Mouth: corners turned up Mouth: corners turned down
a little bit

Figure 6.13 Example of Feelings Book page comparing features of two emotions

Checkpoint for understanding other perspectives: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did
we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual-~ Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Feeling Verbal-Linguistic

Interpersonal
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to understand other perspectives stretches
the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and
want to meet them. In perspective-taking, the child must consider
other people and their perceptions to be successful.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to communicate clearly with others. The strategies described in this
section prompt the child to use language skills to express his thinking
in precise and appropriate manners.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. Perspective-taking
is a strongly interpersonal concept because the child has to ensure
that he responds to others’ cues and perceptions.
 Program Content 139

S/C.3C. PROVIDING CLEAR AND PRECISE RESPONSES

Our main goal in this area is to ensure that the child’s intended message is what
the listener understands. This means that the child provides well-organized
information, includes enough information but not too much and considers the
other person’s perspective.
Most people working or living with a child with autism learn to ‘fill in the
blanks’ in order to understand what he is trying to communicate. If you know
his history, recent events in his life and how he typically refers to things, places
and people, you can piece his comments together and figure out what he is
trying to say. We need to learn how to stand back and objectively determine what
a stranger may need to know from the child in order to understand him. This
means that, as the child develops, we need to continually re-adjust our expecta-
tions of him as a communicator and decrease the amount of ‘work’ we do as
listeners.

Strategies for providing clear and precise responses

The rationale for these strategies is to help the child use words and organization
that help ensure his intended message is received by the listener.
1. Using visual frames. Use the visual framework for descriptive
information, Figure 6.7, the Story Hand, Figure 6.8, and the Story
Frames Figures 6.9 and 6.10 to guide the child in expressing his ideas
and experiences. If he forgets a feature, tap your finger on the
picture or word on the visual framework to remind him to include
that information.
Written expression can also be developed by using these visual
frames. The child can use them like checklists to ensure that all
information is included. For one school-aged child, I made these
frames in miniature on the back of cardboard rulers from
McDonald’s®. This meant he could keep them on his desk and not
look ‘odd’.
2. Using barrier tasks. Barrier tasks, described earlier, help the child use
more precise language that is understandable to his listener. When
communication breakdown occurs, the child begins to understand
the information needs of other people.
While engaged in a barrier task, stop every so often and compare
the child’s work with the listener’s. This provides concrete evidence
of the clarity and precision of the child’s directions. At these times,
any differences can be discovered and the confusion discussed. This
will help the child learn more about how to shape his expressive
140 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

language to help others understand what he wants them to do. For

children who provide lengthy and detailed descriptions, they can
learn what is important for them to communicate and what is not
critical to the task.

Checkpoint for providing precise and clear responses: What Learning Preferences and Strengths
did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Extraversion Verbal-Linguistic

Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to provide precise and clear responses
stretches the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with Extraversion preferences like to think out
loud. With these strategies, the child with autism is prompted to
verbalize his thoughts, ideas and experiences.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The strategies described in this section
prompt the child to use language skills to express his thinking.

C. SELF-REGULATION SKILLS (S/R)

Self-regulation is the ability to control your own body, perceptions, thinking and
emotions in situationally appropriate ways (see Figure 6.14). It involves deliber-
ate inhibition of undesired behavior in the service of achieving goals.
The focus of this content area is helping the child understand the require-
ments of a situation and then adjust his efforts. In order to do this, the child
must learn to determine his arousal/excitement level and adapt his behavior. He
must also learn to monitor his body, perceptions, thinking and emotions and
then control them.
The ultimate goal is for the child to be able to do this on his own without
adult intervention or prompting. The child must learn to manage his thoughts,
feelings and actions flexibly. Part of this entails learning where and when he can
lower his self-control level or take off the brakes and become ‘dis-regulated’ if
he wishes.
 Program Content 141

S/R.1.
BODY CONTROL

Skill focus Variation Activities

S/R.1a. Controlling hands Location Imitating the adult
Speed Imitating a pictured model
Intensity Imitating a peer
Manner Self-Direction
S/R.1b. Controlling feet Location Imitating the adult
Speed Imitating a pictured model
Intensity Imitating a peer
Manner Self-Direction
S/R.1c. Controlling whole body Location Imitating the adult
Speed Imitating a pictured model
n/a Imitating a peer
Manner Self-Direction

S/R.2.
CONT ROL OF
THINKING

Skill focus Strategies

S/R.2a. Maintaining focus Look and/or listen for only the most
important information
Tell myself: “don’t get distracted”
Ignore things that are bugging me
Think about if I understand or hear all
of the information presented to me
S/R.2b. Internalizing thoughts Talk to my brain
Thought bubbles

S/R.3.
CONTROL OF
EMOTIONS

Skill focus Strategies

S/R.3a. Interpreting states and cues Feelings book
S/R.3b. Remaining calm Emotions dial
Video modeling
S/R.3c Determining appropriate times and places Relationship diagram
Visual cues

Figure 6.14 Self-Regulation Skills (S/R)

142 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Helping the child learn self-regulation

The child’s control of his body is the first area of focus in self-regulation. Then
control of thinking is addressed. This area involves the child’s learning to
self-regulate how and when he uses his cognitive resources. The final area is
emotional control where the child learns how to modulate his feelings. The main
skills and strategies or activities are outlined below.

S/R.1. Body control

Body control is perhaps the most straightforward area to teach. Start first with
body parts and then with the whole body. This order is used because it is much
easier to have the child sitting on the floor or on a chair and moving parts of his
body before attempting whole body control. If you try for whole body control
first, it could result in a chaotic situation with children scattering everywhere.
Each activity is practiced with the body parts or whole body in different
locations. Then different speeds, intensities and manners of movement are
introduced.
The continuum for activities within each of these areas follows a specific
sequence of decreasing adult intervention and increasing conceptual complex-
ity. The first step is to imitate the adult, a live model. This is followed by imitating
a pictured model which is slightly more ‘complex’ because it is two-dimensional,
inanimate and ‘frozen’ in time. The third step is imitation of a peer. Learning
how to do this has important implications for future social learning since
children with autism do not readily imitate peers. The final step is for the child to
internalize the skill and begin to monitor and adjust his own behavior.
All of the activities can be done to songs and rhymes, making them more fun
and more memorable for the child. Songs like “Head and Shoulders Knees and
Toes” or “If You’re Happy and You Know It” are good examples. Further
examples can be found in Appendix I. Actions can also be incorporated into
stories. Use the book database included in Appendix I to search for appropriate
material.
During these activities, avoid having the child touch other people until he
gains consistent control of his body.

S/R.1A. CONTROLLING HANDS

A. Location – this refers to where the child puts his hands.

(i) Imitating the adult. The action and location are modelled by the
adult. As shown in Chapter 5, Program Structure, you may
 Program Content 143

wish to start work on imitation in a side-by-side position with the

child. Prompt him: “make your hands do the same” or “do the
same” as you put your hands on your knees, tummy, head, feet
and on the floor, table, chair and such like.
(ii) Imitating a pictured model. Present pictured models to the child, like
those in Figure 6.15, one at a time. Prompt him: “make your
hands do the same thing” or “you do the same”.

Hands up Hands over my eyes Hands behind my back

Figure 6.15 Examples of pictured models for the child to imitate

(iii) Imitating a peer. Use the pictures from Imitating a pictured model to
prompt the child chosen to act as ‘teacher’. He may also make up
new locations but, typically, children need the pictures to prompt
them.
(iv) Self-direction. Praise the child when he puts his hands in
appropriate places, like on the table or on his own toys. Indicate
to him: “Wow, look at your hands. You controlled your hands
really well!” If he is about to attempt some action, like grabbing
another child, intercede as quickly as possible with: “What do
you need to tell your hands?” Prompt the child to tell his hands:
“Hands, you need to be (location).” Then remind him that he
can control his own hands.
Control of the hands is an important focus in the child’s
using his ‘finder finger’, presented earlier in this chapter. When
the child uses his ‘finder finger’, praise him for controlling his
hand.
B. Speed – this refers to how quickly the action is done.
(i) Imitating the adult. The action and speed are modelled by the adult.
Pair the various speeds with visual cues, like those shown in
Figure 6.16, and the verbal prompt: “Make your hands go
slow/fast/in between.”
144 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Slow In between Fast

Figure 6.16 Example picture cues for prompting different speeds

(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
speed and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his
hands go “fast” or “slow” or “in between”. For example, when
he is speeding through an activity, he can be prompted: “What
do you need to tell your hands?”
C. Intensity – this refers to how hard or gently the hands are used.
(i) Imitating the adult. Actions, such as clapping hands, hitting the
floor with hands or clapping your thighs, can be used in this
activity. Pair the different intensities with visual cues, like those
shown in Figure 6.17, and the verbal prompt: “Make your hands
(action) hard/gentle/in between.”

Gentle In between Hard

Figure 6.17 Example picture cues for prompting different action intensities

(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
intensity and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his
hands be “gentle” or “hard” or “in between”. For example, if he
is about to grab something or someone, he can be prompted:
“What do you need to tell your hands?”
 Program Content 145

D. Manner – this refers to the way in which the hands are used.
Comparison is used to determine manner, for example “like a
butterfly” or “like an elephant”. The comparisons used in this activity
also serve a cognitive function since the child must use less concrete
thinking (“We all know your hands are not bears!”) and use his
imagination.
(i) Imitating the adult. Present the notion of doing an action like
different animals. Use your voice to reinforce the idea of light
and fluttery (higher pitched, softer voice) or big and stomping
(lower pitched voice).

Butterfly Elephant Rabbit Bear Fairy Spider

Figure 6.18 Example picture cues for prompting different manners of action

Actions such as wriggling the fingers like a spider, hopping

hands on the floor like a rabbit, stomping hands on the floor like
an elephant, tickling one hand with the other like a butterfly or
flitting fingers through the air like a fairy can be used in this
activity. Pair the different manners with visuals, like those shown
in Figure 6.18, and the verbal prompt: “Make your hands (action)
like a (animal).”
(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
manner and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his
hands be “like a butterfly” or “like a bear”.

S/R.1B. CONTROLLING FEET

A. Location – this refers to where the child puts his feet.

(i) Imitating the adult. The action and location are modeled by the
adult. Put your feet up in the air, on the floor, one foot up and
such like and prompt the child “make your feet do the same” or
“do the same” while you do the action.
146 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

(ii) Imitating a pictured model. Show the child a picture like one of
those in the diagram below. Prompt him “make your feet do the
same” or “do the same”.

Feet on the floor One foot up Foot in the air Both feet in the air

Figure 6.19 Example picture cues for prompting different action locations

(iii) Imitating a peer. Use the pictures from Imitating a pictured model to
prompt the child chosen to act as ‘teacher’. He may also make up
new locations.
(iv) Self-direction. The child is reminded when he is about to attempt
some action, like putting his feet on someone else: “What do you
need to tell your feet?” Prompt the child to tell his feet: “Feet,
you need to be (location).” Then remind him he can control his
feet all by himself.
B. Speed – this refers to how quickly the action is done. See Figure 6.16
for visual prompts.
(i) Imitating the adult. The action and speed are modeled by the adult.
Pair the various speeds with the visual cues, shown earlier, and
the verbal prompt: “Make your feet do slow/fast/in between.”
(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
speed and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his feet
go “fast” or “slow” or “in between”. If he is running indoors or
at the swimming pool, stop him and ask: “What do you need to
tell your feet?”
C. Intensity – this refers to how hard/loudly or soft/quietly the feet are
moved. See Figure 6.17 for visual prompts.
(i) Imitating the adult. Stomp your feet, dance lightly on your toes, and
such like for “gentle”, “hard” and “in between”. Pair the
different intensities with visual cues, shown in Figure 6.17, and
 Program Content 147

the verbal prompt: “make your feet (action) hard/gentle/in

between”.
(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
intensity and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his feet
be “gentle” or “hard” or “in between”. If he is about to kick an
object or person, prompt him: “What do you need to tell your
feet?” Remind him to tell his feet to be gentle.
D. Manner – This refers to the way in which the feet are used. See Figure
6.18 for visual prompts.
(i) Imitating the adult. Present the notion of doing an action like
different animals. Use your voice to reinforce the idea of light
(higher pitched voice) and fluttery or big and stomping (lower
pitched voice). Pair the different manners with visual cues, like
those shown earlier, and verbal prompts like: “Make your feet
(action) like a (animal).”
(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
manner and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Praise the child when he demonstrates control of his
feet. If he forgets to control how he uses his feet, ask him:
“What do you need to tell your feet?” Remind the child that he
has control to make his feet be “light like a butterfly” or “heavy
like a bear” or “in between”.

S/R.1C. CONTROLLING THE WHOLE BODY

A. Location – this refers to where the child puts his body.

These activities provide excellent opportunities to work on location
words, such as “put your body on the floor”, “under the chair”,
“under the table”, “beside the chair”, “behind the chair” and such
like. Be sure to use inanimate (not alive) objects, like furniture, for the
child to orient his body to. Children with autism tend to have
difficulty determining which object to focus on in terms of location.
The child may say either “the chair is under the boy” or “the boy is
on the chair”. The natural tendency in typical language users is to talk
about the animate (live) thing first, that is, “the boy (animate) is on
the chair (inanimate)”. Use this ‘animate-first’ strategy in presenting
different options to the child.
148 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Beside the chair Behind the chair In front of the chair

Figure 6.20 Example pictures for prompting different lociations for the body

(i) Imitating the adult. Put your body on the floor, under the chair,
under the table, beside the chair, behind the chair and other
locations. Prompt the child to do the same thing as you.
(ii) Imitating a pictured model. Show the child a picture, like in Figure
6.20, and prompt him to imitate.
(iii) Imitating a peer. Use pictures like those shown above to prompt
the child chosen to act as ‘teacher’. He may also make up new
locations.
(iv) Self-direction. If the child is in a place he is not supposed to be, ask
him: “Where does your body need to be?” Be sure also to praise
him when he is in the correct location or position, such as when
he sits during a group activity or during supper.
B. Speed – this refers to how quickly the action is done.
(i) Imitating the adult. The action and speed are modeled by the adult.
Pair the various speeds with visual cues, shown in Figure 6.16,
and appropriate verbal prompts.
(ii) Imitating a pictured model. Show the child a picture, like one of
those above, in combination with the visual cues for speed.
Prompt him to imitate.
(iii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
speed and/or ask other people to choose.
(iv) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his
body go “fast” or “slow” or “in between”. He should be
prompted to remind his body. Incorporate games like “Red
Light-Green Light” and “Simon Says” to practice self-regulation
with the child. A “Stop-Go” game can also be used where a red
‘stop’ light or green ‘go’ light can be held up to prompt body
control.
 Program Content 149

C. Manner – this refers to the way in which the child uses his body.
(i) Imitating the adult. Prompt the child to move his body like
different animals using pictures like those shown in Figure 6.18.
(ii) Imitating a peer. The child chosen as ‘teacher’ can determine the
manner and/or ask other people to choose.
(iii) Self-direction. Remind the child that he has control to make his
whole body move “light like a butterfly” or “heavy like a bear” or
“in between”.
Yoga can readily be incorporated into the child’s program as a means of learning
self-regulation. We have used yoga successfully in helping children with autism
learn to center and calm themselves. There are a number of books, for example
Integrated Yoga by Nicole Cuomo (2007), and videos intended for children that
can provide guidelines and examples. Some picture models that can also be used
are shown in Figure 6.21.

Figure 6.21 Example yoga positions for incorporation into self-regulation activities

During a summer camp, we wanted to help the children understand that they
could control their own bodies. One of the workers developed the “Stop and
Think” song (shown opposite).
The “Stop and Think” song became a sort of mantra for both the adults and
the children. If any one of us was feeling like we were about to ‘lose control’, we
would break into the song. If a child was at a distance, we could simply point to
our wrist, the ‘control’ position, as a reminder to him.
Another song that can be used effectively to help children calm themselves is
“Take a Rest” from Sesame Street®. While quietly singing this song, the children
are encouraged to lie down or put their heads down and “take it slow, take
it easy”.
150 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The Stop and Think Song

Stop, think, control my body
(hold hand straight out from your shoulder for “stop”, touch your temple for “think”,
touch your left wrist where you typically wear a watch for “control”)
Stop, think, control my body
(same actions as above)
Stop, think, control my body
(same actions as above)
I am in control
(point to your chest with your index finger for “I”)

Checkpoint for body control: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Verbal-Linguistic
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to control his body stretches the Learning
Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The concepts of location, speed, intensity
and manner are incorporated into the strategies with the expectation
that the child will learn to understand and use these concepts. In
addition, the child is prompted to use self-talk, or verbal mediation,
to help himself gain control of his body.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic – the person with Bodily-Kinesthetic strengths can
use his body in skilled ways. The central focus of the skills in this
section is on helping the child learn how to control and regulate his
body movements.
 Program Content 151

• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability

to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. By pressing the
child to imitate others, he must learn to respond to requests and
directions by others.
• Intrapersonal – Intrapersonal strengths involve understanding your
strengths and limitations and your ability to apply your thinking. The
focus on self-direction helps the child develop more self-awareness
of his body and body parts.

S/R.2. Control of thinking

Control of thinking refers to the child’s being able to focus his attention selec-
tively, ignore unimportant distracters, plan and generally control his thinking.
These have received specific focus in the activities presented earlier within the
Learning/Cognitive skills and Social/Communication skills. Among them are:
• I can look and listen for only the most important information.
• I can tell myself: “don’t get distracted”.
• I can ignore things around me that are bugging my brain.
• I can think about if I understand or hear important information.
• I can talk to my brain to help my body and brain work better.

One child exhibited that he truly began to understand the notion of the
power of his brain. He announced one day that he wanted to see this thing
called his ‘brain’. He tried looking into his mouth with a mirror and really
pondered how he might get to see it. We finally convinced him to settle for a
picture because his head/skull has to be closed to protect his brain.

It is important to prompt the child while pointing to your head: “Think in your
brain,” and “tell your brain…” This should be done in any situation where it
might be important for the child to be cautious and/or decrease impulsive
responses. Over time, the child will begin to understand the concept and use it
spontaneously.
152 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Initially, the child is prompted to talk to his brain out loud. This will give people
around him a chance to monitor what he is saying to himself. It is an opportunity
to shape and prompt his self-talk as necessary. Over time, the child needs to
learn to internalize this self-talk, otherwise he may be perceived as ‘odd’. Two
strategies to help children use inner-speech include:
• prompting the child to “just say it in your brain” when he uses
self-talk.
• helping the child use an erasable ‘thought bubble’. Draw a thought
bubble on card stock, cut it out and laminate it. The child can then
draw or print his thoughts on it.

In a social skills group of eight- and nine-year-old children, I introduced

the thought bubbles and received some amusing results. We were working
along on a concept when suddenly one of the children held his thought
bubble over his head; on it was written “Bobby really is bugging me”.
Another child then responded on his ‘thought bubble’: “just ignore him”.

These strategies can be effectively applied in group situations so the child’s

self-talk will not interrupt or annoy others. Also, there are social implications to
‘say it in your brain’: the child is taught that it is okay to think some things but not
say them out loud.

Checkpoint for control of thinking: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic

Intrapersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to control his thinking stretches the
Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
 Program Content 153

• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big

picture. By prompting the child to think about his brain and thinking,
he is being pressed to look at broader concepts.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The child is prompted with these strategies
to use self-talk to mediate and modulate his thinking and thought
processes.
• Intrapersonal – Intrapersonal strengths involve understanding your
strengths and limitations and your ability to apply your thinking. The
child is being helped to develop more self-awareness of his thinking
and thoughts.

S/R.3. Control of emotions

The concept of controlling emotions means helping the child understand and
modulate his feelings. It is not intended to have the child stifle his feelings. The
child is expected and prompted to experience a full range of emotions but he
needs help learning to:
• interpret cues for emotional states in himself and others
• remain calm
• determine the appropriate times and places for certain emotions and
behaviors
• use consistent approaches to problem solving.
Each of these areas will be addressed individually in the following sections.

S/R.3A. INTERPRETING EMOTIONAL STATES AND CUES

1. Feelings Book. Interpreting emotions was introduced earlier in the

Social/Communication section of this chapter. One activity in that
section was the Feelings Book where the child was helped to identify
the major physical features of different emotional states. Extend the
emotions and their distinguishing features into everyday life. Point
out the emotions and, over time, ask the child to identify how others
are feeling. Then prompt him to explain how he knows the person
is feeling that way, attempting to elicit the main characteristics
from him.
154 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Emphasis should then to shift to the child. He needs to start

identifying his own emotional state. Use the categories from the
Feelings Book and help the child identify them in himself. Include
other body cues as well, such as tightened tummy, head or shoulders.
These should be investigated with each individual because emotional
states physically express themselves differently in different people.
Take photos of the child prompting him to demonstrate these
different emotions for you. A Feelings Book of the child’s own
emotions can be compiled with him. These can be enjoyable activities
that help the child identify how his body and face look and feel.

S/R.3B. REMAINING CALM

1. Emotions dial. Our goal is to help the child remain calm so that he is
more able to learn and to use strategies to assist himself.
The first step in remaining calm is to learn about a range of
emotional states. One powerful strategy is to develop an ‘Emotion
Dial’ that visually displays a range. The zone to the left, typically
shown in green for ‘go’, is the place where “my body and my brain
feel calm”. Model ‘calm’ for the child and help him try it out for
himself. Working with him, help him to identify how his eyebrows,
eyes and mouth look and how his body feels when he is calm. Take a
photograph of the child demonstrating ‘calm’ and write down the
face and body features he identifies. Associate the feeling of ‘calm’
with the left-hand zone of the Emotion Dial.
The zone in the middle, typically shown in yellow for ‘caution’, is
associated with the feeling that: “My body and my brain are starting
to feel tight and stressed.” Model this state for the child. Have the
child demonstrate it for himself and help him identify the main
features on his face and in his body. Take a photograph of the child

Figure 6.22 Example emotion dial

 Program Content 155

demonstrating ‘stressed’ and write down the face and body features
he identifies. Associate the feeling of ‘stressed’ with the middle zone
of the Emotion Dial. Have the child go from ‘calm’ to ‘stressed’
repeatedly so that he can feel and see the different cues in his face
and body.
The zone on the right, typically shown in red for ‘stop’, is
connected with strong emotions where “my body is tight and my
brain feels like it is buzzing” or whatever the child reports or seems
to be experiencing. With most children, it is recommended that you
do not model this state because it is simply something that needs to
be controlled. Associate the ‘buzzing’ feeling with the right-hand
zone on the Emotion Dial and help the child relax his face and body
and resume a feeling of ‘calm’. Demonstrate resumption of ‘calm’ by
telling yourself to “be calm”, shaking out your hands and then taking
a deep breath. You can put these three steps into a picture format to
help prompt the child as shown in the self-calming techniques in
Chapter 8, Behavior in Children with Autism.
The Emotions Dial is used on a daily basis with the child. Use it
to point out and praise him for being “calm”. If the child begins to
show signs of stress, move the dial out of the left-hand (green) zone
to whatever degree you observe in his stress level. Over time, the
child will assume increasing control over his emotional state and
spontaneously use strategies to help himself.

A four-year-old with autism was at a shopping mall with her mother. As

they proceeded along, her mother noticed that the little girl became more
distracted and tense. The child stopped and told her mother she wanted to
sit down. She then took her mother to a quiet corner of the mall and
remained there for five to ten minutes. This child had successfully learned
to identify when she was becoming stressed and how a break could help her
regain her composure.

2. Video modeling. Videos or DVDs are compelling to many children

with autism and, thereby, provide a potent means for teaching social
and behavioral skills. They have a particularly appealing feature for
children with autism: they can be viewed repeatedly.
156 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

If you are going to use video modeling, carefully plan what you
wish to accomplish. Set out the main concepts clearly and precisely.
Behaviors modeled in the video should be presented as simple steps.
Optimal length is between five and ten minutes.
I developed a video, entitled Dealing with Frustration, produced by a
professional film production company. In it, frustrating situations
were described and a simple three-step process for remaining calm
(stop, think, make a plan) was presented. The video, intended for
children from three to ten years of age, has been very powerful in
teaching children with autism. They enjoy watching it repeatedly and
generalize the strategies to everyday settings.

S/R.3C. DETERMINING APPROPRIATE PEOPLE, TIME AND PLACE

One of the most difficult areas to help children with autism sort out is how to
show affection to others in appropriate ways. We do not want to frighten the
children, such as by saying strangers are dangerous, or make them unwilling to
show affection but it is critical that they understand appropriate affection. One
way to do this is a Relationship Diagram. This is a visual ‘map’ of how to relate to
different people in the child’s life. An example is shown below.

Figure 6.23 Example Relationship Diagram

 Program Content 157

In the center is the child himself. In the next circle are pictures, showing people
the child can ‘hug and kiss’. They include pictures of Mom, Dad, Grandpa and
Grandma. Dependent upon the family makeup and the family’s ways of
showing affection, people and behavior should be changed. For example, if
Grandpa is rather fragile and arthritic, he would probably not enjoy being
hugged.
In the next circle is a picture of ‘high five’. High fives can be given to impor-
tant people in the child’s life who should not be hugged and kissed. People in this
circle may be friends, teachers and bus drivers.
Other circles can be added to include people you might just say “hi” to, such
as people you see all the time at the pool or in the grocery store. Another circle
could be added for places where you need to use your ‘quiet voice’, such as
church or the library. People who could help the child in emergency situations,
like firemen and police officers, should be included in a circle to assist the child
in understanding their roles.

Checkpoint for emotion control: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic

Feeling Interpersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child controlling his emotions stretches the
Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with Intuiting preferences are able to see the larger
scope of an issue and the over-riding concepts. Problem solving and
other strategies for controlling emotions stretch the child to look
beyond the details of a situation and begin to understand the wider
implications.
• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and try
to meet them. Helping the child learn appropriate time and place for
emotions, he is beginning to understand the impact he may have on
others.
158 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words

to think and remember. The child with autism is prompted with
these strategies to use self-talk to mediate and modulate his thinking
and feelings.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. With the strategies
described above, the child is being helped to understand and control
his own emotions.

INCORPORATING ALL STAGES OF INFORMATION

PROCESSING AND MULTIPLE SKILLS
Learning conversation and small talk
In conversation, the listener has to take in relevant information completely and
accurately. Then he must retain it long enough to make sure he understands
what was said. After that, he needs to plan his response, take into consideration
who his conversational partner is and then respond back. In day-to-day adult
conversations, all of this occurs within less than five seconds.
Once we have worked on all of the Social/Communication foundation
skills described in the previous section, we can help the child with autism incor-
porate them into conversational skills and ‘small talk’. Small talk is not easy for a
lot of people, particularly people with autism. There are a number of reasons
for this. Among them are the speed and accuracy of information processing
required and the planning and formulation of a response. Another important
issue is also that most people with autism see no real need to chat with others,
particularly if it is about topics in which they have no interest.

Table 6.3 Basic topics of conversation with examples

Topic Example
Books Have you ever read…?; What’s your favorite book?

Clothes I really like you…; What kind of jeans do you like?

Computers, Games What’s your favorite software?; Do you have a computer at home?
What kind?

Family How many people are there in your family?; Do you have any brothers
or sisters?
 Program Content 159

Food What’s your favorite food?; Do you like…?

Friends Do you know…?; What’s your favorite thing to do with friends?

Health How are you?

Movies, TV What’s your favorite movie/TV show?; Do you like…?

Plans What are you going to do this weekend/summer?

Restaurants What’s your favorite restaurant?; Do you like…?

School, Work How was school/work today?; Do you like…?

Shopping What’s your favorite place to go shopping?; Do you like…?

Sports What’s your favorite sport?; Do you play…?

Vacations What’s your favorite place to go for a vacation?; Where did you go on
your last vacation?

Vehicles What kind of car does your family have?; What’s your favorite
car/truck?

Weather How do you like the weather today?

The first issue that needs to be discussed with the child is the rationale for con-
versation and ‘small talk’. Explain to him that we chat with other people so (a) we
can learn things about them, (b) we can see if they like some of the same things
we do, and (c) other people will think we are more friendly.
For children with autism, it is important to present broad concepts, like con-
versation and small talk, in concrete logical ways. I spent considerable time
trying to figure out what people do during ‘light’ conversational small talk. I
found that there is a relatively small set of topics. The main topics, with
examples, are shown in Table 6.3 above.
I made up game cards with each of these topics depicted on them. Because
children with autism tend to focus on specific topic areas that interest them, I
included a card that says “Favorite” so the child can have a chance to talk about
his favorite topic every so often.
The next step was to set up the game with different levels of complexity for
initiating or continuing the topic of conversation. The ‘easiest’ and most
straightforward way to prompt the child was to ask the question: “What’s your
favorite…?” This question is used a great deal by young children and requires
only that the child determine the main topic. I made up a gameboard, like that
shown in Figure 6.24, which included all major question forms, including what,
who, where, when, how and why.
160 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

What When

Who How

Where Why

Figure 6.24 Small Talk gameboard setup

Knowing that open-ended tasks are stressful for children with autism, further
structuring was needed. I added a timer so that the child would understand that
there was a clear beginning and end to small talk. The timer also ‘forces’ the child
to keep the conversation going and prevents him from providing just
single-word answers.
Before playing the game, it is important to develop a Social Rule for small
talk, like that shown. To construct a Social Rule, the child and adult work
together to define small talk, when, where and with whom he can use small talk,
what the child can say and do and why people engage in small talk.
The rule spells out for the child the basic rules and rationale for chatting with
others. By including the “with whom” section, we can exclude ‘strangers’ or
other people the child should not engage in conversation.
To start the game, one person selects the first topic card on the pile. The
timer is set to one minute; increase the time as the child becomes more profi-
cient at staying on topic. The first person makes a comment or asks a question
about the selected topic. Each person who responds and asks a question is given
a token so that there is a tangible indicator of success. The person with the most
 Program Content 161

tokens at the end of the game wins; try, however, to keep the game as equal as
possible so small talk does not become too competitive.

Social skill: how to do small talk

Definition: small talk is chatting with other people about everyday things
When: when I talk to people I know
Where: at home, on the playground, at school
With whom: my friends, my family and other people I know
What to say and do:
1. listen to what the other person says
2. talk about the same topic so we both talk for one minute
about it
3. ask the other person questions about the topic
4. I can change the topic after we have talked about the topic for
one minute
5. I can talk about any of the small talk topics
6. I need to remember not to talk just about my favorite topics.
Reasoning: I do this because other people will learn something about me
and I will learn something about them. They will learn that I am friendly
too.

As the child becomes more proficient at small talk, introduce the use of
comments in addition to questions. You may consider giving out one token for
questions and two for comments in acknowledgement of their increased ‘com-
plexity’.
Once the child shows some proficiency with the game, include more people
so he can learn to maintain conversation among three and four people. Also,
introduce a variety of people like siblings, friends and other adults. Encourage
families to use the game when they are having a quiet family-only supper. The
game format can help ensure that everyone at the table gets an opportunity to
speak and listen, even younger siblings.
162 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Checkpoint for conversation and small talk: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we
incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Extraversion Verbal-Linguistic

Intuiting Interpersonal
Feeling

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to engage in conversation stretches the
Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with Extraversion preferences like to think out
loud. The child is prompted to verbalize his questions and thoughts
on each topic which requires increased speed and accuracy of
processing the information.
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to engage in small talk, he is pressed
to look at the broader concept of conversation.
• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and try
to meet them. Conversation presses the child to consider others’
needs in engaging and continuing small talk.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The child is prompted with these strategies
to engage in a verbal exchange with others.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. Conversation and
small talk are strongly interpersonal concepts because the child has to
ensure that others can understand his message.

Dealing with figurative language

A great deal of figurative language is used in everyday conversation, especially in
descriptions and humor. For children with autism, this can be quite confusing
because they tend to interpret language literally. That is, when you say, “Oh my
goodness, she is going to hit the roof!”, the child might find it odd that the
person is going to reach up and strike the ceiling.
 Program Content 163

Children with autism need a clear strategy for dealing with figurative
language because it can be the source of apparently ‘inappropriate’ behavior
and/or replies. Sometimes, the literal interpretation of figurative language can
cause children with autism to become upset. For example with “I could eat a
horse”, the child with autism may become upset and say, “You’re not supposed
to eat horses!”
Tackling the issue of figurative language is complex and should start with
the child’s learning to detect instances of it. Then the child needs to learn basic
ways of responding to figurative language. Most people do not understand the
exact meaning of idioms and other figurative language but can get the gist of it
from the context. This is what the child with autism needs to learn. Later on,
work can be done with the child to understand the actual meaning of common
figures of speech, using a book such as What Did You Say? What Do You Mean? by
Jude Welton (2004).

I was running a social skills group with nine- to ten-year-old boys. We were
sitting in a circle and the boy beside me was squirming and had his arm out
the neck of his t-shirt and the other arm out the bottom. I turned to him
and said, “Bobby, you are an octopus today.” Two boys across the circle
looked serious and intense. One boy said, “Oh, Bobby couldn’t possibly be
an octopus because they are invertebrates and Bobby is not an inverte-
brate.” The other boy agreed and added, “And octopuses have tentacles
and Bobby only has arms.” I finally turned to the boys and told them I was
just making a joke. I also put figurative language on our schedule for the

The main types of figurative language are shown in Table 6.4. Clichés are a
special class of figurative language. They do not lend themselves well to direct
analysis because their meaning tends to become obscured through repeated use.
It is usually best to teach them to the child directly. There are some excellent
books on clichés and idioms written for children that can help the child under-
stand their meanings.
164 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 6.4 Basic types of figurative language with examples

Type Definition Examples

Cliché A word or phrase that has No pain, no gain.
become overly familiar or A penny for your thoughts.
commonplace that cannot be
interpreted literally. It usually Over the hill.
has been used excessively That was a no-brainer.
and has become a bit
meaningless and even Don’t get your knickers in a knot.
irritating. That’s pretty hard to swallow.
Please don’t upset the apple cart.
Be sure to mind your manners.

Hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration to Mile-high pie.

emphasize a point, I nearly died laughing.
commonly used with humor.
I tried a thousand times.
I could eat a horse.

Idiom A word or phrase that is an My mom is going to hit the roof.

expression whose meaning It’s raining cats and dogs.
cannot be figured out from
the individual words; it often We don’t see eye to eye.
becomes common to a I’ve gotta keep my nose to the grindstone.
language, group of people or
culture. Please stop your clowning around.
Make sure you keep your cool.

Metaphor and A word or phrase is applied I’m drowning in money.

Simile to something it usually is not He’s a diamond in the rough.
related to; the relationship is
symbolic. Similes are often He’s pretty green.
introduced by “like” or “as”. The sun is like a yellow ball of fire in the sky.
That’s east as pie.
He’s as gentle as a lamb.

Personification Giving a non-human thing The stuffed bear smiled as the little boy
human qualities. hugged him.
The rain kissed my cheeks as it fell.
The car engine coughed and sputtered.
 Program Content 165

The child is helped to use a ‘filter’ for detecting figurative language. It is an ana-
lytical flowchart to help the child respond to yes/no questions to identify the
presence of figurative language and then respond appropriately to it. The
flowchart is shown in Figure 6.25.
The first stage is intended to signal to the child if the words or phrase might
be an instance of figurative language. The simple question is: are there some
words that do not seem to fit with what the person is talking about? If the
answer is “no”, just keep the conversation going. If the answer is “yes”, then
move on to the next question.
The next stage in the filter asks if the idea seems stupid or unlikely. If the
answer is “yes”, then it is likely an instance of figurative language which should
not be interpreted literally.
The next stage will help the child deal with the figurative language more
appropriately. It asks if the child knows the meaning of all of the words in the
phrase. If he does not know what a word or words mean, he is prompted to
request clarification. For example, if he hears “mind your manners” and is not
sure what “mind” means or what exactly the word “manners” includes, he needs
to ask what the other person means.
In the next stage, if the child understands all of the words, he is asked to
make a picture in his head. This will help him visualize the relationship amongst
the words. Then, the child needs to determine if most of the words refer to
something positive or negative. In the example of ‘hitting the roof ’, hitting
anything is probably not a positive thing. This will lead the child to respond with
something like “oh dear” because the analysis showed that the figurative
language referred to something negative that was going to be done by the
person. Examples of these analyses are shown in Table 6.5.
166 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

NO, keep going YES

The words say something that probably

wouldn’t happen or would be really stupid!

NO, keep going YES

The words are probably one

of those things I have to think
about differently.

Do I know the meaning of all the

words?

NO, ask YES

Make a picture in my head of the

words.

Do all the words tell mainly about

something good?

Respond with a serious Respond with a smile and

look and sympathetic positive words.
NO YES
words.

Figure 6.25 Decision filter for detecting and responding to figurative language
 Program Content 167

Table 6.5 Examples of figurative language and analyses

Examples of figurative
Language Stage: Make a picture Stage: Mainly good?
Hyperbole: Some people really like pie. The pie is
Mile-high pie. huge so some people would be happy.
That’s a good thing.

Idioms: That’s weird to have cats and dogs

It’s raining cats and dogs. falling from the sky. They would break
my umbrella. I don’t think I would like
that so it’s not a good thing.

Metaphors/Similes: Lambs are just babies. They are pretty

He’s as gentle as a lamb. cute and playful. They probably
wouldn’t hurt anybody. Gentle as a
lamb is probably a good thing.

Personification: When I have a cough, I feel really bad. I

The car engine coughed and bet the car is sick. That’s not a good
spluttered. thing.

Checkpoint for dealing with figurative language: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did
we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Verbal-Linguistic

Interpersonal

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to deal with figurative language stretches
the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to determine if a statement is an
instance of figurative language, he is being pressed to look at a
broader linguistic concept.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The child is required to process verbal
information selectively, retain it and then analyze it in order to
168 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

determine if it is an instance of figurative language. Then he uses this

information to adjust how he responds.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. By the child’s
trying to determine if the other person’s statement is an instance of
figurative language, he is being pressed to understand the other
person’s thinking and/or intention.

Learning to detect and respond to real friends

One large concern about children with autism is their potential to be victimized
by others. Children with autism tend to be very honest and fair-minded people
and they typically assume others will be the same. Therefore, it is critical that we
help the child understand the difference between a real friend and someone who
may try to ‘use’ him or hurt him. The original idea was presented in a workshop
by the Geneva Centre for Autism from Toronto, Canada.

Table 6.6 Detecting real friends

Real friend Pretend friend NOT a friend

Acts the same way with you as Acts differently with you than Ignores you most of the
he does with all his friends. he does with other people. time.

Acts like he is happy to see Sometimes acts like he is happy Talks about mistakes you
you. to see you but other times he made and tells other people
does not want to talk to you. about your mistakes.

Asks you to do things with Asks you to do things he Asks you to do things you
him and to help out. doesn’t want to do. should not do.

May try to protect you from May say he doesn’t want to be May try to make fun of you
problems. your friend if you don’t do or and say mean things about
say what he wants. you to other people.

Carefully review each characteristic in Table 6.6 with the child. Make sure the
child understands the words and concepts. You may wish to change some of the
wording to help the child understand. Act out different scenarios that are
examples of each characteristic but be cautious about depicting negative behav-
iors as some children will become overfocused on them.
Once the child has learned about real friends, pretend friends and
not-a-friend, he needs to learn how to deal effectively with each type. Table 6.7
sets out some guidelines. Discuss and define each feature with the child. The
 Program Content 169

notion of paying attention to your real friend will need to have clear guidelines
of how much attention is enough and how much is too much. That is, help the
child understand the difference between being friendly versus what might
appear to be ‘stalking’. It is usually best to spell out very specifically what the
child should do, such as in terms of how many times to call them on the phone
each day. For the “Pretend friend” and “Not a Friend”, the child should be
coached to try ignoring them as the first step rather than running immediately to
an adult. The goal in all of the child’s programming is to help him become as
self-sufficient as possible. However, if the other child continues to ‘bug’ him, he
should be encouraged to seek adult assistance.

Table 6.7 How can I act with a…

Real friend Pretend friend NOT a friend

Pay attention to him the same way Tell him if he said something that Ignore him and talk
he pays attention to me. Listen to is unfair or mean. to an adult if the
him. not-a-friend keeps
trying to bug you.

Say “thank you” to his Say “no thanks” and ignore him. Ignore him and walk
compliments and for helping me. away. Talk to an adult
if the not-a-friend
keeps trying to bug
you.

Checkpoint for detecting and responding to real friends: What Learning Preferences and
Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Interpersonal

Feeling

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child to detect and respond to real friends
stretches the Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with an Intuiting preference tend to see the big
picture. By prompting the child to determine if a person is a real
friend or not, he is being pressed to look at broader concepts.
170 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and try
to meet them. The issue of real friends prompts the child to consider
others’ intentions for interacting with him.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. In determining if
the other person is a real friend or not, the child is being pressed to
try to understand the other person’s thinking and/or intentions.
 Chapter 7

Program Process

MEDIATED LEARNING
The over-riding goal of the Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) program is to
help children with autism develop the skills and strategies needed to continue
learning on their own. The program enhances the child’s cognitive growth and
his ability to adapt to changing situations and demands. The self-limiting
learning style of the child with autism is well-recognized. Our job is to engage
him, draw him out and extend his abilities.
The process used for instruction is one of mediating learning rather than
simply ‘teaching.’ Mediation of learning is a strikingly different dynamic
process, compared to teaching for the simple transfer of information, facts and
skills. Mediation activates learners and teaches them how to learn so they
become increasingly self-motivated and autonomous.
When I was first introduced to the Mediated Learning Experience, devel-
oped by Reuven Feuerstein, a visionary Israeli psychologist, I experienced a
large cognitive stretch. I was not used to thinking in terms of the ‘big picture’ of
learning. I struggled with the concepts and assumptions of mediated learning
but, with time and experience, I improved in my ability to mediate effectively.
The empowerment and growth I was able to activate in the children was striking.
Through mediated learning, the adult strives to help the learner understand
and deal more effectively with the world and with other people. Mediators
within the LPS model include all adults helping the child develop and learn.
Older siblings and other children can also develop skills for mediating learning.
Mediated learning is a natural part of typical interactions between parent and
child but here it is made more intensive, intentional and explicit. The mediator
acts as:
• a filter who helps sift through and select important information

171
172 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• an interpreter, guide and elaborater to help the child derive rules and
principles beyond the ‘here and now’
• a catalyst to help arouse curiosity and interest in the child
• a bridge to connect new learning with current knowledge and to
other situations and tasks.
Noting and understanding regularities, patterns and predictability in the world
are central to a mediational approach to teaching. The adult helps the child filter
and select meaningful and understandable information, interpret that informa-
tion and elaborate on it. The child is an active participant who is consistently
challenged at a level that prompts him to develop new knowledge and skills. The
child is enticed to explore and learn and he is ‘stretched’ from what he typically
does to what he is capable of doing. Such a relationship between child and
mediator requires both careful selection of tasks as well as a trusting
relationship with the adult.

(in effective learning environments) Children’s curiosity and persistence

are supported by adults who direct their attention, structure their experi-
ences, support their learning attempts, and regulate the complexity and
difficulty levels of information for them. (Bransford et al. 2000, p.101)

The mediator is also a ‘bridge’ between the child and the world. Generalization is
made explicit in mediated learning such that the child is guided to determine
other settings and tasks where concepts, rules and strategies can be used.
Bridging helps the child understand how learning principles can be extended
into daily situations.
Mediation is a highly verbal process in which key elements and features are
labeled. Mediators talk about the important features and processes, the rules and
regularities and the connections. However, this does not mean that the child is
bombarded with talking. The amount of talking is geared to the needs and toler-
ance of each child. Key messages are supported by visual cues, such as printed
symbols and words when and where needed. In the early stages, short simple
phrases are used with the child. As the child grows and develops, these key
phrases are extended to more complex discussions. Mediators do not have ‘cog-
nitive secrets’. They make explicit what the child is experiencing and what
learning processes are taking place.
 Program Process 173

At the end of this chapter will be a Checkpoint. This will be used to

summarize the Learning Preferences and Strengths incorporated within the
strategies and provide any needed explanations. In addition, other prefer-
ences and strengths not typical to children with autism will be noted and
described as Challenges.

SEVEN PILLARS OF MEDIATED LEARNING

Over the years, I developed a set of seven features or pillars of the mediated
learning experience that are critical to advancing development in children with
autism. These pillars form essential underpinnings to the child’s learning experi-
ence.
When using the Seven Pillars of Learning, the mediator takes on the follow-
ing major roles:
• designing tasks and the learning experience
• leading and facilitating the learning process
• enhancing the child’s awareness of himself and of the process of
learning
• building on or neutralizing prior knowledge and experience
• nurturing and engaging the child’s preferences, strengths and
interests.
The Seven Pillars of Learning include those shown in Figure 7.1: Shared Partici-
pation, Reciprocity, Meaningfulness, Feeling of Competence, sense of Mastery
and Control, Metacognition and Learning Processes.
The first five pillars center on social-emotional aspects of learning,
acknowledging the importance of the affective side of education. Cooperation,
sense of belonging and self-confidence are central to Shared Participation and
Reciprocity. Meaningfulness provides the ‘hook’ for learning to help intrigue
and engage the child and make learning more fun. Feeling of Competence and
Mastery and Control provide the child with a sense of power and competence in
ways that support educational and developmental goals. The remaining two
pillars are more cognitive in nature. Metacognition helps the child develop
autonomy and self-evaluation which ultimately lead to a sense of freedom
and competence in learning. He is helped to develop problem-solving, critical
thinking and creative thought. Learning Processes focus on the child’s
174 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Seven Pillars of
Mediated Learning

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 7.1 Seven pillars of mediated learning

understanding of the need for effort in learning and tolerance for repetition in
order to achieve mastery.
All seven pillars work to enhance and extend the typical Learning Preferences
and Strengths of children with autism. The role of the mediator and of the child
will be defined for each of the pillars. A description of how the implementation
of each of these features should feel, sound and look is also included.

1. Shared Participation
Shared Participation refers to the greater equality the child plays in the
teaching/learning process using a mediational approach. Through
Shared Participation, the child is drawn into the center of the learning
process. The child is prompted to be an active participant and not just
the passive recipient of information and knowledge. This helps the
child develop a sense of cooperation, belonging and connection with
the mediator and the learning process. The child also learns to trust his
own abilities and develop a sense of optimism about learning.
Mediator role. Before attempting Shared Participation, the adult must
carefully observe the child’s verbal and nonverbal ‘messages’ in order to identify
how the child typically exhibits participation. This is the starting point from
which to grow and expand.
 Program Process 175

The mediator engages the child directly to think about and solve problems
on his own and to draw on previous experiences and knowledge. He helps the
child focus and maintain attention to the task or experience, enticing the child
into the center of the learning process. The child is helped to persist with tasks
and to overcome obstacles; that is, develop frustration tolerance. The child must
sense that there is nothing he can say or do that will make you reject him; you
may disagree but he can always trust you. He is provided with an environment
that permits the dignity of risk.
Child role. Through Shared Participation, the child learns to trust the adult
and feel comfortable in ‘guessing’ or giving a ‘stab’ at a task. He begins to view
the adult as someone who is consistently willing and able to assist him. He
knows the adult will encourage and assist him if and when needed. The child
must clearly understand that he is expected to participate and be receptive to
other people’s ideas and to new experiences.
Feel. The adult provides social, cognitive and emotional support to the child.
The ‘feel’ of the relationship is that both people are on a quest together, with
neither having ‘the’ answer or solution to the present situation. The child must
be consistently given the message that he is accepted and valued as a human
being and as a learner. He must also know that he is safe and that you will not just
leave him hanging. You will help him overcome obstacles and feel supported in
his learning. On the other hand, the child must be given the message that he is
expected to participate in the learning activities.
Sound. The term “we” is used a great deal to ensure the notion of sharing is
consistently incorporated. For example, the adult says, “Oh my gosh, look what
we’ve got here!” which are words to focus and engage the child. The adult then
can proceed to: “What do you think we’re supposed to do here?” and perhaps
“That looks pretty tricky but we’ve got good brains.” If you see other possible
solutions to a task, use statements such as: “We seem to disagree on how we see
the problem. Maybe we could look at it this way?” These last statements engage
the child and give him a sense of competence while prompting him to try differ-
ent approaches when needed.
Look. In order to achieve Shared Participation, the learning environment
needs to be predictable and well-organized. Once the child has become familiar
with the expectations and activities and he learns to trust the adult, his participa-
tion will increase dramatically. The ‘look’ of Shared Participation is the mediator
and child head-to-head puzzling over a task, activity or experience.
176 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

2. Reciprocity
Reciprocity refers to the dynamic back and forth connection
between the mediator and child. The adult–learner relationship
is a dynamic one where both influence each other and learn
from each other. One person can influence more than the other
at times and they balance each other at other times.
Mediator role. The adult’s goal is to stretch the child’s thinking
and learning beyond the present point. Sometimes, it means
backing up a bit to re-establish important underpinnings,
including a trusting relationship with the child. The adult must
consistently make judgements about the child’s learning in order
to ensure that his experience is neither too easy nor too difficult.
The adult must also help the child reduce impulsiveness and sustain his
effort with a task or experience. This means that the adult will help the child
reduce defensiveness and negative feelings as well as to model self-reflection
when approaching and attempting a task.
The adult must be open to new experiences or new ‘twists’ on experiences.
Be prepared to answer questions from the child even if they are unexpected.
This is an opportunity to model self-reflection like, “Gee, let me think a minute
about that.” It is also a chance to ask the child for more information and to
provide feedback to him.
Child role. The child develops a sense of his own ability to influence others
within a ‘true’ reciprocal relationship. The child also continues to learn that the
adults will support his attempts; he is not in a ‘sink or swim’ relationship. At the
same time, he must learn that he is expected to strive for the best he can do.
Feel. There should be a calm sense of action–reaction. The adult must form a
positive trusting relationship with the child. The child must sense that the adult
will gently stretch his thinking as well as support him. Careful observations of
the child will allow you to develop an understanding of his signs and signals of
learning versus stress.
The ‘feel’ of Reciprocity is also one of expectation. Each participant is
expected to be engaged, providing and seeking information where and when
necessary. The child should learn also that his actions influence others and he is
an agent of change.
The child should feel a sense of competency and self-determination as
learning proceeds. In addition, the child develops an understanding of the
amount of effort he needs to provide in order to learn.
 Program Process 177

Sound. The majority of sounds emitting from a reciprocal relationship are

positive and joyful. Reciprocity can be totally nonverbal or highly verbal,
dependent on the child, the task or activity and the setting. For example, when
playing in a sand or rice table, children are typically quite silent and are often not
interested in others’ talk.
Look. The ‘look’ to Reciprocity is that of a finely choreographed dance. The
adult and child become partners within the learning/teaching process where the
adult leads the child some of the time but changes directions or motions in
response to the child. The ‘look’ also is one of rapt attention where both
partners are concentrating to the exclusion of everything else.

3. Meaningfulness
Meaningfulness refers to helping the child understand the purpose,
importance and value of a task or activity and how the concepts, ideas
or information may relate to his interests and experiences. The child’s
personal interest areas are included in the curriculum whenever and
wherever possible. This process helps make the learning personally
relevant to the child as well as fun. Meaningfulness acts as a ‘hook’ to
draw the child into a task or experience. Then the application of the
curriculum is stressed so that the child can see the real-world connec-
tions.
Mediator role. The adult tries to inspire wonder and curiosity in the
child. The child’s interests and preferences are incorporated into learning situa-
tions and tasks so that they are more meaningful to him. The adult asks ques-
tions to encourage the child to think and prompts the child to ask questions. The
child is also asked to provide his own thoughts about why it is important to learn
about the task or experience.
The adult must help the child understand the reasoning behind learning. The
adult acts to make the information, concepts and ideas explicit. Statements like
“we work systematically so we don’t miss anything” and “We can learn to count
so we can figure out how many dinosaurs you have” are examples of making the
process and content explicit and meaningful to the child.
Bridging is critical to the mediated learning experience. The adult systemati-
cally helps the child connect learning to other situations at school, at home, in
other important settings as well as into the future. Bridging is one of the most
important ways to promote transfer of learning.
Child role. The child should have a sense of adventure and excitement
about the task or experience. It is important for the adult to know the level of
178 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

stimulation needed by and tolerable to the child so that an optimal level is

reached and maintained.
Feel. The ‘feel’ is positive forward-moving energy and interest on the part of
both individuals. The child is comforted and alerted by the inclusion of his high
interest areas.
Sound. The child is always given a rationale for the task and the way it is
approached. The adult ‘hooks’ the child by including areas of keen interest and
helps him understand why he should be interested in the learning aspect of the
task. This needs to be imparted explicitly to the child as well as eliciting from him
how he thinks the information could be helpful.
Look. The ‘look’ of Meaningfulness is relaxed focus on the task or experi-
ence and motivation to engage in the activities.

4. Feeling of Competence
Feeling of Competence refers to ensuring the child thinks positively
about himself as a learner and feels he is good at what he is trying to
do. He must develop a sense of his own power and competence as a
learner. The child is more likely to develop actual competence in
learning by reinforcing these feelings. If the child develops a sense of
personal competence, he will be more willing to approach new and
more difficult tasks where success may not be immediate. He will
develop a sense of joy and satisfaction in learning.
Mediator role. The mediator must explicitly support and acknowl-
edge the child’s competence and abilities. Statements such as “you really thought
hard about that one” and “you have a really good brain” are examples. As the
child proceeds with learning, the adult should ask the child how well he thought
he did and prompt the child to rate his own performance. Both accurate and less
accurate performance should be gently challenged with questions, like: “That
was a good idea, how come you did it that way?”; you will note that the statement
gave the child positive feedback first so that he does not become defensive.
Through this process of asking the child to explain his approach to tasks, we
learn more about his thinking and he will begin to rely more on his own thoughts
and feelings.
Errors by anyone should be looked at as opportunities for learning. The
adult could say things such as “I think I made a mistake. We won’t worry. Let’s
see how it happened,” and seize the chance to learn from the error. The adult
must be willing to admit his own ignorance about some things and/or his own
errors. If the child’s idea does not ‘fit’ with the adult’s, the adult needs to provide
 Program Process 179

positive feedback (e.g. “that’s an interesting idea”) and then pursue the child’s
thought processes. More often than not, the child did make some connection to
the lesson or topic at hand but it was not initially apparent to the adult. If, indeed,
the child was completely off-topic, he is still viewed as competent but his brain
may have gotten ‘distracted’. The child himself is not in error but parts of him
(brain, eyes, hands, ears) can go astray.
Child role. The child must learn to respect and trust both his own and the
adult’s judgement. We want him to be motivated toward achieving personal
competence and not just by completing tasks or being rewarded for his work.
The child must also learn to trust himself and be willing to try more difficult
and new tasks. An important issue is for the child to learn that mistakes mean
that he and his brain are learning. This optimism should pervade every aspect of
learning.

An occupational therapist was working with some children with autism on

riding bicycles. Over time, the children increased in their independence but
still experienced occasional tumbles. Any time a child wobbled or bumped
himself, the therapist would exclaim, “Oh, you are learning. When you
have an accident that means your body is learning how to ride
the bike.” One of the boys took a little tumble a few
days later and, over tears and a proud smile,
announced “I’m learning!”

Feel. The ‘feel’ is one of mutual trust and open and honest feedback among par-
ticipants.
Sound. On a frequent basis, the child needs to hear exactly what he did well
and that he has the ability to do many things in this world. There are simply no
‘wrong’ or ‘bad’ answers or ideas. To children with autism, praise should state
specifically which aspect of their performance was done well. Using sweeping
statements like “you are wonderful” without specific information about his per-
formance could arouse distrust in the child.
Look. Increasingly, the child should exhibit more relaxed approaches to tasks
and willingness to try things by himself. The child looks like he is alerting
himself and approaching tasks with greater confidence and self-assurance.
180 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

5. Sense of Mastery and Control

Sense of Mastery and Control refers to the child’s developing an
understanding of his own learning strengths and preferences and
how he has the ability to master a task and an area of learning. He also
learns that he has power to make good learning choices and begins to
develop a sense of responsibility for himself and his learning.
Mediator role. A sense of Mastery and Control is achieved by
setting up a learning environment that supports the child’s learning
preferences and strengths, including those described in Chapter 5,
Program Structure. The adult–child relationship helps stretch and
challenge the child’s abilities and knowledge. The adult provides the child with a
sense of control by arranging schedules and tasks so that the child can have
some ‘say’ about the tasks and activities he will be doing and/or the order in
which he does them. The ‘actual’ control the child is allowed to have is up to the
adult. For example, I typically indicate to the child that I would like us to do three
things. I then lay out three picture or word cards and ask the child to decide the
order of activities. This really constitutes a minor concession to the child but it
provides him with a positive sense of control.
An important role of the adult is to help the child strive for mastery and to
develop a sense of the effort needed to achieve it. We want to develop a sense of
‘there, it’s done! I did it all by myself!’ in each child. This will start with relatively
small, ‘easy’ tasks but, over time, the complexity and difficulty will increase and
the child will be helped to rise to the challenge.
Child role. The child should feel that he has some ‘say’ in what is done and
how it is done. As described above, the ‘say’ can be in making small decisions but
the child must have a sense that what he does and says can have an impact.
The child must also learn to strive for mastery. Mastery occurs where, after
effort and practice, the child’s knowledge and skills come together. If the child is
provided with well-organized and sufficiently challenging tasks, he will begin to
learn the amount of effort that is needed for learning. The child will come to
enjoy complexity and greater challenges, viewing them as hurdles he can
surmount rather than barriers.
The child should become increasingly aware of the improvements he is
making in learning and ascribe these changes to his own knowledge and effort.
Interestingly, people with learning disabilities often perceive learning in others
as ‘magical’ and requiring no effort. They do not realize that others use strategies
to help themselves learn. The person with learning disabilities does not recog-
nize this and assumes learning is effortless for everyone except him. Children
 Program Process 181

with autism are likely to have the same misconception if we do not help them
develop a sense of the effort, precision and knowledge needed for learning.
Feel. The ‘feel’ in this situation is one of ‘I can do it’ and ‘wow, I did it!’ Ini-
tially, the accomplishments may be small but the feeling of Mastery and Control
is strong.
Sound. The sound arising from this learning process is one of shared effort
and joy. The child is encouraged with statements such as: “It’s a little bit tricky
but you can use your good brain,” and “I saw you stop and think about that one
and you did it! Well done, you worked and thought hard and you did it.”
Look. The ‘look’ of Mastery and Control is independence and pride. The
child takes over increasing responsibility for his learning and does so with confi-
dence.

6. Metacognition
Metacognition refers to understanding your own thinking in
terms of what it means to learn. It includes planning, monitor-
ing and revising your approach. Metacognition also involves
reflecting on your learning strengths and needs, what works for
you and when and where you need to use strategies. Thinking is
emphasized throughout all programming and interactions
within the LPS model to help each child learn to direct his own
cognitive efforts. The goal is to help the child develop more
autonomy and freedom in learning.
Mediator role. The adult’s job is to help the child understand the overall
thinking and learning that he has gained from an experience or task. That means
that we make the child’s thinking explicit so that he can learn to evaluate and
manage his own learning. The adult prompts the child to understand that he has
control over his thinking and that he can control the processes necessary for
learning such as remembering, concentrating, memorizing and guessing.
The adult explicitly models and discusses the thinking that is happening and
the processing required. These can start off with very simple language and
actions like: “Okay, brain you need to think,” while pointing to your temple.
Increasingly, the language and concepts become more complex like: “Wow, I
really got distracted there. I need to tell my brain just to ignore that silly noise and
keep thinking,” and “That’s too hard for me. Oops, just a minute, I’ve got a good
brain. I just need to take my time and think hard.” The child will pick up on these
models and start imitating your words and actions.
182 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Child role. The child is initially expected to attend to your modeling and then
attempt to imitate your words and actions. With enough consistency on the
adult’s part, children typically start imitating within a short period of time. They
also will start generalizing to other settings and tasks. Over time, the child will
internalize the metacognitive strategies and use them spontaneously.
Incrementally, the child learns to reflect on what he knows, what he does not
know, what he needs to learn and what the task demands are. He becomes aware
of what he learned, how easy or difficult a task was, how he could do better next
time, whether he needs some help and how he felt about his learning. The child
will learn to ask himself questions like “What am I doing?”, “Why am I doing
this?”, “How does it (this approach) help me?” and “How could I do better next
time?”
The child learns to understand his own abilities and mental processes. He
also begins to attribute success or failure to his own actions, intentions and
beliefs. The child starts to understand he can control the conditions needed for
learning by practising, rehearsing, participating actively and using his learning
strengths.
Feel. The ‘feel’ is one of the child’s sensing the power of his own brain and
his ability to learn. It is a positive and directed energy, like when a forward gear is
engaged in a car.
Sound. The ‘sound’ is highly verbal during introduction and practice of the
concept and strategies. If the child is low verbal, many of the metacognitive
strategies can be depicted visually for him to select and use.
Look. The ‘look’ is one of confidence and increasing autonomy. The child is
seen to plan and sequence his own work, monitor his progress, assess his own
performance and seek help when needed. He is also observed to apply the strat-
egies he has learned in different settings and with different tasks.

7. Learning Processes
Learning Processes are the mental activities we use to help make our
learning more effective and efficient. The framework for learning is
an information-processing model. This model is useful for depict-
ing the multiple factors involved in learning and in higher-order
thinking skills. Like a computer, a person’s mind is depicted as
taking in information, performing operations on it to change its
form and content, storing and locating it and generating responses
to it. The three main phases of information processing are shown
in Figure 7.2.
 Program Process 183

Skills discussed in this section will focus on helping the child’s:

• intake of information, including perceiving it through the senses or
modalities, such as sight, hearing, feel and movement
• integration and elaboration of the information, connecting it with other
things he knows and storing the information, and
• output or expression of knowledge which involves retrieving the
information and planning and expressing thinking and reasoning.
For example, at the Intake phase, children with autism tend to have difficulty
shifting attention and in determining what information is most relevant and
important. They may try to take in all of the information available and become
overloaded. On the other hand, the child may take in a piece of information that
is not central to the present task and respond based on that information. Chal-
lenges are also found at the stages of Integration and Expression. Because of
this, Learning Processes are consistently targeted and emphasized during activi-
ties and experiences with the child. The goal is to help the child develop more
effective modes of thinking, learning and problem solving. A form for observ-
ing how a child approaches tasks and activities is included in Appendix III. This
form will help you determine areas that need attention in terms of program
content. It can also be used to monitor the child’s progress in developing
learning skills.
Mediator role. The adult helps the child learn how to manage his thinking,
efforts and time in order to persist with tasks and to use flexible approaches. The
child’s learning experiences are mediated so he can ‘extract’ the main principles.
The adult models statements about the principles and learning strategies to help
the child learn and solidify them and their rationale.
The child is exposed to a balance of specific examples and general principles
during tasks and experiences. The adult does not use directive approaches to
‘teaching’ the child; instead, she provides guidance to aid the child’s understand-
ing of his taking in, integrating and expressing information and ideas as
described in Chapter 6, Program Content.
Child role. The child is closely engaged in the process so that his depth of
understanding of learning principles and strategies is enhanced. He develops an
understanding of his own learning preferences and strengths and his challenges.
He also learns to identify central and secondary information and what may be
confusing to him. The child is helped to monitor his progress and persist with or
change his approach.
184 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The child is engaged in discerning ways of thinking and learning that can be
used in a variety of different settings. The child is armed with ways to continue
on his own to learn new things. He can then apply the processes to different
content in a variety of subjects and to a wide range of settings.
Feel. The ‘feel’ of Learning Processes is consistently cognitive and factual.
Emphasis is placed on the learning and cognitive resources needed to deal effec-
tively with tasks and experiences and to derive strategies and principles from
them. There is no sense of ‘failure’; not being able to complete a task accurately
is viewed by both participants as an opportunity for learning.
Sound. The ‘sound’ is positive information sharing between the participants,
focused on advancing the child’s understanding of himself as a learner.
Look. The ‘look’ of Learning Processes is a shared quest of both the child
and mediator trying to understand how to tackle a learning task or experience.

WAYS TO BEGIN MEDIATING

The Seven Pillars of Mediated Learning are an integral part of interactions with
the child. The previous section provided overviews of participant roles and how
the mediation feels, sounds and looks. If you review Chapter 6, Program
Content, you will note the inclusion and integration of the pillars in the proce-
dures and strategies described. The ‘art’ of mediational learning requires not
only these procedures and strategies but also careful attention to the concepts
described in the present chapter.
You will begin including mediational approaches as you implement program
content. It is not until you become comfortable and fluent in both program
structure and content that you will be able to start focusing on refining your
skills in creating a mediated learning experience for the child. Be patient with
yourself. You cannot expect immediate facility at being a mediator of learning.
When you watch an expert, like Reuven Feuerstein mediation looks so easy and
simple. When you try it yourself, you will find that it is much more complex and
multi-faceted. A great deal of practice, thought and feedback is needed to
become an effective mediator.
As noted previously, the majority of the pillars focus on the affective side of
learning for the child. An essential part of mediation is gaining and maintaining
the child’s sense of trust in the adults helping him learn. This requires the adult
to demonstrate acceptance of the child for who he is, solid reliability, openness
and honesty and careful alignment between his actions and beliefs. These
features were captured in the preceding discussion of the pillars and are incor-
porated into all interactions with the child.
 Program Process 185

Supporting adult–child interactions

In the early stages of working with a child with autism, ensuring trust within
mediational interactions is critical. The child must learn that he is expected to
respond to comments and questions but that the adult will support his efforts. A
framework for doing this is presented in Table 7.1.
After the adult asks a question or makes a comment to which the child is
expected to respond, the most important ‘gift’ to the child is time. Allow the
child extended time to process the information.
If the child does not respond at all or responds in an incomplete or inaccu-
rate manner, the adult takes responsibility by repeating the question or
comment. The child is provided with positive encouragement for any attempts.
It is heartbreaking to see any child ‘shut down’ by an adult who does not give the
child a chance to respond and does not attempt to engage the child and make
sense of his attempts.
Give him credit for attempts and praise him for any positive aspects of his
response. Find any part of what he did that even indicated he was engaged. For
example, you may comment on how he seemed to be thinking hard or looking
carefully.
The expected response is then modeled for the child and practiced with him
so he can experience greater success next time. Support for his sense of Mastery
and Control, feelings of competence and shared participation is crucial to his
learning and his development of trust.

Table 7.1 Ways to develop and support child interactions

Adult asks a question or makes a

comment Explanation
1. Provide time for the child Pause to allow the child time to answer. Humans typically
to process the information expect a response within three to five seconds and become
and formulate his response. restless after that.
Protect the child by simply waiting, sometimes up to several
minutes. You may also protect his place in conversation by
reminding others whose turn it is: “It is Bobby’s turn right
now.” This provides a good opportunity for others to learn
patience and respect while the child is given a sense of
acceptance and that he can rely on you to help protect his
rights.

If the child does not respond within 10 to 15 seconds or does not respond in a complete and accurate manner,
move to Step 2.
186 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 7.1 continued

2. Restate the question. Ask the question a second time, giving the child the benefit of
re-hearing what was said as well as the benefit of longer
processing time.

If the child still does not respond or does not respond in a complete and accurate manner, move on to step 3.

3. Rephrase the question. Use different words and shorter sentences that might help the
child understand and may increase the probability of a
response or more complete answer.

If the child still does not respond or does not respond in a complete and accurate manner, move on to step 4.

4. Provide guidance. Give the child direct hints and clues. This can include
pointing to the object he is supposed to name, reminding him
of a previous response or experience or providing him with
the first sound of the word.

If the child still does not respond or does not respond in a complete and accurate manner, move on to step 5.

5. Provide a model for Provide a model for the child so he can learn what is
imitation. expected. Phrasing the model in the form of “you could say
…” allows him to preserve some dignity. Then ask him to say
all or part of your model and praise him for his effort.

Asking questions to stretch learning

A central mediational approach for developing metacognition and learning pro-
cesses is asking questions of the child. By asking questions, the adult can help
the child take in new knowledge, assimilate it into things he already knows and
change his knowledge with the addition of the new information.
The mediator’s role is also to elicit evidence of the child’s thinking as well as
to help the child develop new rules. One of the best ways to do this is with
‘process’ questions. They are questions that cannot be answered with a simple
“yes” or “no” or other brief responses. Process questions act as ‘thinking
starters’ that enhance and solidify learning.
The step from reinforcing any attempts at responding to expecting the child
to answer process questions is large. There are important steps in between that
can support his sense of trust while stretching his thinking and verbal language
skills. Below and in Table 7.2 is a continuum of different adult mediational
responses that can progressively elevate the child’s learning to higher levels of
abstraction.
At Level 1, the child’s learning is confirmed and continues to be at a concrete
level. For example, the child is told “That’s right. That is a dog.”
 Program Process 187

Level 2 responses from the adult raise the child’s learning from the immedi-
ate concrete experience to thinking about and expressing his knowledge.
Process questions that facilitate this type of learning include:
• How did you do that?
• How did you know it’s right?
• Why is that important?
• Why is this one not okay?
Level 3 elevates this further by prompting the child to think and express his ideas
about the important characteristics of an entire category of information.
Example process questions are:
• How is that the same as/different from…?
• What should you do after…?
• How did you know that is the best one?
• Why is this better than that one?
Level 4 responses prompt the child to think analytically and creatively. The child
is asked to think hypothetically in a ‘what-if ’, ‘how-else’ manner. Sample process
questions include:
• Where else would you…?
• How else could you…?
• When else might you…?
• Why do we…?
At Level 5, the child is prompted to think at a higher level which involves more
global analysis. He is asked to determine overall rules, strategies and principles
involved in the learning. Sample questions are:
• What if we…?
• How else could you…?
• What would happen if…?
• What else could you…?
188 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 7.2 Continuum of levels of learning and abstraction based on adult responses

Level of child
learning and Adult response to child’s comments of
abstraction question Child learning
Level 1 Acknowledge and/or summarize The others are listening to me and
what the child says. what I say is important. He may learn
Example: “That does look like a no new information but is encouraged
British Rail Class 153 DMU.” in his attempts at communicating.

Level 2 Encourage the child to elaborate on Learns others are interested in his
his response. knowledge. Learns to think beyond the
Example: “How do you know that is ‘here and now’ and to justify and
a British Rail Class 153 DMU?” solidify his knowledge by verbalizing it.

Level 3 Encourage the child to generate Learns others are interested in his
alternatives and think of ways to knowledge and to think beyond the
compare them. ‘here and now’. Learns about
Example: “What makes that train important features of different
different from other ones?” alternatives.

Level 4 Encourage child to form hypotheses. Learns to think beyond the ‘here and
Example: “What would happen if we now’. Learns how to think analytically
changed the colors of that train?” and creatively by hypothesizing,
generating alternatives and evaluating
them.

Level 5 Encourage child to derive overall rule Learns to look at the process he is
or principle. using to learn and extend it to other
Example: “When else would you…?” settings or situations.

Checkpoint for program processes: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3

Challenge: Extraversion Intuiting Feeling Verbal-

Linguistic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
 Program Process 189

Notes: Teaching and guiding the child through mediating his learning experi-
ences challenges Learning Preferences and Strengths in the following ways:
• Extraversion – people with an Extraversion preference tend to think
out loud and respond more quickly to others. By prompting the child
to share participation in tasks and experiences and to explain his
thinking and reasoning, he is being pressed to become more
immediately responsive to others around him.
• Intuiting – people with Intuiting preferences are able to see the larger
scope of an issue and the over-riding concepts. The mediation
process stretches the child to look beyond the details of a situation or
task and begin to understand the wider implications and principles.
• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and
want to meet them. Expecting shared participation and reciprocity
from the child presses him to consider and respond to others’
actions and interactions.
• Verbal-Linguistic – people with Verbal-Linguistic strengths use words
to think and remember. The child is prompted to respond to others
during interactions with them and express his thinking and
reasoning.
• Logical-Mathematical – people with Logical-Mathematical strengths
enjoy forming hypotheses, developing paradigms and building
arguments. As the child is prompted to be a more active and
analytical learner, Logical-Mathematical abilities are emphasized.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. By pressing the
child to participate in interactions with others, he is being prompted
to try to understand the other person’s thinking or intention.
• Intrapersonal – Intrapersonal strengths involve understanding your
strengths and limitations and your ability to apply your thinking. The
child is helped to develop more self-awareness of his learning
preferences, strengths and challenges within interactions with the
mediator.
 Chapter 8

Behavior in Children with Autism

WHAT IS BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM?

Behavior is an action or reaction to internal and/or external events, people,
objects or stimulation. It is a function of the interaction between the person and
the situation.
In all children, behavior is typically either internalized or externalized.
Children with autism often experience extreme patterns of internalization you
may not notice initially. There may be a lengthy period of time during which the
child’s internalized behavior builds up. The child may exhibit small changes or
symptoms, like adhering more rigidly to routines or increased sucking or
chewing of his clothes. Usually, in retrospect, caregivers who know the child
well can put the pieces together and recognize when the build up started. With
such a protracted time-line, determining the cause or causes can be challenging.
Externalized behavior is usually either self-directed or directed to other
people or objects. In children with autism, self-directed behavior can include
‘odd’ mannerisms, such as handflapping, humming, shrieking or pacing. Some
self-directed behaviors can be harmful, such as when the child bites himself or
bangs his head.
Externalized behavior can be toward objects or people. Object-related
behavior can include throwing things or damaging them, such as tossing a chair
or tearing a book. People-related behavior can include scratching, hitting out,
pulling the other person’s hair or biting them.
After observing and working with many children with autism over the years,
I see behavior as neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’ – it is communication. That is, if a child
is showing internalized or externalized behaviors, he is telling us something
about how he feels or about what is happening around him or what he perceives
to be happening.

190
 Behavior in Children with Autism 191

We, as the adults in the child’s life, need to be sensitive to these indicators
because he is trying to let us know something is awry.

WHAT IS PROBLEM BEHAVIOR?

When should we consider a behavior to be problematic enough that something
should be done? I believe that a problem behavior is one that:
• interferes with the learning and development of the child himself
• interferes with the learning and development of other children
• causes a potentially unsafe situation and/or
• is socially and/or culturally inappropriate or unacceptable.
This definition is much broader than is typically used. It allows the child to
behave in ‘unconventional’ ways so long as they do not meet any or all of the
four criteria above. If the child wants to stand while doing a task rather than
sitting, it would not meet any of the criteria above and it would be permitted at
least in early learning situations. If the child wants to work under his desk or a
table, it would be allowed because it does not meet any of the criteria. A child
who walks the perimeter of a room on first entering it and then settles to work
would be given the opportunity to do so. There are very likely sensory reasons
for all of these behaviors. However, if a child is overfocused on chewing his
shirt or on loudly singing his favorite song and cannot move on to doing an
expected task, these would be considered problem behaviors. Children who
grab other children’s materials or who scratch other children are considered to
have problem behaviors because they interfere with the learning and develop-
ment of both him and the other children.
In terms of socially-appropriate behavior, it is not up to the therapist, adult,
support worker or other hired caregiver to decide what this is. In different
cultures, appropriate and/or acceptable behavior is defined quite differently. It
is critical that these issues are addressed with the child’s parents and they help
delineate what is acceptable in different situations within their family life. For
example, an issue of major importance may be that the child sit quietly at temple
or church or say “please” and “thank you”. In other families, these may be of
little importance.
The main focus in defining problem behavior is not on the adult’s prefer-
ences, desires or perceptions. It is of utmost importance in dealing with children
with autism to keep your cool and your objectivity. Dr. Carl Haywood (1990),
from Vanderbilt University, warned: “recognize that the child’s behavior is
192 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

neither random nor malicious but is motivated by some need, wish or impulse
on the part of the child that might be worth considering” (p.8).
Many times I have heard teachers, parents, and caregivers state that a child is
being ‘manipulative’ or ‘stubborn’ or is ‘trying to make my life difficult’. I recall
one teacher who told me I should not bother observing a seven-year-old client
in her classroom because his only problem was that “he lacked a work ethic”.
These words were clear indicators of adult frustration.
The behavior is the child’s attempt to communicate some need or feeling.
It is our role to consider what the child is trying to express. We need to recognize
that there is some legitimacy to the child’s needs and/or feelings that motivated
the behavior. Haywood (1990) stated it very well: “behavior is seldom just
plain bad but is more often ill-timed or set in the wrong place or directed
inappropriately” (p.8).

One boy I worked with for a few years said to me, “okay, Heather, you
f***ing b****” after I asked him to do something. I did not respond other
than by moving on to the next task. I had a feeling that, given his family and
their values and also the manner in which the child said the words, he had
no idea what they meant. Discussing the incident with his mother later, she
knew immediately where her son had learned the words. She also agreed
with me that her son could have substituted the words “cutie pie” and have
intended the same thing as his ‘swears’.
It still surprises me sometimes when a child with autism does not
understand appropriate situations for different language forms. Caution is
required when attempting to use typical society norms for judging behavior
in children with autism.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEHAVIOR AND STRESS

The word ‘stress’ has a negative connotation for most people. Stress is anything
that thrills us, worries us, scares us or threatens us. Stress can be a strong motiva-
tor and energizer at the appropriate intensity.
With too little stress or energy, a person may feel ‘bored’. For the child
with autism, if the arousal drops below an optimal level, he will likely seek
stimulation from other sources to keep himself alert. It may be in appropriate or
inappropriate ways, for example, he may withdraw, start chewing on his shirt or
poke another child.
 Behavior in Children with Autism 193

We all learn most optimally when there is a certain amount of stress, stimula-
tion and energy. Optimal levels of stress are dependent on a number of factors,
including the following:
• Child’s physical state – is he well-rested, did he eat within the last two to
three hours, is he feeling well, is he wearing comfortable clothing, is
he warm or cool enough, is he thirsty, did he have a change in
medication or start a new medication? If the child is not feeling
comfortable and well, his optimal range is reduced and he more
readily enters into distress. Children with autism are especially likely
to fall apart if they do not have adequate sleep or food.
• Adult’s physical state – if the parent, teacher, therapist, or caregiver is
tired, hungry, thirsty, or overly warm or cold, this discomfort can be
sensed by the child with autism and set him off.
• Child’s emotional state – this may be related to past history or current
events such as if his home life is disrupted or if he woke up feeling
‘grouchy’.
• Adult’s emotional state – children with autism are often ‘emotional
sponges’ who absorb but do not necessarily understand emotions
around them. Is the parent, teacher, therapist or caregiver stressed,
angry or anxious? All of these will be absorbed by the child and cause
him to be agitated.
• Learning environment – is it relatively quiet, is it calm? In a calm and
secure environment, the child’s optimal energy range is expanded.
• Learning task – is it new to the child, is it something he has done
many times in the past, is it challenging in terms of content or
process, does it prompt him to use verbal or fine motor skills that are
more difficult for him, is the task too lengthy, does the child fully
understand what is being expected of him? If the child has enjoyed
and been successful with this sort of task in the past or it is a topic
area of interest, the optimal energy range is extended.
With too much stress or stimulation, the child may enter a state of distress which
leads to anxiety. Performance and learning will then take a down-turn. Distress
is the point at which the child perceives that the demands of the situation exceed
his personal resources in terms of time, experience and abilities or skills. The
child with autism may shut down, internalize his concerns or act out when he
experiences distress.
194 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

cause internalized or
externalized problem behaviors

alert, focused, learning

DISTRESS
more efficiently
OPTIMAL

BORED seeks stimulation to maintain arousal;

may cause problem behaviors

Figure 8.1 Continuum of stress and related behaviours

For individuals with autism, the amount and type of stress and stimulation
needed to reach an optimal level is, at least initially, a fairly narrow range as seen
in Figure 8.1. That means the transition from under-stimulation to over-stimula-
tion and distress can happen quickly and without much forewarning.
Our goal in working with the child with autism is to help him:
• modulate the amount of stimulation he needs before reaching an
optimal level. Some children require intense stimulation, such as
motor or sensory activities, in order to alert them for optimal
learning. Other children require calming and centering activities to
prepare them for learning
• expand his range for optimal learning. This entails reducing both the
‘bored’ and ‘distress’ ranges by teaching the child metacognitive
strategies for self-regulation
• increase the consistency of his being able to attain and remain within
the optimal learning range.
While working with the child with autism, you cannot expect to hold him at the
optimal level of performance and arousal for long, at least in the early stages. I
use a rule of thumb: initial goals should be to maintain the child’s optimal
learning level for as many minutes as he is old. With two- to three-year-olds, this
is two to three minutes in the early stages of intervention. You may have to start
with his remaining on task for a matter of seconds, however.
After each increasingly longer work period, the child needs an opportunity
to ‘breathe out’. This means the child is helped to cycle through arousal and cen-
tering for optimal learning up to the edge of stress and back to a lower arousal
 Behavior in Children with Autism 195

level where he can take a breather. During the ‘breathing out’ period, he can
engage in an enjoyable preferred activity before he is expected to work again.
When we work to expand the child’s optimal range of learning, there will be
frequent times when you have him ‘hovering’ on the edge of distress. This is
often a delicate balance that requires careful sensitivity to things that may ‘push
him over the edge’. Processes for helping maintain the child within the optimal
range are well described in the previous chapter on mediated learning.

STRESSORS IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

Stressors are those things that push the child from optimal arousal with high
levels of performance and learning to distress and decreasing performance.
Optimal arousal is the state in which the child’s alertness and focus are such that
learning is more effective and efficient. Distress is the state at which the child
becomes over-stimulated and/or overwhelmed.
Naomi Quenk (1993, 2000) has performed extensive research into ‘type
dynamics’. She looked at each of the 16 personality types of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator® and found how different types react to stressors, what their distress
reactions are and what resources help them regain a state of equilibrium.
For people with Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) prefer-
ences, like children with autism, stressors tend to be those things that violate
their need for clarity, precision, planfulness, logical decision-making and time to
warm up to a situation. Strikingly, the stressors Quenk found for ISTJs parallel
what I have observed repeatedly in children with autism. They are summarized
in Table 8.1 with examples for children with autism.
Individual children will vary in relation to which stressors are their personal
‘distress buttons’. Observe the child in different settings to determine which
stressors are most likely to trigger him. A form for observing the child is
included in Appendix III.

DISTRESS REACTIONS IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

Once the child with autism has gone beyond an optimal level of stimulation and
has begun to experience stress and anxiety, it is usually not a long way to a
‘distress’ reaction.
Quenk (1993, 2000) found that typical responses of people with Introver-
sion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) preferences to high levels of stressors
include ‘overdoing’ their sensing function, either diving into detail or becoming
196 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.1 Typical stressors for people with Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging preferences

Examples of stressors for children with autism

Typical stressors for ISTJ
preferences School Home
environment is poorly materials, tasks and activity areas personal belongings are
organized are not clearly organized or not consistently in the
delineated same location

tasks are vague with poorly many options for activities are there is no clear order to
defined standards, available; approach and/or goals tasks or daily life, no
expectations, goals, priorities for tasks are left open-ended; agenda
materials for a task are simply
laid out in front of the child in
no particular order

decisions and methods are “I just want you to do it this “do this” (without
based on opinion or conjecture way.” explanation)
rather than reasoning and logic

other people’s incomplete or part of a craft is not cut out sibling or parent helps
imprecise work impacts the carefully, a word is misspelled or with a task but does not
quality of his work missing do it exactly as the child
expects or had in mind

sudden change without “I changed my mind.” “We adult tells the child they
forewarning and/or good aren’t going to do that today will go shopping later but
rationale after all.” A substitute teacher or the car tire is flat or the
worker just shows up with no adult decides to shop
forewarning another day or at a
different store

child is asked to ‘wing it’ and “Don’t worry, it’ll be okay this the child’s shirt is wet or
the reality and facts of the way.” “That’s good enough.” “It his hands are dirty and he
situation are ignored doesn’t need to be perfect.” is told to ignore it

new possibilities are presented “You already started but how “Let’s do it tomorrow.”
to the child after he has already about we do it this way?” “Let’s go swimming
made up his mind instead of skating.”

too many details or a great deal “then we can do this and this “get your ___, then ___,
of data are presented to him all and this” then ___, then ___”
at once

working too long or too hard child has spent a long time on child has expended a great
one task and still has not deal of energy on an
completed it to his satisfaction activity and is expected to
do more

high level of competition pressing the child to complete a sibling or peer is trying to
task faster or within a very short induce the child to engage
time limit in competition for
accuracy or speed
 Behavior in Children with Autism 197

overwhelmed by it. They may become highly emotional and begin to panic and
‘catastrophize’.
Again, the distress reactions found by Quenk are remarkably similar to those
found in children with autism. The child’s first response is often overdoing
sensing where he mouths or chews objects, spins or paces, flaps his hands, or
becomes overfocused on small details. The thinking preference may take a
downturn and feelings, often in their rawest forms, emerge with the child’s
melting down, becoming increasingly rigid and extremely fearful. Quenk’s
distress reactions for ISTJs are summarized in Table 8.2, along with examples
for children with autism.
Individual children will vary in their distress reactions. Observe the child in
different settings to determine how he typically reacts to the stressors identified
earlier. The form used for observing stressors, distress reactions and calming
strategies is included in Appendix III.

REGAINING EQUILIBRIUM IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

Quenk (1993, 2000) discovered that people with Introversion-
Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ) preferences tend to become calm again with
certain types of help or actions. Quiet, calm assistance, reassurance and quiet
time can soothe them. Sometimes, however, they have to play out the stress
reaction and ‘hit bottom’ before being able to regroup and re-emerge.
The calming strategies from Quenk, presented in Table 8.3, are ones we
commonly use with children with autism. The strategies help the child regain
control of his Sensing function and his ability to deal with details. They involve
his using his Introversion function to stop and take some time by himself. There
are also attempts to help him see the bigger picture and use his strong Thinking
function to consider the situation rationally and objectively.
We developed the acronym RESTORE to help us remember how to assist
the child in restoring his equilibrium after or during a stress reaction. The
RESTORE process encompasses most of the calming strategies noted above
and provides a specific sequence for both the adult and child. The process is
summarized in Table 8.3.
198 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.2 Typical distress reactions for people with Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging (ISTJ)
learning preferences

Distress reaction in ISTJ preference Examples of reactions by children with autism

focus on any act or action that involves chew clothing, flap hands, suck toys or other
touch, taste, smell, movement, hearing or objects, pace, bang head
vision

focus doggedly on details and facts organize and re-organize toys; over-focus on
detail or lack of detail on schedule or plan

distrust his understanding of details and have become upset over trivial things, such as the
difficulty focusing on relevant information wrong kind of pencil or crayon; worry about
his ability to finish a task

become impulsive and act without thinking hit, kick, or bite someone else; make hurtful
comments to others

experience confusion, anxiety and panic even child may appear calm but may start chewing
if appearing outwardly calm and unperturbed an object, his body may tighten up, his pupils
may dilate

become negative, unwilling to tolerate the child does not want to get an ice cream cone
unknown or the unfamiliar, sometimes being that he normally enjoys; refuses or becomes
unwilling to accept even known, familiar and upset at the mention of favorite or familiar
enjoyable activities things

erupt into extreme, harsh reactions child has a total melt down

imagine disastrous outcomes and see child fears there are monsters under his bed or
previously safe places as being dangerous or bees are everywhere
frightening; ‘catastrophizing’ like Chicken
Little

resist even minor changes in routine, rejects even fairly innocuous suggestions like:
procedures and goals “How about if we color this first?”; “How
about we put on your shirt first?”

begin to lose things, blame others for the “I can’t find my shoes. They’re gone.
loss Somebody took them!”

obsess about things causing stress and be “it’ll never get better”; “he will take my toy
unable to switch off and relax again tomorrow”

become very silent and unwilling to talk “nothing’s wrong”; “let me alone”; hide
about stresses

try to avoid a stressful situation or task “I don’t want to go to the gym.”; run away and
hide

blame other people or objects for the “he keeps taking my toys”; “he just wants to
difficulty; become suspicious about other take my favorite dinosaur”; “the monster will
people’s intentions eat me”; “Heather said I can’t do that.”
 Behavior in Children with Autism 199

Table 8.2 continued

Typical calming strategies for ISTJ preferences Examples for use with children with autism
unobtrusive help with some of the details “How about if we do this part tomorrow?”;
and facts that are overwhelming him; “How about if you do that part and I’ll do the
organizing and accomplishing small projects other part?”; covering up or removing parts of
or steps a task

time to recognize connections between a “The last time this happened, it worked out in
new event or activity and other experiences the end.” “Remember how much fun we had
he has had last time?”

getting away from the stressful situation quiet time in corner, library, tent or his
bedroom

time alone in a pleasant sensing environment swinging on a swing or hammock, playing in a

rice table or ball bin; chewing gum or other
textured food

specific and concrete validation of his “You have a really good brain but sometimes
competence and worth your eyes forget to look/your hands forget to
be gentle.”

reminding him of previous positive “Remember the last time this happened, you
outcomes fixed things up really well and did great work.”

Table 8.3 The RESTORE process

R Relax, rid yourself of any preconceptions for what reason the child may or may not
have for what he is doing or just did – reframe the child’s behavior in neutral,
observable terms.

E Empathize with him and express your concern for the child and his feelings.

S Soothe him silently, say little or nothing, hug him, rub his back or whatever soothes him;
sense his heart and breathing rates to remind yourself about the child’s stress reaction.

T Time alone is given to the child to calm down; allow him to do nothing or do something
that is not too stimulating; make sure it is also not too much fun for him because we
want him ultimately to get back to work.

O Organize the task or activity into smaller and/or more ‘do-able’ pieces; do this out of
the child’s line of vision as much as possible so sight of the task or object does not set
him off again.
200 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.3 continued

R Reinforce his feelings of competence, telling him briefly about how he has done
something similar before and/or how he has a good brain; prompt self-talk about his
own ability to control his thinking and actions; identify his positive characteristics or
contributions the child makes.

E Entice him to the task or activity, such as by expressing or showing your own
uncertainty about how to do it correctly, stating its positive or interesting features and/or
by trying it out yourself with or without other people; encourage him to think about
what happened and why and how he could behave differently next time in positive
terms.

One example of how you apply the RESTORE process is shown in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4 Applying the RESTORE process

EXAMPLE: A task is placed in front of Bobby and immediately he melts to the floor and
starts thrashing around. He whines “no, no, don’t want to”.

R Your immediate response is: “Well, fella, you can do it and you’re just trying to avoid
work today!”
STOP – take every judgement about the child’s behavior and reason about why he might
be behaving this way out of your mind. Look at Bobby objectively as a person in distress
who is trying to communicate something. Children with autism often grin and smile
when excited. They may appear to be enjoying something because of this facial
expression but it does not necessarily mean pleasure. If someone falls down, the child
may smile not because he thinks it is funny; he is exhibiting an expression of excitement.
DO NOT start thinking about what you may or may not have done correctly – this is
not the time.
Take a deep breath, count to five and calm yourself. Remember that children with autism
tend to be ‘emotional sponges’ so, if you become agitated, it is likely just to add to
Bobby’s state.
Also, if he is thrashing around, remove any objects or people from the immediate area
that may be in the ‘line of fire’.

E Exhibit some empathy by saying things like, “Hey, big guy, what’s the problem?” or “I’m
sorry you are so upset.”

S Sit back and let Bobby calm down a little.

If he is a child who responds to back rubs, rub his back.
If he is a child who responds to joint compression, use strategies learned from your
occupational therapist.
 Behavior in Children with Autism 201

T Leave him alone now that he has calmed somewhat. You could offer him some water or
juice or a piece of gum.
If his presence is interfering with other children’s work, you could usher him gently to a
quiet corner and set a timer to two to five minutes, explaining to him: “You can calm
your body for 2 (5) minutes.”

O Now is the time to look at the task you wanted him to do and decide what could
constitute ‘done’.
This is where you have to do some quick problem solving about what may have
triggered him.
You may decide to cut the task into smaller parts. Children with autism are highly
visually oriented and prefer to finish what they start so it could just upset him more if
you handed him back the worksheet and said, “just do three”. He can see that there are
many more items on the sheet and seeing them may trigger another reaction. You could
simply cut the worksheet in half.
If he has difficulty with fine motor skills, you may think about having him tell you the
answers and you write them for him or you do every second item for him.

R Bobby is calm by now and it is your time to draw him back into learning.
Your statements may be something like, “I am so glad you are calm now. You did a very
good job of telling your body to relax.” Then, “You have a really good brain and I know
you can do this work really well – sometimes it’s a little bit hard but you can just tell your
brain to think and your body to be calm.”

E Now you can entice him back to the task.

You may decide that the work is just too much for him that day, especially if it is a new
concept or something more difficult. At that point, say something like, “Oh man, I
guess I got confused. This silly worksheet is for another day. Here is the one we were
supposed to do.”
You may work at enticing him back by pointing to something he knows or likes on the
sheet: “Hey, look at this, this is your favorite number over here.”
You may also entice him by noting what he gets to do once he has finished the current
task. Even if it is not one of his favorite things, you can make it sound really desirable.
For example, you could say, “Wow, after this you get to go and wash your hands!”

THE ‘CRISIS PLAN’

Sometimes, you simply do not have the time or you are not in a reasonable
location to try these techniques. You may be in a time crunch and not have the
time or resources available to restore the child’s equilibrium. You may be in the
middle of a shopping center or at church and do not want to embarrass your
child or receive advice and judgement from people around you. The child’s
behavior may also be causing distress in other children around him.
202 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

That means you should always have a ‘crisis plan’. In the middle of a
shopping center or church, you may simply pick up the child, put him under your
arm and go to the car. If you cannot pick him up, you might just clear the area as
much as possible of anything he could hurt himself with or hurt others and let
him go for it until it blows over. Try your best to ignore well-meaning ‘critics’
and ‘advisors’ in the form of passers-by who feel compelled to give you advice
or criticize your child and you. Just tell them the child has special needs and you
know what you are doing.
It is of no use whatsoever to try to talk or reason with him when he is in a
state of distress. Your words and actions may simply aggravate the situation and
cause the child more distress. When children with autism are in a state of distress
their ability to process information is severely compromised and adding infor-
mation to his distress can make it worse.

WAYS TO AVOID DISTRESS REACTIONS

There are a number of ways to help the child avoid and deal with sources of
stress and anxiety that can cause problem behavior. Strategies of choice are
proactive and focused on preventing problems.
Use the information you obtained on stressors, distress reactions and
calming strategies from observing the child. This information will help you
determine the type of strategies needed and when and where they are necessary.
Below are seven major types of strategies used to prevent problem
behaviors.

1. Form rules about desired behaviors

Formation and use of rules was presented in the “Plans and routines” section of
Chapter 5 and in the “Control of emotions” section of Chapter 6. The present
discussion will focus on establishing rules to proactively define desired
behavior. They may involve undesirable behaviors such as screaming, whining,
calling others names or hitting.
Follow these steps:
• Identify behaviors that are key issues to the family and others
concerned with the child.
• Select one behavior to work on at a time.
• Define the desired behavior and find a positive label for it, if at all
possible. Some children can become over-focused on the negative
 Behavior in Children with Autism 203

behavior if it is mentioned. To them, the most salient information in

a statement like “don’t hit your brother” is “hit your brother”. If the
behavior is exhibited at specific times or in particular locations,
define them.
• Engage the child in forming the rule so that he feels part of the
decision-making in your relationship. Pair a visual reminder with the
rule.
• Practice the rule by acting out scenarios with the child. Ensure there
are opportunities for both you and the child to remind each other of
the rule.

One day a teacher showed me a Social Story™ written for one of her
students by a well-meaning support worker. The teacher was concerned
about how the story was written. I took one look at it and saw the title was
“I should not run away.” Knowing the child, my immediate response was “I
bet he got quite excited about that story and it really backfired.” The
teacher said that, when the child looked at the story, he indicated excitedly,
“Look, there’s me running away!”

Introduce it into daily life once the child seems to have a solid understanding of
the rule and its application. Acknowledge whenever the child uses the rule with
statements such as: “Wow, you used your gentle hands! Good remembering!”
If the child forgets, you can remind him and vice versa. Remain positive and
treat any errors as ‘forgetting’.
If the child ignores the rule or purposely violates it, sit down with him,
discuss the issues and try to reach a renewed understanding or a compromise.
Remind him of the social consequence of forgetting to use the rule, like “other
people will not want to be your friend”.
Provide sufficient time for the child to achieve automaticity with the rule
before introducing a new one. See Table 8.5 for examples of desired behavior
rules.
204 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.5 Examples of the desired behavior rule strategy

Example Visual Reminder

“We use gentle hands” – to remind the child that we do not grab We use gentle
objects or push others. Help the child understand what hands
“gentle” means by modeling with your hand. Then help him
gently stroke your hand and arm and his own. Repeatedly
label those actions as “gentle”.

We use kind
“We use kind words” – is a reminder not to use “mean words” words
that hurt other people. The term “kind words” can also be
associated with the physical reference to “gentleness”.
Provide the child with examples of kind words, like “please”
(versus just grabbing), “silly” (versus “stupid”) and “thank
you”.

“We use an inside voice” – is a reminder about self-regulation of

voice volume. Pair voice volume with pictures to show
“inside voice”, “outside voice” and “quiet”, like those shown.
Practice different loudness levels while singing familiar songs.
For the loud “outside voice”, the time should be relatively
brief because “that is the voice we use when we are outside”. Quiet voice
Pair different voice volumes to locations, such as a quiet voice
at the library, temple or church.

Inside voice

Outside voice
“No whining zone” – can be used to help the child learn where
he can and cannot do certain things. Help the child
understand the meaning of the word “whining” and the No whining
visual reminder by play-acting with him. zone

It is important to remember that, whenever the child is told

he cannot do something, he needs to have a time and/or
place where he can exhibit the behavior (see Channeling
below).
 Behavior in Children with Autism 205

“Please do not interrupt” – interrupting busy people is a frequent

problem area for children with autism. For example, they do
not easily understand the cues when Mom is on the telephone
or when two people are talking. Make a ‘please do not
interrupt’ crown for the adult to wear at times when it is
critical for the adult to be undisturbed, such as for an
important telephone call or conversation. An example of the
crown is shown.

The parent of one child indicated that the child’s whining was driving her
around the bend and she was concerned about blowing up at her daughter.
I suggested making signs that said: “No Whining Zone’ and “Whining
Zone’. The ‘Whining Zone’ sign was put up in her bedroom but every-
where else in the house was a ‘No Whining Zone’. The signs were put up at
home by the mother and child. The next time the child whined, Mom
calmly tapped on the ‘No Whining Zone’ sign and escorted her child to the
bedroom where she was told she could whine as much as she wanted. After
a couple of trials, the child automatically took herself to her room if she
felt like whining.

2. Optimizing the child’s energy level

Help the child learn ways he can calm or alert and center himself before he
reaches a level of distress. Some children with autism appear scattered and high
energy. Others seem to have low energy levels and tend to shut out people
and/or activities. Review the information on calming strategies you obtained
from observing the child. This will help you determine if quiet time away or
engaging in sensory activities are more effective for optimizing the child’s
energy level. Table 8.6 presents examples of ways to optimize a child’s energy
level.

3. Establishing routines for transitions

Transitions or changes from one activity to another are very difficult for
children with autism. They need to be helped to remain calm during changes to
recess, group gathering times, lunch, going home, going to bed, stopping a
favorite activity and other changes during the day. Table 8.7 presents examples
of ways to establish transition routines.
206 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.6 Examples of strategies for optimizing energy

Example
‘break’ or ‘quiet time’ – to help the child learn that he can take a break or quiet time to regain his
optimal energy level. When you notice that the child appears to be increasingly agitated, state
something like: “It looks like your brain and your body are getting excited/upset. It is probably
a good idea to take a little break. Why don’t you come over here and have two minutes of
quiet/break time?” Then give him a ‘break’ or ‘quiet time’ card and help usher him to a quiet
spot like a tent or other area. Start a timer and let him be. Remind him when he is calm that, if
he feels his body or brain get upset or excited, he can get a card on his own and take a break.
Soon, he will start initiating getting the break card and taking a break. If it appears that he is
using break time as an excuse to avoid work, you will have to help him re-define the
parameters for when breaks or quiet time can be taken such as when his body feels tight.

I need a
break

self-calming techniques – to help the child learn to relax his brain and body. When the child is
calm, he should be taught basic strategies for self-calming. They can be relatively simple,
including “stop-think-take a breath”, or more complex relaxation techniques, like progressively
tightening and then releasing major muscle groups in the body.

Stop Think Take a

breath

regular sensory breaks – used with children who are just learning self-regulation and who need
regular alerting or calming to maintain optimal energy levels. Work with an occupational
therapist to determine how frequently sensory breaks should occur, how long they should be,
what types of sensations should be included and in what order. With ‘heavy work’ the child is
expected to do some activity that encourages deep joint compression to help center and calm
him. ‘Movement’ can give him a chance to alert and activate his body.

Movement Heavy work

 Behavior in Children with Autism 207

Table 8.7 Examples of strategies for easing transitions

Example Visual reminder

pictures – were described in the schedules, plans and routines section
of Chapter 5, Program Structure. Picture calendars, schedules and
plans forewarn the child about what is going to happen. Knowing
what will occur can help the child stay calmer.

Calendar Thinking Science Computer Snack

center center

songs and rhymes – can smooth movement from one activity or

location to another. Children with autism typically respond positively
to music and rhythm. Associating a transition with a song or rhyme
can ease the child’s stress.
Twinkle, twinkle little
star, stop and clean up
where you are.

warnings with timers – provide objective visual information. Timers, as

discussed in the clear expectations section of Chapter 5 Program
Structure, serve as a physical indicator of activity termination that
can help the child remain calmer.
Two minutes are up –
we need to shut the
computer down now.

transition objects – can be helpful for some children. Large transitions,

such as home to school or school to home, can be eased by having
one special, desirable object designated as the transition object. The
child gets to hold and play with that object only during the time
between locations. At both ends of the trip, the object is put away. Now Teddy gets to go
home with you.
208 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

4. Channeling
This involves helping the child channel his energy and learn appropriate times
and/or places for behaviors that are prohibited, as outlined above in “1. Form
rules about desired behavior”. See Table 8.8 for examples of the chanelling
strategy.

Table 8.8 Examples of strategies for chanelling behavior

Example Visual reminder

zones – used to help the child know where he can use certain behaviors. He
needs to know when it is acceptable to exhibit the behavior. Signs can be
posted in the selected location(s) and then practiced with the child.

My whining
zone

private places – wherever you want them to be but, usually, is the child’s
bedroom. This is the only place where certain things can be done, such as
burping, releasing intestinal gas or masturbating. Help the child understand
where his private place is by showing him and posting a picture like that
shown. If he is about to burp, escort him to his private place and remind
him of the rule. My private
place

delaying – involves the child’s putting off a certain behavior until a more
appropriate time. This can involve using a Brain Box©, as described in
Chapter 6 Program Content. The child’s behavior is respectfully
‘removed’ from his consciousness and put away for later.

Take 5 bag – gives the child something to do if he is expected to wait, such

as when not interrupting. Children with autism often have a difficult time
occupying themselves in positive ways. The Take 5 bag can contain gum,
juice, a chew toy, a book or other object that the child enjoys.

5. Interference
Interference is sometimes an effective way of preventing potentially difficult sit-
uations. A simple way is to engage the child in actions that are incompatible with
the potential distress reaction. See Table 8.9 for examples of the behavior inter-
ference strategy.
 Behavior in Children with Autism 209

Table 8.9 Examples of the behavior interference strategy

Examples Interference Strategy Visual illustration

filling the child’s hands – if the child tends to push others or pull hair
engage him in incompatible behaviour. This can involve occupying his
hands with carrying relatively heavy objects from one location to
another.

high 5s – this can help avoid other not-so-desirable options. Occupying

the child’s hands with high 5s or handshakes is physically incompatible
with actions like hitting or pushing.

keeping the child’s mouth busy – if the child tends to screech or bite, it can
help to engage his mouth. He can chew gum or a crunchy food just
prior to the times when he is most likely to become distressed.

keeping his mind on something else – being the leader in a line can become a
‘blood sport’ with children who physically vie to be at the front. Make
up number tags like that shown. Assign numbers each day and tell the
children that everyone ‘gets a chance’ to wear different numbers. This
strategy gives the children visual support and advance warning. It also
helps them learn to read numerals and understand their order.

6. Control proximity
This involves moving people or objects to avoid an undesirable event. See Table
8.10 for examples of this strategy.

7. Problem solving
To make balanced decisions, the child must learn how to gather information
about the problem and how to make choices. He also must look at details in a sit-
uation as well as in the total context. Decision-making has to be analytical and
logical but the impact of the decisions on others needs to considered. Because
of the need for this balance in decision-making, the person with an Introver-
sion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging learning preference experiences many
challenges, particularly with the Intuiting and Feeling that are necessary.
A Problem Solving Format which incorporates these features is presented in
Table 8.11 with an example in table 8.12. A blank form is included in Appendix
III.
210 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.10 Examples of the proximity control strategy

Example Visual illustration

gratitude – involves removing an object from a child in a positive
manner. For example, if the child is dashing past you with a pair of
scissors which are destined for a not very positive place, you would
quickly remove them from his hands, saying: “Thank you so much –
that is exactly what I needed.”

distance – involves placing physical distance between the child and

anything that could cause a problem for him. The child can be moved
out of the range of other children or of a ‘target’ child. Sometimes, a
child with autism will choose one other child as the ‘target’ of his
stress so, by increasing the distance between the children, probability
of problem behavior is decreased.

barriers – entail some degree of isolation of the child. The child can
be moved to a work station or another location which has a physical
barrier like a wall or carrel. This will allow the child to focus more on
the task at hand and less on potential problem behaviors.

Table 8.11 Problem solving format

Questions to be answered Strategies and suggestions

What’s the problem? Help the child define the problem. It is critical that the issues are
clearly spelled out so that everyone understands them. Very often,
children with autism will focus on non-central and/or non-critical
information so it will be important to help him understand the
most important features of the problem.

What could I do? Plan What might happen?

Together with the child, Figure out, with the child, what might
determine three possible happen if you used each one of these
actions that can help to plans. Look at both logical and
solve the problem. At this emotional consequences, such as how
stage, accept the child’s he might feel and how other people
suggestions, even if one or might feel. Provide feedback to the
two seem ‘absurd’. child on his suggestions and decide if
they are possible or not.
 Behavior in Children with Autism 211

Which one will I try? Help the child decide which one of the three suggested plans he
should try out, emphasizing the impact on positive interactions and
relationships with others.

What will I say and do? Say: Help the child decide Do: Help the child determine what he
exactly what he will say will do when using his plan. Spell out
when using the plan. It is each step and rehearse with the child.
important to print out the
exact words the child will
use and to rehearse them
with him.

How did it work? After the child has tried his plan, help him evaluate how it worked.
Should I try something Include both logical consequences, such as did he get what he
else? wanted, and emotional consequences, such as what was the impact
on other people. If the plan did not work well, help the child start
the process again by re-examining the definition of the problem,
plans and actions for other possibilities.

Table 8.12 An example of the problem solving format completed with a child with autism

What’s the problem? Sometimes I touch my friends a little too hard.

What could I do? Plan What might happen?

1. I touch them more 1. Some people might not want to
softly. be touched.
2. I stop touching other 2. I feel weird and don’t know what
people. to do.
3. I give high-5s. 3. Some people might not want to.

Which one will I try? Give high-5s because I see my friends give high 5s.
212 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.12 continued

What will I say and do? Say: give me five Do:
1. Put up my hand in the high-5
position.
2. Wait for the person to put out his
hands.
3. Touch his hands gently with my
hands.

How did it work?

Should I try something
else?

Give the child as much leeway in this problem-solving process as you feel appro-
priate. Sometimes, letting the child experience a mildly negative response can be
effective learning. For example, if the child decides that covering his mouth
when he burps is a better plan than suppressing burps or going to the bathroom
to burp, let him try it out to see what happens.
We need to start as early as possible to help the child learn active problem
solving. Start within controlled settings and, once the child learns the process, it
can be introduced into daily situations.
Expect the child to start using the Problem Solving Format on his own only
after repeated practice. He will initially need support in using it but, over time, he
will be able to do some problem solving on his own.
Another format that can be used is the Social Rule. It is more specifically
focused and less usable by the child on his own. It is similar to the Problem
Solving Format in that the issue is defined and steps are outlined for addressing
the problem. The Social Rule Format is more specific about when, where and
with whom the problem arises. It also defines the rationale for the rule and,
perhaps most importantly, how the child can help himself remember to use the
rule. An example of the Social Rule Format completed with a child with autism
is shown below. A blank form is included in Appendix III.
 Behavior in Children with Autism 213

Social skill: what to do when someone is bugging me

Definition: bugging means that something the person is doing or
saying is making it hard for me to think and feel okay
When: when I feel distracted and it is hard to think and to feel com-
fortable
Where: at home, on the playground, in class
With whom: my friends, my brother, my sister
What to say and do:
1. stop, stay calm, and think about what I can do to help myself
2. ignore the other person
3. if it doesn’t stop, say: “I don’t like it when you do that.”
4. if the person still doesn’t stop, I leave and go to another place
5. if the person is still bugging me, I tell an adult
Reasoning: I do this because I can think better when I am calm and I
can help other people understand when something is bugging me
How I can help myself remember: I can make a picture of a shield in
my head that will help me ignore the other person and protect my
brain

Social Stories™ are a highly effective format for presenting problem solving.
Children with autism respond particularly well to Social Stories™ because they
engage important Learning Preferences and Strengths. Social Stories™ allow the
child time to review the information before entering a situation, they point out
the most important cues in a setting, outline the appropriate steps to take and
the reasoning for using the strategy and they are visual. By incorporating the
rhythm of favorite books, such as Dr. Seuss or Robert Munsch, the child’s
Musical-Rhythmic strengths can also be engaged to focus his attention.
Consider including topics or characters of high interest to the child, such as
dinosaurs or a television character, in the story so long as it does not distract or
divert attention. An example of a Social Story™ in book format is shown in
Figure 8.2. It was written for a child who did not like to be singled out in group
settings. The term ‘leader’ was used because it is more positive and understand-
214 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

How to be a good
leader
by Bobbi Smith

I have many good ideas.

I have lots of things I
know in my brain.

Sometimes, adults ask They might ask me to

me to be a leader. stand up. Then I have
They want me to help to do or say something.
other kids do or say The other kids will stay
things. sitting down.

They might ask me to Sometimes, I feel

be in the center of a nervous and I say “no
circle. They might ask thanks”.
me to be the only
person who does
something.

Next time an adult My friends can watch

asks me to be a leader, me and learn some of
I will stay calm. I will the things in my brain.
tell my brain that
being a leader helps
my friends learn.

The other kids will like My teacher will be

to hear my ideas. They happy because I helped
can learn the things I her teach the other kids.
know.

Figure 8.2 Example of a Social Story™ in book format

 Behavior in Children with Autism 215

able. The child liked to tell others what to do so that was highlighted, under the
guise of being a ‘leader’, so that the child’s concerns about being singled out
might be outweighed by this.
Helping the child learn how to self-prompt to use his problem-solving skills
and strategies is a major issue. It is usually best to ask the child about what he
thinks would help him remember. Below is an example of a reminder for a child
who loves cars and really wants to become a driver. The ‘driver’s license’ was
mocked up for him and his picture was placed on the front with identifying
information. On the other side were the reminders of what to do when
someone is bothering him. The license was laminated and the child kept it in his
wallet. It was carefully explained to the child that this license did not mean that he
could now drive a car!

Stop and think

Alberta
Operator’s licence Don’t listen

JONES, Bobby Tell them to stop

3602 20 Ave SW
Calgary AB T2T 0S6 Go to another place

Sex: M
Tell an adult
DOB: June 23, 1991
Issued: June, 2007

Figure 8.3 Example of a visual reminder to cue self-prompting

Another form of problem-solving prompts is Social Tickets presented earlier as a

means of supporting the child’s selective attention. They are ticket-shaped cards
used to help the child remember and recall what he can say in certain situations
(see p.217). First, introduce each card one at a time, play-act an appropriate
scenario and then practice the sentence or phrase on the ‘ticket’. The ticket is
then made available to the child, such as in his pocket or posted in a central
location, to remind him about the words he can use. When you see an opportu-
nity for the child to use a Social Ticket, you can give it to him or prompt him to
216 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

get it for himself. After a short while, the child will begin to get and use the
tickets on his own. Over time, he will no longer need to use the tickets to remind
himself but they should still be readily available for him as back-up.

May I have…? Help me please.

Figure 8.4 Example Social Tickets

Prompt Dice can be used to help children with autism use more variety in their
approach to problem solving. Make a cardboard cube that has, on each face, a
different alternative for dealing with a situation. For example, if a child wants a
particular toy, object or game another child is using, he could roll a Prompt Die
and select the option shown. Options presented on the die could be alternatives
like “Can I play with that in five minutes?”, “Can we play together?” or “I can
play with that another day.” Practice using the die in a one-to-one situation with
the child so he understands the alternatives and their consequences. After the
child seems to comprehend and use the alternatives, practice with a group of
children before letting the child use it on his own.
Shortcuts to the full problem-solving process can be used in some situations. I
had spent a lot of time observing children and trying to figure out how to give
them a sense of control when things seemed to be falling apart for them. I saw
that some children became overwrought if an adult read the ‘wrong’ book,
another child tried to take his toy or if someone did something that was not in
his mental plan. I tried a number of different strategies but finally decided
simply to teach the starter phrase “How about…?” When the child encountered
a situation where he wanted to do something differently than the other person,
he used the words “How about…?” and provided a suggestion, like: “How
about we read the other book?” I found that, just by providing an appropriate
starter phrase, the children were able to negotiate on their own. Another inter-
esting and unexpected outcome was the more positive reception from other
people. If a child says “how about” rather than screaming and melting down, he
is more likely to have people respond positively toward him and, often, he got
his way.
 Behavior in Children with Autism 217

Promoting generalization of rules and strategies

The ultimate goal is to have the child use rules appropriately in everyday situa-
tions without prompting and to solve problems flexibly and independently.
Adults and other mediators in the child’s life have an important role in pro-
moting generalization of rules and strategies. By actively engaging the child in
rule and strategy formation, his ability to extend them to other settings is
enhanced. Independent use of rules and strategies is, however, an ongoing
process that requires continuing support in day-to-day life.
The most effective way to promote use of rules and strategies is to activate
problem solving in the child. By prompting him to recall rules and strategies on
his own, we are helping him analyze a situation and select possible solutions.
Table 8.13 gives some examples of adult responses in different situations that
activate problem solving and those that leave the child as a passive recipient of
directions. Notice the way the adult asks questions of the child to help activate
his thinking and problem solving.

Table 8.13 Examples of ways to stop and activate problem solving

Situation Child is passive recipient Active problem solving by the child

you are working with a “Be quiet. You’re making “We are having a hard time hearing.
group of children and too much noise.” What could you do to help us?”
other children are being
too noisy

it’s cleanup time “put the materials in the “It’s time to clean up. What do you
box, push in the chairs…” need to do to make it the way it was
before we started?”

one child is distracting “move away from Kim” “It looks like you are having a hard
another time listening. What could you do to
help yourself ?”

one child is making “be quiet” “I think it is Mary’s turn to talk. What
disruptive noises while could we do to help her?”
another is trying to talk

a child volunteers to help “get two jars of paint, ten “Let’s look at what we have planned.
you pieces of paper. Pass one What kind of things will be needed?
piece of paper to each Can you make sure everyone gets
child…” what they need?”

a child is whining “stop whining” “I can understand you better when

you use your normal voice”
218 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 8.13 continued

a child interrupts while “don’t interrupt” “I’m talking to Barb, what could you
you are talking to do if you need to talk to me?”
someone else

a child pushes another “don’t push” “How are we supposed to use our
child. hands?”, “Are hands for pushing our
friends?”, “How do we treat our
friends?”

Checkpoint for avoiding distress reactions: What Learning Preferences and Strengths did
we incorporate?

Introversion Sensing Thinking Judging Visual- Musical-

Spatial Rhythmic

3 3 3 3 3 3

Challenge: Intuiting Interpersonal

Feeling

Notes: Problem solving, the main strategy that challenges Learning Preferences and
Strengths, does so in the following ways:
• Intuiting – people with Intuiting preferences are able to see the larger
scope of an issue and the over-riding concepts. The problem-solving
process stretches the child to look beyond the details of a situation
and begin to understand the wider implications and principles.
• Feeling – people with Feeling preferences value others’ needs and try
to meet them. Problem solving presses them to consider others’
feelings and interactions.
• Interpersonal – the person with Interpersonal strengths has the ability
to understand the feelings and thoughts of others. By pressing the
child to project how others may respond to his plan for problem
solving, he is being prompted to try to understand the other person’s
thinking, intentions and feelings.
 Chapter 9

Putting the Pieces Together: An

Overview of the Learning Preferences
and Strengths Model

THE LEARNING PREFERENCES AND STRENGTHS

MODEL
Advantages of the LPS model
In the Learning Preferences and Strengths (LPS) model, each child with autism is seen
as a unique individual. There are, however, commonalities in their learning pref-
erences and strengths, in particular for Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging
preferences and Visual-Spatial and Musical-Rhythmic strengths. Once we
understand and appreciate those preferences and strengths, pieces of the puzzle
fit together harmoniously and tension and misunderstanding are reduced.
Tieger and Barron-Tieger (1997) use the analogy of gardening in relation to
honoring learning preferences: The gardener accepts the growing requirements
of each plant and provides conditions for it to flourish. If we are willing to do
this for plants, why would we be reluctant to provide conditions for children to
grow and flourish?

In a world that understands autism, we will be able to embrace the virtues and
vicissitudes of autistic perception and behavior and adjust our reactions
accordingly… Given that we have some understanding, then we are in a
position patiently and compassionately to address the needs of such people
in a supportive way. (How to Understand Autism, Alex Durig 2005, p.127)

Learning Preferences and Strengths are areas in which the child can learn with greater
ease and pleasure. They also allow us to view learning from the child’s point of

219
220 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

view – what things are important and meaningful to him, how he prefers to deal
with objects, events and people and what his natural interests are. Blossoming
of the child’s Learning Preferences and Strengths will contribute to his self-esteem
and feelings of self-acceptance and self-worth.
An important core of the LPS model is that each child is viewed as a learner.
It does not focus on the deficits and pathology usually at the center of interven-
tion programs. Deficit-oriented thinking often precludes recognition of the
child’s strengths and the ability to make meaningful changes in the child.
Learning in the LPS program starts with what the child brings in terms of pref-
erences, strengths, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. His developmental
needs are opportunities for learning.
The LPS model takes a long-term view of the child. Children are more likely
to become competent adults if they learn to develop their preferences and
strengths and compensate for their weaknesses. The foundation skills for
complete and accurate intake, integration and expression of information will
help the child become a more effective learner throughout his life. Also, by pro-
moting independent decision-making from an early stage, we are helping the
child assume greater responsibility for himself and his choices. The focus of the
LPS model is on helping the child to trust his own mind, know there is more
than one right way to do things, evaluate his own work and behavior and to
acknowledge his mistakes and rectify them. It develops a more responsible and
autonomous learner who can feel a sense of power through his accomplish-
ments and be more adaptable and flexible.
Using the LPS model, we found that principled predictions could be made
in relation to the child with autism’s:
• motivators
• energizers
• stressors
• preferred pace
• distress reactions
• trust needs
• calming strategies
• do’s and don’ts of teaching
• areas needing continued growth.
A summary of these features is presented in Table 9.1.
 Putting the Pieces Together: An Overview of the Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 221

Table 9.1 Summary of major learning features of children with autism

Motivators Energizers
• tasks that can be analyzed • logically organized materials
• practical and functional activities • clear and stable step-by-step explanations
• engaging all senses and directions
• concrete experiences and tasks with tangible • valuing his ability to gather and organize
results he can see detailed information
• pursuing his interests deeply • coming to closure, finishing a task before
moving on to another task
• situations when social and/or emotional
factors are not primary • breaks for exercise or quiet time
• a plan to follow • music and rhythm
• clear indicators of progress • visually-apparent rules and expectations
• incorporating his affinities and areas of high • minimum conflict
interest • clear goals and deadlines
• tasks and activities that he initiated • quiet work environment where he can
concentrate on the task at hand
• being in control of his own schedule
• enough time to work to his own standards
Stressed by Preferred pace
• unknown activities or situation • time to warm up to new situations, people
• being asked to change once he has made up and tasks
his mind • slower pace, especially for new tasks or
• things that do not fit logically into his events
mental frameworks • methodical and steady
• trial and error • chances for reflection
• lack of predictability, surprises • time to practice and rehearse a strategy
• not following the agreed-upon plan Calming strategies
• being singled out
• last minute changes and uncertainty • time alone
• highly complex tasks or situations • getting away to a sensing environment
• being prompted to move on to new tasks • validation of competence and value
when he does not feel he perfected the • help organizing and accomplishing small
previous tasks
• interruptions • help sorting priorities
• decisions based solely on feelings
• being pressed to compromise
• being late or behind schedule
• being pressured to meet a deadline
• clutter or chaotic environments
• poorly defined standards and goals
• incomplete or sloppy work by others
222 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Table 9.1 continued

Distress reaction Raise trust by

• internalize his feelings of being out of • abiding by the rules, being fair
control yet appear outwardly calm • being reliable
• become immoveable, resisting even minor • working systematically
changes
• being careful about facts
• over-focus on details and possible cause of
present problem • using familiar and practiced ways of
approaching tasks or events
• experience confusion, panic
• congruence between what you say and do
• become very negative, unwilling to tolerate
anything unfamiliar and imagine disasters
(‘catastrophizing’)

Do
• help him see the most important and relevant information in a task or situation
• celebrate his persistence
• praise his use of self-regulation
• emphasize practical application and results of tasks and activities
• provide reasoning for doing things in a certain way
• explain the logic in problem solving and social situations
• use a clear system of accountability known in advance
• guide his thinking in new directions (“Tell me how you see the problem…have you thought
about it this way?”)
• use known structure or organization for new things; he can be comfortable with variety and
can be spontaneous so long as some features are kept the same
• use progress charts and tangible records but remember that successful completion of a task
is often its own reward
• prompt him to ask for feedback about his interpersonal behavior
• model language and behavior for him that will support his development of social skills
• incorporate music and/or rhythm
• let him vent his feelings when stressed without passing judgement or giving advice
• help him deal with things causing him stress
• keep your sense of humor
 Putting the Pieces Together: An Overview of the Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 223

Don’t
• let him become bogged down in details
• allow him to stay away from social experiences (‘use it or lose it’)
• allow him to lock into a course of action without looking at enough relevant information
• permit him to become over-focused on completing a task; emphasize importance of taking
time and ensuring all information was considered first
• allow him to over-control or suppress emotions; help him learn to identify and express them
appropriately
• talk about the child within his ear-shot; he is private and may resent such violation of his
privacy
• appear to use favoritism with others
Areas needing continued growth
• coping with and reducing internal build up of stress
• becoming mired down in details
• determining the ‘big picture’
• thinking on his feet, brainstorming
• extending and refining his understanding, awareness, expression and validation of emotions
and affect
• understanding that there are few strict rules and no guarantees in social situations
• using intuition and ‘hunches’
• learning how his behavior and responses affect others
• extending his creativity beyond the here and now, such as by helping him learn to ask
open-ended process questions
• coping and dealing with inconsistency
• showing personal interest in others
• providing criticism that is constructive and more focused on maintaining interpersonal
relationships
• flowing with change and new experiences
• extending his range of emotional and affective awareness
• adhering too rigidly to routines and procedure
• failing to notice or ignoring others’ emotional reactions
• relating to things he has not experienced directly
• standing back and determining what is important to him when stressed

Identifying the main LPS features, as shown above, helps us understand the
child more quickly because we have a set of expectations. It is important to view
the child with an open mind but the LPS model permits us to focus on what the
child can do rather than on old notions of impairments and deficiencies. Autism
is a condition that will not go away but, when his Learning Preferences and Strengths
224 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

are used in clear and appropriate ways, the child can more fully realize his poten-
tial. With continued support, change will occur over the child’s lifespan.

Understanding the way children with autism spectrum disorder think is a

large part of the ‘art’ of teaching them. (A Mind Apart, Peter Szatmari 2004,
p.171)

Features of the LPS model

The main focus of this book was on developing program structure, content and
processes that honor the child with autism’s typical Learning Preferences and
Strengths. Examples were also provided for ways to challenge the child’s
non-dominant preferences and strengths. This is because exclusive focus on
areas of preference and strength can impede development in other areas which
are needed for well-rounded learning and growth.
The major goal of the program is to provide the child with a safe environ-
ment where he is given reason to pay attention, understand and remember by
making the learning personal, purposeful, meaningful and relevant. These were
addressed in the three key program components: structure, process and
content.
Program Structure emphasized developing a learning setting that is under-
standable and visually obvious to the child. This creates a ‘safe haven’ for him in
that it is consistent and predictable. Scheduling in breaks, or quiet time, for each
child helps ensure that he has regular opportunities to de-stress. Willis (2007)
suggested that breaks provide a chance for the amygdala, an area of the brain
associated with feelings and visual learning and memory, to cool down.
Program Process stressed engaging the child in a reciprocal partnership
where he can make mistakes as well as experience successes. The Seven Pillars
of Mediated Learning underline the importance of making objectives clear,
promoting active participation, encouraging independence, increasing aware-
ness of his thinking and learning strengths and needs and processing informa-
tion more effectively.
Adult mediators of the child’s learning are encouraged to use gently intru-
sive teaching methods. The teacher/mediator is a trusted coach and guide to the
child. The child is an apprentice who learns from and collaborates with the adult
to construct knowledge. Consistent effort is made to transfer learning to new
 Putting the Pieces Together: An Overview of the Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 225

(Learning) depends massively upon participation in a dialogue carefully

stabilized by the adult partner…so much of learning depends upon the
need to achieve joint attention, to conduct enterprises jointly, to honor the
social relationship that exists between the learner and (adult). (The Process of
Education, Jerome Bruner 1977, p.xiv)

contexts and tasks by helping the child understand when, where and why the
knowledge is useful.
Learning is made explicit and visible to the child so he comes to understand
what it means to learn and who he is as a learner. This metacognitive emphasis
helps the child move from learning basic factual information and procedures to
understanding concepts and principles and how he learns best. Through
metacognition, the child finds value in what he does well and begins to under-
stand that people cannot do everything in life equally.
The emphasis on understanding why we are learning something plus making
the learning personally interesting and motivating provide an ideal emotional
climate. The child is increasingly held accountable for his learning while the
adult is providing him with support by listening and being attentive, showing
positive emotion, being fair, being honest, being trustworthy and granting some
autonomy and opportunities for decision-making. By its nature, there is a high
rate of successful performance using the program process.
Program Content focused on learning, cognitive, social and communica-
tion skills, using an information-processing model. Self-regulation skills were an
important part of that chapter as well. The manner in which these skill areas
were presented emphasizes the child’s becoming more responsible for his own
learning and learning to ascribe achievement and failure to himself and factors
he can control, like effort, ability or motivation. He is helped to analyze, reflect
on and understand his own behavior and learning, become aware of his cogni-
tive strengths and weaknesses and control his attitude and efforts.
Assessment is a critical part of each child’s program. Pre-assessment provides
information on the child’s learning preferences and strengths, the learning pro-
cesses he uses and those that require attention, his interests and his entry skills
and understanding.
From this information, the child’s Individual Program/Education Program
(IPP or IEP) is developed. Using country, state or provincial standards and ‘big
ideas’ of what we want the child to be able to do and understand over the longer
226 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

term, we develop goals. We plan strategies with ‘hooks’ to draw the child in and
set up opportunities for the child to experience and explore key principles and
concepts. Activities are designed to promote understanding as well as
automaticity of skills. Then we define what is acceptable evidence of the child’s
having achieved the goal.
Formative assessments are a critical part of progress monitoring. On an
ongoing basis, we review the child’s progress toward IPP/IEP goals, revising
the goals and/or strategies as needed. In the assessment, we ensure the child is
learning and engaged and we clear up any misconceptions. We also can encour-
age the child to assess his own learning.
Summative assessments are done at the end of the period specified in the child’s
IPP/IEP. We evaluate the child’s progress toward achieving the goals, looking
for evidence of his learning, knowledge and understanding and what he is able
to do and in what situations or settings.
When assessing children with autism, there are a number of factors that
need to be kept in mind. Their development is usually uneven, with advanced
development in some areas and plateaus, cycles and spurts of growth in others.
Sometimes what may appear to be a regression is a response to the child’s devel-
opment being challenged in another area. Also, learning changes the physical
structure of the brain so that it organizes and reorganizes information but dif-
ferent parts of the brain may be ready to learn at different times.
The final chapter focused on redefining and examining behavior in children
with autism in relation to their learning preferences. The issue of defining,
understanding and expanding the child’s optimal stress level was addressed
along with identifying stressors, distress reactions and calming strategies. Strate-
gies for regaining equilibrium and avoiding distress reactions were described
and examples were provided.

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE LPS MODEL

We reviewed trends in the data collected in relation to Learning Preferences and
Strengths in children with autism and saw a clear profile emerge. The behaviors
and perceptions of people with Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging prefer-
ences and Visual-Spatial and Musical-Rhythmic strengths converged strongly
with those observed in children with autism.
The LPS model is a compilation of theories and practices. The principles
and strategies used within it are rooted in educational and developmental theory
and research. For example, ensuring that complexity of skills taught should be
slightly in advance of the child’s current level of mastery is grounded in the
 Putting the Pieces Together: An Overview of the Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 227

work of Lev Vygotsky (1978) and his zone of proximal development.

Neuro-imaging studies support the emphasis on optimizing stress. Willis (2007)
indicated that, with reduced stress, children’s ability to process and store infor-
mation in memory and develop high levels of cognition are enhanced.
Intervention and teaching practices are well supported by trends found in
diagnostic and outcome assessments but, to date, there is no further empirical
validation of the LPS program as a package. Therapists and parents who have
consistently implemented the LPS model have reported substantial improve-
ments in learning and development of their children with autism.

BECOMING AN EXPERT IN THE LPS PROGRAM

Becoming an expert in any approach takes time and feedback through
self-reflection and input from others. Bransford et al. (2000) found that experts
in any field have the following characteristics:
• notice meaningful patterns
• organize knowledge around key concepts, principles or ‘big ideas’
• take time to understand and reflect on a task or event before
proceeding
• approach new situations flexibly and adaptively
• monitor their current understanding and decide when it is adequate
and when it is not.
To become an expert in effectively planning and implementing the LPS model
will take time and consistent effort. You will learn the basic concepts, principles
and strategies. It is important then to reflect on the patterns and larger concepts
and take time to understand them thoroughly. Adapt your practices slowly,
starting with program structure. Then introduce one content area at a time. Full
concentration on program process should occur once you have structured your
program well and have developed good facility with at least some areas of
program content. Try out the concepts and strategies you have learned, remain-
ing flexible and ready to adapt approaches as needed. Improvement in planning
and implementing the LPS model may be in small incremental steps. Consulting
with colleagues and friends about your journey will help you develop ideas and
options.
Commit yourself to the longer term and rejoice in the improvements you
see in yourself as the teacher/mediator and in the child. You need to reflect on
228 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

your own thinking, strategies and motivation, accept the responsibility of

learning the LPS approach and value children with autism. The techniques and
strategies presented in this book will engage your ingenuity and creativity. Col-
laborate with others to develop ideas and options so that you can all share the
creative load. To help you plan well-organized programs, a Lesson Planning
Form and Lesson Planning and Implementation Checklists are included in
Appendix III.

WHERE MIGHT THE FUTURE LIE FOR A CHILD WITH

AUTISM?
Predicting the future for children with autism is just as uncertain as with any
child. Learning Preferences and Strengths are assets that will help the child find
meaning in life and make contributions. We cannot predict the final outcome
but a great deal of research has been completed at the Center for Applications
of Psychological Type (Macdaid et al. 1995) in relation to different learning pref-
erences.
The career areas in which people with Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-
Judging preferences have strong representation include:
• librarians, library attendants and assistances
• accountants, auditors, bank employees
• computer professionals
• engineers, especially electrical and mechanical
• electrical and electronic technicians
• electricians
• police officers
• dentists.
These may or may not be career possibilities for all children with autism but the
children should never be underestimated. Also, if they do not reach these pro-
fessional areas, related careers should be explored. Books, such as Career Training
and Personal Planning for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder by Vicki Lundine
(2006), should be consulted for further information on career planning.
 Putting the Pieces Together: An Overview of the Learning Preferences and Strengths Model 229

FINAL WORDS
I will now give the final word to a young man with autism whom I have known
for 12 years. I mentioned him in the anecdote in Chapter 6 at the end of the
Learning/Cognition section 1a. I asked MacKenzie to write about things that he
learned with me that worked to help him through school, things that he learned
with me that did not work, things he wished he had learned earlier and advice he
would give to children with autism about learning and school. Below is his
response.
I would like to start off by saying that I am very fortunate to have had Dr.
Heather MacKenzie as my speech therapist. It was the simple things, such
as encouraging me to succeed despite my disability, which allowed me to
overcome the obstacle known as autism. Through her, I learned the
important aspects of communication: eye contact, body language, and
vocal clarity, making sure that I wasn’t slurring my words. I had also devel-
oped logic, and the enhanced ability to think differently in many situations,
through challenging mind games such as puzzles and ‘Whodunits’. This
was extremely helpful in my school life, that if I did need help from a
teacher, I was confident in communicating the problem.
However, one of the things I wished I learned earlier was the impor-
tance of friendship, the foundation of a social life. When I was younger, I
found myself more comfortable around adult groups, rather than with
children my age. This reluctance to interact with those around me led me
into a state of recluse, which then led to loneliness. When my classroom
helpers discovered this problem and encouraged me to play with others on
the playground, I had made a small group of acquaintances. It wasn’t
exactly the biggest group compared to others, but I knew those that
remained beside me were my true friends.
For those with autism like me, I leave you with this following message.
Know that autism should never stop you in the pursuit of your dreams.
With hard work and dedication, you can become more of a social being, an
important part of society. Doubt of one’s self can prove to be the biggest
obstacle in your school and social life. Like any other disability, know that it
can be overcome with your will. If however, you have any trouble at all, do
not hesitate to ask for help; whether it be from your parents, teachers, or
friends. Everybody needs help sometimes.
MacKenzie Whitney
18 years of age
 References

Baron-Cohen, S. (1999) “The extreme-male-brain theory of autism.” In H.

Tager-Flusberg (ed.) Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2000) “Is Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism
necessarily a disability?” Development and Psychopathology 12, 489–500.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002) “The extreme male brain theory of autism.” Trends in
Cognitive Sciences 6, 6, 248–254.
Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., Wheelwright, S., Scahill, V., Short, L., Mead, G.
and Smith, A. (1998) “Autism occurs more often in families of physicists,
engineers, and mathematicians.” Autism 2, 296–301.
Baron-Cohen, S. and Hammer, J. (1997) “Is autism an extreme form of the
‘male brain’?” Advances in Infancy Research 11, 193–217.
Baron-Cohen, S. and Wheelwright, S. (1999) “Obsessions in children with
autism or Asperger Syndrome: a content analysis in terms of care domains
of cognition.” British Journal of Psychiatry 175, 484–490.
Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N. and Wheelwright, S.
(2003) “The systematizing quotient: an investigation of adults with
Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex
differences.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences 358,
1430, 361–374.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Lawson, J., Griffin, R., Ashwin, C.,
Billington, J. and Chakrabarti, B. (2005) “Empathizing and systematizing in
autism spectrum conditions.” In F. Volkmar, A. Klin, R. Paul and D.J.
Cohen (eds) Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J. and Clubley, E. (2001)
“The Autism-Spectrum Quotient: evidence from Asperger
syndrome/High-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and
mathematicians.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 31, 5–17.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S, Stone, V. and Rutherford, M. (1999) “A
mathematician, a physicist, and a computer scientist with Asperger
Syndrome: performance on folk psychology and folk physics test.”
Neurocase 5, 475–483.

230
 References 231

Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Stott, C., Bolton, P. and Goodyer, I. (1997)
“Is there a link between engineering and autism?” Autism 1, 153–163.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A.L. and Cocking, R.R. (eds) (2000) How People Learn:
Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Bruner, J. (1977) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Cuomo, N. (2007) Integrated Yoga. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Durig, A. (2005) How to Understand Autism – The Easy Way. London: Jessica
Kingsley Publishers.
Frith, U. (1989, 2003) Autism: Explaining the Enigma. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing.
Frith, U. (ed.) (1991) Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York,
NY: BasicBooks.
Grandin, T. (1995) Thinking in Pictures. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Grandin, T. and Scariano, M. (1986) Emergence: Labelled Autistic. Novato, CA:
Arena Press.
Gray, C. (2000) The New Social Story Book. Arlington, TX: Future Horizons.
Half, R. (undated) Unsourced quote. Accessed on 6 February 2008 at
www.worldofquotes.com/author/Robert-Half/1/index.html.
Happé, F. (1997) “Autism: understanding the mind, fitting together the pieces.”
Accessed on 10 February 2007 at www.mindship.com/happe.htm
Happé, F. (1999) “Autism: cognitive deficit or cognitive style?” Trends in
Cognitive Sciences 3, 6, 216–222.
Haywood, H.C. (1990) A Total Cognitive Approach in Education. Presidential
address, Second International Conference on Cognitive Education of the
International Association for Cognitive Education, Mons, Belgium.
Lundine, V. (2006) Career Training and Personal Planning for Students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Macdaid, G.P., McCalley, M.H. and Kainz, R.L. (1995) Atlas of Type Tables.
Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psych. Type Inc.
Myers, I.B. (1998) Introduction to Type. Gainsville, FL: Center for Application of
Psychological Type.
Perrin, N. (2007) Personal communication.
Quenk, N.L. (1993) Beside Ourselves. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press Inc.
232 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Quenk, N.L. (2000) In the Grip. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Sacks, O. (1995) An Anthropologist on Mars. Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf Canada.
Szatmari, P. (2004) A Mind Apart. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Tieger, P.D. and Barron-Tieger, B. (1997) Nurture by Nature. New York, NY:
Little Brown and Company.
Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Welton, J. (2004) What Did You Say? What Do You Mean? London: Jessica
Kingsley Publishers.
Willis, J. (2007) “The Neuroscience of Joyful Education.” Educational Leadership
64, accessed on 12 February 2008 at
www.thehawnfoundation.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/
joyful_education_by_ds_willis-2.doc.
Wing, L. (1997) “The autistic spectrum.” The Lancet 350, 9093, 1761–1766.
 Appendix I

Some Free Internet Resources

LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND MATERIALS

http://abcteach.com – reading, math, science, social studies activities for
kindergarten through grade nine
http://atozteacherstuff.com – lesson plans, thematic units, downloadable
teaching materials and eBooks, printable worksheets, emergent reader
books
www.bbc.co.uk/cbeebies – stories, rhymes, activities and games with favorite
television characters
www.coloring.ws – printable coloring pages, jigsaws and games
www.dltk-kids.com – rich resource printable activities for preschool through
elementary and some materials can be personalized
www.ed.gov/pubs/CompactforReading/kitcover.html – U.S. Department of
Education reading activities for kindergarten through grade three
www.edhelper.com – many printable activities in both English and Spanish
across the curriculum kindergarten through grade six
www.edhelpernet.com/Monthly/Themes.htm – preschool to elementary
games, themes, social studies, science, math and reading activities
www.first-school.ws – preschool and kindergarten lesson plans, activities,
printable crafts, worksheets
www.gamequarium.com – online games for preschool through grade six in the
areas of keyboarding, math, reading, science, social studies
www.hardin.k12.ky.us/res_techn/countyjeopardygames.htm – jeopardy games
in math, reading, social studies and science for 5 through 18 years
www.homeeducationresources.com/FREE1.htm – math, science, social
studies, reading worksheets
www.kidsrcrafty.com – activity sheets, coloring pages, dot-to-dots, mazes,
vocabulary and worksheets in both English and French
www.kidssoup.com/index.html – crafts, activities and games in English and
German
www.kidzone.ws – activities for preschool to grade five across the curriculum

233
234 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

www.kizclub.com – activities in language arts for preschool and elementary age

children
www.lessonplanspage.com – over 3000 lesson plans from preschool through
high school
www.makingfriends.com/f_Friends.htm – variety of paper dolls with separate
clothing (pants, hats, shoes, dresses, coats, etc.) and hair
www.makinglearningfun.com – alphabetically listed preschool activities
www.mes-english.com – vocabulary flashcards for four- to seven-year-olds
www.myteachertools.com – worksheets, themes, lesson plans, frameworks
http://newton.uor.edu/facultyfolder/rider/adjectives.htm – activities for
correct use of adjectives in English and Spanish
www.nickjr.com/parenting/activity_finder/printables/index.jhtml – searchable
activities for preschoolers featuring favorite television characters
www.pbs.org/teachers – lesson plans, classroom activities, interactive resources
organized by subject, grade level, and curriculum topic
www.pitt.edu/~poole/eled.html – links to math, science, social studies, reading
resources for early childhood through elementary school
www.preschoolrainbow.org – preschool and early childhood education lesson
plans and activities
www.primarygames.com – online games and printable activities
http://printables.familyeducation.com – worksheets across the curriculum for
preschool through elementary
www.readinga-z.com/newfiles/preview.html – free sample of downloadable
levelled reading books in English, Spanish and French
www.sesameworkshop.org/sesamestreet – online stories, games, music and
printable coloring pages
www.starfall.com – reading and writing activities for first grade,
pre-kindergarten, kindergarten and second grade
www.teach-nology.com/printables – worksheets and other printables
www.teacherview.com – activity pages, themes and written expression
www.teachercreated.com/free – searchable database of over 400 lessons
www.theeducatorsnetwork.com/main/worksheetfeature.htm – reading,
printing and math worksheets
www.theteacherscorner.net/printable-worksheets – math and reading
worksheets
www.underfives.co.uk – preschool lesson plans, themes and activities
 Some Free Internet Resources 235

FILE FOLDER ACTIVITIES

www.angelfire.com/pa5/as/myprintables.html
www.enchantedlearning.com/filefoldergames
www.preschoolprintables.com/filefolder/filefolder.shtml

VISUAL ORGANIZERS
www.busyteacherscafe.com/wspages/graphicorganizers.htm
www.edhelper.com/teachers/graphic_organizers.htm?gclid=CIWHk7rbwIwCF
QurhgodjG58Wg
www.eduplace.com/graphicorganizer/index.html
www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers
www.freeology.com/graphicorgs
http://gotoscience.com/Graphic_Organizers.html
www.teachervision.fen.com/graphic-organizers/printable/6293.html

READER’S THEATRE
www.aaronshep.com/rt/RTE.html – elementary level
www.fictionteachers.com/classroomtheater/theater.html – elementary level
www.lisablau.com/archives.html – elementary level
http://pbskids.org/zoom/activities/playhouse/index.html – elementary level

SONGS AND RHYMES

www.bbc.co.uk/music/parents/yourchild/18mnths_3years/action_songs.shtml
www.childcarelounge.com/Caregivers/songstt.htm
www.edhelper.com/?gclid=CL-l_ayy9IoCFSLPhgodUFcBlA
www.gutenberg.org/files/10607/10607–h/10607–h.htm
www.kididdles.com/lyrics/busy.html
www.preschooleducation.com/stransition.shtml
www.preschoolrainbow.org/preschool-rhymes.htm
www.preschoolrainbow.org/transition-rhymes.htm
www.songs4teachers.com – free songs are in the left hand column
http://songsforteaching.com
http://songsforteaching.com/transitions.htm
236 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

www.teach-nology.com/printables/songs
www.theteachersguide.com/ChildrensSongs.htm
www.underfives.co.uk

CHILDREN’S BOOK DATABASE

www.lib.muohio.edu/pictbks – wonderful searchable database of over 5000
children’s picture (non-chapter type) books for designing literature-based
activities
 Appendix II

Learning Preferences and Strengths P rofile

237
238 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Learning Preferences
and Strengths Profile

Directions

This profile is designed to provide information on a child’s typical preferences

and strengths in learning.
Complete each checklist with your child in mind, thinking about how he
responds most of the time.
Remember, we are looking for trends; that is, what the child is most likely to
do when he is just being himself.
Once you have completed all of the learning preference and strength
checklists, you can summarize them. The information you provide will help us
understand your child better and to develop intervention/teaching strategies
for him.

Child’s Name: ___________________________ Date: ______________

School: ________________________________ Grade: _____________

Birth Date: _____________________________ Age: _______________

Gender: _______________________________

How long have you known the child?______________________________

Person completing profile: ______________________________________

Relationship to child: __________________________________________

 Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile 239

LEARNING PREFERENCES
Read each item on the left side of the checklist and then the corresponding item on the right
side. Choose which item best describes the child most of the time. Try to check either the left or
right item. Try not to skip any items.

Energy source

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. prefers working or playing with 1. prefers working or playing alone
others or with a few friends

2. enjoys new situations and activities 2. is slow to warm up to new

and meeting new people places, people and activities until
he can experience it for a while
and take it all in; likely
considered ‘shy’ or ‘withdrawn’
by strangers

3. is interested in other people and 3. focuses in depth on specific

what they are doing; is viewed as objects or topics of interest (e.g.
friendly or sociable trains, cars, dinosaurs)

4. enjoys sharing personal experiences 4. holds back from sharing feelings

but may talk more than listen and thoughts, sharing them
selectively; more likely to listen
than talk

5. prefers to think out loud, feeling 5. needs time to think about things
stifled if he cannot talk about his or watch others before doing
observations and ideas them or answering questions

6. prefers to pay attention to what 6. dislikes interruptions, shows

others are doing and saying even if frustration if interrupted during
they are interrupting him an activity

Total checks Total checks

Extraversion Introversion

Information gathering

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. is more interested in hands-on tasks 1. is more interested in ideas and
that he can see, touch, smell, etc. imagination than hands-on
activities

2. wants to try something out and 2. wants to learn about something

explore it before learning more before trying it out
about it
240 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

3. is interested in objects and concrete 3. is interested in possibilities,

information more than people and patterns and people more than
possibilities facts and details

4. notices and remembers details 4. becomes impatient with detail

others may not and may miss some of it

5. prefers established routines and 5. becomes restless with routines,

familiar methods and schedules preferring new approaches

6. enjoys details and facts but may 6. forgets facts and details but gets
miss the main idea the main idea

Total checks Total checks

Sensing iNtuiting

Decision making

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. wants to know the reasons for 1. is interested in pleasing another
actions and events; may ask ‘why?’ person rather than questioning
frequently reasoning or rationale for actions
and events

2. identifies what is wrong or different 2. avoids telling others things that

in a person or situation may be unpleasant or
uncomfortable to them or to
himself

3. is unaware of how others feel; may 3. is sensitive to the feelings of

seem detached others

4. values fairness and consistency and 4. values harmony among people

is ‘black and white’ in making and seeks to maintain it; viewed
decisions as ‘warm’ and ‘sympathetic’ by
others

5. seems to lack knowledge of how his 5. is unaware of how rules and

actions and words affect others; regulations can over-ride feelings
may seem aloof and values

6. holds firmly to a conviction or 6. agrees with others in a group

belief, regardless of what others regardless of what he thinks;
think prefers to avoid confrontation

Total checks Total checks

Thinking Feeling
 Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile 241

Relating to the world

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. wants events and activities decided 1. wants to leave options open to
and settled and expectations clear new possibilities

2. makes definite choices from among 2. samples many experiences,

possibilities and options sometimes more than can be
used or taken in

3. is uneasy about unplanned events or 3. changes what he is doing if other

actions, even if he usually likes the possibilities arise
activity

4. persists in seeking what he wants 4. is flexible, adaptable, and

until it is achieved; may be viewed tolerant; viewed as ‘easy-going’
as ‘competitive’

5. prefers being orderly, organized, 5. prefers to leave things open to

and systematic whatever might happen

6. prefers finishing one project before 6. enjoys starting new projects and
starting something else activities but has difficulty
finishing them

Total checks Total checks

Judging Perceiving

LEARNING STRENGTHS
Read each item on each checklist and check all items that best describe the child most of the time.
Do not be concerned about items you skip.

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. enjoys conversations and telling 1. asks questions about or
about experiences investigates how things work

2. imitates speech and expressions of 2. has a good understanding of

others numbers and quantity for his age

3. enjoys and learns easily from books 3. enjoys working on logic puzzles,
and listening to stories brainteasers, or computer/video
games
242 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

4. enjoys rhymes and playing with 4. has a good sense of cause-effect

words and speech sounds relationships for his age (i.e. if I
do this, that will happen)

5. has a good vocabulary for his age 5. enjoys organizing and putting
information and objects into
categories or in their place

6. is highly verbal and enjoys 6. enjoys games that require

discussing ideas strategies

Total checks Total checks

Verbal-Linguistic Logical-Mathematical

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. remembers routes to places 1. remembers music and musical
patterns readily

2. uses colors and shapes in a 2. keeps time to music, has a good

purposeful and visually pleasing way sense of rhythm

3. enjoys puzzles, mazes, ‘I Spy’ games 3. listens and responds with interest
or books to music, song, rhythm

4. enjoys three-dimensional 4. enjoys listening to music and

construction like Lego™, Duplo™, musical instruments and is
Meccano™ sensitive to off-key music

5. recognizes and remembers faces, 5. responds to music with

objects and details he has seen movement (e.g. dancing,
previously clapping, beating the rhythm)

6. prefers watching videos and other 6. enjoys playing musical

visual media instruments or singing

Total checks Total checks

Visual-Spatial Musical-Rhythmic

Check Check
The child usually: if yes The child usually: if yes
1. prefers to touch and handle 1. forms and keeps friendships
available objects easily

2. fidgets if required to remain still for 2. adapts easily to different social

a long time settings

3. is skilful at imitating others’ 3. works cooperatively with others

mannerisms and gestures
 Learning Preferences and Strengths Profile 243

4. likes working with his hands 4. enjoys working or playing with

others

5. enjoys dancing 5. seeks out the company of others

6. enjoys running, jumping, climbing 6. is sought out by others to

socialize

Total checks Total checks

Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal

Check
The child usually: if yes
1. shows a strong sense of himself, his
likes and dislikes

2. tries to actively understand his own

feelings and experiences

3. is able to learn from his experiences

in life, failures and successes

4. enjoys playing or working

independently

5. is motivated to identify and pursue

his goals

6. is curious about ‘big questions’

about the meaning and purpose of
life

Total checks
Intrapersonal
244 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Learning Preferences
and Strengths Profile
Summary of Scores

When you have completed all parts of the profile, go back and add up the number of check
marks you placed in each column.
For the Learning Preferences, find the column for each section that has more checkmarks. For
example, for Energy source, which column has more checks? If it is Extraversion, circle the E
below. If it was Introversion, circle the I below. If there are an equal number of checkmarks in
both columns, follow the standard MBTIÒ rules:
• if equal E and I, circle the E
• if equal S and N (Intuiting), circle the N
• if equal T and F, circle the F
• if equal J and P, circle P

For the Learning Strengths, find the two strengths that have the most checks. Circle only those
two below. If there are equal numbers of checkmarks for more than two, circle all of them.

Learning Preferences

Greater number of checks (circle only one of Extraverting Introverting

each pair)
Sensing iNtuiting

Thinking Feeling

Judging Perceiving

Learning Strengths

Two learning strengths with greatest number of Verbal-Linguistic Logical-Mathematical

checks (circle only two)
Visual-Spatial Musical-Rhythmic

Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal

Intrapersonal
 Appendix III

Frameworks and Forms

for Observation and Planning

245
OBSERVING LEARNING PREFERENCES AND STRENGTHS – CHILD ALONE
246

Child’s name: Observer:

Dates/times in minutes:
(should be 10 to 15 minutes per observation period)

Settings: Activities:

The child Date: Date: Observations/

comments

Not at all or
no opportunity
Rarely
Sometimes
Frequently
Not at all or
no opportunity
Rarely
Sometimes
approaches me as soon as I enter his space Frequently

responds when I speak to him

tries to share an object or event with me

lets me re-arrange a toy he is playing with

lets me do something in a different order or way

responds to my laughter with pleasure or to crying with look

Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

of concern

puts away a toy or object he is playing with when requested

lets me crash or disassemble a toy he was playing with

responds to singing, music or rhythm

Other observations/comments:
OBSERVING LEARNING PREFERENCES AND STRENGTHS – CHILD IN A PEER GROUP

Child:______________________________________________________________ Observer:________________________________________
Dates/times in minutes:________________________________________________
(should be 10 to 15 minutes per observation period)
Settings:____________________________________________________________ Activities_________________________________________
Participants:_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The child Date: Date: Observations/
comments

Not at all or
no opportunity
Rarely
Sometimes
Frequently
Not at all or
no opportunity
Rarely
Sometimes
Frequently
approaches others as soon as he enters space

responds when spoken to

tries to share an object or event with others

lets others re-arrange a toy he is playing with

lets others do something he is doing in a different order or way

Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning

responds to laughter with pleasure or to crying with look of

concern

puts away a toy or object he is playing with when requested

lets others crash or disassemble a toy he was playing with

responds to singing, music or rhythm

247

Other observations/comments:
248 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

INVENTORY OF CHILD LIKES AND DISLIKES

Child’s name: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Informant: ______________________________ Relationship to child: _______________

Questions Responses

What are the child’s favorite:

videos

games

TV shows

computer programs

books

toys

characters from videos, TV, games, and/or books

What things does the child dislike in relation to:

videos

games

TV shows

computer programs

books

toys

characters from videos, TV, games, and/or books

 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 249

OBSERVING LEARNING PROCESSES

Child’s name: Observer:

Date:

The child Observations/comments

Sometimes
Frequently
Not at all

works systematically left to right Rarely

or right to left

works systematically top to

bottom or bottom to top

labels objects, actions and

events observed

looks at person or task while

listening

responds to nonverbal cues

attends and responds to key

words

determines most important and

relevant information

ignores non-central and/or

irrelevant information

notes and uses clues and signs

to help himself determine what
is expected

notes and uses models to help

himself determine what is
expected

says information over to himself

to help retain it

retains descriptions of objects

or simple events

retains simple stories

250 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The child Observations/comments

Sometimes
Frequently
Not at all
Rarely
uses visualization to help himself
retain verbal information

connects information by
grouping and/or categorizing

looks for and uses patterns to

connect information

notes connection between

present task/event with past
task/event

looks for similarities and

differences in present
information

requests repetition if he does not

hear or understand information

requests clarification if he does

not understand information

exhibits understanding that

another person may have a
different visual perspective

engages in reciprocal teaching

where he is ‘teacher’

uses a plan to organize his

responses

revises communication based on

listener feedback

revises response based on

ongoing evaluation of progress
toward the goal

tells coherent stories which

include time, main characters,
location, at least one main event
and a conclusion

exhibits the ability to identify

main characteristics of at least
three basic emotions

Comments and additional observations:

 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 251

LESSON PLANNING FORM

Child: Date:

Area of learning: Teacher/mediator:

Pre-assessment of knowledge and skills in this area:

Goals (specific, observable, measurable): Timeline:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

Strategies/methods, activities/tasks and Preferences, strengths and interests included:

format (1:1, small group, larger group, with
age peers):
1. Learning processes included:

2.
Environmental modifications:
3.

Materials/resources needed:
1.
2.
3.

Formative assessments (indicate date and change or lack of change noted, any changes to goal,
strategies or materials):
1.
2.
3.

Assessment at end of time-line:

1.
2.
3.
252 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

LESSON PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION

CHECKLISTS

Program structure

Learning environment
Have I ensured that: Check if ‘yes’

noise levels are reduced?

visual stimuli are controlled?

odors and scents are reduced?

lighting is optimized?

all needed materials are close at hand but out of sight?

the child has a clearly marked place for his belongings?

each work/activity area is visually obvious?

the language level used is in keeping with the child’s abilities?

seating arrangements are appropriate to the task?

Schedules, plans and routines

Have I ensured that: Check if ‘yes’

the master schedule includes the number of items the child can tolerate
and understand?

schedules, plans and routines have an interactive component so the child

can experience completion?

schedules follow a consistent cycle?

schedules are rhythmic, providing him with chances for less structured
activities between tasks

one-to-one tasks or activities are included?

independent tasks or activities are included?

group tasks and activities are included?

schedules, plans and routines are depicted visually in ways that are
meaningful to the child?
 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 253

Tasks and activities

Have I ensured that: Check if ‘yes’

time expectations are clear to the child as appropriate?

quantity expectations are clear to the child as appropriate?

quality expectations are clear to the child as appropriate?

tasks and activities are organized left to right or right to left?

Learning preferences, strengths and interests

Have I ensured that the child: Check if ‘yes’

is given extended time to process information and think things through?

is given time to warm up to a situation, idea, activity, people and time to

digest information before the actual event or activity?

has opportunities for reflection and time to practice and rehearse in a

comfortable environment?

does not feel ‘singled out’?

is helped to determine which information is most relevant and important

to the task, activity or principle?

is helped to relate the present task, activity or principle to past

experiences or overcome past negative experiences?

has opportunities to see models and/or observe a task being done before
being expected to do it on his own?

has hands-on experiences to accompany tasks and activities?

is given an objective and logical explanation of the task and approaches

to it?

understands the rationale behind expectations?

is allowed to finish one task before moving on?

is encouraged to work systematically and according to the plan?

has visual support in order to understand task expectations?

is spoken to using musical intonation and/or rhythm of words and

phrases?

is provided songs or chants to help him mediate his behaviour and

thinking?

has his areas of interest incorporated into tasks and activities?

254 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Seven Pillars of Mediated Learning

Have I made sure: Check if ‘yes’

I use the word “we” when interacting with the child?

the child is actively engaged in the task or activity?

I respond to important and relevant behaviors from the child?

the child begins to anticipate or wait for my responses?

I relate the task or activity to other things the child knows and cares
about?

I provide a rationale for tasks, activities and strategies?

I provide specific feedback to the child about his performance?

I rejoice with the child about his successes?

the child is allowed to choose some aspect of tasks or activities?

I provide the child with specific feedback about the amount of effort he
needs to expend or expended to achieve mastery?

I model metacognitive strategies for the child?

I try to ask the child more process questions, like “why” and “how”, than
questions which prompt him to simply identify or label?

I help the child determine other tasks and settings where the strategy or
principle can be applied?

I help the child understand what he needs to do to improve his intake of

information ?

I help the child understand what he needs to do to improve his

integration and elaboration of information?

I help the child understand what he needs to do to improve his

expression of information?
 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 255

COMMUNICATION SKILLS CHECKLIST

Child:

Completed by: Date:

Children will communicate many different things with actions and gestures, sounds,
single words and sentences. Please look at each category below and determine how
frequently the child uses each type of communication. Feel free to add any types of
communication you did not feel were covered in the inventory. Please give examples of
how your child presently expresses or responds to each communication type and put
them in the column shown.
To help us decide on the types of communication we should work on with your
child put a star (*) on the left-hand side beside items you feel are most important.

How often
used
Communication type Examples
Sometimes
Always
Never

Social
1. Greets others spontaneously.

Responds to other’s greeting.

2. Says farewell to others

spontaneously.

Responds to others’ farewell.

3. Calls others to get attention.

Gets others’ attention with gestures or

actions.

Responds to other’s call for attention.

4. Introduces self to others (gives

name).

Responds to others’ introductions.

256 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Communication type Examples

Sometimes
Always
Never
Repeats what he said when asked to
clarify.

Informative
1. Asks others for information about:
A. a thing (“what’s that?”)

B. a person (“who’s that?”)

C. an action (“what’s he doing?”)

D. location (“where’s Mom?”)

E. feature of an object – color, shape,

size, etc.

F. reason (“why?”).

G. process (“how?”).

2. Responds to others’ request for

information about:
A. a thing

B. a person

C. an action

D. location

E. feature of an object

F. reason

G. process

Requesting
1. Asks for things he wants or prefers.

Responds to others’ questions about

his wants or preferences.

Offers help to others.

 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 257

Communication type Examples

Sometimes
Always
Never
2. Gives warnings (“stop”, “don’t”)

Responds to other’s warning.

3. Asks permission to do things.

Responds to others’ request for

permission by accepting/rejecting
(“yes”/“no”).

4. Asks others about what they plan

to do.

Tells others about what he intends to

do before doing it.

Affection
1. Expresses affection (“I love you”).

Responds to others’ expression of

affection (“I love you too”).

2. Expresses appreciation (“thank

you”).

Responds to others’ expression of

appreciation (“you’re welcome”).

3. Tells others about positive or

negative feelings (“I like/don’t
like…”) or things that are
bothering him.

Agree/disagrees with others’ feelings

(“me too/not me”).

Turn-taking
1. Interrupts others.

2. Takes long speaker turns, not

giving others a chance to talk.

3. Perseverates on certain topics.

4. Responds with one- or two- word

answers or comments.

5. Continues a topic started by

another person.
258 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Communication type Examples

Sometimes
Always
Never
Nonverbal
1. Keeps appropriate social distance
when talking with others.

2. Uses head nods or shakes head to

acknowledge others.

3. Looks at the listener when he

speaks.

4. Understands and adjusts to other’s

feelings.

Please describe situations that are most challenging to your child socially (e.g. meal
times, eating out at restaurants, when you are talking on the phone, when he is teased by
others, when he wants to join other children in play or wants to enter a group).
 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 259

STRESSORS, DISTRESS REACTIONS AND CALMING

STRATEGIES CHECKLIST

Child’s name: Date:

Completed by:

Please look at each category below and determine how frequently the child responds
with anxiety or other behaviors to each type of stressor. Each item is in two parts, one
for school settings and the other for home. Stressors may be different in different
settings so please complete both where applicable. Feel free to add any types of stress-
ors not covered in the inventory. Please give examples of specific things that tend to
cause anxiety or stress in the child.

Stressor type How How Examples:

often often
observed observed
at school at home
Sometimes

Sometimes
Always

Always
Never

Never

1. Organization of tasks, materials

and activities not visually
obvious.

2. Too many options or unclear

expectations.

3. Others do not do a task as the

child expected.

4. Change in plans without

forewarning.

5. Child’s concerns are ignored or

negated.

6. New possibilities presented

after child has started an
activity.

7. Too much information is

presented to the child at once.

8. Child is tired from working too

long or too hard.

9. Child is pressed to complete a

task faster or within a limited
time.
260 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Now, look at each category below and determine how frequently the child exhibits each
type of distress reaction. Each item is in two parts, one for school settings and the other
for home. Distress reactions may be different in different settings so please complete
both where applicable. Feel free to add any types of distress reactions not covered in the
inventory. Please give examples of specific behaviors the child tends to exhibit.

Distress reaction types How often How often Examples:

observed at observed at
school home

Sometimes

Sometimes
Always

Always
Never

1. Focuses on sensory acts Never

involving touch, taste, smell,
movement, sound or sight.

2. Engages in organizing or
other detail-oriented activity.

3. Acts out without thinking.

4. Shows subtle signs of anxiety

such as tensed body, dilated
pupils.

5. Rejects even familiar,

enjoyable activities.

6. Erupts into a melt down.

7. Exhibits or expresses usual

fears or dangers.

8. Increased rigidity even to

minor changes.

9. Loses things and seems to

have difficulty dealing with
details.

10.Becomes over-focused on
fears and worries.

11.Denies obvious fears or worries.

12.Refuses to do task or go into

situation which is causing
stress.

13.Expresses suspicions about

other people or uses them to
make excuses.
 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 261

The final step is to look at strategies that tend to calm the child. Determine how fre-
quently the child is calmed by each of the strategies below. Each item is in two parts, one
for school settings and the other for home. Calming strategies may be different in dif-
ferent settings so please complete both where applicable. Feel free to add any calming
strategies not covered in the inventory. Please give examples of specific strategies used.

Calming strategies How often How often Examples:

observed at observed
school at home

Sometimes

Sometimes
Always

Always
Never

1. Breaking task or activity into Never

smaller parts.

2. Connecting present activity

or event with past
experiences.

3. Time away from the stressful

situation.

4. Time to engage in sensory

activity.

5. Concrete validation of his

competence and worth.

6. Reminding of previous
positive outcomes with task
or event.

Other observations/comments:
262 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

PROBLEM SOLVING FORMAT

What’s the problem?

What could I do? Plan What might happen?

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

Which one will I try?

What will I say and do? Say: Do:

How did it work?

Should I try something else?

 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 263

SAMPLE PRESCHOOL LITERATURE-BASED CURRICULUM

PLAN

September

KEY: I Primary book or concept

• additional or adjunct book or concept
Literature I Brown Bear Brown Bear What Do You See? (Eric Carle)
• Goldilocks and the Three Bears (Jan Brett and others)
Adjunct • Summer
themes • Family
Concepts Cognitive I look at one object or feature at a time
I flexibility (e.g. cats can be purple)
• others look back at us
• left to right systematic search and progression
• clues (e.g. in the page margins) can help us guess or predict
Academic I color names
I comparison, same/different
• rhyming
• categorizing (e.g. animals, children, two-legged and four-legged
animals, animals found in the sea, air, on land)
• size labels, synonyms for size words (e.g. small and tiny)
Social- I reciprocity in asking and answering questions
Behavioral • turn-taking
• afraid, feelings, facial expressions
• different voices for different characters
Sensory-Motor I looking with our eyes to find things
• games (e.g. hide and seek)
• textures of different animals
• movements of different animals
• sounds of different animals
• smells, textures and temperatures of different foods in Three Bears
Self-help I I can look with my eyes to find things
• meal-time routine, spoon feeding with Three Bears
• bedtime routine with dressing and undressing for Three Bears
Social- I answering “yes” or “no” to questions
Communication I reciprocity
I narrative (‘once upon a time’) structure
• use “I” and “me” when referring to self
• use sentence frame (“I see a (color) (object)”)
• use of “what do…?” questions
264 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

STORY FORMAT (SIMPLE)

When – setting (time)

Who – main characters

Where – setting (place)

What happens – three main events

1. Beginning

2. Middle

3. End

How does it end?

How do the main characters feel? Why?

 Frameworks and Forms for Observation and Planning 265

STORY FORMAT (MORE COMPLEX)

Setting (time)

Main characters

Protagonist (‘good guy’)

Appearance

Traits

Strengths

Weaknesses

Antagonist (‘bad guy’)

Appearance

Traits

Strengths

Weaknesses

Setting (place)

Three main events

1. Beginning

2. Middle

3. End

How does it end?

How do the main characters feel? Why?

266 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

SOCIAL RULE FORMAT

Social skill: ______________________________________________

Definition: ______________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

When: __________________________________________________

Where: _________________________________________________

With whom: _____________________________________________

What to say and do:

1. ______________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________
 Index

adult-child interaction, behavior in children with Bruner, Jerome 225

supporting 185—6 autism 190—1
American Sign Language, distress reactions 195,
calming strategies 197, 199,
using for key concepts 197, 198—9
221
106, 108, 109 ways to avoid 202—18
link to stress 192—5, checklist 261
Asperger, Hans 38
196 RESTORE process
autism
looking beyond 20—1 199—201
career opportunities 228
problem behavior self-calming technique
as a cognitive style
191—2 206
23—4
regaining equilibrium career areas for ISTJ people
qualitative brain
differences 24 197 228
systematic and social crisis plan 201—2 Career Training and Personal
brains 24—5 RESTORE process Planning for Students with
definition 199—201 Autism Spectrum Disorder
reframing of 22—3 Bodily-Kinesthetic (Lundine) 228
traditional 19 intelligence 35 change, dealing with 90—1
diagnostic criteria 20—1 Bodily-Kinesthetic strength clichés 163, 164
learning from people 46 Cocking, R.R. 52
with 21 body control 142 coherent and piece-meal
learning preferences controlling feet 145—7 brains 25—6
37—44 controlling hands communication skills
learning strengths 44—7 142—5 checklist 255—8
major learning features controlling whole body conversation, learning
220—3 147—51 small talk 158—62
spectrum of differences Brain Box© 122 figurative language,
20 brain differences 24 dealing with 162—8
strengths in 20 coherent and piece-meal social cues, learning
brains 25—6 136—7
social and systematic compartmentalization 53
Baron-Cohen, Simon
brains 24—5 competence, mediating
23—5, 39, 40, 41—3
Bransford, J. D. 52, 172, feeling of 178—9
barrier tasks 135—6,
227 content of LPS program
139—40
Brown, A.L. 52 93—4
Barron-Tieger, B. 219

267
268 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

learning/cognitive skills figurative language in remaining calm 154—6

(L/C) 162—8 Emotions Dial 154—5
L/C 1: intake of learning small talk energizers of children with
information 158—62 autism 221
96—105 crisis plan 201—2 environment, learning see
L/C 2: integrating and Cuomo, Nicole 149 learning environment
elaborating
equilibrium of child,
information
regaining 197
105—10 distractions, strategies for
crisis plan 201—2
L/C 3: expressing dealing with 119—22
information RESTORE process
distress reactions
110—13 199—201
calming strategies 199
learning framework Extraversion preference 31
checklist 260
94—5 eye contact 118
for people with ISTJ
self-regulation skills preferences 195, 197,
(S/R) 140—2 198 Feeling of Competence
S/R 1: body control strategies for avoiding 178—9
142—51
202 Feeling preference 32
S/R.2: control of
channeling behavior Feelings Book 137—8,
thinking 151—3
208 153—4
S/R 3: control of
interference 208—9 feet, controlling 145—7
emotions 153—8
optimizing child’s figurative language, dealing
social/communication energy level 205,
skills (S/C) 114—15 with 162—8
206
conversation and small friends, learning to detect
problem-solving 209,
talk 158—62 real 168—70
210—18
figurative language proximity control 209, Frith, U. 25—6, 38
162—8 210
real friends, learning to routines for transitions
detect 168—70 Gardner, Howard 14,
205, 207
S/C 1: intake of 33—4
rules about desired
information Grandin, Temple 21, 22,
behaviors 202—5
116—29 26, 39, 40, 46
Durig, Alex 20, 219
S/C 2: integrating and
elaborating
Hammer, J. 24
information emotional control,
129—32 hands, controlling 142—5
strategies for 153
S/C 3: expressing Happé, Francesca 25—6
determining appropriate
information Haywood, H. Carl 191—2
people, time and
132—40 place 156—7 hyperboles 164, 167
starting, factors to interpreting emotional
consider 95—6 states and cues idioms 164, 167
conversation 153—4
 Index 269

Individual recalling object understanding figurative

Program/Education descriptions 124—5 162—8
Program (IPP or IEP) rehearsing 104, 123—4 learning/cognitive skills
225—6 visual frames 124—5 (L/C)
Information-processing visualizing 128—9 L/C 1: intake of
strategies Integrated Yoga (Cuomo) 149 information
expressing information Internet resources 233—6 96—105
110 Interpersonal intelligence L/C 2: integrating and
making a plan for 36 elaborating
responding interpersonal trust, information
112—13, 132—5 elements of 54—5 105—10
providing precise Intrapersonal intelligence L/C 3: expressing
responses 139—40 36 information
understanding other Introversion preference 30, 110—13
perspectives 37—8 learning environment 63
110—12, 135—8 Introversion-Sensing-Think order and organization in
intake of information ing-Judging (ISTJ) 64—6
96 preferences 37—44
complete and accurate
seating organization in
calming measures 199 71—3
96—101, 116—19
distress reactions 195, sensory reduction in
determining what is
197, 198 63—4
expected 103—4
relevant and important factors motivating verbal language load in
101—2, 119—23 56—7 70—1
integrating and stressors 195, 196 visual designation of
elaborating Intuiting preference 31—2 areas in 66—70
information 105 ISTJ see Learning Preferences and
comparing and Introversion-Sensing- Strengths (LPS) model
contrasting Thinking-Judging 26—7
108—10 (ISTJ) preferences advantages 15—16,
connecting with other 219—24
knowledge 105—8 development of 14—15
determining if Judging preference 33, 40
Jung, Carl 14, 29, 38 effectiveness of 226—7
information is
learning features 224—6
understood
129—32
learning preferences
language 29—30
retaining information
conversational skills decision making 32
104, 123
158—68 energy source 30—1
constructing meaning
inappropriate use of 192 information gathering
from stories
reducing in learning 31—2
125—7
environment 70—1 relating to the world
note-taking 128
32—3
270 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

learning strengths 33—4 checklists and summary metacognition 181—2

Bodily-Kinesthetic 35 of scores 238—44 reciprocity 176—7
interpersonal 36 parent survey confirming sense of mastery and
intrapersonal 36 ISTJ hypothesis control 180—1
logical-mathematical 41—4 shared participation
35—6 parent survey to 174—5
musical-rhythmic 35 determine learning ways to begin 184
visual-linguistic 34 adult-child interaction,
strengths associated
visual-spatial 34 supporting 185—6
with autism 46—7
Learning Preferences and asking questions to
people who should
Strengths (LPS) program stretch learning
complete profile 50 186—8
balancing child and adult
Learning Processes 182—4 metacognition 52, 181—2
learning preferences
lesson planning and metaphors 164, 167
58—60
implementation, motivators for children with
basic needs of child 58
forms/checklists autism 56—7, 221
becoming an expert in
251—4
227—8 multiple intelligences 14,
likes and dislikes 33—6
compartmentalization,
gathering information Musical-rhythmic
using 53
about 49—50 intelligence 35
interpersonal trust,
inventory of 248 Musical-Rhythmic strength
importance of
Listening Rules 124 45—6
54—5
listening skills, developing Myers-Briggs Type
key program
116—17, 120 Indicator (MBTI®)
components 51—5
Logical-mathematical 29—30, 41, 195, 244
metacognitive approach
intelligence 35—6 Myers, Isabel Briggs 29
52
Lundine, Vicki 228
motivating factors
56—7
‘new is good’ campaign 90
profile and summary of Macdaid, G.P. 41, 228 noise levels, reducing 63
scores 238—44 mastery and control, non-dominant preferences
self-regulated learning developing sense of and strengths
52—3 180—1 encouraging child in 56
self-talk, use of 53—4 Meaningfulness 177—8 promoting 88—92
starting point 55—6 mediated learning 171—2
see also content of LPS challenges to LPS 189
program; process of features (Seven Pillars) observation of LPS
LPS program; of 173—4 child alone 48, 246
structure of LPS feeling of competence children in a peer group
program 178—9 48—9, 247
Learning Preferences and learning processes learning processes
Strengths Profile 182—4 249—50
meaningfulness 177—8 organization
 Index 271

of learning environment Prompt Dice 216 Seven Pillars of Mediated

64—6 Learning 173—84
of tasks and activities Shared Participation
Quenk, Naomi L. 56,
84—7 174—5
195—7
similes 164, 167
questions that stretch
small talk, learning how to
Perceiving preference 33 learning 186—7
make 158—62
Perrin, N. 54
social/communication skills
personality types, measuring
Reciprocity 176—7 (S/C) 114—15
29—30
rehearsal 104—5, 123—4 learning conversation
personification 164, 167
relationship diagrams and small talk
perspectives, understanding
156—7 158—62
other 110—12, 135—8
RESTORE process 197, S/C 1: intake of
plans and routines 75
199—201 information
preschool literature-based 116—29
routines 75, 77—80
curriculum plan, sample
S/C 2: integrating and
263—5
elaborating
problem behavior 191—2 Sacks, Oliver 20, 21, 22 information
problem solving Scariano, Margaret 21 129—32
challenges to LPS 218 schedules 73—4, 76 S/C 3: expressing
Problem Solving Format seating organization in the information
209, 210—12, 262 learning environment 132—40
promoting generalization 71—3 social cues, teaching
of rules and self-prompting 215 136—7
strategies 217 self-regulation 52—3 Social Rule Format
Prompt Dice 216 self-regulation skills (S/R) 212—13, 266
self-prompting 215 140—2 social rules 21, 75, 80, 160
shortcuts to 216 S/R 1: body control Social Rule Format
Social Rule Format 142—51 212—13, 266
212—13, 266 S/R.2: control of Social Stories™ 45, 120, 203,
Social Stories™ thinking 151—3 213—15
213—15 S/R 3: control of Social Tickets 121, 137,
Social Tickets 215—16 emotions 153—8 215—16
ways to stop and activate self-talk 53—4 socially-appropriate
217—18 Sense of Mastery and behavior 191—2
process of LPS program Control 180—1 songs 235
mediated learning Sensing preference 31, action songs 116
171—3 38—9 for body control 142
Seven Pillars of sensory reduction in the for calming children
173—84, 254 learning environment 149—50
ways to begin mediating 63—4 for transitions 75, 207
184—9
272 Reaching and Teaching the Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder

spectrum concept in autism thinking control, strategies Wing, Lorna 41

20 for 151—3
‘Stop and Think’ song Thinking preference 32,
Yoga 149
149—50 39—40
stories Tieger, P.D. 219
response learning 134 trust, ways of creating
retention of information 54—5, 222
125—7
Story Hand 125—6, 134
uncertainty, dealing with 89
stress 192
unplanned events, coping
optimal levels of
with 90—1
193—5
stressors 195, 221
stressors checklist 259 verbal language difficulties,
see also distress reactions dealing with 70—1
structure of LPS program victimization, learning to
61—2 avoid 168—9
learning environment video modeling 155—6
63—73 visual designation of areas
promoting at home 68—9
non-dominant at school 66—8
preferences and visual frames 124—5,
strengths 88—92 133—4, 139
schedules, plans and Visual-linguistic intelligence
routines 73—82 34
tasks and activities Visual-spatial intelligence
82—8 34
surroundings, reducing Visual-spatial strength
sensory impact of 44—5
63—4 visualizing 128—9
systematizing brain 24—5, Vygotsky, Lev 227
43
Szatmari, Peter 21, 24, 224
Weak Central Coherence
theory 25, 29
tasks and activities 82 Welton, Jude 163
importance of clear What Did You Say? What Do
expectations 83—4 You Mean? by Welton
LPS used in 87—8 163
organization of 84—7 Wheelwright, S. 25
Willis, J. 224, 227