Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Mathematics achievement of students within the United State (US) has

recently been under scrutiny. Student proficiency in mathematics is a concern

among educators and educational stakeholders in the US based on scores from

mathematics assessments (TIMSS, 2007). Students in the US continue to

perform lower than students in many other industrialized nations on

assessments of mathematics achievement (i.e., NMAP, 2008). Statistics from

international assessments and reports suggest students from the US lack the

skills to compete in an international arena, especially in fields requiring

proficiency in mathematics (TIMSS, 2007;NMAP, 2008). Arguably, in order to

advance in mathematics ranking at an international level, researchers,

politicians, and educators must first address mathematics performance of

students at state and local levels.

Meanwhile in the Philippines despite the many changes to the

curriculum, the goals of mathematics education at the basic education level

remain more or less the same: “to provide opportunities for individuals to

develop skills and attitudes needed for effective participation in everyday living

and prepare them for further education and the world of work so that they make

worthwhile contributions to the society at large” (Pascua, 1993). Mathematics,

as we see it, has the following roles in Philippine Education: facilitating

participation in productive life activities, providing a way of making sense of the

world, serving as a means of communication and operating as a gateway to

national progress.

In 2001, with the passing of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act schools

were forced to incorporate data driven models of instruction to all students

based on their individual needs and show student growth as measured by state

assessments (Lembke, Hampton, and Beyers, 2012). Shortly after NCLB, the

Individuals with Disabilities Act of 2004 connected and described how NCLB

applied to students with special needs.

School Background

A part of the vision of the Department of Education is to continuously

improve itself to better serve its stakeholders. From traditional way to more

effective teaching strategies and approach, and every possible means were

used by the institution just to improve the performance of the students.

However, despite the dream of the Filipinos to enhance the curriculum; the

students still fail to achieve the competencies in the curriculum guide.

At the District and school level, an alarming decline of the MPS in

Mathematics in the National Achievement Test were reported annually,

although the pupils that were tested for the NAT were grade 7 students it cannot

be denied that considerable percentage of these pupils were from San Isidro

Elementary School. A low mean percentage score in NAT exam indicates that

students have low performance and retention level in Mathematics. One factor

that may affect the performance of the students is on how the teacher provides

meaningful representations and situations to the students. According to Cooper

(2012) in teaching and learning with CPA approach there is manipulative

aspects which are said to be a source of benefits and pitfalls at the same time,

the benefits of learning with the use of manipulative objects will enhance the

students' dispositions and attitudes towards learning in the classroom. The trap

when students prefer to regard the use of manipulative objects as play events

to fill the spare time than to provide an opportunity to improve their

understanding of mathematics.

Equally important with literacy, numerical literacy is an essential life skill

that a functional individual must obtain. However, double the amount of struggle

was observe in obtaining numerical literacy, as it both requires reading and

analytical skills. Proficiency in mathematics has grown as a concern among

educators, parents, policy makers, and researchers. The need for improved

student performance in mathematics, coupled with the substantial

body of evidence to support the use of CRA to teach mathematical

concepts, and the exceptional needs of struggling learners at risk of

mathematics failure would suggest that more studies regarding the use of CRA

instruction in mathematics for struggling learners, especially students who have

struggles in learning math would be available.

However, few studies specifically target this instructional strategy as a

means to support learning of prerequisite skills to algebra, such as fractions,

for middle school students with deficits in mathematics. The small number of

articles located suggests a need for quality research to be conducted in this

area.

Empirical research documenting results of interventions aimed at

improving student performance in mathematics is essential to improve the

quality of instruction that students receive, which ultimately impacts student

achievement. Individual research initiatives are important components that

build a collective body of evidence of how to best instruct students. The study

derives from the awareness of need for student proficiency in mathematics,

while considering the learning challenges experienced by students who

struggle with mathematics and are at risk for mathematics failure.

The result of most recent numerical literacy test done at San Isidro

Elementary School showed that 42% or 175 of the 426 Grade 4 pupils gained

scores of below mastery level, while 39 The need for improved student

performance in mathematics is very critical.

A diagnostic test was given to the Grade four pupils of San Isidro

Elementary, the purpose the test was to measure level the numerical literacy

and skills in number concept. The result showed that 42% or 175 of the 426

Grade 4 gained scores below mastery level, 39% or 169 of the 426 pupils

gained the scores nearing mastery level and only 19% or 81 of the 426 grade

four pupils manage to obtain the scores at the mastery level. Mathematics is

seen as “an essential tool for intelligent participation in a technological society”

(FAPE, 1988). As the level of mathematics needed in the workplace continues

to increase, its study is indispensable in order to develop a “scientifically and

technologically literate citizenry” (UP NISMED, 2001).

Thus, a call for a tailored fit intervention program is very critical. The

need to evaluate the effectiveness of the prevailing math intervention program

is a must. The need for improved student performance in mathematics, coupled

with the substantial body of evidence to support the use of CPA to teach
mathematical concepts, and the exceptional needs of struggling learners at risk

of mathematics failure would suggest that more studies regarding the use of

CPA instruction in mathematics for struggling learners, especially students who

are at risk of failing the math subject would be accessible.

To solve the lack of ability in mathematics representative of the student,

NCTM (2000) suggested to student to be given opportunity to use several

mathematics representatives to solve problems with physical model, social and

mathematics phenomena. One of the learning and teaching process which has

characteristics that student has opportunity to use representation to solve the

mathematical problem is CPA teaching and learning approach. The CPA

approach consist of three steps specifically: 1) learning by physical

manipulation of concrete objects, 2) learning by representation of pictorial of

concrete manipulation, and 3) solve the problem by mean an abstract notation

(Witzell, 2005). Concrete components including manipulative objects such as

cake, measurement tools, or the other object can be used during learning and

teaching process. Pictorial representation is ability to create, read and graph or

picture interpretation. The utilization of abstract notation is referring on symbolic

representation such as number (numeral) or letters that written or interpreted

when solve the problem (Sousa, 2007). Sequence of learning activities carried

out inthe CPA is very important. Activities with concrete material should take

precedence to give the impression that mathematical operations can be used

to solve real-world problems. Pictorial representation shows a visual

representation of the manipulation of concrete help visualize mathematical

operations in problem solving. This is important for the teacher to explain how

the sample image relates to concrete objects. Then, a formal working with
symbols are used to show how symbols providea shorter way and efficient to

represent numerical operations. In the end, students need to achieve the

highest level of abstract that is proficient in use of symbols with a lot of

mathematical abilities they control.

What is Concrete-Pictorial-Abstract approach?

The theories of instruction proposed by Bruner in his 1966 book Toward

a Theory of Instruction have undoubtedly bequeathed a rich legacy to

generations of educators in the domain of learning and instruction. Amongst

his voluminous contributions, one of the most well-known conception is that of

“enactive-iconic-symbolic” modes of representation. This conception forms the

foundation for a spectrum of instructional practices related to mathematics

education, all bearing a conspicuous tripartite semblance to the Bruner’s model.

One such adaptation of Bruner’s model is the Concrete-Representation

Abstract (CRA) sequence. The CRA sequence has been shown to be

particularly effective with students who have difficulties with mathematics

(Jordan, Miller, & Mercer, 1998; Sousa, 2008).

The ‘Concrete’ segment of CRA, in particular, has been the theoretical basis

for the use of manipulatives in learning mathematics (Reisman, 1982; Ross &

Kurtz, 1993). The CRA approach has also been employed to aid students with

learning disabilities to learn mathematics; CRA has been reported to be

effective in remediating deficits in basic mathematics computation (Morin &

Miller, 1998), in the teaching of place value (Peterson, Mercer, & O’Shea,

1998), fractions (Butler, Miller, Crehan, Babbit, & Pierce, 2003) and algebra

(Maccinni & Ruhl, 2000; Witzel, Mercer, & Miller, 2003). With regards to
mathematics students (first and third graders), Fuchs, Fuchs, and Hollenback

(2007) also advocate the use of the CRA sequence to teach place value,

geometry, and fractions.

In the practice of mathematics instruction in Singapore, Bruner’s

enactive iconic-symbolic conception is at the heart of the Concrete-Pictorial-

Abstract (CPA) approach. Since its inception in the early 1980’s, the CPA

approach has remained a key instructional strategy advocated by the

Singapore Ministry of Education. This is attested by its regular mention in official

curricular documents, including the latest syllabus for implementation in 2013.

How to Practice CPA Approach

Children (and adults!) can find math difficult because it is abstract. The CPA

approach builds on children’s existing knowledge by introducing abstract

concepts in a concrete and tangible way. It involves moving from concrete

materials, to pictorial representations, to abstract symbols and problems. The

CPA framework is so established in Singapore math teaching that the Ministry

of Education will not approve any teaching materials that do not use the

approach.

Concrete step of CPA

Concrete is the “doing” stage. During this stage, students use concrete objects

to model problems. Unlike traditional math teaching methods where teachers

demonstrate how to solve a problem, the CPA approach brings concepts to life

by allowing children to experience and handle physical (concrete) objects. With

the CPA framework, every abstract concept is first introduced using physical,

interactive concrete materials.

For example, if a problem involves adding pieces of fruit, children can first

handle actual fruit. From there, they can progress to handling abstract counters

or cubes which represent the fruit.

Pictorial step of CPA

Pictorial is the “seeing” stage. Here, visual representations of concrete objects

are used to model problems. This stage encourages children to make a mental

connection between the physical object they just handled and the abstract

pictures, diagrams or models that represent the objects from the problem.

Building or drawing a model makes it easier for children to grasp difficult

abstract concepts (for example, fractions). Simply put, it helps students

visualize abstract problems and make them more accessible.

Abstract step of CPA

Abstract is the “symbolic” stage, where children use abstract symbols to model

problems. Students will not progress to this stage until they have demonstrated

that they have a solid understanding of the concrete and pictorial stages of the

problem. The abstract stage involves the teacher introducing abstract concepts

(for example, mathematical symbols). Children are introduced to the concept at

a symbolic level, using only numbers, notation, and mathematical symbols (for

example, +, –, x, /) to indicate addition, multiplication or division.

Making CPA work for you

Although we’ve presented CPA as three distinct stages, a skilled teacher will

go back and forth between each stage to reinforce concepts.

The CPA Primary Series approach encourages teachers to vary the apparatus

that children use in class. For example, students might one day use counters,

another day they might use a ten frame. Likewise, children are encouraged to

represent the day’s math problem in a variety of ways. For example, drawing

an array, a number bond diagram or a bar model.

By systematically varying the apparatus and methods used to solve a problem,

children can craft powerful mental connections between the concrete, pictorial,

and abstract phases.

Related Literature

The book of Corpus and Salandanan (2013) stated that

researchers found out that the most effective approaches resulting in 75

percent and 90 percent retention rate are learning by doing and learning by

teaching others, respectively. This means that students want to be part of their

learning and need to be given a meaningful learning experience on the topic

given to them.

According to Cooper (2012) in teaching and learning with CPA approach

there is manipulative aspects which are said to be a source of benefits and

pitfalls at the same time, the benefits of learning with the use of manipulative

objects will enhance the students' dispositions and attitudes towards learning

in the classroom. The trap when students prefer to regard the use of

manipulative objects as play events to fill the spare time than to provide an

opportunity to improve their understanding of mathematics.

Cooper (2012) describes three stages of learning sequences using CPA

approach, namely: the initial phase involves students physically interact with
the manipulation of concrete objects. The second stage involves working with

a concrete representation of the model, which is usually a pictorial like circles,

dots, counting, or geometric figures. The third stage is abstract stage that

symbolically modeled using the concept of numbers, variables, and other

mathematical symbols.

Flores (2010), describe CPA approach as namely: First, manipulative

objects are used to introduce the conceptual understanding. Second is concrete

level that the learning processes described as follows: The instructor

demonstrates the process/mathematical skills with manipulative objects, the

instructor then guides students to participate in the use of manipulative objects,

giving directions and clues, and the students in dependently using object

manipulation to demonstrate the skills/processes.

Cooper (2012) describes three stages of learning sequences using CPA

approach, namely: the initial phase involves students physically interact with

the manipulation of concrete objects. The second stage involves working with

a concrete representation of the model, which is usually a pictorial like circles,

dots, counting, or geometric figures. The third stage is abstract stage that

symbolically modeled using the concept of numbers, variables, and other

mathematical symbols.

Stages of learning by using CPA approach are also described by Flores

(2010), namely: First, manipulative objects are used to introduce the conceptual

understanding. Second is concrete level that the learning process sis described

as follows: The instructor demonstrates the process/mathematical skills with

manipulative objects, the teacher then guides students to participate in the use
of manipulative objects, giving directions and clues, and the students in

dependently using object manipulation to demonstrate the skills/processes.

Instructional the representational level follows the same steps, but manipulative

objects replaced with a picture and/or painting. After the representational

phase, most of the interventions involving the CPA order give students

strategies that help them to remember the steps in the process of mathematics.

It serves as a transition from the use of drawings or paintings with the use of

only the numbers are abstract phase. During the final phase, the students use

the numbers in solving mathematical tasks, and instruction focuses on fluency.

Lembke et al., 2012; Moors et al., 2010; Elliot, 2008 stated that Schools

need a solid core mathematics program including differentiated instruction,

groupings, and peer tutoring to truly teach to each individual child’s needs.

When the quality core instruction is not sufficient to meet the needs of all

students, smaller groups and more individualized instruction are needed to

remediate.

Significance of the Study

Mathematics is accepted as the partner of Science in improving one’s

knowledge. It plays a great role in any field of knowledge for it solves the

numeric problems that may help in acquiring new set of inventions. It is known

to be the back bone of science. Even the amazing works of engineers,

architects, technologies and in all other fields of knowledge are greatly

associated with the concept of Mathematics. A good foundation in Mathematics

will lead to a greater performance of the students in their advance Mathematics.

Teachers in elementary and secondary schools should ensure strong

foundation in Math to provide more chances of the student to acquire another

set of knowledge for the tertiary level easily, because if the student was not able

to master the basic skills in Math, it will lead to a greater chance of having a low

performance in the tertiary level. Basic skills should be developed and mastered

by the student in early years in school. Otherwise, a negative attitude and

performance will occur.

Most grade level pupils like Mathematics and Science in elementary

grades but they dislike both subjects more in junior and senior high school.

They also stated that of all subjects, Mathematics is the least liked subject. With

the various problems that Mathematics education is facing nowadays,

especially with the performance and attitude of the students towards the

subject, an approach commonly used in Singapore (Yoong, 1999), named

Concrete-Pictorial-Abstract (CPA) approach is the way of teaching that the

researcher explored. The researcher checked how it affects the performance

and attitude of a student towards Mathematics.

Conceptual Framework

Developing the CPA strategy over a unit of lessons allows the gradual

transition between stages to take place more seamlessly. Moreover, given the

diversity among learners, the duration of 4-6 lessons provide the temporal

latitude for different students to transit to the next predominant mode of

representation at points they feel they are ready to. In contrast, ‘forcing’ the

entire CPA progression within, say, a single lesson would not allow each mode

to be developed to a point in which the sense-making takes root and where

intermodal links can be meaningfully established, thus heightening the sense

of failure of the CPA innovation; on the other hand, stretching the CPA

development over a much longer time period beyond a “unit” would render it

unrealistic from the point of view of keeping to the time allocations of the

teaching schedule.

Beginning with unit design is also advantageous from the standpoint of

teacher development. Where feasible, teachers can be involved in the design

process. As such, they do not see themselves as mere ‘end-user’ of the CPA-

base design; rather, through active participation in the crafting of the unit

sequence and instructional materials, they are not only given an opportunity to

develop a more refined interpretation of CPA; they are also able to contribute

to concretizing its use in actual classroom instruction.

There would be two set of groups for study. the experimental group and

controlled group in this study. The experimental group will receive the CPA

approach as a math intervention program, while the controlled group will be

having the conventional math intervention program, both groups will undergo

pre and post examination. The result of the compared pretest and posttest

score will determine the effectiveness of the CPA approach as an intervention

program for math.

 Input Process output
 Test Scores before  Administer pre-test Difference between
the use of the CPA examination the Test Scores of
Approach as a  Use the CPA Approach Grade 3 Pupils In
Math
intervention as a Math Mathematics before
Program intervention Program and after the use of
 Test Scores after  Administer post-test CPA Approach as a
the use of the CPA examination Math intervention
Approach as a
Math  Test for the difference Program
intervention between the pretest
Effectiveness of the
Program and post-test scores
 CPA Approach as a
Math intervention
Program

FEEDBACK
Statement of the Problem

The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of concrete-

pictorial-abstract approach in San Isidro Elementary School and on how it

affects the attitude of the students. Specifically, it aimed to answer the following

questions:

1. What are the attitude of the students when exposed to CPA approach and to

those exposed to non-CPA approach before and after the intervention in terms

of:

a. attitudes toward success in Math;

b. Math anxiety;

c. motivation;

d. usefulness of Math; and

e. confidence in learning Math?

2. What is the level of performance in Mathematics of the students once

exposed to CPA approach and those exposed to non-CPA approach in terms

of:

a. pre-test scores:

b. post-test scores; and

c. retention-test scores?

3. Is there significant difference on students’ attitude as exposed to CPA

approach and those exposed to non-CPA approach?

4. Is there significant difference between the performance of the students

exposed to CPA approach and those exposed to non-CPA approach in terms

of post-test scores

Hypothesis

1. There is no significant difference in the attitude of the students when exposed

to CPA approach and to those exposed to non-CPA approach before and after

the intervention in terms of:

a. attitudes toward success in Math;

b. Math anxiety;

c. motivation;

d. usefulness of Math; and

e. confidence in learning Math?

2. There is no significant difference in the level of performance in Mathematics

of the students once exposed to CPA approach and those exposed to non-CPA

approach in terms of:

a. pre-test scores:

b. post-test scores; and

c. retention-test scores?

3. Is there significant difference on students’ attitude as exposed to CPA

approach and those exposed to non-CPA approach?

4. Is there no significant difference between the performance of the students

exposed to CPA approach and those exposed to non-CPA approach in terms

of post-test scores

Significance of the Study

The benefits of this research are as follows:

1. Theoretically, this study will provide a reference enforce ability and reliability

study of mathematics by CPA approach to the achievement of a mathematical

representation of the pupil's ability.

2. In practice, this research will provide direct benefits to the faculty in

developing the skills to teach mathematics to the pupil of San Isidro Elementary

teacher School. Another direct impact can be felt after the students learn

mathematics with the implementation of the CPA approach, namely increasing

the ability of the student mathematical representation.