Structured Query Language (SQL)

- Part 2

Lecture 7

Carlos Coronel, Steven Morris, Peter Rob, Database Systems: Design,

Implementation, and Management, 9th Edition, Cengage Learning
Learning Outcomes
 In this chapter, students will learn:
 How to use SQL for data administration (to drop tables and
create views)
 How to use SQL for data manipulation (to delete and retrieve
data)
 How to use SQL to query a database for useful information
 How to use SQL functions to manipulate dates, strings, and
other data

2
Advanced Data Definition Commands
 All changes in table structure are made by using ALTER
command
 Three options:
 ALTER COLUMN changes column characteristics
 ADD adds a column
 DROP deletes a column
 Can also be used to:
 Add table constraints (e.g., foreign key)
 Remove table constraints

3
Changing a Column’s Data Characteristics
 Use ALTER to change column’s data characteristics
 Syntax:
 ALTER TABLE <table name>
ALTER COLUMN <column name> SET DATA TYPE <new
column data type characteristic>

 Changes in column’s characteristics are permitted if changes do

not alter the existing data type
 Example:
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ALTER COLUMN V_CODE
SET DATA TYPE CHAR(5)

 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ALTER COLUMN P_PRICE

SET DATA TYPE DECIMAL(9,2)
4
Adding a Column
 ADD column
 Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column

 Example:
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD SALECODE CHAR(10)
 ALTER TABLE STUDENT ADD GENDER CHAR(1)
DEFAULT ‘F’

5
Adding Table Constraint
 ADD CONSTRAINT
 Syntax:
 ALTER TABLE <table name> ADD CONSTRAINT
<constraint name> <constraint characteristics>

 Example:
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD CONSTRAINT PKconstraint
PRIMARY KEY (P_CODE)

Note: To add primary key constraint, ensure that the existing

column is declared as ‘not null’.

6
Dropping a Column
 Use ALTER to drop column
 Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion of an
attribute

 Syntax:
 ALTER TABLE <tablename>
DROP <columnname>

 Example:
 ALTER TABLE VENDOR DROP V_ORDER

7
Ordering a Listing
 ORDER BY clause is useful when listing order is important
 Syntax:
 SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[WHERE conditionlist]
[ORDER BY columnlist [ASC | DESC]]
 Ascending order by default
 Example:
 SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT
ORDER BY P_PRICE
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Order Results in Ascending Order

9
A Query based on Multiple Restrictions
SELECT P_DESCRIPT,V_CODE, P_INDATE, P_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_INDATE > ’1999-08-20’ AND P_PRICE <= 50.00
ORDER BY V_CODE, P_INDATE

10
Listing Unique Values
 DISTINCT clause produces list of only values that are
different from one another
 Example:
 SELECT DISTINCT V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT

11
Aggregate Functions
 COUNT function tallies number of non-null values of an
attribute
 Takes one parameter: usually a column name
 Can be used with DISTINCT clause
 MAX and MIN find highest (lowest) value in a table
 SUM computes total sum for any specified attribute
 AVG function format is similar to MIN and MAX

12
Aggregate Functions
 COUNT(*) counts all rows of a table, regardless of
whether nulls or duplicate values occur.
 Can use DISTINCT before column name to eliminate
duplicates.
 DISTINCT has no effect with MIN/MAX, but may have with
SUM/AVG

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Example Output of COUNT Function

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Example Output of MAX and MIN
Functions

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Example of SUM and AVG Functions
 SUM
 SELECT SUM (P_ONHAND * P_PRICE)
FROM PRODUCT

 AVG
 SELECT AVG (P_PICE)
FROM PRODUCT

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Example Output of AVG Function

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Grouping Data
 Frequency distributions created by GROUP BY clause
within SELECT statement
 Syntax:
 SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[WHERE conditionlist]
[GROUP BY columnlist]
[HAVING conditionlist]
[ORDER BY columnlist [ASC | DESC] ]
 Only valid when used in conjunction with one of the SQL
aggregate function (COUNT, MIN, MAX,AVG,SUM)
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Example output of GROUP BY clause
SELECT P_SALECODE, MIN(P_PRICE)
FROM PRODUCT
GROUP BY P_SALECODE

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 NO aggregate
function
(COUNT, MIN,
MAX,AVG,SUM)

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Grouping Data with HAVING Clause
 HAVING clause
 Operates very much like WHERE clause
 WHERE clause – applies to columns and expressions for
individual rows
 HAVING clause – applies to the output of a GROUP BY
operation

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Grouping Data with HAVING Clause

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Subqueries/Nested Queries
 A subquery is a query inside a query
 Normally expressed inside parentheses
 The first query in the SQL statement is known as the
outer query
 The query inside the SQL statement known as the inner
query
 Inner query executed first
 Output of an inner query is used as the input for the
output query
 The entire SQL statement is sometimes referred to as
nested queries
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Subqueries/Nested Queries
 Example: Outer
query

INSERT INTO Product_A

(SELECT * FROM Product_B)

Inner
query

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Subqueries/Nested Queries
 Example: Outer
query

 UPDATE Product Inner

query
SET P_Price =
(SELECT AVG (P_Price) FROM Product)
WHERE V_Code IN
(SELECT V_CODE FROM Vendor WHERE
V_AREACODE = ‘615’)

Inner
query

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Subqueries/Nested Queries
 Example: Outer
query

 DELETE FROM Product

WHERE V_Code IN
(SELECT V_CODE FROM Vendor WHERE
V_AREACODE = ‘615’)

Inner
query

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Copying Parts of Tables
 SQL permits copying contents of selected table columns
 Data need not re-entered manually into newly created
table(s)
 Can use SUBQUERIES

 1st Step: Create new table structure

 2nd Step: Add rows to new table using table rows from
another table

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Copying Parts of Tables
 CREATE TABLE PART (
PART_CODE CHAR(8) NOT NULL,
PART_DESCRIPT CHAR(35),
PART_PRICE DECIMAL(8,2),
V_CODE VARCHAR(5),
PRIMARY KEY(PART_CODE) )

Copy from
New table Product table

 INSERT INTO PART ( PART_CODE, PART_DESCRIPT,

PART_PRICE,V_CODE)
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE,V_CODE FROM
28 PRODUCT
Copying Parts of Tables

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Joining Database Tables
 Join is performed when data are retrieved from more
than one table at a time
 Use equality comparison (=) to join foreign key and primary
key of related tables

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Joining Database Tables
 SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE, V_NAME, V_CONTACT,
V_AREACODE, V_PHONE
FROM PRODUCT, VENDOR
WHERE PRODUCT.V_CODE = VENDOR.V_CODE

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Joining Database Tables
 SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE, V_NAME, V_CONTACT,
V_AREACODE, V_PHONE
FROM PRODUCT, VENDOR
WHERE PRODUCT.V_CODE = VENDOR.V_CODE
AND P_INDATE > ‘1999-08-15’

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Joining Tables with an Alias
 Alias can be used to identify source table
 Any legal table name can be used as alias
 Add alias after table name in FROM clause
 FROM <tablename> <alias>

 Example:
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE,V_NAME, V_CONTACT,
V_AREACODE,V_PHONE
FROM PRODUCT P, VENDOR V
WHERE P.V_CODE = V.V_CODE
ORDER BY P_PRICE

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Outer Joins
 Outer join (recap from lecture 2!)
 Returns not only the rows matching the join condition but
also the rows with unmatched values
 Two types of outer join
 Left outer join
 Right outer join

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Outer Joins
 LEFT join
 Returns rows in the left side table with unmatched values in the
right side table
 Example:
SELECT CUS_CODE, CUS_LNAME, CUS_ZIP,
AGENT_CODE, AGENT_PHONE
FROM CUSTOMER LEFT JOIN AGENT ON
CUSTOMER.AGENT_CODE = AGENT.AGENT_CODE

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Outer Joins
 RIGHT join
 Returns rows in the right side table with unmatched values in
the left side table
 Example:
SELECT CUS_CODE, CUS_LNAME, CUS_ZIP,
AGENT_CODE, AGENT_PHONE
FROM CUSTOMER RIGHT JOIN AGENT ON
CUSTOMER.AGENT_CODE = AGENT.AGENT_CODE

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Virtual Tables: Creating a View
 View is a virtual table based on SELECT query
 Create view by using CREATE VIEW command
 Syntax:
 CREATE VIEW <viewname> AS
SELECT statement

 Example:
 CREATE VIEW ProductView AS
SELECT * from Product

 To display the contents of the virtual table:

SELECT * FROM ProductView
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Virtual Tables: Creating a View

38
SQL Indexes
 When primary key is declared, DBMS automatically
creates unique index
 Often need additional indexes to improve search
 Syntax:
 CREATE INDEX <indexname> ON <tablename (column))>

 Example:
 CREATE INDEX P_INDATEX ON PRODUCT (P_INDATE)
SQL Indexes