m

aj

RESEARCH
DATA
INSTRUMENT
 TOPIC 4 REPORTERS
Leader:
LABUGUEN, Mary Ann Joy P.
Members:
1. APOSTOL, Annabelle D.
2. CASTILLO, Leonardo S.

2
 RESEARCH
1 DATA
3
 DEFINING
RESEARCH DATA
 Any information
“
collected, stored, and
processed to produce
and validate original
research results.

5
U.S. Office of Management &
Budget:
“research data, unlike other types of
information, is collected, observed, or
created, for purposes of analysis to produce
original research results”

6
University of
Edinburgh:
"...recorded factual material commonly
accepted in the scientific community as
necessary to validate research findings..."

National Endowment for the

Humanities:
"...materials generated or collected during
the course of conducting research..."

7
RESEARCH DATA
FORMAT
 Research data takes many different
forms.
Here are some examples of the formats
that data can take:
Documents, Test
spreadsheets responses
Questionnaires, transcripts, Sensor
surveys readings
Focus group recordings; interview Content analysis
notes
Models, algorithms, Artifacts, specimens, physical
scripts samples
Films, audio or video Codebooks Experimental
tapes/files data
Photographs, image Lab notebooks, field notebooks,
files diaries 9
QUANTITATIVE
VS.
QUALITATIVE
DATA
 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
DATA DATA
► Used when a ► It describes qualities
researcher is trying to or characteristics.
quantify a problem, or ► It is collected using
address the "what" or questionnaires,
"how many" aspects interviews, or
of a research question. observation, and
► It is the data that can frequently appears in
either be counted or narrative form.
compared on a
numeric scale.
11
 TYPES
OF
RESEARCH DATA
1. OBSERVATIONAL
DATA
Observational data are captured through observation of a
behavior or activity; using methods such as human
observation, open-ended surveys, or the use of an instrument
or sensor to monitor and record information -- such as the use
of sensors to observe noise levels at the a certain place.
Because observational data are captured in real time, it would
be very difficult or impossible to re-create if lost.

13
2. EXPERIMENTAL
DATA
Experimental data are collected through active intervention
by the researcher to produce and measure change or to
create difference when a variable is altered.
Experimental data typically allow the researcher to determine
a causal relationship and are typically projectable to a larger
population. This type of data are often reproducible, but it
often can be expensive to do so.

14
3. SIMULATION
DATA data are generated by imitating the operation of a
Simulation
real-world process or system over time using computer test
models. For example, to predict weather conditions, economic
models, chemical reactions, or seismic activity.
This method is used to try to determine what would, or could,
happen under certain conditions. The test model used is often
as, or even more, important than the data generated from the
simulation.

15
4. DERIVED/COMPILED
DATA
Derived data involve using existing data points, often from
different data sources, to create new data through some sort
of transformation, such as an arithmetic formula or
aggregation.
While this type of data can usually be replaced if lost, it may
be very time-consuming (and possibly expensive) to do so.

16
2 DATA
COLLECTION

17
Data collection is the process of

“
gathering and measuring
information on variables of
interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes.
18
 The importance of
ensuring accurate
and appropriate data
collection
Consequences of
improperly collected data
include:
► Inability to answer research questions
accurately
► Inability to repeat and validate the
study
► Distorted findings resulting in wasted
resources
► Compromising decisions for public
policy
► Causing harm to human participants and animal
subjects
► Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless
avenues of investigation
20
3 DATA
COLLECTION
METHODS
21
 1.
OBSERVATION
According to P.V.
Young,
“Observation is a systematic and deliberate study
through eye, of spontaneous occurrences at the time
they occur. The purpose of observation is to perceive the
nature and extent of significant interrelated elements within
complex social phenomena, culture patterns or human
conduct”.
According to Oxford Concise
Dictionary,
“Observation means accurate watching, knowing of
phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to
cause and effect or mutual relations”.

23
 Strengths and Limitations of
Observation
STRENGTHS
► Simplest Method

► Useful for Framing Hypothesis

► Greater Accuracy

► A Universal Method

► Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain

Cases
► Independent of People’s Willingness to Report
24
 Strengths and Limitations of
Observation
LIMITATIONS
► Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to
Observation
► Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be
Observed when Observer is at Hand
► Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational
Study
► Lack of Reliability ► Difficulty in Checking Validity
► Faulty Perception ► Personal Bias of the
Observer
► Expensive ► Slow Investigation ► Inadequate
Method 25
 2.
SURVEY
► Survey research is the collection of data attained by
asking individuals questions either in person, on
paper, by phone or online.

► Survey research is used to gather opinions, beliefs

and feelings of selected groups of individuals, often
chosen for demographic sampling. These demographics
include age, gender, ethnicity or income levels.

27
► Common types of surveys include interviews and
questionnaires, which are comprised of multiple
choice questionnaires, opinions and polls.
Questionnaires are distributed through mail surveys,
group administered questionnaires or in-person drop-offs.

Interviews can be held in person or over the phone and

are often a more personal form of research than
questionnaires.

28
► Conducting surveys is one form of primary research,
which is the gathering data first-hand from its source.
The information collected may also be accessed
subsequently by other parties in secondary research.

► There are several issues to consider when creating a survey,

including content, wording, response format and
question placement and sequence. All of these choices
can affect the answers given by the participating individuals.

29
 Strengths and Limitations of Survey

STRENGTHS
► Relatively easy to administer ► Can be developed in less time

► Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode

► Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail,

email, kiosk, or telephone
► Capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents

► Numerous questions can be asked about a subject, giving extensive

flexibility in data analysis

► A broad range of data can be collected

► Standardized surveys are relatively free from several types of 30

 Strengths and Limitations of Survey
LIMITATIONS
► Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest
answers
► Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that
present themselves in a unfavorable manner
► Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given
answer because of lack of memory on the subject, or even boredom
► Surveys with close-ended questions may have a lower validity rate
than other questions types

► Customized surveys can run the risk of containing certain types of

errors
► Survey question answer options could lead to unclear data because
certain answer options may be interpreted differently by 31
 3.
INTERVIEW
► The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire.
Instead of writing the response, the interviewee or subject
gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face
relationship.

► Interview is relatively more flexible tool than any

written inquiry form and permits explanation,
adjustment and variation according to the situation.

33
► The interview method as a verbal method is quite
significant in securing data about all these aspects. In
this method a researcher or an interviewer can interact with
his respondents and know their inner feelings and reactions.

“If you want to know how people feel, what

they experience and what they remember,
what their emotions and motives are like and
the reasons for acting as they do, why not ask
them”.
-G.W. Allport

34
 Types of Interview

1. Structured Interview 3. In-Depth Interview

► The questions as well as their ► It is less formal and the least
order are already scheduled. structured, in which the
wording and questions are not
predetermined.

2. Semi-Structured 4. Focused Group

Interview
► Include a number of planned Discussion
► It is led by a facilitator who
questions, but the interviewer poses questions to the
has more freedom to modify participants with the purpose
the wording and order of of stimulating conversation
questions. around a specific topic.
35
 Some practical issues with Focus Group discussion

A. B. C.
The ideal size of Preparation for Running the
the Focus groups the Focus Group Focus Group

► 8-10 participants ► Identifying the ► Opening the

► 1 Facilitator purpose of the Discussion
► 1 Note-taker discussion ► Managing the
► Identifying the discussion
participants ► Closing the focus
► Develop the group
questions ► Follow-up after
the focus group
36
 Strengths and Limitations of
Interview
STRENGTHS
► Collect complete information with greater
understanding
► It is more personal, as compared to questionnaires,
allowing us to have higher response rates
► It allows more control over the order and flow of
questions
► We can introduce necessary changes in the interview
schedule based on initial results (which is not possible in
the case of a questionnaire study/survey)
37
 Strengths and Limitations of
Interview
LIMITATIONS
► Data analysis—especially when there is a lot of
qualitative data
► Interviewing can be tiresome for large numbers of
participants
► Risk of bias is high due to fatigue and to becoming
too involved with interviewees

38
 4.
SCHEDULE
Goode and Hatt
says,
“Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of
questions which are asked and filled by an interviewer
in a face to face situation with other person”.

Webster defines a schedule

as
“A formal list, a catalogue or inventory and may be a
counting device, used in formal and standardized
inquiries, the sole purpose of which is aiding in the
collection of quantitative cross-sectional data”.

40
 SCHEDULE vs. QUESTIONNAIRE

SCHEDULE QUESTIONNAIRE
► Schedule is used in direct ► The questionnaire is
interview on direct generally mailed to the
observation and in it the respondent, who fills it up
questions are asked and and returns it to the
filled by the researcher researcher.
himself.

41
 5.
QUESTIONNAIRE
According to Goode and
Hatt,
“It is a device for securing answers to questions by
using a form which the respondent fills in himself.

According to GA
Lundberg,
“Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to
which illiterate people are exposed in order to observe
their verbal behavior under these stimuli”.

43
► Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple
technique of gathering data about groups of
individuals scattered in a wide and extended field.

► Since the questionnaire is sent to a selected number

of individuals, its scope is rather limited but within its
limited scope it can prove to be the most effective
means of eliciting information, provided that it is well
formulated and the respondent fills it properly.

► A properly constructed and administered

questionnaire may serve as a most appropriate and
useful data gathering device.
44
 QUESTIONNAIRE vs. SCHEDULE

QUESTIONNAIRE SCHEDULE
► A questionnaire consists of ► Schedule is also a form or
a set of questions printed set of forms containing
or typed in a systematic questions, but here, the
order on a form or set of researcher puts the
forms that is usually sent question to the respondent
by the post to the in a face to face situation,
respondents who are clarifies their doubts,
expected to read and offers the necessary
understand the questions explanation and most
and reply to them in significantly fills their
writing in the spaces given answers in the relevant
for the purposes on the spaces provided for the 45
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire
2.
1. Define
t he 3.
e target
Define th respond stio n n aire
s of Que
Objective method
ents an
d Design
y
the Stud st
reach th o
em

6.
Results 4.
Interpretatio 5. Pilot Testing
n es tio n naire
Qu tion
in ist ra
Adm
46
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

1. Define the Objectives of 2. Define the target

the Study respondents and methods
► A well-designed questionnaire to reach them
should meet the research goal ► The researcher should clearly
and objectives and minimize define the target, study
unanswered questions—a populations from which she/he
common problem bound to collects data and information.
many surveys. ► Main methods of reaching the
respondents are: personal
contact, mail/internet-based
questionnaires, etc.

47
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

3. Questionnaire Design
► Before writing the ► Each question should contribute
questionnaire researcher to testing one or more hypothesis/
should decide on the research question established in
questionnaire content. the research design.

A. Closed B. Open Questions

Questions

48
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

3. Questionnaire Design
A. Closed
Questions
► Closed questions structure the answer by only allowing
responses which fit into pre-decided categories.
► Data that can be placed into a category is called nominal
data. The category can be restricted to as few as two options, i.e.,
dichotomous or include quite complex lists of alternatives from
which the respondent can choose (e.g., polytomous).
► Closed questions can also provide ordinal data (which can
be ranked). This often involves using a continuous rating scale to
measure the strength of attitudes or emotions.
49
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

3. Questionnaire Design
A. Closed
Questions
Strengths Limitation/s
► They can be economical ► They lack detail
► The respondent provides
information which can be easily
converted into quantitative
data allowing statistical
analysis of the responses
► The questions are standardized

50
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

3. Questionnaire Design
B. Open Questions
► Open questions allow people to express what they think in
their own words. Open-ended questions enable the respondent to
answer in as much detail as they like in their own words.
► If you want to gather more in-depth answers from your
respondents, then open questions will work better.
► Open questions are often used for complex questions that
cannot be answered in a few simple categories but require
more detail and discussion.

51
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

3. Questionnaire Design
B. Open Questions
Strengths Limitation/s
► Rich qualitative data is ► Time-consuming to collect the
obtained as open questions data
allow the respondent to ► Time-consuming to analyze the
elaborate on their answer data
► Not suitable for less educated
respondents as open questions
require superior writing skills
and a better ability to express
one's feelings verbally 52
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

3. Questionnaire Design

Points to be considered when writing and interpreting questionnaires:

► Clarity ► Phrasing

► Sensitive question: avoid ► Hypothetical Questions should

questions that could be be avoided if possible
embarrassing to respondents

53
 Steps Required To Design And Administer A
Questionnaire

4. Pilot Testing 5. Questionnaire

► The major challenge in Administration
questionnaire design is to make it
clear to all respondents. In-order to
identify and solve the confusing
points, we need to pre-test the 6. Results
questionnaire. Interpretation
► During the pilot trial, the
questionnaire participants should
be randomly selected from the
study population.

54
 6.
PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES
► The psychologists and psychiatrists had first devised
projective techniques for the diagnosis and treatment of
patients afflicted by emotional disorders.

► Adoption of such techniques is not an easy affair. It requires

intensive specialized training.

► There are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers. Rather, emphasis is

laid on his perception or the meaning he attaches to it and
the way in which the endeavors to manipulate it or
organizes it.

56
Since the individual is not asked to describe about himself directly and
since he is provided with stimulus in the form of a photograph or a
picture or on ink- blot, etc., the responses to these stimuli are
construed as the indicators of the individual’s own view of the
world, his personality structure, his needs, tensions and
anxieties etc., says Bell.

57
 Strengths and Limitations of Projective
Techniques
STRENGTHS
► If the tests are unstructured, it is easy for the
respondents to declare their personality
► Each and every response given by the respondent
explains the benefits of personality

58
 Strengths and Limitations of Projective
Techniques
LIMITATIONS
► It needs highly qualified and experienced
professionals
► It is expensive

► Risk of interpretation bias

► Unstructured techniques

59
 7.
CASE-STUDY
METHOD
According to Biesanz and
Biesenz,
“The case study is a form of qualitative analysis
involving the very careful and complete observation of a
person, a situation or an institution.”

According to Goode and

Hatt, study is a way of organizing social data so as to
“Case
preserve the unitary character of the social object being
studied.”

P.V. Young
defines case study as “a method of exploring and
analyzing the life of a social unit, be that a person, a
family, an institution, cultural group or even entire
61
Shaw and
Clifford
hold that “case study method emphasizes the total
situation or combination of factors, the description of
the process or consequences of events in which
behavior occurs, the study of individual behavior in its
total setting and the analysis and comparison of cases
leading to formulation of hypothesis.”

62
Strengths and Limitations of Case Study Method

STRENGTHS
► Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information
► Provides insight for further research
► Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or
unethical) situations

63
Strengths and Limitations of Case Study Method

LIMITATIONS
► Can’t generalize the results to the wider population

► Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence

the case study (researcher bias)

► Difficult to replicate

► Time-consuming

64
 m
aj

Have A
Thank You!
Blessed
Week!