Newton’s Laws

The Newtonian world view is this:

i) The world is made up of particles.

When a particle is not interacting with any other particle it

travels in a straight line with a constant velocity.

When two particles interact with each other we say that each
one is exerting a force on the other.

What a force does is it changes the velocity of a particle.

iii) A particle cannot exert a force on another without itself experiencing a

force. You cannot pull an object without being pulled yourself.
You cannot push an object without being pushed yourself.
Imagine yourself on skates, standing on a lake of ice. You push a
fellow skater. You will find yourself pushed back.

iv) The interactions ( forces ) between particles come in a few varieties

and obey certain laws. For example, there is the gravitational
interaction between particles which depends on their masses and the
distance between them. The force is given by Newton’s law of
gravitation. Similarly we have the Coulomb law which gives us the
force between two charged particles.
 When no forces are acting on a particle, it moves with constant
velocity. But then, the velocity of a particle depends on the observer.
If I am in a train, the trees have a velocity in my frame. From the
sun’s point of view, the trees ( and everything on earth ) move in an
elliptical orbit around it. If I am in a spaceship and my thrusters are
on, an asteroid on which no forces are acting has an acceleration with
respect to me. So whether or not a particle’s velocity is constant
depends on the state of motion of the observer.
Click here for more on Frames of Reference.

The second law tells us that the acceleration of a particle is

proportional to the force acting on it. So zero force implies zero
acceleration: constant velocity! So why do we need the first law?
Isn’t it contained in the second law?

The answer is: the second law ( F = ma) is not applicable in all
frames of reference. In the frame of reference of an accelerating train
a force free object will be seen to be accelerating. Even though F = 0,
its acceleration a is not equal to zero. So which are the frames in
which we are allowed to apply Newton’s second law?
Answer: those in which the first law is applicable.
Those frames in which the first law is applicable are called Inertial
Frames.
The first law is there to identify the inertial frames.
The second law is valid in these frames.

Let us say we have identified an inertial frame. every other

frame that is moving at a constant velocity with respect to this one is
also an inertial frame.

To identify an inertial frame, observe a free particle. a free

particle is one on which there are no forces acting. How do we know
that no forces act on it? Pick a particle that is far from all other
particles. All the known forces fall off with distance.

The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial frames of

reference.
 The first law: A free particle moves in a straight line with no
change in speed.

Question: Will it go on forever? Yes! Consider an isolated box of gas.

The molecules of the gas move in straight lines except when they
collide with each other or with the walls. Will they keep on moving
forever? Yes, assuming that they are not radiating any energy.

Question:The natural state of a particle? Constant velocity.

Question:Do we need to exert a force to move an object? No. No force

is required to keep an object moving. A force is required to start it
moving. Once it is moving, do not touch it and it will go on forever.

Question: All the same, a force was required to get a body to move,
did it not? Should we not say that the natural state is that of rest?
The body is initially at rest only because you happened to be in the
frame in which it is at rest. In another equally good inertial frame it is
moving with a constant velocity (before the force is applied).

Question: What if we wish to change only the direction of motion of a

particle and not change its speed. Does that take a force to achieve
that? Yes. Left to itself the particle will maintain both direction and
speed. A force is required to change direction or speed or both. A
planet moving in a circular orbit at constant speed is doing so because
of the pull of gravity (of a star).
In the drawing below the dotted straight line is the path the ball would
follow if no forces acted on it. A force acting at an angle to the
velocity changes the direction of motion. To make it move in a
circular path, the force has to keep changing direction.

F
Question: A force in one direction, a particle moving in another
direction, a change of velocity into another direction, not to mention
the changes in the magnitudes of the speed. How do we deal with all
that? Answer: Vectors!

The second law: The instantaneous rate of change of momentum of a

particle is equal to the force acting on it at that instant.

The momentum of a particle is the product mv. This is a vector,

pointing in the direction of the velocity. The instantaneous velocity is
the velocity of the particle at an instant. It is defined by using the
limiting process. The instantaneous momentum is the vector velocity
at an instant multiplied by the scalar mass of the particle.

Example: A 3 kg particle moves in such a way that its velocity as a

function of time is given by: v = 2 t2 i + t3j. What is its momentum at
t = 3? Ans. 3(18i + 27j) = 54i + 81j.

The things to note are:

a) the rate of change of the velocity is in the direction of the
force. The velocity is not necessarily in the direction of the force.
Naively, we might think that a particle moves in the direction of the
net force acting on it. Not true. Consider a particle that has been
thrown up. The force on it, gravity, acts downward. It is moving
upward, but accelerating downward. Its velocity points up, its
acceleration points in the direction of the force, downward. [It is the
change in the velocity that is downward ( the upward velocity
decreases)].
Consider a particle moving in some direction. I am free to exert a
force on it in any direction. There need be no relation between the
velocity and the force.
b) When the mass of the particle is constant we can write the
law in this form:

F = dP / dt = d(mv)/dt = m dv/dt = m a

c) The acceleration of the particle at any instant depends on the

force acting on it at that instant. Suppose you throw a stone. Once it
leaves your hand the only forces acting on it are gravity and air
friction. It is these forces that decide its acceleration. the force exerted
by your hand does not enter the picture anymore. The force exerted by
the hand determined the acceleration of the stone from its initial
velocity of zero to the velocity of the stone when it left your hand.
Once it has left your hand, its acceleration depends only on gravity.

Example.

4 y

10 6 x

Three forces act on a 2 kg block as shown. The forces are in newtons.

The 10 newton force acts in a direction making an angle of 300 with
the horizontal. What is the acceleration of the block?

Set up a coordinate system. We have set up one for you on the right of
the figure.
Write down the net force in this system.

F = 6i + 4j + 10(-cos 300 i - sin 300 j) = ( 6 - 53)i + (4-5)j

Apply Newton’s 2nd law.

a = F/m = (3-53/2)i –1/2 j

Example.

20

The block has the mass 4 kg. A 20 newton force acts on it at an angle
of 300 as shown. There is no friction. What is the block’s acceleration
and how far does it move in 2 seconds?

First, draw the free body force diagram for the block:
 N
20

mg

The free body force diagram is a drawing with the forces and
nothing but the forces ( no velocities, accelerations) shown.
mg is the weight, N is the normal reaction, the force exerted by the
floor.

Second, set up a coordinate system:

You will find it convenient to choose the direction of one of the axes
to be the same as that of the acceleration. For this problem, we expect
that the block will accelerate along the floor. That is, we expect that
the 20 N force is not enough to lift the block right off the floor.
So we let the x-axis lie along the floor and the y-axis be vertical, as
shown below:
y
20

Third, resolve the forces along the axis and apply Newton’s second
law along each direction:

x – direction:
20 cos 300 = 4 a

y – direction:
20 sin 300 + N – mg = 0

We have used our physical intuition here. From our experience,

a block dragged by a force will usually move along the floor. We
have therefore set its acceleration in the y-direction equal to zero. We
could of course be wrong here.
 It might be that the force we are exerting is large enough to lift it off the
ground. How do we know that our assumptions are correct?
If N turns out to be negative or zero, we know that the block is not pressed
against the floor. In that case, we simply re-do the problem with N = 0.

Our equations give: a = 5 cos 300 = 53 / 2 m/s2, N = 30 newtons.

The third law: When to particles interact, they exert forces on each
other. The force that A exerts on B is exactly equal to and opposite to
the force that B exerts on A.

Either one of the forces is called the action and the other the reaction.
It does not matter which is called the action. They act simultaneously.

Question: is it possible to have an object exert a force on another

without itself experiencing a force? No.

Question: In the statements of Newton’s laws you use the word

particle. Do the laws not apply to objects that are made up of many
particles as well?
Newton’s laws are statements about particles. When objects made up
of many particles are involved, you need to derive their behavior
from the behavior of the particles which obey Newton’s laws.

Question: does Newton’s third law apply to objects?

Yes. Go ahead and apply it to objects. For the derivation, click here.

Question: There is a peanut a certain distance from a large planet.

Does the planet exert a larger force on the peanut or does the peanut
exert a larger force on the planet? Neither. They exert equal and
oppositely directed forces on each other. The lowly peanut exerts the
same force as the huge planet.
Exercises

1)

Two masses hang from a pulley as shown. The masses shown are in
kg. What is the acceleration of each block?

Ans. Let the tension in the string be T. The free body diagrams for
The blocks look like this: ( for more on tension, click here)
T
T

4
8

40
80

g has been taken equal to 10 m/s2. The weights of the blocks are 40
and 80 newtons respectively.

Assume that the 8 kg block is accelerating down with the acceleration

a and the 4 kg block upwards with the same acceleration (why?).

Applying Newton’s 2nd law to the 4 kg block:

T – 40 = 4 a
Similarly for the 8 kg block:

80 – T = 8 a
Solving them simultaneously, a = 10 / 3 m/s2, T = 160 / 3 newtons.
2. A 2 kg box is attached to a 4 kg box on a frictionless surface. A 30
N force acts on it at an angle of 300 with the horizontal as shown.
What is the acceleration of the boxes and what is the tension in the
string joining the two?

4
2

Ans.
Step 1. Draw the free body force diagrams:
N2
N1
T F
T

m1 g
m2 g

Step 2. Set up a coordinate system. Place one of the axes along the
direction of the acceleration (this is only for convenience).
y
N1
F

x
m1 g

Step 3. Resolve the forces into their components and write down
Newton's 2nd law for each direction.

2 kg block:
x-direction: 30 cos 300 - T = 2 a
y-direction: 30 sin 300 + N1 – 20 = 0
We took g to be 10 m/s2 and assumed that the blocks move along the ground.

This gives N1 = 5 newtons.

4 kg block:
x-direction: T = 4 a
 y-direction: N2 – 40 = 0.
N2 = 40 newtons.
Notice that we took the accelerations of the two blocks to be the same, a.

Solving the two x-equations together, we get a = 15 3 / 6 m/s2, T

= 10 3 newtons.

Had we only wanted the acceleration and not the tension too, we
could have treated the two masses as one of 6 kg.

3. A 3 kg box is placed on a frictionless incline of 30 0. The incline is

fixed. What is the acceleration of the block?

Ans. From experience we know that the acceleration of the box is

going to be along the incline. So we set up our coordinate system so
that the x-axis points along the incline:
y
R

mg
x

There are only two forces acting on the box, its weight mg ( = 30 N)
and the normal reaction of the incline, R.
x: mg sin 300 = ma
y: R – mg cos 300 = 0 Because there is no acceleration in the y-direction.

 a = g sin 300 = 5 m/s2, R = mg cos 300 = 15 3 newtons.

4. Suppose that there was a constant force of friction equal to 10 N
acting on the box in the previous problem. What would the
acceleration be then?

Ans. the force diagram would look like:

f y
R

mg
x

x: mg sin 300 – f = ma = 15 – 10 = 3 a
 a = 5/3 m/s2.

5. The block on the 300 incline is 4kg and the hanging block has the
mass 4 kg. What is their acceleration? No friction anywhere.

Ans. The two masses suffer the same acceleration (in magnitude).
Why? Let the acceleration be a, upward for the block on the incline,
downward for the hanging block. Let the tension in the string be T.
For the block on the incline: T – 4g sin 300 = 4a
For the hanging mass: 4g – T = 4a

Solving the two equations simultaneously, a = 5 m/s2, T = 20 N

TENSION

Consider a rope that is attached to a wall at one end and is being

pulled with a force of F newtons at the other end.
F

We can ask the question ‘what is the tension at some point P along
the rope?’

Consider the part of the rope to the left of P and the part to the right of
P separately. The left part of the rope exerts a force on the right
part and the right part exerts an equal and opposite force on the left
part. This force is called the tension at the point. It is the magnitude
of the force.

F T T

To find the tension, simply apply Newton’s 2nd to the rope parts.

In the drawing above, the rope, being attached to the wall, is not
accelerating. The 2nd law for the left part of the rope gives:

F – T = m a = 0. T=F

( m is the mass of the left part of the rope.)

Since all of the above applies of any point P along the rope, the
tension is the same at all points of the rope.

You can see that if the rope were accelerating and had a mass, the
tension would not be uniform along its length.
Does Newton’s 3rd law apply to systems containing many particles as
well?

Let’s derive it for the case of two objects, two planets, say.

Consider a particle A in the planet on the left. We have drawn the

force exerted by this particle on two particles in the planet on the
right. The vectors are highly exaggerated, since gravity is a very weak force, but
realistic drawing would render the arrows invisible. Let these forces be F1
and F2.
The reaction forces are the forces exerted by these two particles on the
particle on the left, - F1 and – F2 . Extend this to all the particles in
the planet on the right.

The net force exerted by the particle A on the left on the entire planet
on the right is:
F1 + F2 + F3 ……. Fn = FA.

The force exerted by the planet on the right on the particle A is -FA.

What is the force exerted by the entire left planet on the right planet?
The left planet is made up of particles A, B, C, etc. The net force
exerted by the left planet on the right planet is the (vector)sum of the
forces exerted by the left particles on the right planet:
FA + FB + FC ……. FL + … = net force on the right planet.

The forces on the particles A,B,C etc due to the right planet are –FA,
-FB, -FC etc. The sum of all these forces is the net force exerted on
the left planet by the right planet:
-(FA + FB + FC ……. FL + …) = net force on the left planet.

You can see that the 3rd law applies to the two planets.
Note that we are only interested in the forces exerted by the left particles on the
right particles and vice versa. We are not interested in the forces exerted by the
particles of the left planet on other particles of the left planet.
Normal Reaction

When two bodies are pressed against each other, they exert
forces on each other. I am standing on the floor. The gravitational
force of the earth on me tries to pull me toward the center of the earth.
What prevents me from sinking right through the floor?
The network of atoms that is my body tries to go right through
the network of atoms that is the floor. Atoms are made up of a
positively charged nucleus, surrounded by a cloud of negatively
charged electrons. The electrons of my body repel the electrons of the
floor, the electrons of my body attract the protons of the floor. the
protons of my foot repel the protons of the floor and the protons of my
foot attract the electrons of the floor. The net result of these
complicated interactions is that, when my foot is pushed against the
floor, the floor and the foot repel each other with a net force.

This force is electromagnetic in nature. It is called ‘Normal Reaction’

for reasons lost in antiquity. ( It is neither!)

Due to the unfortunate choice of its name, students ( and often,

teachers) tend to think that it is the reaction force to gravity.

The reaction force to the pull of the earth on me is the pull I exert on
the earth. This set of action and reaction is gravitational in nature.
The force of contact between my feet and the floor is another action
reaction pair, electromagnetic in nature. The floor pushes me, I push
down on the floor. Either one is action, the other reaction.

There are then two sets of action reaction forces in action.

 mg N

mg

If you could miraculously turn off the electromagnetic forces

between the atoms of my body and those of the floor, I’d sink right
through the floor.
Try this experiment: take a running start and try to go right
through your living room wall, à la Harry Potter. You’d succeed, if
you could turn off the forces between the wall and your body.

Question: How do we walk? that is, what propels us forward?

We push backward on the ground, trying to slide our foot against the
floor. The ground pushes us with an equal and opposite force,
propelling us forwards. This horizontal force is called friction.

The component of the net force exerted by the floor on me in the

direction normal to the two surfaces that are in contact is called
‘Normal reaction’ and the component parallel to the two surfaces is
called ‘Friction’.
1). While two forces act on it, a particle is to move continuously
with v = (3 m/s) i + (4 m/s) j .
One of the forces is F1 = (3 N) i + (-6 N)j. What is the other one?

2). There are two forces acting on the 2.0 kg box but only one is
shown. The figure also shows the acceleration of the box. Find the
second force.

20N

2 300
12 m/s

3). Two weights hang from the ceiling , strung by massless cords as
shown. The mass of the top weight is 20 kg and the mass of the lower
weight is 10 kg. What is the tension in each cord?

4).

Two blocks are in contact on a frictionless table. A 3 N force acts on

the large block as shown. The mass of the large block is 2 kg and that
of the small one is 1 kg. What is their acceleration and what forces act
between the two?

5).
A worker exerts a force of 450 N at angle of 450 with the horizontal.
The crate , of mass 300 kg, moves at the constant speed of 5 m / s
along the floor. What is the force of friction acting on the crate? What
is the normal reaction force exerted by the floor on the crate?

6). A ball of mass 0.5 kg is suspended from a cord. A steady

horizontal breeze pushes the ball so that the cord makes an angle of
350 with the vertical. Find the magnitude of the push and the tension
in the cord.

7). An elevator and its load have a combined mass of 1600 kg. Find
the tension in the supporting cable when the elevator, originally
moving downward at 12 m / s , is brought to rest with constant
acceleration in a distance of 42 m.

8). An electron is projected in a straight line from the cathode of a

vacuum tube to its anode which is 1.5 cm away. It starts with zero
speed and reaches the anode with a speed of 6.0 x 106 m / s. Assume
constant acceleration and compute the force on the electron. The mass
of an electron is 9.11 x 10-31 kg.

9). An electron is projected horizontally at a speed of 1.2 x 107 m / s

into an electric field that exerts a constant vertical force of 4.5 x 10-16
N on it. Determine the vertical distance it has been displaced during
the time it has moved 30 mm horizontally. Does it move in a straight
line?

10). A 1000 kg car moves with an acceleration of 2 m / s2. What is the

force of friction on it? In which direction does it act?

11). A train has a forward acceleration of 5 m / s2. What angle will a

pendulum hanging from the ceiling of the train make with the
vertical ? What is the tension in the string, assumed massless, if the
bob at the end of the pendulum has a mass of 0.2 kg ?

12).
The mass on the right is 20 kg and the mass on the left is 8 kg.
What is the acceleration of the smaller mass and the tension in
the string assuming that the pulley and the string are massless ?

13). If the pulley and the masses in the previous problem were hung
from the ceiling of an elevator descending at a constant speed of 3 m /
s and the 20 kg mass started from rest at a height of 1m from the
floor of the elevator, how long would it take to hit the floor?

14). Can you design an accelerometer ?

15).

A weightless pulley is attached to the

edge of a frictionless table. The mass on the table is 30 kg and the
hanging mass is 10 kg. What will their accelerations be and what
will the tension in the string be?

16).

A two kg block slides down a fixed wedge of angle 300with constant

speed. What is the frictional force acting on the block? What would
the acceleration of the block be if there were no friction?

17).
A 100 kg box rests on the bed of a lorry. What must the force of
friction on the box be if the box does not slide while the lorry
moves forward with an acceleration of 3 m / s2 ? What is the
direction of this frictional force?

18). The lorry of the previous problem now increases its acceleration
to 5 m/s2. It is found that the box now slides backward with respect to
the lorry covering a distance of 2m on the lorry bed in one second
(starting from rest wrt the lorry). What is the frictional force acting on
the box?

19).
2 5 3

Three blocks are connected by

cords and pulled by a 20 N force along a frictionless table as shown.
The masses are indicated on top of the blocks.
What is their acceleration and the tensions in the cords?

20).

A chain containing three links each having a mass of 0.1 kg is

attached to the roof of a lift. What are the forces between the links
when the lift has an acceleration of 2 m / s2 a) upward b) downward?

21).
 60 30

A 10 kg box hangs as
shown. What is the tension in each string?

22). A 40 N force is applied to one end of a 2m, 4 kg string that is

attached to a 10 kg block at the other end. The floor is frictionless.
What is the tension in the string at a point a) 50 cm b) 150 cm from
the block?

23). A 2 kg block is projected up along a 450 inclined plane with an

initial velocity of 10 m/s. If the force of friction on it is constant at
6N while it slides up and while it slides down, how long will it take to
return to its starting point?

24). A 2 kg particle is acted on by a verying force so that its position

as a function of time is given by: x = 5 t4 – 6t2 + 3t. What is the
force acting on it at t = 1? At t = 3? What average force acted on it
during this interval? What was its average velocity during this
interval?

25). A 3 kg particle moves in the x-y plane so that its position vector
is given by r = ( 3t2 – 4t)i – (4t3-50)j. What is the force that acts on it
at t = 3? What average force acted on it during the first 3 seconds?

26). A pendulum consists of a 1 kg ball hanging at the end of a 50 cm

string of mass 0.2 kg. The pendulum hangs from the ceiling of an
elevator. At this instant the elevator is moving upward at 10 m/s and
slowing down so that it will come to a stop over 10m. Assume
constant acceleration. What is the tension in the string at a point 5 cm
from the ceiling?

27). A 20 kg cable hangs symmetrically from a ceiling so that it

makes the angle of 300 with the ceiling at the points of suspension.
What is the tension in the cable at its two ends and at its center?

28). A 1m string with a breaking strength of 200N is attached to a

0.5 kg stone and whirled in a horizontal circle at a height of 2m above
the ground. The speed is increased until the string breaks. How far
(horizontal distance) from the center of the circle does the stone land?

29). A 30 kg chain hangs so that one end makes an angle of 600 and
the other 300 with the vertical at the suspension points. What are the
tensions at the two points and what is the tension at the lowest point?

30). A 2 kg stone is tied to a 1m long string and whirled around in a

horizontal circle. Show that the string cannot possibly be horizontal.
Find the angle that the string makes with the vertical if the stone is
being whirled with the angular velocity 6 sec-1.

31). A roller coaster is in the form of a circular loop. Draw the free
body diagram for the coaster when it is at the lowest point, when it is
at the rightmost point and at the top of the circular section. Write
down the 2nd law equation for it at the top and find out what minimum
velocity it must have at the top in order to stay on the track.
 The radius of the loop is R, the
mass of the coaster m.

31).A giant wheel has a radius of 10m. A 60 kg person is sitting on

one of its chairs. What is the person’s apparent weight a) at the top
b)at the bottom if the wheel is rotating with a steady angular velocity
of 1.5 rad/sec? What should the wheel’s angular velocity be so that
the person feels weightless at the top of the trajectory?

32). A scooterist is travelling with his uncle on the back seat. He sees
a bump which is in the shape of a gentle arc of radius 6m. With what
speed should he drive the scooter so that the uncle is unseated at the
top of the bump?

33). A road is banked so that cars moving at 30 m/s can negotiate a

curve of radius 30m without going off the road. Find the angle of the
banking, ignoring friction.

34). A planet with no atmosphere has a mass M and radius R. What

speed must be given an object so that it is put in a circular orbit 1m
above the ground? Click here for fizzix facts
35). A spaceship is in the form of a rotating cylinder. If its radius is
40m, what should its angular velocity be so that a cosmonaut
experiences a gravitational field of 1g?
Click here for another fizzix facts

*36). A cosmonaut standing in the rotating spaceship of the previous

problem drops a ball from a height of 1m. Will it land directly under
the point of release or will the point of landing not be directly under
the point from which it was released?

37).The force acting on a 4 kg particle is shown as a function of time.

The momentum of a particle is defined as mv. Find the change in the
momentum of the particle over the interval shown. Each vertical
division is 1 newton and each horizontal division is 1 second

38). Do the same for the graph of F vs t shown below.

39). A 1m, 1kg string is dragged along a frictionless floor by applying
a steady 10 N force at one end. find dT/dx at the point 20 cm from
the force end. T is the tension.

40). What is the force on the round peg? No friction anywhere.

2 kg

10N
 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS
Solution: 1
The body is not having any change of velocity; this implies that there
is no acceleration hence no net force acts on the system.
Given that two forces are acting on the particle, one is
F1 = (3 N) i + (-6 N)j
Let the other force acting on the particle be F2 = x i + y j + z k

As net force on the body is zero, F1 + F2 = 0

Or, (x + 3) i + (y - 6) j + (z) k = 0
Equating i, j and k components on LHS and RHS we get
x = -3 N
y= 6N
z= 0
Hence the required force is F2 = (-3 N) i + (6 N) j (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 2

20N
y
0
30
12 m/s2
x

The acceleration of the block is given by

a = -(12)sin30 i – (12)cos30 j
a = -6 i – 6 (√3) j
one of the forces is 20 i , let the other force be x i + y j
hence, total force on the block is ( x+20) i + y j
applying newton’s second law ie. F =Ma
we get, ( x+20) i + y j = -6 i – 6 (√3) j
equating x and y components in RHS and LHS we get
x = - 26 ; y = – 6 √3
hence the second force is (-26 i – 6 (√3) j) (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 3
FBD of the two blocks are

T1 T2

20g +T2 10g

as the two blocks are in equilibrium

T2 = 10g -------------------(1)
T1 = 20g + T2 -------------------(2)
Solving (1) and (2) we get
T1 = 300 N
T2 = 100 N

Problem Set
Solution: 4
Let us assume that the two blocks move with acceleration a and F be
the force between them. FBD of the blocks are

3 F F

applying Newton’s second law on both the blocks we get

3 N – F = (2 Kg)a ---------------------(1)
and, F =(1 Kg) a ---------------------(2)
solving (1) and (2) we get, a = 1 m/s2 and F = 1 N (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 5
Let the force of friction be Fr , it will act opposite to the direction of
the force. As the block moves with constant velocity, acceleration is
zero. FBD of the block is

Fr

As the block moves with constant velocity, acceleration is

zero. So resultant force in the horintal direction is zero.
Or, Fr = 450 cos45 = 318.2 N (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 6
Let P be the horizontal push of the ball. Let T be the tension in the
string. Vertical component of the tension Tcos35 is equal to the weight
of the ball and horizontal component of the tension is equal to the
push of the breeze.
So, T cos35 = mg = (0.1 Kg)(10 m/s2)
Or, T = 1/(cos35) N = 1.22 N
Now, push of the breeze = P = Tsin35 = 0.7 N

Problem Set
Solution: 7
Let tension be T.
Given initial velocity is 12 m/s and stops after 42 m, let a be the
deacceleration.
Using v2 = u2 – 2as
We get 0 = 144 – 2a(42)
 a = 1.714 m/s2 .
applying newton’s second law of motion in the vertical direction we
get T – mg = ma
or, T = m(g + a) = 1600(1.714 + 10) = 18742.2 N (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 8
Let force on the electron be F. so, acceleration is F/m
Using v2 = u2 + 2as
We get (6 ×106)2 = 2(F/m)(.015)
Solving we get F = 1.09 × 10-16 N (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 9
Time taken by the electron to cover the horizontal distance of 30mm
is given by
t = 2.5×10-9 sec
Applying s = ut + ½at2 in the vertical direction we get
Vertical distance covered = ½ (4.5×10-16)/(9 × 10-31) (2.5×10-9 )2
= 15.625 × 10-4 (ans)
Problem Set
Solution: 10
The force of friction acts definitely in the direction opposite to the motion of
the car. Let F be the force of friction
So applying Newton’s second law on the car we get
2500 – F = 1000× 2
or, F = 500 N (ans)
Problem Set
Solution: 11
Let the string make an angle ө with the vertical.
Hence , weight of the bob = mg = Tcosө -------(1)
Horizontal component of T = Tsinө = ma -------(2)
Dividing (2) by(1) we get
Tanө = a/g
Hence ө = tan-1(5/10) = 26.5 degrees (ans)
Tension = mg/cosө = 2/0.894 = 2.236 N (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 12
The two masses suffer the same acceleration (in magnitude).
Why? Let the acceleration be a, upward for the 8 Kg block downward
for the 20 Kg block. Let the tension in the string be T.
For the 20 Kg block : 20g – T = 20a
For the 8 Kg block : T – 8g = 8a
Solving the above two equations simultaneously we get
a = 3/7 g ; T = 114 N (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 13
From the solution of the previous problem we get acceleration of the
20 Kg blok as 3/7 g downwards. Let the block hit the floor after t
seconds. In this t seconds let the elevator descends by d and the block
descend by h, then
h–d=1 ---------------------(1)
as speed of the elevator is 3 m/s downwards, so d = 3t -------(2)
and applying s = ut + ½ at2 on the 20 kg block we get
h = ½ (3/7g)t2 = 2.14 t2 ------------------(3)
using (1),(2) and (3) we get
2.14 t2 – 3t =1
solving this equation we get t = 1.68 seconds (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 14
Solution: 15
The two masses suffer the same acceleration (in magnitude).
Why? Let the acceleration be a, downward for the hanging block and
towards right for the block on the table. Let the tension in the string
be T.
For the block on the table : T = 30a
For the hanging mass : 10g – T = 10a
Solving the above two equations simultaneously we get
a = g/4 and T = 75 N (ans)

Problem Set
 Solution: 16

Fr N

Mgsin?
Mgcos?

The mass is not having any acceleration implies that force of friction
is equal to the component of weight of the mass along the incline.
Thus force of friction = mgsinө = 10 N (ans)
Now if the friction is absent then the only unbalanced force along the incline
is mgsinө so, acceleration is gsinө = 5 m/s2 (ans)

Problem Set
Solution: 17
As the block is not sliding the block is having acceleration of 3 m/s2
in the same direction as that of the truck. This acceleration is caused
by the frictional force
So, frictional force = mass × acceleration
= 100 × 3 N = 300 N (ans)
Frictional force is directed in the direction of the motion of the truck.

Problem Set
Solution: 18
Free body diagram of the box with respect to the truck is
y
N1

Fr
ma
x
m1 g

where a is the acceleration of the truck equal to 5 m/s2

let acceleration of the box with respect to the truck in the backward
direction be a1
applying s = ut + ½ at2 on the box
2m = ½ a1(1s)2 => a1 = 4 m/s2
applying Newton’s second law on the box with truck as the reference
ma – Fr = ma1
or, force of friction = Fr = ma + ma1 = (100kg)(5 + 4)m/s2
or, force of friction = 900 N (ans)
Problem Set
Solution: 19
Free body diagram of the blocks is
2 5 3
T1 T2
20 N

Where T1 and T2 are the tensions in the strings as shown in the FBD. All the
blocks will suffer same acceleration in the direction of the applied force. Let
this acceleration be a.
For the 2kg block : T1 = 2a
For the 5 kg block : T2 – T1 = 5a
For the 3 kg block : 20 – T2 = 3a
Solving the above equations simultaneously we get
T1 = 4 N
T2 = 14 N
a = 2 m/s2

Problem Set
Solution: 20
Let force between first and second link be F1 and force between second and
third link be F2. acceleration of the chain be a which is same as the
acceleration of the lift.
For third link : F2 – mg = ma
For second link : F1 – F2 – mg = ma
Solving the above equations simultaneously we get
F1 = m(g + a)
F2 = 2m(g + a)
For downward motion : a = - 2 m/s2
For upward motion : a = 2 m/s2
Putting these values in equations (1) and (2) we get
For downward motion : F1 = 0.8 N
For upward motion : F2 = 2.4 N

Problem Set
21).
60 30

A 10 kg box hangs as
shown. What is the tension in each string?
Solution21
22). A 40 N force is applied to one end of a 2m, 4 kg string that is
attached to a 10 kg block at the other end. The floor is frictionless.
What is the tension in the string at a point a) 50 cm b) 150 cm from
the block?

Solution22
23). A 2 kg block is projected up along a 450 inclined plane with an
initial velocity of 10 m/s. If the force of friction on it is constant at
6N while it slides up and while it slides down, how long will it take to
return to its starting point?
Solution23
24). A 2 kg particle is acted on by a varying force so that its position
as a function of time is given by: x = 5 t4 – 6t2 + 3t. What is the
force acting on it at t = 1? At t = 3? What average force acted on it
during this interval? What was its average velocity during this
interval?
Solution24
25). A 3 kg particle moves in the x-y plane so that its position vector
is given by r = ( 3t2 – 4t)i – (4t3-50)j. What is the force that acts on it
at t = 3? What average force acted on it during the first 3 seconds?
solution25
26). A pendulum consists of a 1 kg ball hanging at the end of a 50 cm
string of mass 0.2 kg. The pendulum hangs from the ceiling of an
elevator. At this instant the elevator is moving upward at 10 m/s and
slowing down so that it will come to a stop over 10m. Assume
constant acceleration. What is the tension in the string at a point 5 cm
from the ceiling?
Solution26
27). A 20 kg cable hangs symmetrically from a ceiling so that it
makes the angle of 300 with the ceiling at the points of suspension.
What is the tension in the cable at its two ends and at its center?

Solution27
28). A 1m string with a breaking strength of 200N is attached to a
0.5 kg stone and whirled in a horizontal circle at a height of 2m above
the ground. The speed is increased until the string breaks. How far
(horizontal distance) from the center of the circle does the stone land?
Solution28
29). A 30 kg chain hangs so that one end makes an angle of 600 and
the other 300 with the vertical at the suspension points. What are the
tensions at the two points and what is the tension at the lowest point?

Solution29
30). A 2 kg stone is tied to a 1m long string and whirled around in a
horizontal circle. Show that the string cannot possibly be horizontal.
Find the angle that the string makes with the vertical if the stone is
being whirled with the angular velocity 6 sec-1.

Solution30
31). A roller coaster is in the form of a circular loop. Draw the free
body diagram for the coaster when it is at the lowest point, when it is
at the rightmost point and at the top of the circular section. Write
down the 2nd law equation for it at the top and find out what minimum
velocity it must have at the top in order to stay on the track.

The radius of the loop is R, the

mass of the coaster m.
Solution31
32).A giant wheel has a radius of 10m. A 60 kg person is sitting on
one of its chairs. What is the person’s apparent weight a) at the top
b)at the bottom if the wheel is rotating with a steady angular velocity
of 1.5 rad/sec? What should the wheel’s angular velocity be so that
the person feels weightless at the top of the trajectory?
Solution32
33). A scooterist is travelling with his uncle on the back seat. He sees
a bump which is in the shape of a gentle arc of radius 6m. With what
speed should he drive the scooter so that the uncle is unseated at the
top of the bump?
Solution33
34). A road is banked so that cars moving at 30 m/s can negotiate a
curve of radius 30m without going off the road. Find the angle of the
banking, ignoring friction.

Solution34
35). A planet with no atmosphere has a mass M and radius R. What
speed must be given an object so that it is put in a circular orbit 1m
above the ground?
 Solution35
36). A spaceship is in the form of a rotating cylinder. If its radius is
40m, what should its angular velocity be so that a cosmonaut
experiences a gravitational field of 1g?

Solution36

*37). A cosmonaut standing in the rotating spaceship of the previous

problem drops a ball from a height of 1m. Will it land directly under
the point of release or will the point of landing not be directly under
the point from which it was released?
Solution37
38).The force acting on a 4 kg particle is shown as a function of time.
The momentum of a particle is defined as mv. Find the change in the
momentum of the particle over the interval shown. Each vertical
division is 1 newton and each horizontal division is 1 second

Solution38
 39). Do the same for the graph of F vs t shown below.

Solution39
40). A 1m, 1kg string is dragged along a frictionless floor by applying
a steady 10 N force at one end. find dT/dx at the point 20 cm from
the force end. T is the tension.
Solution40
41). What is the force on the round peg? No friction anywhere.

2 kg

10N

Solution41
Solution: 21

60 30

T2 T1
A
T3

mg

Considering the equilibrium of the hanging mass :

T3 = mg -----------------------(1)
Considering horizontal equilibrium of point A :
T1cos30 = T2cos60 ----------------------(2)
Considering vertical equilibrium of point A :
T1sin30 +T2sin60 = T3 --------------------(3)
Solving (1) ,(2) and (3) we get
T1 = 49 N
T2 = 49√3 N
T3 = 98 N

ProblemSet
Solution: 22
Mass per unit length of the string = 2 kg/m
Let the tension is to be determined at a point A, d meters distant from the
block. Let T be the required tension and a be the acceleration of the system.
For the part of string left to the point A :
40 – T = 2×(2 – d)a ----------------------------------(1)
For the part of the string right to the point A :
T = (10 + 2d)a ----------------------------------------(2)
Solving (1) & (2) simultaneously we get
T = (200 + 40d)/7
Now for d = .5 m :
T = 31.4 N (ans)
For d = 1.5 m :
T = 37.14 N (ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 23
The component of mass acting downwards along the incline is mgsinө equal
to 10√2 N.
For upward motion :
Force acting along the incline = (10√2 + 6) N
So acceleration along the incline = (5√2 + 3) m/s2 (downwards)
Applying v = u +at
0 = 100 - (5√2 + 3)t1
or, t1 = 100/(5√2 + 3) = 9.93 seconds
also applying v2 = u2 + 2as we get
0 = 100 – 2(5√2 + 3)s
or, s = 50/(5√2 + 3) m
For downward motion :
Force acting along the incline = (10√2 – 6) N
So acceleration along the incline = (5√2 – 3) m/s2 (downwards)
Applying s = ut + ½at2
50/(5√2 + 3) = ½ (5√2 – 3) t2
or, t = 100/41 = 2.43 seconds
so total time taken for the whole motion = t + t1 =12.36 seconds (ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 24
Given x = 5 t4 – 6t2 + 3t
So, velocity(v) = dx/dt = 20t3 – 12t + 3
Acceleration(a) = dv/dt = 60t2 -12
At t = 1 sec :
x=2m
v = 11 m/s
a = 48 m/s2
force = ma = 96 N
At t = 3 sec :
x = 360 m
v = 507 m/s
a = 528 m/s2
force = ma = 1056 N
Average velocity = 179 m/s
Average acceleration = 248 m/s2
Average force = mass ×average acceleration
= 2 × 248 = 496 N
ProblemSet
Solution: 25
Given r = ( 3t2 – 4t)i – (4t3-50)j
So, velocity = dr/dt = ( 6t – 4)i – (12t2)j
acceleration = d2r/dt2 = ( 6)i – (24t)j
At t = 0 seconds :
Velocity = (-4)i
At t = 3 seconds :
Velocity = (14)i – (108)j
Acceleration = ( 6)i – (72)j
Force = (( 6)i – (72)j)3 = ( 18)i – (216)j
For the given period of time
average acceleration = ((14)i – (108)j) – ((-4)i)
= ((18)i – (108)j)
average force = mass × ave. acceleration
= 3 × ((18)i – (108)j)
= ((54)i – (324)j) (ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 26
Using v2 = u2 + 2as for the elevator
0 = (10 m/s)2 + 2a(10m)
or, a = -5 m/s2
mass per unit length of the string is .2/50 kg/cm = 4×10-3 kg/cm
so the elevator is decelerating upwards with rate 5m/s2
taking part of the string below 5 cm from the ceiling as the body as a whole.
The forces acting on our body chosen are
1. Force of gravity = (1kg +(4×10-3 kg/cm)(45cm) )(10 m/s2)
= 11.8 N (downwards)
2. Tension (T) (upwards)
For our body :
11.8 – T = 1.18×5
or, T = 5.9 N (ans)

ProblemSet
Solution: 27

F F

A B
C
mg

As the cable is hanging symmetrical so forces exerted by the ceiling at both

the ends will be same also tensions will be same. Let this force be F and
tension in the string be T at the ends. At the center let the tension be Tc
Considering vertical equilibrium of the cable we get F = mg/2
Considering vertical equilibrium of point B :
F = Tsin30 => T = mg = 200 N ------(ans)
Considering the horizontal equilibrium of the string between A and C:
Tcos30 = Tc
Or, Tc = mg√3/2 = 173.2 N -----------(ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 28
Let the speed of the stone at the breaking point be v. at this point breaking
strength is equal to the centripetal force
Or, mv2/r = 200 N
Or, (0.5) v2 = 200 (as m =0.5 kg and r = 1 m)
Or, v = 20 m/s
Let the stone take time t seconds to touch the ground
Using s = ut + ½ gt2 on the stone in the vertical direction we get
2 = 1/2 ×10×t2
or, t = 0.63 sec
In this time t the stone will travel horizontal distance of vt
So the stone will land at a distance (r + vt) from the center of the circle
So the required distance = (r +vt) = 1 + 20×.63 = 13.6 m (ans)
ProblemSet
Solution : 29

300

A
600
C

Let the lowest point be C. the tangent to the chain at C will be horizontal as
it is the lowest point of the chain. Let Ta, Tb and Tc be the tensions in the
chain at A B and C respectively. As points A and B are in equilibrium, so the
forces exerted by the suspension points will be equal to the tensions at those
points.
Considering the vertical equilibrium of the chain :
Tacos60 + Tbcos30 = mg ------------------(1)
Considering horizontal equilibrium of the chain :
Tasin60 =Tbsin30 --------------------------(2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously we get
Ta = mg/2 = 150 N (ans)
Tb = mg√3/2 = 259.8 N (ans)
Now considering the horizontal equilibrium of the part AC of the chain :
 Tc = Tasin60 = 129.9 N (ans)
ProblemSet

Solution: 30
The weight of the revolving stone is balanced by the vertical component of
the tension in the string. If the string is horizontal then vertical component
of its tension becomes zero and the weight of the stone cannot be balanced.
Hence the string cannot be horizontal.
Let ө be the angle made by the string with the vertical and T be the tension
in the string. The horizontal component of T will provide the centripetal
force and vertical component of the T will balance the weight of the stone
Or, Tsinө = mω2r = mω2(sinө) ------------------(1)
Tcosө = mg ------------------(2)
Solving (1) & (2) we get
cosө = g/ω2 = 0.277
or, ө = 16.12 degrees (ans)

ProblemSet
Solution : 31
Free body diagram at the lowest point :
N

mg

Free body diagram at the right most point :

mg

Free body diagram at the topmost point :

N+ mg
acceleration in all the three figures is directed towards the center of the
circular loop.
For lowest possible speed at the topmost point, mg should provide the
centripetal acceleration.
Or, mg = mv2/R => v = √(gR) (ans)
ProblemSet

Solution: 32
Applying Newton’s second law at the Top :
-N + mg = mω2r => N = m(g - ω2r ) = negative (not possible)

I think there is some problem with the value of ω.it cannot be that high

ProblemSet
Solution: 33
Let the speed be V, N the normal reaction and m the nass of uncle.
For uncle at the highest point :
N + mg = mv2/r => N = mv2/r – mg
For the person to get unseated N should become zero.
Or, g = v2/r
Or, v = √(gr) = √(6g) (ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 34
Let N be the normal reaction and ө be the angle of banking.
For vertical direction :
Ncosө = mg
Nsinө = mv2/r
Solving the above equations we get
Tanө = v2/(rg) = 3
=> ө = 71.5 degrees (ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 35
The planet will be stable in the given orbit if the gravitational force provides
the necessary centripetal acceleration.
Let the mass of the planet be m and required speed be v.
Then,
GMm/(R+1)2 = mv2/(R+1)
Or, v = √(GM/(R+1)) -------(ans)
ProblemSet
Solution: 36
In the rotating spacecraft frame centrifugal acceleration is equal to ω2r, this
is required to be equal to g.
So g = ω2 r
Or, ω = √(g/r) = 0.5 rad/s (ans)

ProblemSet
Solution: 37
The ball will land directly under the point of release. As the ball is moving
with angular velocity 0.5g even after it is released it will continue to
experience the radial acceleration of g. So it will land directly under the
releasing point.
ProblemSet
Solution: 38
Change in momentum is equal to the area under the F-t graph.
Area of the given graph = 15 Ns
Hence change in momentum = 15 Ns = 15 kg.m/s (ans)

ProblemSet
Solution: 39
Change in momentum is area under the F-t graph. Now the portion of area
which is below the t axis is taken as negative area.
Hence, change in momentum = area of F-t graph
= ½ ×3.5×3 – ½×2.5×3 + ½ ×1×3
= 3 kg.m/s (ans)

ProblemSet
Solution: 40
As the force applied is10 N and mass is 1 kg, the acceleration of the chain is
10 m/s2. Let us take a point A on the chain x cm away from the force end.
Mass per unit length of the chain is 0.1kg/cm.let T be the tension at A.
For the part of the chain from A to the force end:
10 – T = (0.1x)10
or, T = 10 – x
or, dT/dx = -1 (ans)

ProblemSet
Solution: 41
Tension T in the string is 10 N and is acting as shown in the figure.

the resultant of the two tension forces acting on the peg is √2T in the
direction making 45 degrees with both the parts of the string.
ProblemSet
fizzix facts

Long distance travel on a small planet.

Imagine that you live on a planet without an atmosphere. Perhaps we

have colonized the moon. You will be using spacesuits when you step
out of your airtight buildings. In such a world, there would be no air
friction. Will the preferred mode of long distance travel be above the
ground? Let us say you want to send a
package to a friend on the other side of the planet.
You could hold it at a certain height and if you gave
it the right speed horizontally you would put it into a
circular orbit around the planet at that height.
Your friend would then catch it as it came around
to where she was living. The only energy you would have spent would
be what it cost you to accelerate it to the right speed. Even this energy
can be regained at your friends end with an appropriate stopping
mechanism. Along the orbit no fuel is needed. The package cruises
along like any satellite that is in our earth orbit. It is in free fall.
Of course, the package could be your vehicle. Buildings on
the planet will be planned so that they do not block 'space ways' along
which vehicles in planetary orbits will be whizzing along. Transport
will cost next to nothing. The orbits can be as low as you want. In
principle, they could be so low that they are almost touching the
ground. But of course, a low orbit should not encounter a hillock on
the way.
On earth, most of the fuel we spend in operating our vehicles
goes into combating air friction ( that is assuming the roads are good!)
and whenever we decelerate or stop the kinetic energy of the vehicle is
simply dissipated into friction.

The physics: An object moves in a straight line with a

constant velocity if no force acts on it. A force will change its velocity.
Even to just change the direction in which an object is moving, without
changing its speed, a force must be applied. The gravitational pull of a
planet on a satellite is the force which continuously keeps changing its
direction of motion, bending its orbit into a circle. It can be shown that
an object of mass m moving with a speed v in a circular orbit of
radius r is undergoing an acceleration v2 / r. The gravitational pull of
the planet is G M m / r2, where M is the mass of the planet and G is a
constant. Putting F = m a ,
G M m / r2 = m v 2 / r , we get v =  ( G M / r ).

This is the speed we would have to give the vehicle or the package to
put it into orbit.
For a low to the ground orbit on an earth like planet, this speed is
roughly 7.9 km / second, a prohibitively large speed. This speed is so
large that an accelerating ramp for vehicles that are accelerated at one
g would be 3000 km long! When an object is dropped on the surface of
the earth, it falls with an acceleration of 9.8 m/sec2. This acceleration is
referred to as one g. Twice this acceleration would be two g 's. Inside
a vehicle moving at two g's a person would be pressed against her seat
with a force that would be twice her weight. In a vehicle moving at 5
g's, a person would be squashed against her seat by a force that is 5
times her weight. A human being subjected to accelerations of a few
g's will find it very uncomfortable and will not be able to stand it for
long. Very high g's will be lethal. So perhaps this method of transport
may be impractical. On a moon like planet though, it is smaller, about
1.7 km / sec. Even this will be too large for human passengers but
might be okay for packages which can withstand large g's. On smaller
bodies like asteroids, we would certainly use this mode of travel, as the
required velocity will be small enough to achieve easily.

Questions

Most planets, including ours, rotate. So why can we not simply lift off
to a certain height, hover at that height, letting the planet rotate under
us, until the country of our choice arrived beneath us, and then simply
descend ? Or can we do it?
fizzix facts

Artificial Gravity.

Imagine that at some distant point in the future we decide to

colonize a planet belonging to a star. The nearest star is some four
light years away, so a one way trip will take considerably more
than four years. A more distant star will mean that several
generations of astronauts will be born, and grow up in the space
ship. Humans are not designed to live for long periods in zero
gravity. We would like to create conditions as close to those on
earth as possible, including gravity. This is achieved by having the
ship accelerate at one 'g'. With this acceleration, the front of the
ship will be 'up' and the back 'down'. All objects will fall (as seen
from inside the ship) to the 'ground' if dropped, with an
acceleration of one g, exactly as on earth. You could even have an
artificial lake , which would stay stuck to the ground and not float
up ( you could go boating on it).
Halfway through the trip, when you are going traveling at speeds
very very close to that of light, you would do well to turn the
spaceship around so that the boosters are firing in the direction in
which you are traveling. This way, you slow down so that when
you reach your star, you don't shoot by at (almost) the speed of
light. Further more, now that the direction of your acceleration has
reversed, so has the direction of gravity in the ship. But your ship
has also turned around, so your ground stays ground and your 'sky'
stays 'sky'.
Suppose you are not traveling to a star but are planning on
spending time in a space station that is hovering somewhere in the
solar system. Can we create gravity in a ship that is not going
somewhere? Yes! We will need to build a rotating space station,
perhaps like the one shown in the drawing. It is shaped like a torus
(a tube like the one inside a car tire) which rotates around a central
axis. We know that a point in uniform circular motion is
accelerating toward the center of the circle. The outer rim will act
as the 'floor' for the people inside the torus: they will be pressed
against it. Like the bottom of the accelerating spaceship we
described a little while ago, the outer rim is accelerating toward the
central axis. To the people inside the big tube, it will be exactly as
though there is a gravitational field, only pointing outward from
the center. (According to Einstein, it is a gravitational field).
It is instructive to see this from two perspectives: if a person
inside the space station were to drop an object, what would
happen? Seen from outside, we will say that the object has an
initial tangential velocity, hence it will go in a straight line, hitting
the 'floor' of the space station, which is rotating around. Inside the
station, the person will simply see the object drop at her feet, and
ascribe it to gravity.
Question : Will the dropped object land at a point exactly below it?
Write to us.
Read the novel 'Rendezvous with Rama' by Arthur C.Clarke
and see the movie '2001: A Space Odyssey'.