US Army Corps

of Engineers
Afghanistan Engineer District

AED Design Requirements:

Hydrology Studies
(Provisional)

Various Locations,
Afghanistan

SEPTEMBER 2009, Version 1.5

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

AED DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

FOR
HYDROLOGY STUDY
VARIOUS LOCATIONS, AFGHANISTAN

Section Page

1. General 1

2. Hydrology 1

3. Design Storm 1

4. Runoff Computation Methods 2

4.1. Rational Method 2

4.2. SCS Unit Hydrograph Method 10

5. Design Submittal Documentation 13

6. References 14

Tables

Table 1. Runoff Coefficient Values 3

Table 2. Manning’s Channel Roughness Coefficient 9

Table 3. SCS Curve Number for Hydrologic Soil Groups 13

Figures

Figure 1. Overland Flow Time of Concentration 6

Figure 2. Shallow Concentrated Flow Velocity 7

Figure 3. SCS Unit Hydrograph Results for 1 Sq Km 11

Figure 4. SCS Soil Classification for Soil Groups 12

Appendices

Appendix A Example of Rational Method 18

Appendix B Intensity Duration Frequency Curves 19

Appendix C Area Factor for Point Rainfall Reduction Curves 24

 AED Design Requirements
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1. General

The purpose of this document is to illustrate the technical requirements contractors shall
show in design analyses for projects requiring hydrology analysis of storm drainage
components that are part of USACE-AED projects. The guidance is provisional – meaning it
serves for the time being only until permanently replaced. The development of hydrologic
statistics in Afghanistan is an ongoing process and as new data and analyses become
available they will be incorporated into this design guide. A companion design guide
discusses technical requirements for the design of culverts and road causeways - two
hydraulic structures that require hydrologic analysis as the basis of the design.

2. Hydrology

Hydrology studies include a careful appraisal of factors affecting storm runoff to insure the
development of a drainage system or road crossing culverts are capable of providing the
required flow conveyance at the specified annual flood frequency of protection in the
contract technical requirements. If the design flood frequency is not specified, the engineer
shall base the selection of design storm magnitudes not only on the protection sought but
also on the type of construction contemplated and the consequences of storms of greater
magnitude than the design storm as specified in References 1 and 9.

Hydrologic studies for USACE-AED projects are generally concerned with the estimate of
peak flow rates for use in the hydraulic design of channels, culverts, and erosion control and
energy dissipation structures. In limited situations where ponding capacity is required, such
as detention or infiltration facilities, runoff volume estimation is required. General USACE
design information is provided in Reference 1.

Two hydrologic methods are preferred for use on USACE-AED projects: the Rational
Method and the unit hydrograph method. The Rational Method shall be used when the
catchment area draining to the structure or other point of concentration is less than one (1)
square kilometer (247 acres). The Rational Method is generally limited to the calculation of
the peak flow rate. The unit hydrograph method is required for drainage areas greater than
one square kilometer. The theory and assumptions involved with these methods are well
documented in design manuals and hydrologic engineering texts; two references which can
be obtained from U.S. Government internet sources are included in References 2 and 3.
The intent of this guide is to provide standardized data and assumptions in the use of these
methods to simplify design and review of projects.

3. Design Conditions

Ground conditions affecting runoff must be selected to be consistent with existing and
anticipated development and also with the characteristics and seasonal time of occurrence
of the design rainfall.

Design conditions for the Rational Method consist of the runoff coefficient (C), the rainfall
intensity-duration-frequency relationship, and the time of concentration. The runoff
coefficient is a single parameter that considers soil type, land use cover (bare, vegetation, or
pavement) and slope. There are several sources for C values that are acceptable provided
they are accompanied by a complete reference in the design analysis. Generally the more
information that is used in the C-value evaluation, the more accurate the flow estimation will
be. A suggested chart is included in the next section that has compiled C values from

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several references.

In the majority of areas such as military, industrial, and cantonment areas, the design storm
will normally be based on rainfall of 10-year frequency. This is equivalent to an annual
probability of being equaled or exceeded equal to ten percent each year (Probability=1/10=
0.1, or 10 percent expresses as a percent). Potential damage or operational requirements
may warrant a more severe criterion which shall usually be stated in the contract technical
requirements. A lesser criterion may also be employed in regions where storms of an
appreciable magnitude are infrequent and either damages or operational capabilities are
such that large expenditures for drainage are not justified. The design of roadway culverts
will normally be based on 10-year rainfall. Examples of conditions where greater than 10-
year rainfall may be used are areas of steep slope in which overflows would cause severe
erosion damage; high road fills that impound large quantities of water; and primary diversion
structures, important bridges, and critical facilities where uninterrupted operation is
imperative.

4. Runoff Computation Methods

The design procedures for drainage facilities involve computations to convert the rainfall
intensities expected from the design storm into runoff rates which can be used to size the
various elements of the storm drainage system. As previously stated, there are two basic
approaches: direct estimates of the proportion of the average rainfall intensity which will
appear as the peak rate of runoff (Rational Method) and unit hydrograph methods which
account for losses such as infiltration and for the effects of flow over the surface to the point
of design. The Rational Method approach can be used successfully by experienced
designers for drainage areas up to 100 hectares in size and is discussed first. For
watershed sizes greater than one square kilometer a second approach shall be used
to compute peak runoff that includes techniques to generate hydrographs, or
calculation of a continuous flow rate over time, for surface runoff where studies of
large drainage areas or complex conditions of storage require hydrographs are
required.

4.1. Rational Method

To compute peak runoff using the Rational Method the following equation is used.

Q=kCIA
Where
Q=peak flow (m3/sec.)
k=0.278 (dimensionless)
C=runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
I=rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
A=drainage area (km2)

The k value in the above equation is a conversion factor to convert the peak flow into units
of m3/second.

a) Runoff Coefficient. The runoff coefficient (C) is a variable of the Rational Method
that requires significant judgment and understanding on the part of the designer.
The coefficient must account for all the factors affecting the relation of peak flow to
average rainfall intensity other than area and response time. A range of C-values is

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typically offered to account for slope, condition of cover, soil moisture condition prior
to the storm, and other factors that may influence runoff quantities. Good
engineering judgment must be used when selecting a C-value for design and peak
flow values because a typical coefficient represents the integrated effects of many
drainage basin parameters. When available, design and peak flows should be
checked against observed flood data. The following discussion considers only the
effects of soil groups, land use, and average land slope.

As the slope of the drainage basin increases, the selected C-value should also
increase. This is because as the slope of the drainage area increases, the velocity of
overland and channel flow will increase, allowing less opportunity for water to
infiltrate the ground surface. Thus, more of the rainfall will become runoff from the
drainage area. The lowest range of C-values should be used for flat areas where the
majority of grades and slopes are less than 2 percent. The average range of C-
values should be used for intermediate areas where the majority of grades and
slopes range from 2 to 5 percent. The highest range of C-values should be used for
steep areas (grades greater than 5 percent), for impervious areas, and for
development in clay soil areas.

It is often desirable to develop a composite runoff coefficient based on the

percentage of different surface types in the drainage area. The composite procedure
can be applied to an entire drainage area or to typical "sample" blocks as a guide to
selection of reasonable values of the coefficient for an entire area. Impervious areas
such as roadways, need to be accounted for in actual design. An example table of
runoff coefficient values is provided Table 1.

Table 1. Runoff Coefficient Values (10-year storm frequency)

Source: References 7 and 8

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Other values that might be more appropriate for specific projects may be used
provided they are completely referenced in the design analysis.

b) Rainfall Intensity. The rainfall intensity in millimeters/hour is generally determined

from Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves, if available. IDF curves are
developed for regional areas as opposed to using one value for the entire sections of
the country due to the wide fluctuations in rainfall over a large area. Sufficient
information is available from sources in Afghanistan that merit the use of local data
rather than attempts to derive IDF relationships from other countries. Data obtained
from The Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW). The data was developed into IDF
curves shown in Appendix B. The curves were developed as follows:

• Maximum annual 24-hour rainfall total depth measurements were compiled

and fit to the Log Pearson Type III probability distribution using the Corps of
Engineers computer program FFA (Reference 4); 10-, 20- , and 50- year 24-
hour peak rainfall intensities were calculated
• The peak 24-hour intensities for each frequency were multiplied by ratios to
obtain hour, one-hour, 30-minute, and 15 minute rainfall intensities for each
time duration. The ratios were based on regional rainfall intensity durations
curves obtained from MEW.
• The calculated rainfall intensity data were plotted on charts using log-log
abscissa and ordinate scales

In regions where no I-D-F curve is available, the rainfall intensity may be calculated
by the following formula:

I=(R/24)*(24/Tc) K

Where

I=rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

R=maximum daily rainfall for design frequency (mm)
Tc=time of concentration (hr)
K = a regional coefficient whose approximate value is 0.722 for Afghanistan for 10-
year storm

c) Time of Concentration. Time of concentration is the time for runoff to travel from
the most hydraulically distant point in the watershed to the point of interest within the
watershed. The time of concentration is the sum of the overland flow time, the
shallow concentrated flow time and the channel flow time. For almost all drainage
areas the maximum length of the overland flow will be approximately 100 meters.
Overland flow will normally occur at the upper ends of the drainage or installation
catchment area and will occur over relatively smooth surfaces such as parking areas
and flat slopes. In areas where shallow ditches occur, the runoff will not be overland
flow but will concentrate into shallow channels. Farther downstream the shallow
channels such as gutters and surface swales further concentrate into open channel
drainages. The following figure illustrates the concept of these flow components.

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Source: Reference 3.

The overland flow time of concentration may be determined by the following

nomograph in Figure 1. A nomograph is a chart usually containing three parallel
scales graduated for different variables so that when a straight line connects values
of any two, the related value may be read directly from the third at the point
intersected by the line. Notice that the units on this nomograph are U.S. customary
units and the result should be obtained first in this unit system and converted to SI
units because the nomograph is based on the equation shown on it that uses
empirical constants developed in this unit system.

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Figure 1. Nomograph for Overland Flow Time of Concentration

The overland flow time of concentration is determined by drawing a straight line

through the flow length of the overland flow and the surface type or rational runoff
coefficient and extending this line to the pivot line in the center of the nomograph. A
line is then drawn from the intersecting point of the first line and the pivot line through
the overland flow slope and extending this line to the concentration time line.
Alternately the equation given in the top of Figure 1 can be used to calculate the time
of concentration.

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Shallow concentrated flow will occur after the maximum length of overland flow;
generally within a distance of 100 to 150 meters such as in the depressions on the
side of a slope or mountain. The designer should use topographic maps to
determine where the shallow concentrated flow will begin and end such as a shallow
watercourse. Topographic maps can be obtained from project survey drawings or for
areas not within the project limits from Reference 6. The map scale for Afghanistan
topographic maps is 1:250,000, and therefore will generally be used in conjunction
with a CAD program to enlarge, scale and compute the area from an image file.

Shallow concentrated flow time of concentration is determined by dividing the flow

length by the flow velocity. The flow velocity is determined by the following
nomograph:

Figure 2. Nomograph for Shallow Concentrated Flow Velocity

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Enter the nomograph using the slope of the shallow concentrated flow path and
extend a line horizontally until the diagonal line of the appropriate surface type is
intersected. From this point, extend the line straight down to determine the average
velocity. The average velocity of the above nomograph is expressed in ft/sec. which
is converted to m/min by multiplying by 18.29. The equations for these surfaces are:

Unpaved surface: y = 16.441x0.5063

Paved surface: y = 19.794x0.4896

where
x =slope, ft/ft
y=average velocity, ft/s

Channel flow will occur in swales, ditches or underground culverts that have a
sufficient volume to adequately convey the flow. Channel flow time of concentration
is determined by dividing the flow length by the flow velocity. The channel flow
velocity is determined by Manning’s formula as shown below.

V=(1/n)R2/3S1/2

Where
V=flow velocity (m/sec)
n=roughness coefficient
R=hydraulic radius, cross sectional flow area/wetted perimeter (m)
S=channel slope (m/m)

Manning’s roughness coefficients (n) for various channel surfaces are provided below in
Table 2. Total time of concentration is the sum of the overland and shallow travel time plus
the concentrated channel travel time, if any.

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Table 2. Manning’s Channel Roughness Coefficient

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Several alternative methods are available for estimation of the time of concentration that are
based on empirical relationships for specific geographic areas and caution should be
exerted in their application to a specific site. For example, another method for overland time
of concentration is Kirpich’s formula. It is based on analysis of data for watersheds in the
state of Tennessee in the United States and has not been validated for Afghanistan. Note
the units are customary US units are used in some of these methods which should be used
to provide the results because the formula is based on empirical coefficients derived in that
unit system.

4.2. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Unit Hydrograph Method

As the drainage basin size increases, the Rational Method becomes less accurate for a
number of reasons. The principal reason is that the underlying concept behind the method,
namely that the peak rainfall intensity duration is equal to the time of concentration no longer
is a reasonable assumption. The water courses in larger basins have flood plains that will
reduce larger flood flow rates because they will store flood water in their overbank areas
thereby reducing the peak discharge rate. Large basins have more varied topography which
correlates to varying times of concentration. Because of these and other limitations,
numerous methods for developing unit hydrographs for selected watersheds have
developed. The Rational Method may significantly overestimate the peak discharge
rate for larger basins and therefore the limit of 1 square kilometer for it has evolved
from engineering experience as a useful upper limit.

A unit hydrograph is defined as the direct runoff hydrograph (flow rate versus time
relationship) from one unit of excess rainfall (usually 1 cm in SI units) generated uniformly
over the drainage area at a constant rate for an effective duration of time. References 2
and 3 provide information on the theory and calculation details.

Because the solution to the total hydrograph computation involves successive convolutions
of unit hydrographs for the period of the storm, the method is suitable to the use of computer
programs for execution. Several programs are available from US Government agencies that
are based on a particular unit hydrograph shape known as the SCS unit dimensionless
hydrograph; reference 3 shows the location for one such program HEC-1 Flood hydrograph
package. This program allows the user to employ the SCS unit hydrograph method with a
hypothetical rainfall pattern constructed from data obtained from the intensity-duration-
frequency curves (previously described in the rational method) to compute runoff
hydrographs. In order to simplify the use of the SCS method for drainage areas in the range
of one to two square kilometers which are common on road projects in Afghanistan, graphs
have been prepared of peak discharge and runoff volumes have been computed for use
shown in Figure 3. Results for other basins sizes can be obtained by the ratio of the
drainage areas multiplied times the values from the figure. For large basins (greater than 10
sq km) a factor shown in Appendix C may be applicable.

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Figure 3. SCS Unit Hydrograph Results for 1 Sq Km Drainage Area

SCS Unit Hydrograph Runoff Results For 1 Sq Km

8

6
Peak 10-year Flood Flow, cms

CN = 95 & RUNOFF = 75%

20% of RAINFALL
5

3 CN = 85 & RUNOFF = 40% of RAINFALL

2
CN = 75 & RUNOFF = 20% of RAINFALL
1

0
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7

Basin Lag Time, hours

Peak, cms Peak, cms

Caution should be used applying data in Figure 3 for basins greater than two square
kilometers in size because the floodplain attenuation effects in larger watersheds are
neglected. Use of the curves requires calculating the basin lag defined as 0.6 times the time
of concentration and the approximate runoff ratio based on the rational method or from data
to develop curve numbers described below. For basins larger than 2 square kilometers or
other flood frequency (than 10-year) storms, the design should be based on calculating the
runoff using a computer model that supports the SCS method. If more than one basin
analysis is required, a computer model should be used to perform hydrologic routing of the
individual basins; Figure 3 curves do not include these affects and should not be used to
combine more than one basin results.

The SCS unit hydrograph technique is described in reference 2. There are two basic
parameters required to use this method: basin lag and basin runoff curve number (CN)
value. Basin lag is defined by the method as approximately 0.6 times the time of
concentration (previously described in the rational method). The curve number is a
dimensionless number that is an empirical function of soils slope, and land cover. It is used
in the SCS method to determine the amount of rainfall retention over time that the
watershed can hold. The excess becomes runoff. The curve numbers were derived
empirically for non urban areas in the United States following a long program of collecting
measurements at Soil Conservation Service hydrologic field stations of stream flow,
precipitation, land cover and soil moisture. Tables of CN values for different hydrologic soil

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groups and land use are published in several sources.

Soil types are defined as follows:

Group A: deep sands, deep loess, aggregated silts

Group B: shallow loess, sandy loam
Group C: clay loams, shallow sandy loams, and soils high in clay
Group D: soils that swell when wet, plastic clays, and certain saline soils

Soil classification is defined in the SCS soil classification textural triangle shown in Figure 4.
The availability of soil classification in regions of Afghanistan can be determined using
internet sources (see References 5 and 6). Surface soil classification from geotechnical
reports for project foundation design can also be used as a source of soil information
provided the top soil horizon is used for determination of the runoff curve number.

Figure 4. SCS Soil Classification for Soil Groups

The following Table 3 contains an example from Reference 2 of curve number values.

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Table 3. SCS Curve Number for Hydrologic Soil Groups

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5. Design Submittal Documentation

Design analysis reports shall summarize the results of the calculations in a tabular form.
The contents of the table shall include the following information:

• basin name/ or culvert number

• drainage area
• calculated time of concentration
• rainfall intensity for design storm
• runoff coefficient in rational method for the basin
• reduction for total area factor
• peak flow rate at the point of concentration (for structure design)

Submittal shall include drawings or sketches that identify the catchments areas used n the
calculations.

6. References

1. UFC 3 230 17FA Drainage for Areas Other than Airfields. Department of Defense,
January 2004.
2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering and Design Flood hydrograph Analysis,
EM 110-2-1417, August 1994. Found at
http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1417/toc.htm
3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center, HEC-1 Flood
Hydrograph Package. 1998. Found at
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/legacysoftware/hec1/hec1.htm
4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center, Flood Frequency
Analysis (FFA) Program. 1994.
5. European Commission Land Management & Natrual Hazards Unit. Found at
http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/result.cfm?form.criteria=afghanistan%20and%20soil
6. US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1103 Series of topographic maps
found at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/
7. Civil Engineering Reference Manual, Michael Lindenburg, Profesional Publications,
Inc. 2008
8. Washington State Department of Transportation, Hydraulics Manual, March 2005.
Found at
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Design/Hydraulics/
9. UFC 3 230 15FA Surface Drainage Facilities for Airfields and Heliports. Department
of Defense, January 2004.

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Topographic Map Index Information for

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Appendix A Example of Rational Method

A site review for a road project in Nuristan Province has determined that a culvert
should be designed based on the ten-year storm peak flow using the rational
method. The location of the project is shown on a topographic map obtained from
the internet site listed in reference 6. The web site was used to obtain a photograph
that shows the ground cover conditions. These are shown below:

Drainage area map determined using AutoCAD

Ground cover map from reference 6:

Project
site

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Jalalabad IDF Chart:

Based on Topographic Map:

Step
1 To = Overland flow time for concentration = 0.275*(Lo^0.42)*(So^-0.19)*(C^-1.0)

So = ∆ Elevation = 984 Based on map contour over longest flow distance

Ls 1,273 Longest length required for flow

So = 0.77

Lo (ft) = 492 Length of shallow overland flow (Max = 150 m)

C= 0.03 Runoff coefficient from Table 1

0.3 = coefficient for greater than 10% slope, semi desert

To = 0.275*(492^0.42)*(0.77^-0.19)*(0.3^-1.0) = 13 minutes

2 Tc = Watercourse flow time of concentration = L/Vavg = 16.441*(Sc^0.5603)

Sc ∆ Elevation = 1,312 Based on map contour over longest flow distance

Lc 1,804 Based on map measurement of channel length

Sc = 0.73

Tc = 16.441*(0.73^0.5603) = 129 minutes

1,804

3 T = Total flow time for concentration / Rainfall Duration (minutes) =

To + Tc = 14 min + 129 min = 142 minutes

2
4 Drainage Area = 0.901 km

5 Ten year storm rainfall intensity = Based on Area Rainfall Intensity Hydrograph

I = 14.0 mm/hr

6 Q = Flow at time of concentration (ratinoal method) = Q = 0.278*C*A*I

Q= 0.278*.3*0.901*14.0 = 1.05 m3 / sec

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Appendix B Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves for Selected Project Regions

Kabul
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

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Gardez
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

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Ghazni
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

Kunar IDF
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

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Farah IDF
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

Herat IDF
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall22
duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

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Baghlan/Kunduz
100.0
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr

10.0

1.0
1 10 100 1000 10000

Rainfall duration, minutes

10-yr 20-yr 50-yr

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Appendix C Area Factor for Point Rainfall Reduction Curves

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