Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

1.0 Structures are found in natural and human-made environments

1.1 Classifying Structural Forms

Natural Manufactured
- not made by people - built by people
- occur naturally in the - many are modeled after natural
environment structures

Structures can also be classified by their Design

Solid Structures
Can be made by, piling up or forming similar materials into a particular shape or design.
- Mountains, coral reefs are natural mass structures
- Sand castles, dams and brick walls are manufactured mass structures)
Advantages: held in place by its own weight, losing small parts often has little effect on the overall
strength of the structure
- solid structures are not always completely solid, but are layered and have hollowed out areas for
specific functions (a power dam and the Great pyramids of Egypt are a good examples)

Frame Structures
Have a skeleton of strong materials, which is then filled and covered with other materials,
supporting the overall structure. Most of the inside part of the structure is empty space.
- Load-Bearing Walls: these are the walls that support the load of the the building.
- Partition Walls: these are the walls that divide up the space inside the building.
- because they are relatively easy to design and build, and inexpensive to manufacture, the frame
structure is the most common construction choice.
All frames, whether simple or complex must overcome similar problems.
To solve these problems joints, type of material, bracing, anchoring and design all must be
considered in the overall structural frame construction.

Shell Structures
Structures, which keep their shape and support loads, even without a frame, or solid mass
material inside, are called shell structures. These structures use a thin, carefully shaped, outer
layer of material, to provide their strength and rigidity. The shape of a shell structure spreads
forces throughout the whole structure, which means every part of the structure supports only a
small part of the load, giving it its strength.
Examples include: igloos, egg cartons, turtle shell, food or pop cans, or, even bubbles in foam
and cream puffs. Flexible structures, like parachutes, balloons and different types of clothing
are a different type of shell.
Shell structures have two very useful features:
- they are completely empty, so they make great containers
- their thin outside layer means they use very little material
Problems in building shell structures include:
- A tiny weakness or imperfection on the covering can cause the whole structure to fail.
- When the shell is formed from hot or moist materials, uneven cooling can cause some parts to
weaken other parts by pushing or pulling on nearby sections.
- Flat materials are difficult to form into the rounded shell shape.
- Assembly of flexible materials is very precise, so that seams are strong where the pieces are
joined.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

1.2 The Function of Structures

Structures are things that have a definite size and shape, which serve a definite purpose or
function. To perform its function, every part of the structure must resist forces (stresses such as
pushes or pulls) that could damage its shape or size.

Multiple Functions
Most structures have several functions, which may include:
· supporting (its own weight) · transporting · lifting · separating
· containing (substances) · sheltering · fastening · communicating
· breaking · holding
Precise, measurable standards normally are indicated in the specifications the structure must
comply with in order to perform its function/s.

Function and Effective Design

Function - What is the structure supposed to do? What was it designed for?

Common Function, Different Design

Some structures may appear very different from each other, but share a common function. Roof
types are a good example of this and are illustrated on p. 272.

Other Characteristics of Structures

Besides form and function, structures can be interpreted and classified by the materials and
components they are made of. Natural and man-made structures share some common features.
Safety - all structures are designed and built within an acceptable margin of safety (but usually,
structures are designed with a built-in large margin of safety).
Cost - adding extra strength to a structure costs money, as well as using more highly skilled
workers and better materials does. Norman Breakey designed the pain roller to make painting a
large wall less time consuming and more economical.
· Designers plan their structures to withstand conditions they hypothesize will occur. Good design
is a compromise between a reasonable margin of safety and reasonable cost.
· Usually, totally unexpected events will cause even the best (well-designed) structures to fail
(example: the World Trade Centre Towers).

Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the study of beauty in nature.
· The best designs usually 'look good' - 'aesthetically pleasing'
· The aesthetics are usually accomplished by the shape, texture, color, type of material, symmetry
and simplicity of the repeated pattern used in the design.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

1.3 Human-Built Structures around the World

The Human Home

Homes from many different cultures reflect the adaptations these cultures have made to provide a
suitable shelter. The varied structures result from climate, culture, tradition, technology and
economics. Availability of materials, portability and traditional practices are considerations for
different cultures when they build their homes.
Igloo Apartment

Homes Around the World

Huts

Temples

Boats

Tents Castles
Bamboo

Some structures are combinations of different types of structures:

- Football helmets are shell structures - to protect the head, with a frame structure attached in
front - to protect the face.
- Hydro-electric dams are mass structures, with frame structures inside to house the generators
- Airplanes are frame structures, with a 'skin' that acts like a shell - giving it the added strength to
resist stresses and making it lightweight and flexible.
- Domed buildings combine shell and frame construction
- Warehouses are often built with columns to support the roof (frame) and concrete blocks,
(mass structures) which stay in place because of their weight.

Current or Classical – Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Designs.

Stonehenge Acropolis Great Wall of China

Can you think of some other Famous Structures?
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

2.0 External and Internal Forces act on structures

2.1 Measuring Forces

A force is a push or pull that tends to cause an object to change its movement or shape.

Magnitude, Direction, and Location

The actual effect of a force on a structure depends on:
• the magnitude, or size, of the force (the bigger
the force’s magnitude, the stronger it is and the
more effect it will have on a structure)
• the direction of the force
• the location where the force is applied

When drawing forces, the force is represented by an

arrow. The different sized arrows tell us a little about
the magnitude, direction and location of the forces in a
diagram.

The Newton
The standard unit for measuring force is called a
Newton (N). One Newton is the amount of force
needed to hold up a mass of 100g.

2.2 External Forces Acting on Structures

External forces on structures are stresses that act on a structure from outside the structure.
Gravity is one such force, acting on all things all the time. Impact forces (things that collide with
the structure) are another type of live load. External forces produce internal forces, or stresses,
within the materials from which the structure is made. These internal stresses can change the
shape or size of a structure and is called deformation. This deformation can lead to repair of the
damage to the structure, or failure of the structure.

Centre of Gravity
The center of gravity is the specific point where all of the mass of the structure is evenly
distributed around. The force of gravity acts on all parts of the structure and if all parts are evenly
distributed around the center of gravity, then the structure will be stable.

Engineers need to locate the center of gravity of

a structure in order to stabilize the structure. By locating the structure's center of gravity, an
engineer can tell if the structure is stable or unbalanced.
Try this Virtual Lab
To increase the stability of a structure you can increase the width of the base compared to its
height and move the base closer to the ground.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

Symmetry
Symmetry is a balanced arrangement of mass occurring on opposite sides of a line or plane, or
around a center or axis. The force of gravity on either side of the center point of this line is the
same.

Load
The load is an external force on a structure.
Static and Dynamic Loads
• A static ( dead) load is a permanent force, acting on a structure. This includes the
weight of the structure itself and the non-moving parts it supports.
• A dynamic ( live) load is a changing, or non-permanent force acting on a structure. This
includes the force of the wind and the weight of things that are in, or on a structure.

Supporting the Load

Different kinds of structures are designed to withstand different loads and forces. Different
bridges are built for different purposes.

Type of Bridge

- most common bridge used

- flat beam supported at each end
Beam Bridge

- lightweight, but strong bridge made of trusses

(triangle-shaped frames) along its sides
Truss Bridge

- hangs between two ends (towers) that hold it

up.
- smaller cables attach the roadway to the
hanging cables
Suspension Bridge

- is designed to withstand heavy loads.

- Roman aqueducts are good examples of this
type of bridge
Arch Bridge

Measuring A Structure’s Load Performance

How effectively a structure holds up its load is determined by performance requirements. Load
performance is maximum weight. Other performance considerations include safety, cost, and
effectiveness in meeting the purpose for which it was designed.

Comparing Performance
The performance of one structure can also be compared to that of another. This performance
comparison is made by comparing the load per unit of its own mass for each structure.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

2.3 Internal Forces Within Structures

Compression, Tension, and Shear

Compression forces crush a material by squeezing it together.
Compressive strength measures the largest compression force
the material can withstand before it loses its shape or fails.

Tension forces stretch a material by pulling its ends apart

Tensile strength measures the largest tension force the material
can withstand before failing.

Shear forces bend or tear a material by pressing different parts

in opposite directions at the same time.
Shear strength measures the largest shear force the material
can withstand before it rips apart.
Torsion forces twist a material by turning the ends in opposite
directions.
Torsion strength measures the largest torsion force the material
can withstand and still spring back into its original shape.
Complementary Forces

A bending force is a combination of tension and compression

Shear and torsion forces are also a combination of tension and compression

2.4 Designing Structures to Resist Forces and Maintain Stability

The Seven Wonders

of the Ancient World

Pyramids of Giza Hanging Gardens Maussoleum

Statue of Zeus Temple of Artemis Colossus of Rhodes Pharos of Alexandria

Additional Wonders
of the Wodern World

Chunnel Tunnel Golden Gate Bridge Panama Canal

Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

Strong Structural Shapes

Rectangle Triangle Square

The triangle is a very strong and rigid shape that will not bend easily. A triangular prism is much
stronger than a rectangular prism, a pentagonal prism, or any other multi-sided three-dimensional
shape.

Structural Components

Arches An arch is a common shape found in structures such as bridges.

The arch can support a large load because the force of the load is
carried down the arch to the foundation – spreading out the load.

Beams A simple beam is a flat structure that is supported on both ends .

There are different types of beams, including : ibeams, ubeams,
tbeams and girders, or box beams

Truss A truss is a framework of beams joined together, usually in the

form of interlocking triangles. A cantilever is a beam that is
supported only at one end. When weight is placed on the beam,
the beam bends in an N-shape to resist the load.

Columns A column is a solid structure that can stand by itself and is used to
support beams.

Structural Stress, Fatigue, or Failure

Forces acting on structures can cause them to fail to perform their function.
Failure can occur if the force is too strong for the structure's design or if the force is acting on a
vulnerable part of the structure (that part of the structure that will likely fail the most often).

A structure needs strength and stiffness to avoid failure.

- Shear - minor weaknesses in a material can cause failure because the particles move
farther apart and are less attracted to each other. This can be caused by compression.
- Bend or Buckle - compression can also cause a material to bend and buckle - like a pop
can that is stepped on. To prevent this reinforcements - stringers and ribs - are used to
strengthen the structure
- Torsion - Twisting can cause material failure. When sections of the structure slide past
each other the structure can crack or break in two. When the twisting action makes the
structure unusable (even though it is not broken) it has failed because it has lost its
shape.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

Knowing that materials fail when external forces are applied can be useful information.

Buckle - Car bumpers are designed to buckle

in a collision - as the metal fails, it absorbs
some of the energy of the impact, which
protects the occupants of the vehicle. Blades of
grass on a sports field buckle as players land,
which absorbs some of the impact forces on
the players body. (Crash Test Dummies)
Shear - Shear pins are used in outboard Twist - Spinning wheels twist cotton or wool
motors to prevent failure of the motor (when fibres so they lock together - making them
the propeller gets tangled in weeds, a shear pin strong enough to make cloth. Controlled
breaks and the propeller becomes disengaged twisting can also be useful in hair braids, ropes
with the motor and gears. The clutch and and telecommunication cables.
automatic transmission in a vehicle take into
account shear forces, which enable parts to
slip past each other and produce a smooth
ride.

Metal Fatigue (Definition - The phenomenon Metal breaks down over time and extended
leading to fracture under repeated or use. (They get bent and twisted over and over).
fluctuating stress. The particles in the metal move further apart
and have less attraction to each other. When a
Fatigue fractures start out at the beginning as crack develops it weakens the metal - metal
minute cracks and grow under the action of fatigue - and can eventually fail even when a
fluctuating stress.) small force is applied.

Building for Structural Stability

Building a stable structure that will perform its function in the environment in which it will be is a
challenge to designers. A careful analysis of all the forces that will be acting on the structure
must be made. Engineers use their knowledge of forces to create designs that will most likely
prevent the structures from failing.

Three key methods to help structures withstand forces are:

- distribute the load (in this way no one part of the structure carries most of the load)
- direct the forces along angled components (so that forces hold pieces together
instead of pulling them apart)
- shape the parts to withstand the specific type of force acting on them

All materials have their limitations. Materials can be strengthened or weakened as they are made.
(Concrete - if the correct recipe is followed, the concrete can be very strong (compressive
strength), but if the proportions are incorrect, the resulting concrete can crumble and fail, however
it does not have very good shear or torsion strength. Shear forces can be fatal in metal if the
shear strength is not analyzed when the metal is manufactured. The cooling process can
eliminate almost all defects if it is done properly. The force of friction resists movement between
two surfaces that rub together. A brick wall is held together and kept evenly spaced with mortar,
which helps to create large friction forces between each brick. Friction is also important in frame
structures. The friction between the nail and the wood keeps the nail in place and the joints solid.
Different types of nails provide differing amounts of friction. Squeaks in floors are caused by
fasteners that have loosened. Friction between the ground and the bottom of a structure is an
important design consideration. Friction holds the structure in place when external forces (wind)
are acting on it. too little, or too much friction can cause problems (moving chairs across the
floor).
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

3.0 Structural strength and stability depend on the properties of different materials
and how they are joined

3.1 Materials and Their Properties

Classifying Material Properties

Materials - the properties or characteristics of different materials must match the purpose of the
structure. Properties Include: Brittleness, Ductility, Hardness, Plasticity,, Resistance to heat,
Resistance to water, Compression, Tensile strength.

Kinds of Materials:
- Composite Materials
There are different kinds of strength
- tension (pulling) …. steel rods
- compression (pushing) …. concrete
To enable the structure to withstand both types of forces acting on it, a composite
material is used - reinforced concrete (concrete poured over steel rebar (rods).
- Layered Materials
Layers of different materials (Tetra Pak) are pressed and glued together, combining the
properties of the different materials. The layers are often called laminations.
- Woven or Knit Materials
Spinning or twisting, looping or knotting fibres together gives material added strength. A
loom is used to weave two or more pieces of yarn together in a criss-cross pattern to
make cloth. Pressing, gluing, melting and dissolving are also ways to combine materials
to gain strength.

Choosing materials involves weighing advantages and disadvantages of the different materials
Factors to consider:
- Aesthetics
- Cost
- will inexpensive material you use allow the structure to perform its function over a
reasonable time?
- Appearance
- is the appeal of the structure 'pleasing' over time?
- Environmental Impact
- does the structure harm the environment?
- Energy Efficiency
- does the structure conserve energy?
- Consumer demand and availability
- Disposal of waste

Testing Deformation and Flexibility of Materials in Structures

Deformation is a change in the shape ina structure or any structural component, because the
material is unable to resist the load acting on it. When too much deformation occurs within a
structure, the structure will fail.

Flexibility is the ability of a material to be bent under force without breaking. How much an object
can change shape without breaking under a given load is a measure of its flexibility.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

3.2 Joining Structural Components

The place at which structural components in a structure are joined together is called a joint.
Ties, like thread, string and rope, fasten things together.

Joints that Rely on Friction

Friction is the force that results when the surface of one object moves against the surface of
another object. The strength of the force of friction also depends on the roughness or
smoothness of the surfaces in contact with each other.
- Fasteners (nails, staples, bolts, screws, rivets and dowels). Unfortunately, the holes
made in the structure, by the fastener, actually weaken the structure. One fastener allows
movement when the parts are pushed or pulled, whereas, more than one will make a
more rigid joint - but, will also weaken it more.
- Interlocking shapes (like Lego) fit together because of their shape. Dovetail joints in
drawers, dental fillings and folded seams are some examples.
- Mass - The friction between the base of the block and the surface underneath is enough
to keep the block from moving

Joints that Rely on Bonding

- Adhesives, or sticky substances can also hold things together. Thermosetting glues (hot
glue) and solvent-based glues (drying glue) strengthen the joint because of the bonds
between the particles (like epoxy resins). Even the strongest adhesives can fail under
extreme conditions and if the joint is stronger than the material it is joining, the material
next to the joint can fail. Adhesives can also be a health hazard (like Super Glue - which
dries very quickly when you use it - possibly bonding your skin if you touch it, or they can
release harmful chemical vapours as they harden.
- Melting - Pieces of metal or plastic can be melted together (welding, soldering - brazing
or using chemicals)

Post-It Notes - An accidental glue (that turned into a huge success story). It did not meet the
specifications, because it couldn't hold things together very well.

Fixed or Movable? Which Joint For Which Structure?

Rigid, or Fixed Joints do not allow movement and usually result from bonding type joints.
Mobile, or Flexible Joints are joints that allow movement.

Designing Joints To Last

If a structure is to last a reasonable time, it must be designed to withstand the forces acting on it
over time. Extremes in weather, repeated movement, and other exceptional forces can affect the
life expectancy of a structure.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

3.3 Properties of Materials in Plant and Animal Structures

Materials in Animal Structure

Bones, Ligaments, and Cartilage

Bones are hard and rigid, forming a structural frame. The bones are connected with ligaments,
which are strong, flexible connective tissue. Cartilage, found at the end of some bones, reduces
friction and provides a smooth surface for movement.

Muscles and Tendons

The muscles allow the skeletal frame to move. The fibrous muscle tissue is connected to bones
like tendons, contracting and relaxing, allowing the bones to be pushed and pulled.

Joints
The joints in the body are specialized for various functions. Ball and socket joints in the
shoulders and hips permit movement in many directions. Elbow and knees are hinge joints and
allow movement forward and back. Joints that do not allow any movement, like the skull, ensure
that the organ it covers will be protected

Skin, The Human Shell

The skin, a tough, flexible material, provides the structural shelter for all other parts of the human
body. It waterproofs and protects it from harmful bacteria. It also helps to keep the body
temperature constant, allowing it to perspire and shiver.

Materials in a Tree’s Structure

The outer bark is the tree's protection from the outside world. It
insulates against cold and heat and wards off insect enemies. The inner bark, or "phloem", is
pipeline through which food is passed to the rest of the tree. The cambium cell layer is the
growing part of the trunk. It produces new bark each year and new wood in response to
hormones that pass down through the phloem with food from the leaves. Sapwood is the tree's
pipeline for water moving up to the leaves. Sapwood is new wood. Heartwood is the central,
supporting pillar of the tree. Although dead, it will not decay or lose strength.
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

4.0 Structures are designed, evaluated, and improved in order to meet human
needs

4.1 Building Safe Structures in All Environments

Margin of Safety
Safety is important to designers and so they design based on a margin of safety. This refers to
the limits within which a structure is expected to perform its function safely.
Certain ranges of performance provide the designers with upper and lower limits (thresholds)
within which the structure will perform best. The margin of safety will always exceed the upper
limit because failure of the structure may cause harm to human life.
Testing for Structural Safety
(Crash Test Dummies) One way to ensure that the structure you have designed is safe,
is to test it to extremes. Hockey helmets are tested in this way
to ensure they provide the protection they are designed for.

Cars are driven into brick walls to see what happens and how it
happens, so that designs can be improved upon. Testing
occurs at each and every stage of development and involves
real and simulated situations.

Monitoring Structural Safety

Another way to evaluate the safety of a structure is to look at the frequency and conditions under
which a structure fails. This information, gathered first hand or through surveys – from people
who have used the structure - when analyzed, will help designers redesign the structural
components to improve the performance of the structure.

Accounting For Environmental Factors

Climate Conditions
Climate related factors include: precipitation (rain, snow, ice), wind, heat, cold, humidity, and
dryness. In the far north, building on permafrost, which is frozen in the winter and becomes
spongy in the summer is proving to be a challenge.

Terrain Conditions
The foundation upon which the structure is built must be stable, especially if it is moist, otherwise
the compressive forces may cause the structure to tip and become unstable. If engineers and
builders do not take into account the soil type and formations, the structures built may experience
cracks in their foundations and walls. Foundations constructed on solid bedrock are best. Pilings
(large metal, concrete or wood cylinders) can be used, if the layers of soil above the bedrock are
loose enough. Some lightweight structures do not have to rest on the bedrock or, have to have a
foundation that goes down very deep, because the ground doesn't freeze. Unstable soil and
steep terrain make building stable structures almost impossible. Some structures have to be built
in certain places where the conditions are not ideal. It is the designers job to find a way to make
it work. (Lighthouses are necessary – they are constantly being bombarded by wind and waves,
but have survived fairly well, thanks to the designers who made it work.)

Earthquake Risk
Earthquake proof building are being more closely monitored and improved upon. The forces of
an earthquake are unpredictable and so the margin of safety in the design has to be extremely
high and that has been a challenge.
Here’s an activity for you to make an Earthquake Proof Building
http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/earthquakeproof/
Science In Action 7 Structures and Forces Notes

4.2 Strengthening Materials to Improve Function and Safety

Science strives to provide solutions to practical problems. Structures are designed to meet
human needs. Over time these needs may change and structures need to be modified or
redesigned. Whatever the reason for this, it is the role of designers to utilize all available
information to improve upon the structures we use.

Altering Materials For Strength

One way many structures can be improved is to combine materials and components into new
arrangements, taking advantage of the best characteristics of each.

Corrugation
Corrugation is the process of forming a material into wave-like ridges or
folds. Cardboard and metal are good examples.

Lamination
Layers of different materials (Tetra Pak) are pressed and glued together, combining the
properties of the different materials. The layers are often called laminations.
Strengthening Component Arrangements
Making use of trusses and arches, or adding small supports for reinforcement can make
structural components stronger.
Woven or Knit Materials
Spinning or twisting, looping or knotting fibres together gives material added strength. A loom is
used to weave two or more pieces of yarn together in a criss-cross pattern to make cloth.
Pressing, gluing, melting and dissolving are also ways to combine materials to gain strength.
Changing Methods of Fastening
Fasteners are usually the weakest part of a structure. Besides being an inconvenience when
they fail, if the fastener was a vital component in the structure and it failed, it would be a safety
concern. Changing the type of material used as a fastener, or even changing the type of fastener
may hold structural parts together more effectively.

New Materials
Science and technology are creating new materials all the time. They are making it possible to
build structures that are lighter, stronger and more stable. Composite materials and new
technologically developed synthetic materials have made it possible for new designs and
innovations in many areas.

4.3 Evaluating Designs from an Overall Perspective

When evaluating whether a structure is doing what it was designed to do, and doing it as well as
it can, there are certain factors to consider:
Impact on the
Cost Benefits Safety
Environment
- is the appeal of the
- how much will it cost - is there a safety - does the structure
structure 'pleasing'
to build, operate and hazard? harm the
over time?
maintain the structure - who and what environment?
- who will enjoy the
- can we afford to could be affected by - does the structure
benefits of this
build it? these risks? conserve energy?
structure?

A Case Study In Improving Designs

‘The Sherpa’ – The first Rocky Mountain Bike, produced in 1982.
Read How Rocky Mountain Bicycles Makes Bikes on p. 335
Then answer the questions on p. 334.