DIGITAL VIDEO

CAMERA GUIDEBOOK
COMPILED BY GARETH H. GRAHAM

APRIL 2019
 DIGITAL VIDEO CHEAT SHEET

Frame Rate: 25FPS

Resolution: 1920x1080 Full HD
Shutter Speed: 1/50
Gain: 0db

Correct audio input selected for each channel?

Audio levels set correctly?

Are the following correct:

Focus? (is my subject sharply focused?)

Exposure? (is my subject correctly exposed?)
Colour? (have I white balanced the camera correctly?)
Composition? (Is my shot size, angle and framing correct?)
Introduction to Digital Video
What is Digital Video?
Digital video is audio/visual in a binary format. Information is presented as a sequence of digital data, rather
than in a continuous signal as analog information is.

Information in the natural world, received through the five senses, is analog. That means that it is infinitely
variable. Digital A/V information, on the other hand, consists of discrete units of data that are placed so close
together that the human senses perceive them as a continuous flow. Analog data, such as video recorded on
tape, is transmitted as electronic signals of varying frequency or amplitude that are added to carrier waves of a
given frequency. To make that information usable on a computer or a modern media player, analog-to-digital
conversion translates an analog signal to a series of zeroes and ones, which represent, respectively,
"negative" and "positive," "off" and "on," or "low" and "high." The opposite action, digital-to-analog conversion,
recreates the analog signal for playback.

Digital video offers a number of advantages over analog video, including:

• Ease of sharing and storage.
• No degradation of data quality when copied.
• Easy and inexpensive copying.
• The capacity for multi-casting.

Pixels
Pixels are the individual building blocks of every digital photograph and most other digital images. In addition to
pixels in a digital image, pixels can refer to pixels in a digital display, a digital camera sensor, and other devices.
But, in this tutorial, we’ll mainly be talking about the pixels in digital images.

The word ‘pixel’ was invented by combining the words ‘picture element’. You can think of the pixels in digital
images as colored squares. The images you see on screens usually have hundreds of thousands (and often
millions) of pixels — when enough of these colored squares are placed next to one another and displayed at a
small enough size, you see continuous images instead of individual pixels. Unless you zoom an image far
enough to see the pixels, in which case they appear as colored squares.

Pixels themselves don’t really have a size. While physical units like inches or centimeters have an exact, real-
world size, a pixel is more of a logical unit than a physical one. However, the pixels of digital images are most
often displayed at a size so small so as to not be visible, so they usually exist as very small elements.

Pixels can come to exist in a few different ways. For example, digital cameras have sensors made up of light-
detecting pixels. When you press the shutter, the sensor captures the subject you’re photographing and the
information detected by each of the pixels of this sensor are translated into the pixels of a digital image.

Pixels contain both chroma and luma information.

Resolution

Typically, resolution is expressed as image length (in pixels) times height (also in pixels). So if you read that a
camera records video at 1280 by 720, what that means is it records a rectangular image that is 1,280 pixels wide
and 720 pixels tall.

Let’s review a few common resolutions that you’ll encounter with online video. There’s 720x576, commonly
referred to as standard definition (or SD). Then there’s 1280x720, which is the minimum for what’s called high
definition (or HD). And finally there’s 1920x1080, which is sometimes referred to as full HD. (Keep in mind that all
of these terms are relative, and that as technology marches on HD will include higher and higher resolutions.
So don’t get too attached to these numbers.)

Sometimes, to save time or space, or to seem really pro, a person will refer to an image resolution only by its
height. For example, if you overhear someone say “my camera shoots video at 1080,” they mean is it records
video at 1920x1080 resolution.

Nowadays there’s cameras that shoot at 2k, 4k, and even 8k resolution (k meaning thousand) which will deliver
ever higher levels of picture detail.

The standard resolution that we work at is 1920 x 1080.

Frame Rates

Remember those cool little flip books where a pad of paper had an image on every page, and when you flipped
through the pages quickly, the image would appear to animate and move? This is essentially how video works.
Whether digital or old-school film, video is a series of still images that, when viewed in order at a certain speed,
give the appearance of motion.

Frame rate is the speed at which those images are shown, or how fast you “flip” through the book and it’s
usually expressed as “frames per second,” or FPS. Each image represents a frame, so if a video is captured and
played back at 24fps, that means each second of video shows 24 distinct still images. The speed at which they’re
shown tricks your brain into perceiving smooth motion.

Why does frame rate matter?

Frame rate greatly impacts the style and viewing experience of a video. Different frame rates yield different
viewing experiences, and choosing a frame rate often means choosing between things such as how realistic
you want your video to look, or whether or not you plan to use techniques such as slow motion or motion blur
effects.

For example, movies are usually displayed at 24fps, since this frame rate is similar to how we see the world,
and creates a very cinematic look. Video that’s broadcast live or video with a lot of motion, such as a sporting
event or video game recording, will often have a higher frame rate, as there’s a lot happening at once and a
higher frame rate keeps the motion smooth and the details crisp. On the other hand, people who create
animated GIFs will often sacrifice detail for a smaller file size and choose a low frame rate.

The standard frame rate that we work at is 25fps.

Aspect Ratios

Simply, an aspect ratio is the proportional relationship between the width and height of a rectangle. When
working with aspect ratios in most modern design projects, an aspect ratio will have a horizontal orientation,
because most screens are wider than they are tall. (And we design on screens and often for screens.) But not
every aspect ratio must have a larger width than height.

An aspect ratio is defined in a mathematical ratio, with two numbers separated by a colon.
• width:height
• So that, 4 inches wide by 3 inches high is 4:3

The aspect ratio though is not simply just a measurement of width and height. It is reduced to the smallest
usable ratio (using math concepts from elementary school). So for a rectangle 12 inches wide by 9 inches high,
the aspect ratio is also 4:3 (a common aspect ratio in still photography).

Video screens fall into two pretty distinct categories in terms of aspect ratio: Cinema or movie screens and
television or desktop computer screens. The shapes of these screens are beginning to get closer to the same
aspect ratio with more at-home screens falling into the widescreen category, but there is still a significant
difference between the two, which is why letterboxing is commonly used between the formats.

• Cinema screens are often 1.85:1 or 1.43:1 (IMAX)

• Television screens are often 4:3 or 1.33:1 (older format) or the newer more common widescreen
proportion of 16:9 or 1.77:1.

In terms of the web, designing video for screen size varies widely, but frequently the 16:9 format is used.
Another common option for web designers, unless using a full screen video, is to default to video using the 16:9
ratio because it is the standard used for most web-based players and apps, including YouTube.

Using a common aspect ratio makes it easy to move an element from place to place and between projects. A
video cropped to the 16:9 ratio, for example, will play seamlessly on a television screen, computer screen
(desktop or mobile) and in an online video player. This saves you time as because you won’t have to re-edit or
crop the video for different formats or devices, or worry about parts of the image area that won’t get seen
because of differences in screen size.

The standard aspect ratio we use is 16:9.

Pixel Aspect Ratios

Pixel aspect ratio (often abbreviated PAR) is a mathematical ratio that describes how the width of a pixel in a
digital image compares to the height of that pixel.

Most digital imaging systems display an image as a grid of tiny, square pixels. However, some imaging systems,
especially those that must be compatible with standard-definition television motion pictures, display an image
as a grid of rectangular pixels, in which the pixel width and height are different. Pixel aspect ratio describes this
difference.

Use of pixel aspect ratio mostly involves pictures pertaining to standard-definition television and some other
exceptional cases. Most other imaging systems, including those that comply with SMPTE standards and
practices, use square pixels.

The standard pixel aspect ratio we use is 1:1 (also known as Square Pixels).
Formats & Codecs

Video encoding or video transcoding is the process of exporting digital video into a format and specification
suitable for playback by a user. Each video file contains two elements: Codecs, or “compression-
decompression“ algorithms which compress the video, and formats, the type of file the data is compressed to.
Imagine a shipping container filled with packages of many types. In this analogy the shipping container is the
format, and the codec is the tool that creates the packages and places them in the container.

Video codecs used today include H.264, HEVC, VP9, and AV1. Common formats includes MKV, AVCHD, MP4, and
WebM. There are pros and cons to each video codec and file format. There is no silver bullet when it comes to
streaming content on the web. Certain video codecs and video formats are open source, meaning the source
code is available to the user, who is given the rights to study, change, and distribute software to anyone for any
purpose. VP9 and AV1 are both open source codecs types. MKV and WebM are also both open source, developed
by nonprofit organizations and allowed to be used without a license.

Video formats are often equated to a file’s extension, for example the .mp4 in Video. mp4. Video formats are
much more than that and include a whole package of files, including a files video stream, the audio stream, and
any metadata included with the file. All of the data put together, both of the streams and the metadata, is read by
a video player to stream video content for playback. A file’s video stream includes the data necessary for
motion video playback, while the audio stream includes any data related to sound. Metadata is any data outside
of audio and sound, including bitrate, resolution, subtitles, device type, and date of creation.

Bitrate or bit rate, is the rate at which bits are processed or computed over time. The higher the bitrate, the
more data there is, which generally means a higher quality video file. When choosing a bitrate it is important to
consider the device your videos will be played on. High bitrate file streams need lots of processing power to
encode, and a fast internet connection to download for playback.

The most popular video format is MP4, also known as MPEG 4. MP4 is a multimedia container for video, audio,
and data, including things like subtitles and still images. Make sure you don’t confuse MPEG 4 and MPEG 4
Audio. MPEG 4 has the file extension .MP4, while MPEG 4 Audio has the file extension .M4A and can only contain
audio files. So, why exactly is MP4 so popular? Well it mainly has to do with how ubiquitous it is across a range
of devices. Both mobile and desktop devices can playback MP4 video files, so it makes sense that it would be
used by most content producers.

MP4 files are played at a constant bit rate (CBR), meaning the quality of your video stream will remain at the
same bitrate no matter the variance in your internet bandwidth. There are other file formats that support
adaptive bitrate (ABR), which will adapt the quality of your stream to match the internet speed of your player.
One of the most popular formats that supports ABR is HLS..

Camera Overview
Camera Components

Video cameras can vary from Web cams for computers to small hand-held camcorders to large cameras used
in film and television, but they all share a number of important parts. Each of these parts is needed for the
camera to function properly, just like the human body, a car or any other complex machine.

Lens
The lens on a video camera serves as the same function as a still camera's lens. It draws in light and captures
the image at which the camera points. This telescopic piece can have multiple lenses within it. A number of
dials on the tube will shift the lens positions by turning them, and this controls how the lenses focus the light
they receive to clarify the picture.
Viewfinder
The viewfinder is directly connected to the lens and is meant to provide access to the image for the user. This
can be a simple eye-sized window, or it may be a small pixel screen that folds into the camera when not in use;
many models have both versions. Viewfinders also double as a video screens for playing back the recorded
image.

Microphone
The lens picks up only the visual images for the camera, meaning this alone would create a silent picture. Video
cameras, therefore, also include microphones that record sound in the area. The microphone is usually
mounted next to the lens and pointing in the same direction so the audio and video are closely in sync.

Recorder
The recorder processes the images received by the lens and the sound from the microphone and records them
to memory. On older analog cameras, this would record the image onto a magnetic tape within a cassette.
Some cameras would take full VCR tapes, but others require miniature versions of these cassettes or other
formats like Hi8. Digital cameras eliminate the need for cassettes.

Controls
The camera's main controls include the Power switch and the Record button. It will also include playback
buttons such as Play, Stop, Rewind, Fast Forward and Pause. The controls also include output ports to connect
the camera for playback. All cameras should include the basic red/white/yellow RCA cables to connect to any
playback machine, but they can also include USB or FireWire controls for connection to a computer.

Battery
Battery power is essential for camera use. Every camera is equipped with a rechargeable battery. Most
batteries are lithium-ion based, and each is made and designed to work specifically with its camera model only.
A full battery charge can usually take 12 hours, meaning an overnight charge will suffice.

Capturing Good Visuals

The 4 Essentials (Exposure, Colour, Focus and Composition)

Exposure Introduction

For your film to look good, you need to make sure that it’s not too bright (overexposed) or too dark
(underexposed). The easy, lazy way to do this is to let the camera work it out. But to shoot really good video you
need to set it yourself.

The “Perfect” Exposure

What we are ideally looking for is to have our subject exposed where they are as bright as possible before
overexposing. This ensures that we are capturing as much detail in our images as possible.

Exposure Controls Uncovered

Aperture / Iris

An aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. Almost all lenses on modern camera systems
(except smartphones and many action cameras) have variable apertures and making the aperture smaller or
larger will affect the amount of light that hits the sensor.
The size of the aperture is usually specified as an f number. A lens typically has a set of marked f stops that the f
number can be set to. A lower number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the
film or image sensor. A lens that has a maximum aperture of f/1.4 will let in about twice as much light as a lens
that has a maximum aperture of f/2.8. Similarly, setting a lens that has a maximum aperture of f/1.4 to f/1.8 will
let in about half as much light.

Bigger opening, more light. Smaller opening, less light.

Aperture also controls the depth-of-field, which is the distance between the nearest and farthest objects that
appear acceptably sharp in an image. More on this later!

Shutter Speed

The shutter speed is the amount of time your image sensor is exposed to light. Or in the case of an electronic
shutter, the pixels charge up from light at the start of the exposure and then they are discharged and read by
the camera at the end of the exposure. Like aperture, shutter speed (also called exposure time) is variable and
affects the amount of light captured by the sensor. The shutter speed also affects how much motion blur is in
your image. A shutter speed that is half your frame rate is considered "normal", creating motion blur that is
similar to how our eyes see blur. For example if you are shooting in 24P, which is 23.976 fps, a shutter speed of
1/50 or 1/48 sec would look very natural. Increasing the shutter speed to 1/100 sec for example, would result in
an image that has less motion blur, but is also darker because the sensor has less time to expose the image.

The standard Shutter Speed we use is 1/50 because we film at 25fps.

ND Filters

ND Filters or Neutral Density filters are, in their simplest form, darkened glass that you place between your
subject and your camera sensor and in the majority of cases they screw into your lens. They are called neutral
density because the filter reduces all light wavelengths reaching your cameras sensor meaning colour
reproduction is not affected. There are also graduated ND filters available.

ND filters are available in 2x, 4x, 8x, 16x, 32x etc all the way up to 8192x (and beyond in fact). Each increase in
multiple signifies a 1 f-stop, or 1 EV difference in light registered by your cameras sensor. In photography terms,
ND filters are quantified by their lens opening percentage, f-stop reduction or optical density. So in terms of
lens opening percentage, a 2x filter represents 50% of the lens area opening or 1EV (1 f-stop) reduction, 4x
represents 25% or 2EV (2 f-stops), 8x represents 12.5% or 3EV and so on.

ND Filters are sunglasses for the lens. Only use them in bright light situations when necessary.
Gain / ISO

The last thing in a camera system that affects exposure is the sensor itself. You can think about this like the
volume on your stereo. In a camera system it's called gain or ISO. All image sensors have a range of sensitivity
they can be set to in order to properly expose the image. Just like your stereo, the when you turn the volume up
you get more noise in the audio. The more your sensor is turned up, the more noise is added to the image and
somewhat decreases the detail and dynamic range.

We always aim to film with no gain on our image (set gain to 0dB).

White Balance

What is it?

The color of an object is affected by the lighting conditions under which it is viewed. Our eyes and our brain
compensate for different types of light—that's why a white object appears white to us whether it's viewed in
sunlight, under overcast skies or indoors under incandescent or fluorescent light. But digital cameras need
help to emulate this process, to compensate for different types of lighting and render a white object white.

The white balance setting is that help.

We can simply set auto white balance and the camera will read the scene's color temperature (basically the
hue and intensity of a particular light source, measured in degrees Kelvin) and choose a setting from its
collection of pre-programmed adjustments. That's a good solution when a scene's lighting is pretty much all of
one type and there's a prominent white or neutral subject in the scene.

In most cases, though, accurate color rendition is going to call for a manual white balance setting.

Colour Temperature Explained

In layman's terms , different light sources produce different coloured light. For example, a candle emits a
reddish light, while the midday sun's rays have a blue tint. These different colours can be expressed using a
number, and this number is known as the colour temperature.

Colour temperature is measured on the Kelvin scale, which is denoted by the letter "K" or the word "kelvin"
after the number. However, this is largely irrelevant - the only part we're interested in is the number.
Manual White Balance

To manually white balance the camera:

1. Ensure WB is set to Manual

2. Select A or B slot
3. Zoom in on a white object (paper usually) so that it fills the screen entirely.
4. Make sure it is not over or under exposed
5. Press the AWB button on the front of the camera.

Focus

How it works?

What is focus? In photography, it’s practically married to sharpness. An image that is completely sharp is said
to be in-focus. An image that’s completely blurry is said to be unfocused. The same metaphor applies to your
mind. When you concentrate, your mind is sharp. You are focused. When you’re confused, you lack focus. As you
are about to learn, you can use focus to direct your viewer’s attention to the most important parts of a scene.
Here’s how.

Before we get to the tips themselves, I want to discuss the mechanics of focus itself. In order for a camera to
create a focused image, it takes light and runs it through a lens, concentrating the rays on the image sensor
inside.

Focus is measured in distance.

Step by Step Focus

To focus the camera, we first ensure that the camera and focus settings are set to Manual.
Then:
1. Zoom in as close as possible to the subject
2. Focus using the focus ring
3. Zoom out to compose the shot

Depth of Field

When we adjust our camera's lens to focus on a subject it will only achieve perfect focus at one particular
distance; anything in front or behind this point will be blurred to a greater or lesser degree.

Depth of field is affected by three main factors:

• Lens aperture diameter

• Focal length
• Distance from the subject

The aperture determines the diameter of the beam of light that the lens admits. The wider the aperture, the
wider the beam of light. A wider beam is more susceptible to depth of field effects than a narrower beam.
Using a wider aperture produces a shallower depth of field; using a narrower aperture gives a greater depth of
field.

Focal length is a measure of how much the lens magnifies a scene. The lens also magnifies differences in
focus.

A longer focal length magnifies focus differences, resulting in a shallower depth of field.

The closer the subject is to the camera, the greater the relative distance from the front to the back of that
object. A high relative distance gives a corresponding reduction in how much of the object appears in focus.

Rack Focus

Rack focusing is when we shift our focal point from one subject to another during a shot. This is a visual
storytelling technique that we use to direct the audience’s attention.

Focus Pulls

A focus pull is when we adjust the focus during a shot to match the changing camera-to-subject distance. It is
similar to a rack focus, but instead we use it on a single subject when it is getting closer to or further away from
the camera (either through the subject moving or the camera moving).

Recording Audio
Digital Audio

Digital Audio at it’s most fundamental level is a mathematical representation of a continuous sound. The digital
world can get complicated very quickly, so it’s no surprise that a great deal of confusion exists. The point of this
article is to clarify how digital audio works without delving fully into the mathematics, but without skirting any
information. The key to understanding digital audio is to remember that what’s in the computer isn’t sound — it’s
math.

Sound is the vibration of molecules. Mathematically, sound can accurately be described as a “wave” — meaning
it has a peak part (a pushing stage) and a trough part (a pulling stage). If you have ever seen a graph of a sound
wave it’s always represented as a curve of some sort above a 0 axis, followed by a curve below the 0 axis. What
this means is that sound is “periodic.” All sound waves have at least one push and one pull — a positive curve
and negative curve. That’s called a cycle. So — fundamental concept — all sound waves contain at least one
cycle.

Microphone Connectivity
There are a variety of different connectors used in audio. The connection most widely used in professional
audio applications and digital television is the XLR connection.
XLR

RCA

Audio Jack
Microphone Powering

Dynamic v.s. Condenser

Dynamic and condenser describe the operating principal used in a microphone.

Operating principle - The type of transducer inside the microphone, that is, how the microphone picks up sound
and converts it into an electrical signal.

A transducer is a device that changes energy from one form into another, in this case, acoustic energy into
electrical energy. The operating principle determines some of the basic capabilities of the microphone. The two
most common types are Dynamic and Condenser.

Dynamic microphones employ a diaphragm/voice coil/magnet assembly which forms a miniature sound-
driven electrical generator. Sound waves strike a thin plastic membrane (diaphragm) which vibrates in
response. A small coil of wire (voice coil) is attached to the rear of the diaphragm and vibrates with it. The voice
coil itself is surrounded by a magnetic field created by a small permanent magnet. It is the motion of the voice
coil in this magnetic field which generates the electrical signal corresponding to the sound picked up by a
dynamic microphone.

Dynamic microphones have relatively simple construction and are therefore economical and rugged. They can
provide excellent sound quality and good specifications in all areas of microphone performance. In particular,
they can handle extremely high sound levels: it is almost impossible to overload a dynamic microphone. In
addition, dynamic microphones are relatively unaffected by extremes of temperature or humidity. Dynamics
are the type most widely used in general sound reinforcement.

Condenser microphones are based on an electrically-charged diaphragm/backplate assembly which forms a

sound-sensitive capacitor. Here, sound waves vibrate a very thin metal or metal-coated-plastic diaphragm.
The diaphragm is mounted just in front of a rigid metal or metal-coated-ceramic backplate. In electrical terms
this assembly or element is known as a capacitor (historically called a "condenser"), which has the ability to
store a charge or voltage. When the element is charged, an electric field is created between the diaphragm and
the backplate, proportional to the spacing between them. It is the variation of this spacing, due to the motion of
the diaphragm relative to the backplate, that produces the electrical signal corresponding to the sound picked
up by a condenser microphone.

The construction of a condenser microphone must include some provision for maintaining the electrical
charge or polarizing voltage. An electret condenser microphone has a permanent charge, maintained by a
special material deposited on the backplate or on the diaphragm. Non-electret types are charged (polarized)
by means of an external power source. The majority of condenser microphones for sound reinforcement are of
the electret type.

All condensers contain additional active circuitry to allow the electrical output of the element to be used with
typical microphone inputs. This requires that all condenser microphones be powered: either by batteries or by
phantom power (a method of supplying power to a microphone through the microphone cable itself). There are
two potential limitations of condenser microphones due to the additional circuitry: first, the electronics
produce a small amount of noise; second, there is a limit to the maximum signal level that the electronics can
handle. For this reason, condenser microphone specifications always include a noise figure and a maximum
sound level. Good designs, however, have very low noise levels and are also capable of very wide dynamic
range.

Condenser microphones are more complex than dynamics and tend to be somewhat more costly. Also,
condensers may be adversely affected by extremes of temperature and humidity which can cause them to
become noisy or fail temporarily. However, condensers can readily be made with higher sensitivity and can
provide a smoother, more natural sound, particularly at high frequencies. Flat frequency response and
extended frequency range are much easier to obtain in a condenser. In addition, condenser microphones can
be made very small without significant loss of performance.

In a nutshell, condenser microphones are more sensitive and require electricity.

Batteries

Batteries can be used to power microphones, but this is often not recommended as they are costly and can run
out of charge at inopportune moments.

Phantom Power

Phantom Power is where the power required to operate the condenser microphone is supplied through the XLR
cable by the recording device (usually the camera). It is often denoted as “+48v”.

Microphone Types

Shotgun and Rifle Microphones

Lapel/Lavalier
Handheld

Recording Options

Usually when recording out in the field, you will want to record directly into the camera – this way the audio and
picture are already paired and in sync. There are occasions when this is not the best option, and alternative
recording solutions must be investigated.

Recording to an External Recorder

Some cameras don’t have their own XLR inputs (DSLR cameras especially) so if you want to record audio with a
professional microphone an alternative solution must be investigated. In these cases an external recorder
(Like a ZOOM H4N should be used).

Recording directly into Computer

Sometimes in studio situations, audio will be run through a mixing desk and recorded directly into the
computer and broadcasting solution (eg Tricaster).
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