A Course Material on

Foundation Engineering

By

Mrs. T. Sharmila

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

 QUALITY CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code : CE6502

Scubject : Foundation Engineering

Class : III Year CIVIL

being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.

Signature of the Author

Name: T. Sharmila

Designation: Assistant Professor

This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mrs. T. Sharmila is of adequate
quality. She has referred more than five books amont them minimum one is from aborad author.

Signature of HD

Name: N.Sathish Kumar

SEAL
 Sl.No Contents Page No.

CE6502 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF

FOUNDATION

1.1 TYPES OF BORING 3

1.2 TYPES OF SAMPLES 6

1.3 IN-SITU TESTS GENERAL 8

1.4 PENETROMETER TESTS 9
1.5 STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST 12

UNIT II SHALLOW FOUNDATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION
22
2.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOOTINGS 22
2.3 METHODS OF DETERMINING BEARING CAPACITY 23

UNIT III FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

3.1 COMBINED FOOTING 54

UNIT IV PILE FOUNDATION

4.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR PILES 73

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES. 73

4.3 POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR CHOOSING PILES 73

4.4 PILES IN SAND 77

4.5 SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 78

UNIT V RETAINING WALLS

5.1 RETAINING WALL 81

5.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RETAINING STRUCTURES 81

5.3 COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL 83

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CE2305 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING L T P C

3003
OBJECTIVE
 At the end of this course student acquires the capacity to assess the soil
condition at a given location in order to sugest suitable foundation and also
gains
the knowledge to design various foundations.
UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION 9
Scope and objectives – Methods of exploration-auguring and boring –
Water boring and
rotatory drilling – Depth of boring – Spacing of bore hole - Sampling –
Representative
and undisturbed sampling – sampling techniques – Split spoon sampler,
Thin tube
sampler, Stationary piston sampler – Bore log report – Penetration tests
(SPT and
SCPT) – Data interpretation (Strength parameters and Liquefaction
potential) –
Selection of foundation based on soil condition.
UNIT II SHALLOW FOUNDATION 9
Introduction – Location and depth of foundation – codal provisions –
bearing capacity of
shallow foundation on homogeneous deposits – Terzaghi’s formula and
BIS formula –
factors affecting bearing capacity – problems - Bearing Capacity from insitu
tests (SPT,
SCPT and plate load) – Allowable bearing pressure, Settlement –
Components of
settlement – Determination of settlement of foundations on granular and
clay deposits –
Allowable settlements – Codal provision – Methods of minimising
settlement, differential
settlement.
UNIT III FOOTINGS AND RAFTS 9
Types of foundation – Contact pressure distribution below footings and raft
- Isolated

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and combined footings – Types and proportioning - Mat foundation– Types,

applications
uses and proportioning-- floating foundation.
UNIT IV PILES 9
Types of piles and their function – Factors influencing the selection of pile –
Carrying
capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil - Static formula -
dynamic formulae
(Engineering news and Hiley’s) – Capacity from insitu tests (SPT and
SCPT) – Negative
skin friction – uplift capacity – Group capacity by different methods (Feld’s
rule,
Converse Labarra formula and block failure criterion) – Settlement of pile
groups –
Interpretation of pile load test – Forces on pile caps – under reamed piles –
Capacity
under compression and uplift.
UNIT V RETAINING WALLS 9
Plastic equilibrium in soils – active and passive states – Rankine’s theory –
cohesionless
and cohesive soil - Coloumb’s wedge theory – condition for critical failure
plane - Earth
pressure on retaining walls of simple configurations – Graphical methods
(Rebhann and
Culmann) - pressure on the wall due to line load – Stability of retaining
walls.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS
1. Murthy, V.N.S, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, UBS
Publishers
Distribution Ltd, New Delhi, 1999.
2. Gopal Ranjan and Rao, A.S.R. ”Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics”,
Wiley Eastern
Ltd., New Delhi (India), 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Das, B.M. “Principles of Foundation Engineering (Fifth edition), Thomson
Books /

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COLE, 2003
2. Bowles J.E, “Foundation analysis and design”, McGraw-Hill, 1994
3. Punmia, B.C., “Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Laxmi publications pvt.
Ltd., New
Delhi, 1995.
4. Venkatramaiah,C.”Geotechnical Engineering”, New Age International
Publishers,
New Delhi, 1995

UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION 9

1.1.Types of boring
1.Displacement borings
It is combined method of sampling & boring operation. Closed bottom sampler, slit
cup, or piston type is forced in to the ground up to the desired depth. Then the
sampler is detached from soil below it, by rotating the piston, & finally the piston is
released or withdrawn. The sampler is then again forced further down & sample is
taken. After withdrawal of sampler & removal of sample from sampler, the sampler
is kept in closed condition & again used for another depth.
Features :
Simple and economic method if excessive caving does not occur. Therefore not
suitable for loose sand.
Major changes of soil character can be detected by means of penetration
resistance.
These are 25mm to 75mm holes.
It requires fairly continuous sampling in stiff and dense soil, either to protect the
sampler from damage or to avoid objectionably heavy construction pit.
2.Wash boring:
It is a popular method due to the use of limited equipments. The advantage of this
is the use of inexpensive and easily portable handling and drilling equipments.
Here first an open hole is formed on the ground so that the soil sampling or rock

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drilling operation can be done below the hole. The hole is advanced by chopping
and twisting action of the light bit. Cutting is done by forced water and water jet
under pressure through the rods operated inside the hole.

In India the “Dheki” operation is used, i.e., a pipe of 5cm diameter is held vertically
and filled with water using horizontal lever arrangement and by the process of
suction and application of pressure, soil slurry comes out of the tube and pipe
goes down. This can be done upto a depth of 8m –10m (excluding the depth of
hole already formed beforehand)

Just by noting the change of colour of soil coming out with the change of soil
character can be identified by any experienced person. It gives completely
disturbed sample and is not suitable for very soft soil, fine to medium grained
cohesionless soil and in cemented soil.

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1.1Planning For Subsurface Exploration

The planning of the site exploration program involves location and depth of
borings, test pits or other methods to be used, and methods of sampling and
tests to be carried out. The purpose of the exploration program is to determine,
within practical limits, the stratification and engineering properties of the soils
underlying the site. The principal properties of interest will be the strength,
deformation, and hydraulic characteristics. The program should be planned so
that the maximum amount of information can be obtained at minimum cost. In
the earlier stages of an investigation, the information available is often
inadequate to allow a firm and detailed plan to be made. The investigation is
therefore performed in the following phases:
1. Fact finding and geological survey
Reconnaissance
1. Preliminary exploration
2. Detailed exploration
3. Special exploration

1. Fact finding and geological survey

Assemble all information on dimensions, column spacing, type and use of
structure, basement requirements, and any special architectural considerations
of the proposed building. Foundation regulations in the local building code should
be consulted for any special requirements. For bridges the soil engineer should
have access to type and span lengths as well as pier loadings. This information
will indicate any settlement limitations, and can be used to estimate foundation
loads.
2. Reconnaissance
This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can reveal information on
the type and behavior of adjacent sites and structures such as cracks, noticeable
sags, and possibly sticking doors and windows. The type of local existing
structure may influence, to a considerable extent, the exploration program and
the best foundation type for the proposed adjacent structure. Since nearby
existing structures must be maintained, excavations or vibrations will have to be
carefully controlled. Erosion in existing cuts (or ditches) may also be observed.
For highways, run off patterns , as well as soil stratification to the depth of the

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erosion cut , may be observed. Rock outcrops may give an indication of the
presence or the depth of bedrock.

3. Auger boring
This method is fast and economical, using simple, light, flexible and inexpensive
instruments for large to small holes. It is very suitable for soft to stiff cohesive
soils and also can be used to determine ground water table. Soil removed by this
is disturbed but it is better than wash boring, percussion or rotary drilling. It is not
suitable for very hard or cemented soils, very soft soils, as then the flow into the
hole can occur and also for fully saturated cohesionless soil.

Soil Sampling:

In general soil samples are categorized as shown in fig. 1.5

1.2.Types of samples
Disturbed samples: The structure of the soil is disturbed to the considerable
degree by the action of the boring tools or the excavation equipments.
The disturbances can be classified in following basic types:

Change in the stress condition,

Change in the water content an

Disturbed samples:
The structure of the soil is disturbed to the considerable degree by the action of the
boring tools or the excavation equipments.
The disturbances can be classified in following basic types:

Change in the stress condition,

Change in the water content and the void ratio,

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Disturbance of the soil structure,

Chemical changes,

Mixing and segregation of soil constituents

The causes of the disturbances are listed below:

Method of advancing the borehole,

Mechanism used to advance the sampler,

Dimension and type of sampler,

Procedure followed in sampling and boring. Undisturbed samples: It retains as

closely as practicable the true insitu structure and water content of the soil. For
undisturbed sample the stress changes can not be avoided. The following
requirements are looked for:

No change due to disturbance of the soil structure,

No change in void ratio and water content,

No change in constituents and chemical properties.

4 Requirement of good sampling process Inside clearance ratio

The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a
tendency to laterally expand. The inside clearance should be large enough to allow
a part of lateral expansion to take place, but it should not be so large that it permits
excessive deformations and causes disturbances of the sample. For good sampling
process, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5 to 3 %. For sands silts and
clays, the ratio should be 0.5 % and for stiff and hard clays (below water table), it

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should be 1.5 %. For stiff expansive type of clays, it should be 3.0 %. area ratio

Recovery ratio

Where, L is the length of the sample within the tube,

H is the depth of penetration of the sampling tube.

It represents the disturbance of the soil sample. For good sampling the recovery
ratio should be 96 to 98 %.

Wall friction can be reduced by suitableinside clearance, smooth finish and oiling.

The non-returned wall should have large orifice to allow air and water to escape.
1.3.In-situ tests General The in situ tests in the field have the advantage of
testing the soils in their natural, undisturbed condition. Laboratory tests, on the
other hand, make use of small size samples obtained from boreholes through
samplers and therefore the reliability of these depends on the quality of the so
called ‘undisturbed' samples. Further, obtaining undisturbed samples from non-
cohesive, granular soils is not easy, if not impossible. Therefore, it is common
practice to rely more on laboratory tests where cohesive soils are concerned.
Further, in such soils, the field tests being short duration tests, fail to yield
meaningful consolidation settlement data in any case. Where the subsoil strata
are essentially non-cohesive in character, the bias is most definitely towards field
tests. The data from field tests is used in empirical, but time-tested correlations to
predict settlement of foundations. The field tests commonly used in subsurface
investigation are:

Penetrometer test

Pressuremeter test

Vane shear testPlate load test

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Geophysical methods

1.4. Penetrometer Tests :

Standard penetration test (SPT)

Static cone penetration test (CPT)

Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) Standard penetration test

The standard penetration test is carried out in a borehole, while the DCPT and
SCPT are carried out without a borehole. All the three tests measure the resistance
of the soil strata to penetration by a penetrometer. Useful empirical correlations
between penetration resistance and soil properties are available for use in
foundation design.

This is the most extensively used penetrometer test and employs a split-spoon
sampler, which consists of a driving shoe, a split-barrel of circular cross-section
which is longitudinally split into two parts and a coupling. IS: 2131-1981 gives the
standard for carrying out the test.

Procedure

The borehole is advanced to the required depth and the bottom cleaned.

The split-spoon sampler, attached to standard drill rods of required length is

lowered into the borehole and rested at the bottom

. The split-spoon sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450mm by blows
of a drop hammer (monkey) of 65 kg falling vertically and freely from a height of
750 mm. The number of blows required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded
while driving the sampler. The number of blows required for the last 300 mm of
penetration is added together and recorded as the N value at that particular depth of
the borehole. The number of blows required to effect the first 150mm of
penetration, called the seating drive, is disregarded. The split-spoon sampler is
then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods. The split-barrel is
disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling. The soil sample collected

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inside the split barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the natural moisture
content and transported to the laboratory for tests. Sometimes, a thin liner is
inserted within the split-barrel so that at the end of the SPT, the liner containing
the soil sample is sealed with molten wax at both its ends before it is taken away
to the laboratory. The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a
borehole. This can be increased to 1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to
the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to a
distance of 450 mm. In such a case, the N value can be recorded for the first 300
mm penetration. The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if

50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration

100 blows are required for 300m penetration

10 successive blows produce no advance.

Precautions

The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent
condition.
The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe
must be free from wear and tear.
The drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free,
frictionless and vertical. The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical
intervals in a borehole. This can be increased to 1.50 m if the depth of
borehole is large. Due to the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be
possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In such a case, the N
value can be recorded for the first 300 mm penetration. The boring log
shows refusal and the test is halted if
50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration

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100 blows are required for 300m penetration 10 successive blows

produce no advance.
Precautions
The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent
condition.
The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe
must be free from wear and tear.

The drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free,
frictionless and vertical. The height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change
from this will seriously affect the N value.

The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is
carried out. If this is not done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed
soil and not in the undisturbed soil. When a casing is used in borehole, it
should be ensured that the casing is driven just short of the level at which the
SPT is to be carried out. Otherwise, the test gets carried out in a soil plug
enclosed at the bottom of the casing.

When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be
ensured that the water level in the borehole is always maintained slightly above
the ground water level. If the water level in the borehole is lower than the
ground water level, ‘quick' condition may develop in the soil and very low N
values may be recorded. In spite of all these imperfections, SPT is still
extensively used because the test is simple and relatively economical.

it is the only test that provides representative soil samples both for visual
inspection in the field and for natural moisture content and classification tests in
the laboratory. SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be
corrected before they are used in empirical correlations and design charts. IS:
2131-1981 recommends that the field value of N be corrected for two effects,
namely, (a) effect of overburden pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy. (a)
Correction for overburden pressure

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Several investigators have found that the penetration resistance or the N value in a
granular soil is influenced by the overburden pressure. Of two granular soils
possessing the same relative density but having different confining pressures, the
one with a higher confining pressure gives a higher N value. Since the confining
pressure (which is directly proportional to the overburden pressure) increases with
depth, the N values at shallow depths are underestimated and the N values at larger
depths are overestimated. To allow for this, N values recorded from field tests at
different effective overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective
overburden pressure.

1.5.Static cone penetration test At field SCPT is widely used of recording

variation in the in-situ penetration resistance of soil in cases where in-situ density
is disturbed by boring method & SPT is unreliable below water table. The test is
very useful for soft clays, soft silts, medium sands & fine sands. Procedure By
this test basically by pushing the standard cone at the rate of 10 to 20 mm/sec in to
the soil and noting the friction, the strength is determined. After installing the
equipment as per IS-4968, part III the sounding rod is pushed in to the soil and the
driving is operated at the steady rate of 10 mm/sec approximately so as to advance
the cone only by external loading to the depth which a cone assembly available.
For finding combine cone friction resistance, the shearing strength of the soil qs ,
and tip resistance qc is noted in gauge & added to get the total strength

LimitationsThis test is unsuitable for gravelly soil & soil for having SPT N value
greater than 50. Also in dense sand anchorage becomes to cumbersome &
expensive & for such cases Dynamic SPT can be used. This test is also unsuitable
for field operation since erroneous value obtained due to presence of brick bats,
loose stones etc.

Geophysical exploration General Overview Geophysical exploration may be

used with advantage to locate boundaries between different elements of the subsoil
as these procedures are based on the fact that the gravitational, magnetic, electrical,
radioactive or elastic properties of the different elements of the subsoil may be
different. Differences in the gravitational, magnetic and radioactive properties of

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deposits near the surface of the earth are seldom large enough to permit the use of
these properties in exploration work for civil engineering projects. However, the
resistivity method based on the electrical properties and the seismic refraction
method based on the elastic properties of the deposits have been used widely in
large civil engineering projects. Different methods of geophysical explorations 1
Electrical resistivity methodElectrical resistivity method is based on the
difference in the electrical conductivity or the electrical resistivity of different
soils. Resistivity is defined as resistance in ohms between the opposite phases of a
unit cube of a material.

is resistivity in ohm-cm,

R is resistance in ohms,

A is the cross sectional area (cm 2),

L is length of the conductor (cm).

The resistivity values of the different soils are listed in table 1.4

Material Resistivity ( -
cm)
Massive rock > 400
Shale and clay 1.0
Seawater 0.3
Wet to moist clayey 1.5 - 3.0
soils

Table 1.4 : Resistivity of different materials

Procedure

The set up for the test is given in figure 1.13. In this method, the electrodes are
driven approximately 20cms in to the ground and a dc or a very low frequency ac

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current of known magnitude is passed between the outer (current) electrodes,

thereby producing within the soil an electrical field and the boundary conditions.
The electrical potential at point C is Vc and at point D is V d which is measured by
means of the inner (potential) electrodes respectively.

---------(1.1.1) ---------(1.1.2 )

where,

is resistivity,

I is current,

, , and are the distances between the various electrodes as shown in fig.
1.13.

Potential difference between C and D = = - = -----

---- ( 1.1.3 ) --------- ( 1.1.4 ) If

then resistivity is given as, ---------( 1.1.5 )

where ,

Resistance

Thus, the apparent resistivity of the soil to a depth

approximately equal to the spacing of the electrode can be computed. The

resistivity unit is often so designed that the apparent resistivity can be read directly
on the potentiometer.

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In “resistivity mapping” or “transverse profiling” the electrodes are moved from

place to place without changing their spacing, and the apparent resistivity and any
anomalies within a depth equal to the spacing of the electrodes can thereby be
determined for a number of points.

approximately equal to the spacing of the electrode can be computed. The

resistivity unit is often so designed that the apparent resistivity can be read directly
on the potentiometer.

In “resistivity mapping” or “transverse profiling” the electrodes are moved from

place to place without changing their spacing, and the apparent resistivity and any
anomalies within a depth equal to the spacing of the electrodes can thereby be
determined for a number of points.

Seismic refraction method General This method is based on the fact that
seismic waves have different velocities in different types of soils (or rock) and
besides the wave refract when they cross boundaries between different types of
soils. In this method, an artificial impulse are produced either by detonation of
explosive or mechanical blow with a heavy hammer at ground surface or at the
shallow depth within a hole. These shocks generate three types of waves.
Longitudinal or compressive wave or primary (p) wave, Transverse or shear
waves or secondary (s) wave, Surface waves.

It is primarily the velocity of longitudinal or the compression waves which is

utilized in this method. The equation for the velocity of the p-waves and s-
waves is given as,

------- (1.2.1) ------- (1.2.2)

Where,

E is the dynamic modulus of the soil,

is the Poisson's ratio,

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is density and,

G is the dynamic shear modulus.

v These waves are classified as direct, reflected and refracted waves. The direct
wave travel in approximately straight line from the source of impulse. The
reflected and refracted wave undergoes a change in direction when they encounter
a boundary separating media of different seismic velocities (Refer fig. 1.19). This
method is more suited to the shallow explorations for civil engineering purpose.
The time required for the impulse to travel from the shot point to various points on
the ground surface is determined by means of geophones which transform the
vibrations into electrical currents and transmit them to a recording unit or
oscillograph, equipped with a timing mechanism. Assumptionshyj

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM

The so-called limit equilibrium method has traditionally being used to obtain
approximate solutions for the stability problems in soil mechanics. The method
entails a assumed failure surface of various simple shapes—plane, circular, log
spiral. With this assumption, each of the stability problems is reduced to one of
finding the most dangerous position of the failure or slip surface of the shape
chosen which may not be particularly well founded, but quite often gives
acceptable results. In this method it is also necessary to make certain assumptions
regarding the stress distribution along the failure surface such that the overall
equation of equilibrium, in terms of stress resultants, may be written for a given
problem. Therefore, this simplified method is used to solve various problems by
simple statics.

Although the limit equilibrium technique utilizes the basic concept of upper-bound
rules.

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Of Limit Analysis, that is, a failure surface is assumed and a least answer is sought,
it does not meet the precise requirements of upper bound rules, so it is not a upper
bound. The method basically gives no consideration to soil kinematics, and
equilibrium conditions are satisfied in a limited sense. It is clear then that a
solution obtained using limit equilibrium method is not necessarily upper or lower
bound. However, any upper-bound limit analysis solution will be obviously limit
equilibrium solution.

INTRODUCTION

Partly for the simplicity in practice and partly because of the historical
development of deformable of solids, the problems of soil mechanics are often
divided into two distinct groups – the stability problems and elasticity problems.
The stability problems deal with the conditions of ultimate failure of mass of soil.
Problems of earth pressure, bearing capacity, and stability of slopes most often are
considered in this category. The most important feature of such problems is the
determination of the loads which will cause the failure of the soil mass. Solutions
of these problems are done using the theory of perfect elasticity. The elasticity
problems on the other hand deal with the stress or deformation of the soil where no
failure of soil mass is involved. Stresses at points in a soil mass under the footing,
or behind a retaining wall, deformation around tunnels or excavations, and all
settlement problems belong to this category. Solutions to these problems are
obtained by using the theory of linear elasticity.

Intermediate between the elasticity and stability problems are the problems
mentioned above are the problems known as progressive failure. Progressive
failure problems deal with the elastic- plastic transition from the initial linear
elastic state to the ultimate failure state of the soil by plastic flow. The following
section describes some of the methods of analysis which are unique with respect to
each other.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF ANALYSIS

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There are basically four methods of analysis:

Limit Equilibrium. Limit Analysis. Method of Characteristics. Finite Element /

Discrete Element Method. THEOREMS

There are two theorems which are used for the various analyses. Some follow one
theorem while some methods of analysis follow the other. They are the upper
bound and the lower bound theorems.

In the Upper bound theorem , loads are determined by equating the external work
to the internal work in an assumed deformation mode that satisfies:

Boundary deformation pattern.

Strain and velocity compatibility conditions.

These are kinematically admissible solutions. This analysis gives the maximum
value for a particular parameter.

In the Lower bound theorem , loads are determined from the stress distribution
that satisfies:

Stress equilibrium conditions.

Stress boundary conditions.

Nowhere it violates the yield condition.

These are statically admissible solutions. This analysis gives the minimum value
for a particular parameter.

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However by assuming different failure surfaces the difference between the values
obtained the upper and lower bound theorems can be minimized.

Rankine earth pressure ----------(3) where is the unit

weight of the soil ----------(4)

along a horizontal plane.

at a depth x, integrating equation (3) and (4),

Boundary conditions:

if there is no surcharge, C=0, D=0 at x=0.

Hence (active conditions) or (passive conditions)

This implies that in passive case, and in active case .where is the
inclination of the major principle stress with the x direction.

Determination of earth pressure coefficients

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(for active case, )

= ---------(5) ---------(6) from eqn(5) and (6),

coefficient of active earth pressure similarly, in the passive case ,

----------(7) ----------(8) from eqn(7) and (8), coefficient of

passive earth pressure Inclination of failure plane

The failure planes at particular plane will make an angle of with the direction
of major principal stress.

Fig .3.7 Inclination of failure planes

Inclined Ground

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Considering the forces in the u and v directions,

---------( 9 ) ---------(10 )

dividing eqn 9 by 10 and simplifying ,

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thus,

UNIT II SHALLOW FOUNDATION 9

2.1Introduction

A foundation is a integral part of the structure which transfer the load of the
superstructure to the soil. A foundation is that member which provides support for
the structure and it's loads. It includes the soil and rock of earth's crust and any
special part of structure that serves to transmit the load into the rock or soil. The
different types of the foundations are given in fig. 4.1

2.2.Different types of footings

fig. 2.1 Different types of footings

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2.3Methods of determining bearing capacity

The various methods of computing
the bearing capacity can be listed as follows: Presumptive Analysis Analytical
Methods Plate Bearing Test Penetration Test Modern Testing Methods
Centrifuge TestPrandtl's Analysis

Prandtl (1920) has shown that if the continuous smooth footing rests on the surface
of a weightless soil possessing cohesion and friction, the loaded soil fails as shown
in figure by plastic flow along the composite surface. The analysis is based on the
assumption that a strip footing placed on the ground surface sinks vertically
downwards into the soil at failure like a punch.

Fig 4.8 Prandtl's Analysis

Prandtl analysed the problem of the penetration of a punch into a weightless
material. The punch was assumed rigid with a frictionless base. Three failure zones
were considered. Zone I is an active failure zone Zone II is a radial shear zone
Zone III is a passive failure zone identical for

Zone1 consist of a triangular zone and its boundaries rise at an angle with
the horizontal two zones on either side represent passive Rankine zones. The
boundaries of the passive Rankine zone rise at angle of with the horizontal.
Zones 2 located between 1 and 3 are the radial shear zones. The bearing capacity is
given by (Prandtl 1921) as

where c is the cohesion and is the bearing capacity factor given by the
expression

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Reissner (1924) extended Prandtl's analysis for uniform load q per unit area acting
on the ground surface. He assumed that the shear pattern is unaltered and gave the
bearing capacity expression as follows.

if , the logspiral becomes a circle and Nc is equal to ,also Nq becomes 1.

Hence the bearing capacity of such footings becomes

=5.14c+q

if q=0,

we get =2.57qu

where qu is the unconfined compressive strength.

Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Theory Assumptions in Terzaghi's Bearing

Capacity Theory Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its width. Base of
the footing is rough. Soil above bottom of foundation has no shear strength; is
only a surcharge load against the overturning load Surcharge upto the base of
footing is considered. Load applied is vertical and non-eccentric. The soil is
homogenous and isotropic. L/B ratio is infinite.

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Fig. 4.9 Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Theory

Consider a footing of width B and depth loaded with Q and resting on a soil of
unit weight . The failure of the zones is divided into three zones as shown below.
The zone1 represents an active Rankine zone, and the zones 3 are passive zones.the
boundaries of the active Rankine zone rise at an angle of , and those of the
passive zones at with the horizontal. The zones 2 are known as zones of
radial shear, because the lines that constitute one set in the shear pattern in these
zones radiate from the outer edge of the base of the footing. Since the base of the
footings is rough, the soil located between it and the two surfaces of sliding
remains in a state of equilibrium and acts as if it formed part of the footing. The
surfaces ad and bd rise at to the horizontal. At the instant of failure, the pressure
on each of the surfaces ad and bd is equal to the resultant of the passive earth
pressure PP and the cohesion force Ca. since slip occurs along these faces, the
resultant earth pressure acts at angle to the normal on each face and as a
consequence in a vertical direction. If the weight of the soil adb is disregarded, the
equilibrium of the footing requires that

------- (1)

The passive pressure required to produce a slip on def can be divided into two
parts, and . The force represents the resistance due to weight of the mass

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adef. The point of application of is located at the lower third point of ad. The
force acts at the midpoint of contact surface ad.

The value of the bearing capacity may be calculated as :

------- (2 )

by introducing into eqn(2) the following values:

Footing subjected to Concentric loading Problem 1 Shallow footing subjected

to vertical load along with moment. Design a column footing to carry a vertical
load of 40 t (DL+LL) and moment of 1000 Kg-m.
i

2.4.Design of the Column.

Fig. 4.26 Concentric & Non Concentric Footing

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Trial 1 Let assume b = 300 mm & D (L) =

400 mm

See chart 33 of SP-16. Assume Diameter of bar 20 mm.

It shows for this trial No Reinforcement required, but practically we have to

provide reinforcement.

Trial 2

b = 250 mm, D = 300 mm.

Fig -4.27 Column Section

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2.5.Design of footing

Size of the footing

Fig 4.28 Details of the coulmn

Let D=500mm

For concentric footing;

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V=40 t =40*104 N, e=M/V=1000*104/40*104 =25 mm

For no tension case: Determination of L & B for different values of L

& B.

L in m B in m
1.0 2.34
2.0 1.1
2.2 0.988

L=6e=150mm

Let provide footing size is 2.2 m*1.0 m.

Check:

= =16.94 t/m2

= =19.92 t/m2

iii Thickness of footing a. Wide beam shear

Factored intensity of soil pressure,

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For critical section of wide beam shear: x=(2.2/2)-(0.3/2)-d=0.95-d

Assuming Pt=0.2%, and from table 16 of SP-16

0.0265d2+0.86-0.841=0

By trial and error method, d=0.45 m

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Fig 4.29 Section for wide beam shear and upward earth pressure diagram Punching
shear (two way shear)

Fig 4.30 Section for two way at a distance of d/2 from face of the column round

Critical area= (1.1+4d) d m2

IS: 456-1978, =250/300=0.83

Ks=(0.5+ )=1.33>1.0

Therefore Ks=1.0

=40.0*1.5=60 t/m2

(1.1+4d)*96.8=60-27.27(0.3+d) (0.25+d)

by trial and error, d=0.255 m

=450 mm, D=450+40+20/2=500 mm

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Flexural reinforcement

Fig 4.31 Section for bending moment

=18.35*1.5=27.53 t/m2

=19.42*1.5=29.13 t/m2

BM= {27.53*0.5*0.952} + {(29.13-27.53)*0.95*2/3*0.95}=13.386 t.m

Table I of SP-16, =0.193%

For wide beam shear Pt=0.2%

=0.2*1000*450/100

Provide 16mm diameter torq bars @200 mm c/c in both directions.

According to clause 33.3.1 of IS: 456
=2.2/1=2.2

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in central band width=2/( +1)* total in short

2
direction=2/(2.2+1)*1980=1237.5 mm
Hence 16 mm dia @200c/c in longer direction satisfied all criteria & 16 dia
@150c/c for central band.

v Check for development length

Clause 25.2.1

Now length of bars provided, (2200-300)/2= 950 mm<

Provide extra development length of 1037.5-950=87.5 mm say 90 mm on side of
the footing.

vi Transfer of load at base of column

Clause 34.4
Permissible bearing pressure, qb=0.45*15=6.75 =675 t/m2
=1*2.2=2.2 m2
=0.3*0.25=0.075 m2

=675*2.0=1350 t/m2

Footing subjected to eccentric loading Problem 2

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Design a non-concentric footing with vertical load =40t and moment = 2tm.
Allowable bearing capacity=20t/m 2 . = 15 N/mm2. =415N/mm2 .
Determination of size of column:

P = 40t. => = 40 * 1.5 = 60t.

M = 2tm. => = 2 *1.5 = 3tm.
Trial I
Let us assume footing size b= 250mm, D=350mm.

(see chart for 0.15)

Ref. Chart 33, SP-16 => or, p =0.9%

Provide 4 nos. 16 bars as longitudinal reinforcement and 8 stirrups @250mm

c/c as transverse reinforcement.

Determination of the size of the footing

Depth of the footing assumed as D= 500mm. For non-concentric footing ,

Area required =
Adopt a rectangular footing of size 2m * 1.1m and depth 0.5m.

Eccentricity of footing = M/P= 50mm.

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Fig. 4.32 Elevation and Plan of a non-concentric footing

Determination of design soil pressure

R= soil reaction =P =40t.

=40 / (2 * 1.1) = 18.2 t/m2 < 20 t/m2
Therefore, = 18.2*1.5 =27.3 t/m2 .=.273 N/mm2.

Determination of depth of footing:

a. Wide beam shear:

Consider a section at a distance ‘d' from the column face in the longer direction.

Assuming =0.2% for =15N/mm2, =0.32N/mm2.

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.B.d. = .B.( –d)

0.32 * d = 0.273 * (0.875 – d)

Therefore, d = 0.403 m

b. Punching shear:

Fig. 4.33 Section for wide beam shear

Critical area for punching shear:

= 2* ( 350+d+250+d)*d
= 4d(300 + d).
Clause :31.6.3.1 (IS 456:2000)
= 0.25/0.35 =0.71
= 0.5 + =1.21 >1.0
Therefore, take, =1.0.
= 0.25* (15) 0.5 =0.968 N/mm2
' = . =0.968 N/mm2
96.8 * 4d* (0.3 +d) = 60 – 27.3 *(0.35+d)8(0.25+d)
d = 0.246m.

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Therefore, from the punching and wide beam shear criteria we get, ‘d” required is

Fig. 4.34 Section for wide beam shear

403 mm. D required is (403+40+20/2)=453mm <500mm (D provided). OK.

Flexural reinforcement:

Design soil pressure (q) = 27.3 t/m2

Bending moment at the face of the column in the longer direction

=27.3 * 0.87 52 / 2 =10.45 tm/m width.

d provided = 450mm.

For singly reinforced section, table 1, SP-16, p t =0.147 N/mm2

Area of steel required =

Spacing using 16 bars = 201*1000 / 661.5 = 303 mm c/c.

Provide 16 F bars as longitudinal reinforcement @ 300mm c/c in longer direction.

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Cl. 33.4.1. (IS-456:2000)

B = 2.0 / 1.1 =1.82

Area of steel in the longer direction = 661.5 * 2 =1323 mm2

Area of steel in the central band =2 / (1.82 +1)* 1323 =938 mm2
Spacing = 207.6 mm.

Provide 16 bars as longitudinal reinforcement @ 200mm c/c in shorter direction

in the central band. For remaining portion provide spacing @330mm c/c.

The central band width = width of the foundation =1100mm.

Check for development length:

Cl. 26.2.1 (IS 456 :2000)

Now, length of bars provided =(2000 – 350)/2 = 825 mm.< .

Extra length to be provided = (1037.5 – 825) = 212.5mm.
Provide development length equal to 225mm at the ends.

Transfer of load at the column footing junction :

Cl. 33.4 (IS 456:2000)

Assuming 2:1 load dispersion,

Required L = {350 + 2*500*2} =2350mm >2000mm.

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Required B = {250 + 2*500*2} =2250mm >1100mm.

= 2 * 1.1 =2.2 m2.

= 0.25 * 0.35 = 0.0875 m2

Ö( / ) = 5.01 > 2.0. Take as 2.0.

. = q b * Ö (A 1 / A 2 ) = 675 * 2 = 1350 t/m2 .

= 40*1.5/(0.25* 0.35) * { 1 + 6 *0.05 / 0.35 } = 1273 t/m2 . < 1350 t/m2 .

Therefore, the junction is safe.

Actually there is no need to extend column bars inside the footing, but as a
standard practice the column bars are extended upto a certain distance inside the
footing.

Design of strap footing: Example:

The column positions are is as shown in fig. 4.35. As column one is very close to
the boundary line, we have to provide a strip footing for both footings.

Fig. 4.35 Strap footing

Design of the column Column A:

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=750 KN
Let = 0.8%, so, Ax= 0.008A and Ac = 0.992A,
Where, A is the gross area of concrete.
As per clause 39.3 of IS 456-2000,
750 x 103 = (0.4 x 15 x 0.992A) + (0.67 x 415 x 0.008A)
A = 91727.4 mm2
Provide column size (300 x 300) mm
750 x 103 = 0.4 x 15 x (1- (pt/100)) x 90000 + 0.67 x 415x ( /100) x 90000
= 0.86% ,
= (0.86/100) x (300)2 = 774 mm2
Provide 4 no's tor 16 as longitudinal reinforcement with tor 8 @ 250 c/c lateral ties.

Column B:

=1500 KN
Provide column size (400 x 400) mm
1500 x 103 = 0.4 x 15 x (1- ( /100)) x 160000 + 0.67 x 415x (pt/100) x 160000
= 1.24% , = (1.24/100) x (300)2 = 1985 mm2
Provide 8 no.s tor 16 as longitudinal reinforcement with tor 8 @ 250 c/c lateral
ties.

Footing design

Let us assume eccentricity e = 0.9m.

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Fig. 4.36 Strap footing – soil reaction

Taking moment about line ,

x5– x (5-e) = 0

Footing size:

Fig. 4.37 Footing sizes

For footing A:

= 2(0.9+0.3) =2.4m.
Assume overall thickness of footing, D = 600mm.

For footing B:

Assume square footing of size ,

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= 2.13m
Provide (2.2 x 2.2)m footing.

Analysis of footing

Fig. 4.38 Analysis of footing

Thickness of footing i) Wide beam shear: For footing A:

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Let us assume = 0.2%, so from table 16 of IS456,

Assume in direction of , width of strap beam (b) is 500 mm.

Fig. 4.39 Wide beam shear for footing A

Shear = b d = qu (0.4 - d)

For footing B:

Let us assume (%) = 0.2%, so from table 16 of IS456,

Assume in direction of , width of strap beam (b) is 500 mm.

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Fig. 4.40 Wide beam shear for footing B

Shear = b d = qu (0.4 - d)

> 600 mm depth earlier assumed.

Increasing the width of the beam to 700 mm

Fig. 4.41 Wide beam shear for footing B

Let us assume (%) = 0.3%, so from table 16 of IS456,

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Shear = b d = qu (0.75 - d)

< 600 mm depth earlier assumed.

Safe

ii) Two way shear: For column A:

From clause 31.6.3.1 of IS456-2000.

Critical perimeter x d x = – x (critical area – dotted area in fig. 4.42)

So, shear equation becomes,

Critical perimeter x d x = – x (critical area – dotted area in fig. 4.42)

2 (0.75+1.5d) d (96.8) = 75 – 38.1125 (0.3 + 0.15 + 0.5d)

d = 0.246 mm < 600 mm.

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Fig. 4.42 Wide beam shear for footing A

For column B: From clause 31.6.3.1 of IS456-2000.

Critical perimeter = 2 (0.4+d+0.4+d) = 4 (0.4+d)

So, shear equation becomes,
Critical perimeter x d x = – x (critical area – dotted area in fig. 4.43)
2 (0.4+d) d (96.8) = 150 – 60.6955 (0.4 + d)

d = 0.355 mm < 600 mm. Among all the required d values (for wide beam shear
and two way shear criteria),
Max. = 521 mm.
= 521 + (20/2) + 40 = 571 mm
So, provide D = 600 mm
= 550 mm

Reinforcement for flexure for footings (i) Design along the length direction:
Comparing the moments at the column faces in both the footings (A & B),
= 24.61 tm (for Footing B)

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From table 1 of SP-16, = 0.242 % (ii) Design along the width direction:

(=38.1125 t/m) < (=60.695 t/m)

So, for design along width direction footing B ( ) is considered.

Fig. 4.44 Bending along the width of footing B

So, = 0.242 % i. e. same as reinforcement along longer direction.

But. From wide beam criteria = 0.3 %,
(required) = (0.3/100) x (103) x (550) = 1650 mm2.
Provide 20 Tor @ 175 c/c along both directions at bottom face of the footing A
and B.

Design of strap beam (i) Reinforcement for flexture:

= 51.294 tm (Refer fig. 4.45)

From table 49 of SP-16, d'/d = 50/550 = 0.1,

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= 0.83 % and Pc= 0.12 %

(required on tension face) = (0.83/100) x 700 x 550 = 3195.5 mm2,
(required on compression face) = (0.12/100) x 700 x 550 = 462 mm2,
Provide (6+5=) 11 no.s Tor 20 at top of the strap beam and 4 no.s Tor 20 at
bottom of the strap beam.

(ii) Check for shear:

Vmax = 83.235 t

< max = 2.5 N/mm2 (for M15)

(provided) =
From table 61 of SP-16, = 0.57 N/mm2
But, provide shear reinforcement for shear = ( acting – ) = 1.592 N/mm2= Vus

= 11.144 KN/cm
From table 16 of SP-16, using 4L stirrups, (Vus/d) = (11.144/2) = 5.572 KN/cm

From table 62 of SP-16, provide 4L-stirrups 10 Tor @ 100 c/c near the column
(upto distance of d=550mm from column face) and 4L-stirrups 10 Tor @ 250 c/c
for other portions.

Check for development length

From clause 25.2.1 of IS456-2000,

Development length = =

For column A:

Length of the bar provided = 150-40 = 110mm <

By providing 2 no.s 90o bend the extra length to be provided = (1297-110-3(8 x
20)) = 707 mm.

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In B direction length of the bar provided =

Providing two 90o bend, the extra length to be provided = (1297-460-2(8 x 20)) =
517 mm.

(ii) Check for shear:

Vmax = 83.235 t

< max = 2.5 N/mm2 (for M15)

(provided) =
From table 61 of SP-16, = 0.57 N/mm2
But, provide shear reinforcement for shear = ( acting – ) = 1.592 N/mm2= Vus

= 11.144 KN/cm
From table 16 of SP-16, using 4L stirrups, (Vus/d) = (11.144/2) = 5.572 KN/cm

From table 62 of SP-16, provide 4L-stirrups 10 Tor @ 100 c/c near the column
(upto distance of d=550mm from column face) and 4L-stirrups 10 Tor @ 250 c/c
for other portions.

Check for development length

From clause 25.2.1 of IS456-2000,

Development length = =

For column A:

Length of the bar provided = 150-40 = 110mm <

By providing 2 no.s 90o bend the extra length to be provided = (1297-110-3(8 x
20)) = 707 mm.

In B direction length of the bar provided =

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Providing two 90o bend, the extra length to be provided = (1297-460-2(8 x 20)) =
517 mm.

Fig. 4.45 Development length for footing A

For column B:

Length of the bar provided =

Providing one 90o bend, the extra length to be provided = (1297-860- (8 x 20)) =
277 mm.

Fig. 4.46 Development length for footing B (Along the length and width)

Transfer of load at base of the column: For footing A:

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From clause 34.4 of IS456-2000, permissible bearing stress ( )=

2
= (150+300+1200)(1300)= 2145000 mm
= (300 x 300) = 90000 mm2

= 2 x 0.45 x x1500 = 1161 t//m2

= (load on column/area of column) = (1.5 x 50)/(0.3)2 = 833.3 t//m2<
Safe.

Fig. 4.47 Area of footing A considered for check of transfer of load at column base
For Footing B: From clause 34.4 of IS456-2000, permissible bearing stress (

)=

= (2200)2= 4840000 mm2

= (400 x 400) = 160000 mm2

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Fig. 4.48 Area of footing B considered for check of transfer of load at column base

= 2 x 0.45 x x1500 = 1161 t/m2

= (load on column/area of column)

= (1.5 x 100)/(0.4)2

=937.5 <

Safe UNIT III FOOTINGS AND RAFTS 9

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Design of
3.1.Combined Footing

=800kN

=1000kN

=20 t/m2,M15, =415kN/m2

Fig. 4.51 Loading on combined footing

Column size: 400x400mm.

See Fig 4.54 for details of footing. Column design

Let pt=0.8%

=.008A; =0.992A

Clause.39.3 of IS 456-2000

A=146763.8mm2

=1174.11 mm2, =145589.746mm2

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Provide footing of 400x400size for both columns.

Using 8-16 as main reinforcement and 8 @250c/c as lateral tie

Design of Footing

Fig. 4.52 Forces acting on the footing

Resultant of Column Load

R =1800 kN acting 3.08m from the boundary.

Area of the footing :

Taking length L=6m, Depth of footing =0.9m, ,

Width of footing, =1.549m.

Therefore, provide footing of dimension 6m x 1.6m

Soil Pressure q = =18.75 t/m2< 20 t/m2 OK.

=28.125 t/m2

Soil pressure intensity acting along the length =B x =1.6x28.125 =45t/m.

RB =119.88kN, RC =150.12kN.

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Thickness of Footing i. Wide beam shear:

Maximum shear force is on footing C,SF=115.02KN

for percentage reinforcement =0.2%

0.32 x d x 1.6=45 [2.556-0.2-d]

d=1.1m

for percentage reinforcement =0.6%

0.6 x d x 1.6=45 [2.556-0.2-d]

d=0.847m.D=900mm.OK.

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ii.Two way Shear Thickness of

Footing i. Wide beam shear:

Maximum shear force is on footing C,SF=115.02KN

for percentage reinforcement =0.2%

0.32 x d x 1.6=45 [2.556-0.2-d]

d=1.1m

for percentage reinforcement =0.6%

0.6 x d x 1.6=45 [2.556-0.2-d]

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d=0.847m.D=900mm.OK.

ii.Two way Shear

Column B

d=0.415m.

Column A

2d[(0.4+d)+(0.42+d/2)] x 96.8=120-28.125[(0.4+d)(0.42+d/2)]
d=0.3906m
=0.85mm
=900mm, =850mm.OK.

Flexural reinforcement

Along Length Direction

=1.15N/mm2
Table 1of SP16
=0.354%
provided=0.6%
required=5100 mm2/mm
Provide 28 @120mmc/c at top and bottom of the footing
Along width direction

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Raft Footing Design the

raft footing for the given loads on the columns and spacing between the columns as
shown below.

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Fig 4.57 column locations and intensity of loads acting on the raft
a) Column sizes

Take size of the columns are as: 300*450 mm for load of less than 115 ton

450*450 mm for a load of greater than 115 ton

Thickness of raft

Two way shear

The shear should be checked for every column, but in this case because of
symmetry property checking for 115 t, 150 t, and 55 t is enough.

For 150 t column

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Fig 4.58 section for two way shear for 150 t column

IS: 456-1978, =450/450=1.0

=(0.5+ )=1.0=1.0
Therefore =1.0

4(0.45+d)*d*96.8=150*1.5-5.607(0.45+d)2
Therefore d=0.562 m

For 115 t column

Fig 4.59 section for two way shear for 115 t column

2(0.45+d+0.15+0.3+d/2) d*96.8=115*1.5-5.607(0.45+d)(0.3+0.15+0.5d)

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Therefore d=0.519 m

For 55 t column

Fig 4.60 section for two way shear for 55 t column

2(0.45+0.075+0.5d+0.15+0.3+0.5d) d*96.8=55*1.5-
5.607(0.45+0.5d+0.075)(0.3+0.5d+0.15)

Therefore d=0.32 m

The guiding thickness is 0.562m and code says that the minimum thickness should
not be less than 1.0m.

let provide a overall depth of 1.1m=D

=1100-75-20/2=1015mm.

To calculate k & -Stiffness factors

There are two criterions for checking the rigidity of the footing:
Plate size used is 300*300 mm.
For clays: =0.5,

Take k=0.7 and B=30 cm

Es=15.75 kg/cm2=1.575 N/mm2

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b=23.2*103 mm, a=12.8*103 mm 4 , d=1015 mm

=0.085<0.5

Therefore it is acting as a flexible footing.

=0.00179*10-3

1.75/ =975.184=9.75m

If column spacing is less than 1.75/ , then the footing is said to be rigid.

Therefore the given footing is rigid.

One criterion showing the footing is flexible and another showing that the given
footing is rigid. Both are contradicting each other, so design the footing for both
criterions.

=5.607

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Reinforcement in width direction

From SP-16 graphs

=0.102%, but minimum is 0.12%.

=(0.12*1000*1015)/100=1218 mm2

Provide 20 mm diameter bars @250 c/c along shorter direction in bottom.

Reinforcement in length direction

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Provide 20 mm diameter bars @250 c/c in longer direction.

Clause 33.3.1

Provide 20 mm diameter bars @ 200 c/c in central band and 20 mm diameter bars
@300 c/c at other parts along shorter direction at bottom.

Shear (wide beam shear criterion)

In width direction

0.2 N/mm2 <

=0.123%,

=0.27 N/mm 2 > (from table 61 of SP – 16 by extrapolation)

Therefore no shear reinforcement is required.

=0.235 N/mm2 < (0.27 N/mm2)

Therefore no shear reinforcement is required.

Along the width direction

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Fig. 4.63 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams of strips 1 and 4

In width direction: Strip1/4:-

=141.2tm

= =0.337N/mm2

Strip2/3

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Fig. 4.64 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams of strips 2 and 3
Strip 2/3

=282.36tm

= =0.364N/mm2

Minimum =0.12%has to be provided.

Provide 20 @200c/c in centre band and 20 @300c/c at other parts along the
shorter direction.

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1. Shear check

Along width direction:-

For strip1/4:

=76.35t

= =0.185N/mm2< , OK.

For strip 2/3:

=159.14 t

= =0.208N/mm2< , OK.

Hence no shear reinforcement is required.

Development Length

= =1128.3mm
At the ends, length of bar provided=150mm.
Extra length to be provided=1128.3-150-8x20=818.3mm.
Provide a Development length of 850mm

3. Transfer of load at the base of the column:-

For end column;

=2650X2725=7.22125x106mm2
=300x450=135000mm2

7.31 But not greater than 2.0

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= =13.5N/mm2

= =4.07N/mm2< .OK.

For 150t columns

= =7.41N/mm2< .OK.

For 115t columns

2, = =8.52N/mm2< .OK.

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UNIT IV PILES 9

4.1.DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR PILES The detailed design

methodology of piles is described in the following sections. REQUIREMENT
FOR DEEP
FOUNDATIONS Generally for structures with load >10 , we go for deep
foundations. Deep foundations are used in the following cases: Huge vertical load
with respect to soil capacity. Very weak soil or problematic soil. Huge lateral
loads eg. Tower, chimneys. Scour depth criteria. For fills having very large
depth. Uplift situations (expansive zones) Urban areas for future large and huge
construction near the existing building. 4.2CLASSIFICATION OF PILES 1.
Based on material Timber piles Steel piles Concrete piles Composite piles (steel
+ concrete) 2. Based on method of installation Driven piles ----(i) precast (ii) cast-
in-situ. Bored piles. 3. Based on the degree of disturbance Large displacement
piles (occurs for driven piles) Small displacement piles (occurs for bored piles)
4.3.POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR CHOOSING PILES Loose cohesion
less soil develops much greater shaft bearing capacities if driven large
displacement piles are used. Displacement effect enhanced by tapered shafts.
Potential increased of shaft capacities is undesirable if negative friction is to be
feared. (Negative friction is also called drag down force) High displacement piles
are undesirable in stiff cohesive soils, otherwise excessive heaving takes place.
Encountered with high artesian pressures on cased piles should be excluded.
(Mainly for bridges and underwater construction) Driven piles are undesirable due
to noise, damage caused by vibration, ground heaving. Heavy structures with
large reactions require high capacity piles and small diameter cast-in-situ piles are
inadequate. 4.4PILE CLASSIFICATION Friction piles. End bearing piles.
Compaction piles.( Used for ground movement, not for load bearing ) Tension
piles/Anchored piles.(To resist upliftment) Butter piles (Inclined) --- +ve and –ve.

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Fig. 5.1 Direction of load is same as the direction of batter. (Rotation of pile)

Raymond piles. (Driven cast-in-situ piles, first tapered shell is driven and then
cast) Franki Piles (Driven cast-in-situ piles, first casing is driven upto 2m depth,
then cast a block within that casing and then drive the block. When it reaches the
particular depth, take out the casing and cast the piles.) Underreamed piles (bored
cast-in-situ piles, bulbs used, hence not possible to install in loose sand and very
soft clays.) PILES IN CLAY Zone of influence

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Fig.5.2 Driven piles in clay

The heaving effect can be felt upto (10 –15) D from the centerline of the pile. Due
to driving load, pressure is generated and as a result heaving occurs. Afterwards
with time, the heaved part gets consolidated and strength gradually increases as the
material regains shear strength within 3 – 6 months time after the installation of the
pile. This regain of strength is called thixotrophy.

On the first day some part of the pile will be driven and on the second day some
part of the pile may move up due to the gain of shear strength. This is known as the
wakening of the pile. By the driving force, the extra pore pressure generated is (5 –
7) times the of the soil. Bearing capacity of the pile is 9 . Hence due to this
property, maximum single length of the pile theoretically can be upto 25m but 10-
12m is cast at a time. Then by splicing technique the required hired length of the
pile is obtained. Special types of collars are used so that the splices become weak
points. Concrete below the grade M20 is never used.
Pile Diameter Maximum
length (m) à

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250 12
300 15
350 18
400 21
450 25

Fig.5.3 Generation of

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4.4.PILES IN SAND

Fig.5.4a Driven piles in loose sand

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Fig.5.4b Improvement in f due to pile driving

SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS

Assume 2V:1H dispersion for settlement of pile groups.

Fig.5.5 Settlement of pile groups

CODAL PROVISION SAFE LOAD ON PILES/PILE GROUPS ( Ref. IS:

2911 Part IV 1979 ) Single pile: 1. Safe load = Least of the following loads
obtained from routine tests on piles : 2/3 of the final load at which total settlement
is 12mm. 50% of the final load at which settlement is 10% of the pile dia.( for
uniform dia. piles) and 7.5% of bulb dia. (for Underreamed piles) 2/3 of the final
load at which net settlement is 6mm. Consider pile as column and find the total
compressive load depending on the grade of concrete and dimensions. Eg.
Consider a 300mm dia pile made of M20 concrete. .

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Therefore, ultimate load = .

Fig 5.40 Multiple Under Reamed Pile

Under reamed piles are bored cast-in-situ concrete piles having one or more
number of bulbs formed by enlarging the pile stem. These piles are best suited in
soils where considerable ground movements occur due to seasonal variations,
filled up grounds or in soft soil strata. Provision of under reamed bulbs has the
advantage of increasing the bearing and uplift capacities. It also provides better
anchorage at greater depths. These piles are efficiently used in machine
foundations, over bridges, electrical transmission tower foundation sand water
tanks. Indian Standard IS 2911 (Part III) - 1980 covers the design and construction
of under reamed piles having one or more bulbs. According to the code the
diameter of under reamed bulbs may vary from 2 to 3 times the stem diameter
depending upon the feasibility of construction and design requirements. The code
suggests a spacing of 1.25 to 1.5 times the bulb diameter for the bulbs. An angle of
45 0 with horizontal is recommended for all under reamed bulbs. This code also
gives Mathematical expressions for calculating the bearing and uplift capacities.

From the review of the studies pertaining to under reamed piles, it can be seen that
ultimate bearing capacity of piles increases considerably on provision of under-
reamed bulbs (Neumann and P&g, 1955, Subash Chandra and Kheppar, 1964,
Patnakar, 1970 etc.). Pile load capacity was found to vary with the number of bulbs
and with the spacing ratio S / or S/d adopted (where S = distance between the
piles, = diameter of under reamed bulbs and d = diameter of piles). Table
summarizes the various recommendations made for the selection of S / and S/d
for the optimum pile load capacity. It can be seen that some of these
recommendations differ from those given in IS 2911 (Part III), 1980.

Table: 5.6 of recommendations for S / and S/d for the optimum pile load
capacity

Recommendations of S/ & S/d values for under reamed piles

s.no. Reference No. of Bulbs Spacing

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1. Patnakar Pile capacity for one bulb For optimum capacity

(1970) increases25 percent, for two two bulbs
bulbs 600 percent, and for three S / = 6 or S/d = 15, far
bulbs700 percent over simple three
pile.
bulbs, S / = 5 or S/d =
12.
2 Agarwal - For optimum capacity
and Jain S / = 1.25 to 1.5
(1971)
3 Sonapal and - For optimum capacity
Thakkar S / = 2.5
(1977)
4 IS More than two bulbs are not S/ = 1.25 to 1.5
2911(Part advisable
III
1980)
5 Ray and - Maximum value of S /
Raymond = 1.24 to 1.5
(1983)

The choice of an under-reamed pile in unstable or water-bearing ground is

generally to be avoided. There is a danger of collapse of the under-ream, either
when personnel are down the hole, or during concreting.

Important Notes: On the basis of limited experimental studies conducted on

model under reamed piles in cohesion less soil the following conclusions are
drawn.

1. By providing under reamed bulbs the ultimate load capacities of piles increases
significantly. 2. The ultimate load bearing capacities of the under reamed piles
with angle of under reamed bulbs of 45 0 and zero are almost same. 3. Three or
more under reamed bulbs are advantageous only when the spacing ratio (S / ) is
two or less, and when (S / ) is greater than two, multi-under reamed piles do not
have specific advantages. 4. The ultimate load bearing capacities of piles are
maximum when the spacing between two under reamed bulb is 2.5 times the

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diameter of the under reamed bulb. It appears that the spacing between two under
reamed bulbs suggested in (1.25 to 1.5 times) IS 2911(1980) is not the optimum, 5.
The expression suggested in IS 2911(1980) can be used for predicting the ultimate
load carrying capacity of under reamed piles with spacing ratio (S / ) less than

UNIT V RETAINING WALLS 9

5.1.RETAINING WALL

Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth or water or other materials
such as coal, ore, etc; where conditions do not permit the mass to assume its
natural slope. The retaining material is usually termed as backfill. The main
function of retaining walls is to stabilize hillsides and control erosion. When
roadway construction is necessary over rugged terrain with steep slopes, retaining
walls can help to reduce the grades of roads and the land alongside the road. Some
road projects lack available land beside the travel way, requiring construction right
along the toe of a slope. In these cases extensive grading may not be possible and
retaining walls become necessary to allow for safe construction and acceptable
slope conditions for adjacent land uses. Where soils are unstable, slopes are quite
steep, or heavy runoff is present, retaining walls help to stem erosion. Excessive
runoff can undermine roadways and structures, and controlling sediment runoff is a
major environmental and water quality consideration in road and bridge projects.
In these situations, building retaining walls, rather than grading excessively,
reduces vegetation removal and reduces erosion caused by runoff. In turn, the
vegetation serves to stabilize the soil and filter out sediments and pollutants before
they enter the water source, thus improving water quality.

In this section you will learn the following

Gravity walls
Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

Flexible walls
Special type of retaining walls

Different Types of Retaining Structures On the basis of attaining stability, the

retaining structures are classified into following: 1. Gravity walls :

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Gravity walls are stabilized by their mass. They are constructed of dense, heavy
materials such as concrete and stone masonry and are usually reinforced. Some
gravity walls do use mortar, relying solely on their weight to stay in place, as in the
case of dry stone walls. They are economical for only small heights.

. Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

These walls generally are trapezoidal in section. This type of wall is constructed in
concrete and derives its stability from its weight. A small amount of reinforcement
is provided for reducing the mass of the concrete.This can be classified into two:

Cantilever retaining wall Counter fort retaining wall Cantilever retaining wall
Fig 6.3.Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

This is a reinforced concrete wall which utilises cantilever action to retain the
backfill. This type is suitable for retaining backfill to moderate heights(4m-7m). In
cross section most cantilevered walls look like “L”s or inverted “T”s. To ensure

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stability, they are built on solid foundations with the base tied to the vertical
portion of the wall with reinforcement rods. The base is then backfilled to
counteract forward pressure on the vertical portion of the wall. The cantilevered
base is reinforced and is designed to prevent uplifting at the heel of the base,
making the wall strong and stable. Local building codes, frost penetration levels
and soil qualities determine the foundation and structural requirements of taller
cantilevered walls. Reinforced concrete cantilevered walls sometimes have a
batter. They can be faced with stone, brick, or simulated veneers. Their front faces
can also be surfaced with a variety of textures. Reinforced Concrete Cantilevered
Walls are built using forms. When the use of forms is not desired, Reinforced
Concrete Block Cantilevered Walls are another option. Where foundation soils are
poor, Earth Tieback Retaining Walls are another choice. These walls are
counterbalanced not only by a large base but also by a series of horizontal bars or
strips extending out perpendicularly from the vertical surface into the slope. The
bars or strips, sometimes called “deadmen” are made of wood, metal, or synthetic
materials such as geotextiles. Once an earth tieback retaining wall is backfilled, the
weight and friction of the fill against the horizontal members anchors the structure.

5.3.Counterfort retaining wall

When the height of the cantilever retaining wall is more than about 7m, it is
economical to provide vertical bracing system known as counter forts. In this case,
both base slab and face of wall span horizontally between the counter forts.

Fig. 6.5 Counter fort retaining wall

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3. Flexible walls: there are two classes of flexible walls.

A.
Sheet pile walls and
B.
Diaphragm wall A. Sheet Pile Walls Sheet piles are generally made of steel or
timber. The use of timber piles is generally limited to temporary sdtructures in
which the depth of driving does not exceed 3m. for permanent structures and for
depth of driving greater than 3m, steel piles are most suitable. Moreover, steel iles
are relatively water tight and can be extracted if required and reused. However, the
cost of sheet steel piles is generally more than that of timber piles. Reinforced
cement concrete piles are generally used when these are to be jetted into fine sand
or driven in very soft soils, such as peat. For tougher soils , the concrete piles
generally break off. Based on its structural form and loading system, sheet pile
walls can be classified into 2 types:(i)Cantilever Sheet Piles and(ii)Anchored Sheet
Piles 1. Cantilever sheet pile walls:

Fig. 6.6.Cantilever sheet pile wall

Cantilever sheet piles are further divide into two types: Free cantilever sheet
pile It is a sheet pile subjected to a concentrated horizontal load at its top.
There is no back fill above the dredge level. The free cantilever sheet pile
derives its stability entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil below
the dredge level into which it is driven. Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall with
Backfill

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A cantilever sheet pile retains backfill at a higher level on one side. The stability is
entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil into which the sheet pile is
driven, like that of a free cantilever sheet pile.

2. Anchored sheet pile walls Anchored shet pile walls are held above the driven
depth by anchors provided ata suitable level. The anchors provided for the stability
of the sheet ile , in addition tomthe lateral passive resistance of the soil into which
the shet piles are driven. The anchored sheet piles are also of two types.

Fig. 6.7.Anchored sheet pile wall

Free earth support piles. An anchored pile is said to have free earth support
when the depth of embedment is small and the pile rotates at its bottom tip. Thus
there is a point of contraflexure in the pile. Fixed earth support piles. An
anchored sheet pile has fixed earth support when the depth of embedment is large.
The bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotations. There is a change in the
curvature of the pile, and hence, an inflection point occurs. Diaphragm Walls
Diaphragm walls are commonly used in congested areas for retention systems and
permanent foundation walls. They can be installed in close proximity to existing
structures, with minimal loss of support to existing foundations. In addition,
construction dewatering is not required, so there is no associated subsidence.
Diaphragm walls have also been used as deep groundwater barriers through and
under dams.

Diaphragm walls are constructed by the slurry trench technique which was
developed in Europe, and has been used in the United States since the l940's. The

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technique involves excavating a narrow trench that is kept full of an engineered

fluid or slurry. The slurry exerts hydraulic pressure against the trench walls and
acts as shoring to prevent collapse. Slurry trench excavations can be performed in
all types of soil, even below the ground water table. Cast in place; diaphragm walls
are usually excavated under bentonite slurry. The construction sequence usually
begins with the excavation of discontinuous primary panels. Stop-end pipes are
placed vertically in each end of the primary panels, to form joints for adjacent
secondary panels. Panels are usually 8 to 20 feet long, with widths varying from 2
to 5 feet. Once the excavation of a panel is complete, a steel reinforcement cage is
placed in the center of the panel. Concrete is then poured in one continuous
operation, through one or several tremie pipes that extend to the bottom of the
trench. The tremie pipes are extracted as the concrete raises in the trench, however
the discharge of the tremie pipe always remains embedded in the fresh concrete.
The slurry, which is displaced by the concrete, is saved and reused for subsequent
panel excavations. When the concrete sets, the end pipes are withdrawn. Similarly,
secondary panels are constructed between the primary panels, and the process
continues to create a continuous wall. The finished walls may cantilever or require
anchors or props for lateral support.

Fig. 6.8. Construction Stages of a Diaphragm Wall using Slurry Trench Technique.
4. Special type of retaining walls Gabion walls

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Gabion walls are constructed by stacking and tying wire cages filled with trap rock
or native stone on top of one another. They can have a continuous batter (gently
sloping) or be stepped back (terraced) with each successively higher course.

This is a good application where the retaining wall needs to allow high amounts of
water to pass through it, as in the case of riverbank stabilization. It is important to
use a filter fabric with the gabion to keep adjacent soil from flowing into or
through the cages along with the water. As relatively flexible structures, they are
useful in situations where movement might be anticipated. Vegetation can be re-
established around the gabions and can soften the visible edges allowing them to
blend into the surrounding landscape. For local roads, they are a preferred low-cost
retaining structure.

Fig. 6.9 (i) Gabion Wall

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Design Requirement for Gravity walls

Gravity Retaining walls are designed to resist earth pressure by their weight. They
are constructed of the mass, concrete, brick or stone masonry. Since these materials
can not resist appreciable tension, the design aims at preventing tension in the wall.
The wall must be safe against sliding and overturning. Also the maximum pressure
exerted on the foundation soil should exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

So before the actual design, the soil parameters that influence the earth pressure
and the bearing capacity of the soil must be evaluated. These include the unit
weight of the soil, the angle of the shearing resistance, the cohesion intercept and
the angle of wall friction. Knowing these parameters, the lateral earth pressure and
bearing capacity of the soil determined.

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Fig-6.12a
Fig-6.12b

Fig. 6.12a shows a typical trapezoidal section of a gravity retaining wall.

The forces acting on the wall per unit length are:

Active Earth pressure . The weight of the wall ( ) The Resultant soil
reaction R on the base. (or Resultant of weight & ).Strike the base at point D.
There is equal and opposite reaction R' at the base between the wall and the
foundation. Passive earth pressure acting on the lower portion of the face of the
wall, which usually small and usually neglected for design purposes. The full

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mobilization of passive earth pressure not occurs at the time of failure so we not
consider it. If we consider it then it shows resistance against instability. So if we
ignore it then we will be in safer side.

First decide which theory we want to apply for calculating the active earth
pressure. Normally we calculate earth pressure using Rankine's theory or
Coulomb's Earth pressure theory.

For using Rankine's theory, a vertical line AB is drawn through the heel point

( Fig 6.12-b ). It is assumed that the Rankine active condition exist along the
vertical line AB. While checking the stability, the weight of the soil ( ) above
the heel in the zone ABC should also be taken in to consideration, in addition to
the Earth pressure ( ) and weight of the wall ( ).

But Coulomb's theory gives directly the lateral pressure ( ) on the back face of
the wall, the forces to be considered only (Coulomb) and the Weight of the wall
( ). In this case, the weight of soil ( ) is need not be considered.

Once the forces acting on the wall have been determined, the Stability is checked
using the procedure discussed in the proceeding section. For convenience, the
section of the retaining wall is divided in to rectangles & triangles for the
computation of the Weight and the determination of the line of action of the
Weight.

For a safe design, the following requirement must be satisfied. No Sliding

Horizontal forces tend to slide the wall away from the fill. This tendency is resisted
by friction at the base.

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= Coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and soil (= tan ).

= Sum of the all vertical forces i.e. vertical component of inclined active
force.

A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding is recommended.

No Overturning

The wall must be safe against overturning about toe.

No Bearing Capacity Failure and No Tension

First calculate the line of action of the Resultant force ( e ) from centre of the base.

(No Tension will develop at the heel)

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The pressure at the toe of the wall must not exceed the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil. The pressure at the base is assumed to be linear. The max. Pressure at
the Toe & min at the Heel is given by:

should be less than the Safe bearing capacity( ) of the soil &
should not be Tensile in any case. Tension is not desirable. The tensile
strength of the soil is very small and tensile crack would develop. The effective
base area is reduced.

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2 Marks UNIT -1

1. What are the information obtained in general exploration?

 Preliminary selection of foundation type depth of water,
 Depth, extent and composition of soil strata
 Engineering properties required disturbed or partly disturbed
samples approximate values of strength and compressibility

2. Define significant depth?

Exploration depth, in general it should be carried out to a depth upto which increase
in the pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause shear failure, such depth is
known as significant depth. For footing, depth of exploration =1.5B

3. What are the types of soil samples?

 Disturbed soil sample
 Undisturbed soil sample

4. What is the difference between disturbed and undisturbed soil sample?

 Disturbed soil sample
 Natural structure of soils get partly or fully modified and destroyed
 Undisturbed soil sample
 Natural structure and properties remain preserved

5. What are the disadvantages of wash boring?

 It is a slow process in stiff soil
 It cannot be used effectively in hard soil, rocks ,etc.

6. What are design features that affect the sample disturbance?

Area ratio, inside clearance, outside clearance, inside wall friction, method of
applying force

7. What are the corrections to be applied to the standard penetration number?

 Overburden pressure
 Correction dilatancy correction

8. What are various methods of site exploration?

Open exacavation, borings, geophysical methods, sub-surface soundings

9. What are the methods of boring?

Auger borings, shell boring, wash boring, rotary boring, percussion boring.
10. Define area ratio?
Area ratio is defined as the ratio of maximum cross sectional area of the cutting
edge to the area of the soil sample
11. Define liquefaction of sand?
The mass failure occurs suddenly, and the whole mass appears flow laterally as if
it were a liquid such failure is referred to as liquefaction.

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12. How will you reduce the area ratio of a sampler?

By increasing the size of the soil sample.

13. What is meant by a non- representative sample? Name the laboratory tests that
could be conducted on this sample.
Soil sample consists of a mixture of soil from different soil strata is called
non- representative sample and the size of the soil grains and mineral constituents
have changed.
14. Write the uses of Bore log Report.
(i) Used to record the change of layer’s depth.
(ii) Used to record the water level.
(iii)Used to record the water quality in deeper levels.

15. Define detailed exploration.

Detailed exploration follows as a supplement to general exploration when
large engineering works, heavy loads, and complex and costly foundations are
involved. A detailed exploration is meant to furnish information about soil
properties such as shear strength, compressibility, density index, and
permeability.

16.What are the limitations of hand augers in soil exploration?

1. Hand augers are not suitable for sands and gravels above the water table.
2. The sample is distributed and suitable for identification purposes only.

17. What are the guidelines in terms of inside clearance and outside clearance
for obtaining undisturbed sample?
An undisturbed sample is that in which the natural structure and properties remain
preserved. The inside clearance should lie between 1 to 3 percent and the outside
clearance. The walls of the sampler should be smooth and should be kept properly oiled.

18. List the various methods of soil exploration techniques.

1. Pits and trenches
2. Boring a) augur boring b) wash or water boring c) rotary boring d) percussion
boring
3. Geophysical methods a) seismic refraction b) electrical resistivity
4. Standard penetration test
5. Static cone penetration test

19. Write short notes on Augur boring.

An augur is a type of tool which is used for understanding the characteristics of the
subsurface soil. Generally there are two types of augurs, a) Manually operated augur b)
Mechanically operated augur

20. Define standard penetration number.

The number of blows required to penetrate 300 mm of the split spoon
sampler beyond a seating drive of 150mm is known as penetration number (N).

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21. List the various corrections to be carried out in SPT test.

The two corrections are
a) Dilatancy correction ( Silty sand)
b) Over burden pressure correction ( Granular soil)
22. What are the uses of soil exploration?

a) To select type and depth of foundation for a given structure

b) To determine the bearing capacity of the soil of the selected foundation c)
To investigate the safety of the existing structure
d) To establish ground water level

23. What is soil exploration?

The process of collection subsoil sample by an appropriate method to a needed
depth and check those samples for knowing the properties is called soil exploration.

24. List the different types of samplers.

a) Standard split spoon sampler
b) Shelby and thin walled tube sampler
c) Denison sampler
d) Piston sampler
e) Scraper bucket sampler
25. List the various parameters affecting the sampling disturbance.
a) Area ratio
b) Inside clearance
c) Outside clearance
d) Inside wall friction
e) Position of non return wall
f) Recovery ratio
g) Methods of applying force

26. Write the advantages of SCPT over SPT.

a) There is no need of hammering action, just pushing into the ground. b)
No need of bore holes, it is carried out on the ground
c) Engineering properties of the soil like permeability, Shear
strength,
Compressibility can be evaluated.

27. Write short notes on spacing of bore holes.

The spacing of bore holes depends upon the variation of subsurface soil in
the horizontal direction. The factors influencing the spacing of bore holes are, a) Type of
soil
b) Fluctuation of water table
c) Load coming from structure
d) Importance of the structure.
e) Economical feasibility.

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UNIT -2
1. What are components of total foundation settlement?
Elastic settlement, consolidation settlement, secondary consolidation settlement

2. What are the types of shear failure?

General shear failure, local shear failure, punching shear failure

3. What are assumptions in Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory?

- the base of the footing is rough
- the load on footing is vertical and uniformly distributed
- the footing is continuous

4. List out the methods of computing elastic settlements?

based on the theory of elasticity, Pressure meter method, Janhu –Bjerram method,
Schmentmann’s method

5. What are the limitation of Terzaghi’s analysis?

- As the soil compresses, pi changes slight down ward movement of footing may
not develop fully the plastic zones
- Error due to assumption that the resultant passive pressure consists of three
components is small

6. Define ultimate bearing capacity?

Gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear is
called ultimate bearing capacity.

7. Define net ultimate bearing capacity ?

Net pressure increase in pressure at the base of the foundation that causes failure
in shear, is called as net ultimate bearing capacity

8. Define allowable bearing capacity?

It is the net loading intensity at which neither the soil fails in shear nor there is
excessive settlement detrimental to the structure

9. Write the expression for correction due to dilatancy submergence?

Ne = 15 + ( No-15 )

10.What are the requirements for a stable foundation?

-must be safe from failure
-must be properly located
-must not settle or deflect sufficiently to damage the structure or impair its
usefulness.

11. What are the factors which depends depth?

Type of soil, size of structure, magnitude of loads, environmental conditions, etc

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12 .Define net pressure intensity ?

It is the excess pressure, of the gross pressure after the construction of the structure
and the original overburden pressure.

13. What are the zones used in the Terzaghi’s bearing capacity analysis for dividing the
failure envelope of the soil.?
Elastic equilibrium zone, Radial Stress zone, plastic zone

14. Write the ultimate bearing capacity equation for the general shear failure of soil in
Terzaghi’s analysis for a strip footing.
qu = c Nc + γDNq + 0.5 γB Nγ

15. Define Shallow foundation.

If the depth of the foundation is less than its breadth, such foundation is known as
shallow foundation.

17. Write down the equation for estimating the elastic settlement based on the theory of
elasticity.?

18. When will the total settlement be completed in the case of cohesion-less soil?
Once the construction is over, the total settlement is assumed to be completed.

19. Define differential settlement

If any two points of the foundation base experiences different settlements then
such settlement is known as differential settlement.

20. What type of shear failure of soil is more likely to happen in the case of very dense
soil?
usually punching shear failure and local shear failure may also be possible.

21. Write the ultimate bearing capacity equation for the general shear failure of soil in
Terzaghi’s analysis for a square footing.
qu = 1.3 cNc + γD Nq + 0.4 γB Nγ

22. When will the Consolidation settlement get completed?

In the case of cohesion-less soil, the consolidation settlement gets completed once
the construction is over. But In the case of cohesive soil, the consolidation
settlement takes place for several years.

24. Define Deep foundation

If the depth of the foundation is equal to or greater than the breadth of the
foundation such foundation is called as deep foundation.

25. For which type of foundation, Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equation is applicable.
Why?
Shallow foundation only. Because the effect of the depth is not considered.

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UNIT –III

1. Under what circumstances, a strap footing is adopted?

When the distance between the two columns is so great, so that trapezoidal
footing is very narrow and so it is uneconomical. It transfers the heavy load of one
column to other column.

2. What is a mat foundation?

It is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and
supports all the walls and columns.

3. Where mat foundation is used?

It is used when the area of isolated footing is more than fifty percentage of whole
area or the soil bearing capacity is very poor.
4. Define spread footing?
It is a type of shallow foundation used to transmit the load of isolated column, or
that of wall to sub soil. The base of footing is enlarged and spread to provide
individual support for load.

5. What are types of foundation?

shallow foundation , deep foundation

6. What are the footings comes under shallow foundation?

spread footing or pad footings , strap footings, combined footings,
raft or mat foundation

7. What are the footings comes under deep foundation?

pile, caisons(well foundation)

8. Define floating foundation?

It is defined as a foundation in which the weight of the building is approximately
equal to the full weight of the soil including water excavated from the site of the
building.

9. What is mean by proportioning of footing?

Footings are proportional such that the applied load including the self weight of
the footing including soil .the action are not exceeding the safe bearing capacity
of the soil.

10. What are the assumptions made in combined footing?

- the footing is rigid and rests on a homogenous soil to give rise to linear stress
distribution on the bottom of the footing.
- the resultant of the soil pressure coincides with the resultant of the loads,
then it is assumed to be uniformly distributed.

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UNIT -IV

1. List out the type of pile based on material used?

timber pile, concrete pile, steel pile, composite pile

2. How is the selection of pile carried out?

The selection of the type, length and capacity is usually made from estimation
based on the soil condition and magnitude of the load.

3. What is mean by group settlement ratio?

The settlement of pile group is found to be many times that of a single pile. The
ratio of the settlement of the pile group to that of a single pile is known as the
group settlement ratio.

4. What are the factors consider while selecting the type of pile?
-the loads
-time available for completion of the job
-availability of equipment
-the ground water conditions
-the characteristics of the soil strata involved

5. What are the type of hammer?

drop hammer, diesel hammer, double acting hammer,
single acting hammer, vibratory hammer

6. What is pile driver?

Piles are commonly driven by means of a hammer supported by a crane or by a
special device known as a pile driver.

7. What are methods to determine the load carrying capacity of a pile?

- dynamic formulae
- static formula
- pile load test
- penetration tests
8. What are the two types of dynamic formulae?
- Engg. news formula
- Hiley’s formula
9. What is meant by single-under reamed pile?
The pile has only one bulb is known as single under reamed pile.
10. Write down the static formulae?
The static formulae are based on assumption that the ultimate bearing capacity
Qup of a pile is the sum of the ultimate skin friction Rf and total ultimate point or
and bearing resistance Rp.
Qup=Rf+Rp
Qup=Asrf+Ap.rp

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UNIT -V
1. Define conjugate stresses?
The stress acting on the conjugate planes is called conjugate stresses

2. How do you check the stability of retaining walls?

 The wall should be stable against sliding
 The wall should be stable against overturning
 The base of the wall should be stable against bearing capacity failure

3. Define angle of repose ?

Maximum natural slope at which the soil particles may rest due to their internal
friction, if left unsupported for sufficient length of time

4. Define theory of plasticity?

The theory on which the condition of the stress in a state of a plastic equilibrium is
called as theory of plasticity.

5. What are assumption in coulomb wedge theory?

- the backfill is dry, cohesionless, isotropic, homogenous,
- the slip surface is plane which passes through the head of the wall

6. How to prevent land sliding?

Sheet piles, retaining wall may be used to prevent the land sliding

7. Write down any two assumptions of Rankine’s theory?

- semi infinite soil
- cohesion-less backfill
- homogenous soil
- the top surface is a plane which may be inclined or horizontal.

8. Distinguish Coloumb’s wedge theory from Rankine’s theory?

Rankine considered a soil particle at plastic equilibrium but Coulomb considered
the whole soil mass.

16 Marks Unit 1
1. Explain any two methods of site exploration in detail?
The various methods of site exploration may be grouped as follows:
1. Open excavations. Trial pits are the cheapest method of exploration in shallow
deposits, since these can be used in all types of soils.
 Soils are inspected in the natural conditions and samples, disturbed and
undisturbed can be conveniently taken.
 The cost of open excavation increases rapidly with depth.
 They are generally considered suiable for shallow depths(say upto 3 m).
2. Borings. The following are the various boring methods commonly used:(i) Auger
boring.(ii) Auger and shell boring.(iii) Wash boring.(iv) Percussion boring.(v) Rotary
boring

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3. Sub-surface soundings. The sounding methods consist of measuring the resistance

of the soil with depth by means of penetrometer under static or dynamic loading. The
penetrorneter may consist of a sampling spoon, a cone or other shaped tool. The
resistance to penetration is empirically correlated with some of the engineering
properties of soil, such as density index, consistency, bearing capacity etc.
4. Geo-physical methods. Geo-physical methods are used when the depth of
exploration is very large, and also when the speed of investigation is of primary
importance. Geo-physical investigations involve the detecttion of significant
differences in the physical properties of geological formations.

2. Explain wash boring method of soil exploration?

The boring methods are used for exploration at greater depths where direct methods
fail. These provide both disturbed as well as undisturbed samples depending upon the
method of boring. In selecting the boring method for a particular job, consideration should
be made for the following:
The materials to be encountered and the relative efficiency of the various boring methods in
such materials. The available facility and accuracy with which changes in the soil and
ground water conditions can be determined. Possible disturbance of the material to be
sampled.

The different types of boring methods are:

1. Displacement boring.
2. Wash boring.
3. Auger boring.
4. Rotary drilling.
5. Percussion drilling.
6. Continuous sampling.

1. Displacement borings
 It is combined method of sampling & boring operation. Closed bottom sampler, slit
cup, or piston type is forced in to the ground up to the desired depth. Then the
sampler is detached from soil below it, by rotating the piston, & finally the piston is
released or withdrawn.
 The sampler is then again forced further down & sample is taken.
 After withdrawal of sampler & removal of sample from sampler, the sampler is
kept in closed condition & again used for another depth.
Features :
 Simple and economic method if excessive caving does not occur. Therefore not
suitable for loose sand.
 Major changes of soil character can be detected by means of penetration resistance.
 These are 25mm to 75mm holes.
 It requires fairly continuous sampling in stiff and dense soil, either to protect the
sampler from damage or to avoid objectionably heavy construction pit.
2. Wash boring:
 It is a popular method due to the use of limited equipments.

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 The advantage of this is the use of inexpensive and easily portable handling and
drilling equipments.
 Here first an open hole is formed on the ground so that the soil sampling or rock
drilling operation can be done below the hole.

3. Auger boring
 This method is fast and economical, using simple, light, flexible and inexpensive
instruments for large to small holes.
 It is very suitable for soft to stiff cohesive soils and also can be used to determine
ground water table.
 Soil removed by this is disturbed but it is better than wash boring, percussion or
rotary drilling. It is not suitable for very hard or cemented soils, very soft soils, as
then the flow into the hole can occur and also for fully saturated cohesionless soil.

4. Rotary drilling
 Rotary drilling method of boring is useful in case of highly resistant strata.
 It is related to finding out the rock strata and also to access the quality of rocks
from cracks, fissures and joints.
 It can conveniently be used in sands and silts also.
 Here, the bore holes are advanced in depth by rotary percussion method which is
similar to wash boring technique.
 A heavy string of the drill rod is used for choking action.
 The broken rock or soil fragments are removed by circulating water or drilling mud
pumped through the drill rods and bit up through the bore hole from which it is
collected in a settling tank for recirculation.
 If the depth is small and the soil stable, water alone can be used.
 However, drilling fluids are useful as they serve to stabilize the bore hole. Drilling

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CIVIL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

Fig.1.3 Rotary Drilling System

3. Explain about standard penetration test?

In-situ tests General The in situ tests in the field have the advantage of testing the soils in
their natural, undisturbed condition. Laboratory tests, on the other hand, make use of small
size samples obtained from boreholes through samplers and therefore the reliability of these
depends on the quality of the so called ‘undisturbed' samples. Further, obtaining
undisturbed samples from non-cohesive, granular soils is not easy, if not impossible.
Therefore, it is common practice to rely more on laboratory tests where cohesive soils are
concerned. Further, in such soils, the field tests being short duration tests, fail to yield
meaningful consolidation settlement data in any case. Where the subsoil strata are
essentially non-cohesive in character, the bias is most definitely towards field tests. The
data from field tests is used in empirical, but time-tested correlations to predict settlement
of foundations. The field tests commonly used in subsurface investigation are:

 Penetrometer test
 Pressuremeter test
 Vane shear test Plate load test
 Geophysical methods
Penetrometer Tests :

 Standard penetration test (SPT)

 Static cone penetration test (CPT)
 Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) Standard penetration test

The standard penetration test is carried out in a borehole, while the DCPT and SCPT are
carried out without a borehole. All the three tests measure the resistance of the soil strata to
penetration by a penetrometer. Useful empirical correlations between penetration resistance
and soil properties are available for use in foundation design.

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This is the most extensively used penetrometer test and employs a split-spoon sampler,
which consists of a driving shoe, a split-barrel of circular cross-section which is
longitudinally split into two parts and a coupling. IS: 2131-1981 gives the standard for
carrying out the test.

Procedure

 The borehole is advanced to the required depth and the bottom cleaned.
 The split-spoon sampler, attached to standard drill rods of required length is
lowered into the borehole and rested at the bottom
 . The split-spoon sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450mm by blows
of a drop hammer (monkey) of 65 kg falling vertically and freely from a height of
750 mm.
 The number of blows required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded while driving
the sampler.
 The number of blows required for the last 300 mm of penetration is added together
and recorded as the N value at that particular depth of the borehole.
 The number of blows required to effect the first 150mm of penetration, called the
seating drive, is disregarded.
 The split-spoon sampler is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods.
 The split-barrel is disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling.
 The soil sample collected inside the split barrel is carefully collected so as to
preserve the natural moisture content and transported to the laboratory for tests.
 Sometimes, a thin liner is inserted within the split-barrel so that at the end of the
SPT, the liner containing the soil sample is sealed with molten wax at both its ends
before it is taken away to the laboratory.
 The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a borehole.
 This can be increased to 1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large.
 Due to the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler
to a distance of 450 mm.
 In such a case, the N value can be recorded for the first 300 mm penetration. The
boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if
 50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration
 100 blows are required for 300m penetration
 10 successive blows produce no advance.
Precautions

 The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent
condition.
 The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe must be free
from wear and tear.
 The drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free,
frictionless and vertical. The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in
a borehole. This can be increased to 1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to
the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to a

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distance of 450 mm. In such a case, the N value can be recorded for the first 300
mm penetration. The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if
 50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration
 100 blows are required for 300m penetration
 10 successive blows produce no advance.

 The height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change from this will seriously
affect the N value.
 The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is carried out. If
this is not done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed soil and not in the
undisturbed soil. When a casing is used in borehole, it should be ensured that the
casing is driven just short of the level at which the SPT is to be carried out.
Otherwise, the test gets carried out in a soil plug enclosed at the bottom of the
casing.
 When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be ensured
that the water level in the borehole is always maintained slightly above the ground
water level.
 If the water level in the borehole is lower than the ground water level, ‘quick'
condition may develop in the soil and very low N values may be recorded.
 In spite of all these imperfections, SPT is still extensively used because the test is
simple and relatively economical.
 it is the only test that provides representative soil samples both for visual inspection
in the field and for natural moisture content and classification tests in the
laboratory.
 SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected before they are used
in empirical correlations and design charts. IS: 2131-1981 recommends that the
field value of N be corrected for two effects, namely, (a) effect of overburden
pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy. (a) Correction for overburden pressure
 Several investigators have found that the penetration resistance or the N value in a
granular soil is influenced by the overburden pressure.
 Of two granular soils possessing the same relative density but having different
confining pressures, the one with a higher confining pressure gives a higher N
value.
 Since the confining pressure (which is directly proportional to the overburden
pressure) increases with depth, the N values at shallow depths are underestimated
and the N values at larger depths are overestimated.
 To allow for this, N values recorded from field tests at different effective
overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.

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4. Explain any two important types of samplers

Types of Samplers

The samplers are classified as thick wall or thin wall samplers depending upon the
area ratio. Thick wall samplers are those having the area ratio greater than 10 percent.
Depending upon the mode of operation, samplers may be classified in the following
three common types : (i) open drive sampler (including split spoon samplers), (ii)
stationary piston sampler and (iii) rotary sampler.

The open drive sample

r is a tube open at its lower end. The sampler head is provided with vent +41s (valve)
to permit water and air to escape during driving. The check valve helps to retain
sample when the sampler is lifted up. The tube may be seamless or it may be split in
two parts; in the latter case it is known as split spoon sampler.

The stationary piston sampler consists of a Sample cylinder and the piston system.
During lowering of the sampler through the hole, the lower end of the sampler is kept
closed with the piston. When the desired sampling elevation is reached, ihe piston rod
is clamped, thereby keeping the piston stationary, and the sampler tube is advanced
down into the soil. The sampler is then Lifted up, with piston rod clamped in position.
The sampler is more suitable for sampling soft soils saturated sands.

Rotatory samplers are the core barrel type having an outer tube provided with cutting
teeth and a removable thin wall liner inside. It is used for firm to hard cohesive soils

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and cemented soils.

5. Explain with neat sketch auger boring method of soil exploration.

The following are the various boring methods commonly used:

(i) Auger boring.

(ii) Auger and shell boring.
(iii) Wash boring.
(iv) Percussion boring.
(v) Rotary boring.

(i) Auger boring

Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils aboye water table. They may either be
operated manually or mechanically. Hand augers are used upto a depth upto 6 m.
Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and they can also be used in
gravelly soils. Augers are of two types: (a) spiral auger and (b) post-hole auger.

FIG. 2.12 AUGER.

Samples recovered from the soil brought up by the augers are badly disturbed and are
useful for identification purposes only. Auger boring is fairly satisfactory br
explorations at shallow depths and for exploratory borrow pits.

(ii) Auger and shell boring

Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at Iower end can be used for
making deep borings. Hand operated rigs are used for depths upto 25 m and
mechanised rigs up to 50 m. Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very
stiff and hard clays, and shells or sand pumps for sandy soils. Small boulders, thin soft
strata or rock or cemented gravel can be broken by chisel bits attached to drill rods.
The hole usually requires a casing. Fig. 2.13 shows a typical sand pump.

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FIG. 2.13 SAND PUMP

(iii) Wash boring

Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils.
Boulders and rock cannot be penetrated by this method. The method consists of first
driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel or chopping bit
at the lower end is inserted. Water is forced under pressure through the dril rod which
is alternativety raised and dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping and
jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil. The cuttings are forced upto
the ground surface in the form of soil-water slurry through the annular space between
the drill rod and the casing. The change in soil stratification could be guessed from the
rate of progress and colour of wash water. The samples recovered from the wash water
are almost valueless for interpreting the correct geo-technical properties of soil.

(iv) Percussion boring

In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chiesel
or bit suspended by a cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring, if
not already present and the slurry of pulverised material is bailed out at intervals. The
method is suitable for advancing a hole in all types of solis, boulders and rock. The
formations, however, get disturbed by the impact.

(v) Rotary boring

Rotary boring or rotay drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both rocks
and soils. A . drill bit, fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable
chuck, and is always kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud,
usually a water solution of bentonite, with or without other admixtures, is continuously
forced down to the hollow dril rods. The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to
the surface. The method is also known as mud rotary drilling and the hole usually
requires no casing.

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Rotary core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-studded bits or a steel bit with
shots, are also used for rotary drilhng and simultaneously obtaining the rock cores or
samples. The method is them also known as core boring or core drilling. Water 15
circulated down drill rods during boring.

FIG. 2.14 WASH BORING.

6. Describe the salient features of a good sub-soil investigation report?

A borehole log should give details of the foreman driller’s log, the observations of the
supervising engineer and the results of any site tests. A typical borehole log is shown in
Fig. 3.6.

Trial pits, trenches and boreholes should be given reference numbers, located on plan,
their ground level noted and the date of excavation recorded. It is advisable to record
the following additional information:

(1) Type of rig, diameter and depth of bore or width of bucket.

(2) Diameter and depth of any casing used and why it was necessary.
(3) Depth of each change of strata and a full description of the strata. (Was the soil virgin
ground or fill?)
(4) Depths at which samples taken, type of sample and sample reference number.
(5) In situ test depth and reference number.
(6) The levels at which groundwater was first noted; the rate of rise of the water; its level
at start and end of
each day. (When more information on permeability, porewater pressure, and the like is

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required, then it is vitally important that the use of piezometers should be considered.)
(7) Depth and description of obstructions (i.e. boulders), services (drains) or cavities
encountered.
(8) Rate of boring or excavation (useful to contractors and piling sub-contractors as such
information gives some guidance in ease of excavation or pile driving).
(9) Name of supervising engineer.
(10) Date and weather conditions during investigation.

Fig. Example of a typical borehole log (BS 5930).

7.Explain various types of Samles. Also discuss various factors affecting quality of
samples?
Soil samples can be of two types:

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(i) Disturbed samples.

(ii) Undisturbed samples.

A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of soil gets partly or fully
modified and destroyed although with suitable precautions the natural water content may be
preserved. Such a soil sample should, however, be representative of the natural soil by
maintainlng the original proportion of the various particles intact. An undisturbed sample
is that in which the natural structure and properties remain preserved.

The sample disturbance depends upon the design of the samplers and the method of
sampling. To take undisturbed samples from bore holes properly designed sampling tools
are required. The sampling tube when forced into the ground should cause as little
remoulding and disturbance as possible. The design features of the sampler, that govern the
degree of disturbance are (i) cutting edge (ii) inside wall friction and (iii) non-return valve.

Fig. shows a typical cutting edge of a sampler, with the lower end of the sampler, with the
lower end of the sampler tube. The following terms are defined with respect to the
diameters marked in Fig.

Fig. LOWER END OF A SAMPLER.

 The area ratio should be as low as possibie. It should not be greater than 25 percent;
for soft sensitive soil, it should preferably not exceed to porcent.
 The inside clearance should lie between 1 to 3 percent and the outside clearance
should not be much greater than the inside clearance.
 The walls of the sampler should be smooth and should be kept properly oiled so that
wall friction is minimum.
 Lower value of inside clearance allows the elastic expansion of soil and reduces the
frictional drag.

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 The non-retum valve, invariably provided in samplers, should permit easy and quick
escape of water and air when driving the sampler.

UNIT -II

1. A Square footing of 1.2 m x1.2m rest at depth of 1m in saturated clay layer 4m

deep. The clay is normally consolidated having an unconfined compressive
strength of 40 kN/m2. The soil has a liquid limit 30%, = 17.8 kN/m3,
sat
W=28% and G = 2.68. Determine the load which the footing can carry safely
with a a factor of safety of 3 against shear. Also, determine the settlement if the
footing is loaded with this safe load. Use Terzahi’s analysis for bearing
capacity.
Ans: Since ∅= 0, Nc = 5.7, Nq= 1and N = 0
Also, = = 17.8
C= q /2 =40/2= 20 kN/m2
u
qs = qnf + sat D
F

(or) 1
qs = [ 1.3 cNc + (Nq-1) +0.04 B . N ]+ sat D
F

(or) 1
qs = [ 1.3 x 20 x 5.7 + 17.8(1-1) + 0] + 17.8
3
=49.4 + 17.8 = 67.2 kN/m2
∴ Qs = qs x B2 =67.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 =96.77 kN.

Thickness of clay layer = 4 m. Depth of centre of clay layer, below footing

Level =4/2 – 1 =1 m. Assuming load dispersion at 45° width of load spread = 1.2 +
2(1) = 3.2 m.

∴ Vertical stress increment due to foundation load

=∆ = 96.77 = 9.45 kN / m2.
3.2 x 3.2

Now, the consolidation settlement of footing is given by,

Cc 0+∆
Sc = C H log10
1 + e0 0

Assume C = 1

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e0 = w sat G = 0.28 x 2.68 = 0.75

Cc = 0.009(wL - 10) = 0.009(30 -10) = 0.18

Initial over burden pressure at the centre of clay layer

= 0 = sat Z = 17.8 x 2 = 35.6 kN / m2

0.18 35.6 + 9.45

∴ c = x 4 log10
1+ 0.75 35.6

= 0.042 m = 42 mm.

2. The results of two plate load tests for a settlement of 25.4mm are given.
Plate diameter Load
0.3 m 31 kN
0.6 m 65 kN

A square column foundation is to be designed to carry a load of 800 kN with an

allowable settlement of 25.4 mm. Determine the size of the foundation using
Housel’s method.

Ans: Given data:

Q1 = 31 kN d1 = 0.3 m

Q2 = 65 kN d2 = 0.6 m

Q = 800 kN , 25.4 mm.

To find:

Size of the foundation using Housel’s method.

Solution:

Q1 = A1m + P1n …..(1)

Q2 = A2m + P2n .….(2)

Q = Am + Pn .….(3)

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d2 1 x 0.32
A1= = = 70.685 x 10-3 m2
4 4
d2 2 x 0.82
A2= = = 282.74 x 10-3 m2
4 4
P1 = x d1 = x 0.3 = 0.942 m

P2 = x d2= x 0.6 = 1.884 m

31 = 70.685 x 10-3 m + 0.992 n …..(A)

65 = 282.74 x 10-3 m + 1.884 n .…..(B)

Solving equation A and B,

M = 21.22, n = 31.3,

Q = Am + Pn

800 x B2 x 21.22 + (31.31 x 48)

B = 3.86 m say 4m x 4m
∴ Size of the foundation 4m x 4m.

3. A square footing for a column is 2.5 m x 2.5 m and carries a load of 2000
kN. Find the factor of safety against bearing capacity failure, if the soil has
the following properties.

C = 50 kN/m2, ∅ =15° ,γ = 17.6 kN/m3

Nc1= 12.5, Nq1= 4.5, Nr1=2.5. The foundation is taken to a depth of 1.5 m.

Data
Size of column = 2.5 m x 2.5 m
Load = 2000 kN
C= 50 kN/ m2
∅ =15°
γ = 17.6 kN/m3
Nc’ = 12.5, Nq’ = 4.5, Nγ’ = 2.5

D = 1.5 m

Solution
qnf =2/3 cNc’Sc + γ D (Nq’-1) Sq+ 0.5 BNγ’Sγ

for square footing

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S c = 1.3
Sγ=0.8
Sq =1.0

qnf = 2/3x 50x12.5x1.3+17.6x1.5(4.5-1)x1+0.5x17.6x2.5x2.5x0.8

= 541.67+92.4+44
qnf = 678.07
Actual load intensity qa =Load = 2000
Area 2.5x2.5

qa = 320 kN/m2
We know that qa = qs
∴ qs =qnf + γ D
F
320-17.6x1.5=678.07
F
∴ F = 2.31

4. Determine the probable settltement of a strip footing 1m wide transmitting a

pressure intensity of 100 kN/m2 at a depth of 1.5m below sand. If the plate load
test shows a settlement of 5mm against100 kN/m2. The sizeof the plate is 30cm
x 30cm.
Data
BF =1m BP =0.3m
qF= 100kN/m2 qp =100kN/m2
-3
d= 1.5m p =5mm or 5x10 m

2
Sol
p = F Bp (BF + 0.3)

Bf ( Bp+0.3)
2
-3
5x10 = F 0.3(1+0.3)

1(0.3+0.3)

5x10-3 = 0.42 F

F=0.012m

∴ Settlement of footing =12mm

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UNIT -V
1. A vertical excavation was made in a clay deposit having weight of 20 kN/m 3. It caved
in after the depth of digging reached 4m. Taking the angle of internal friction to be
zero, calculate the value of cohesion. If the same clay is used as a backfill against a
retaining wall, up to a height of 8 m, calculate
(i) Total active earth pressure,
(ii) Total passive earth pressure. Assume that the wall yields for enough to allow
Rankine deformation conditions to establish.
Ans: The critical height Hc of an unsupported vertical cut in cohesive soil is given by
Equation:
4c
Hc = tan ∝

45° + ∅
As ∅ = 0, tan ∝ = tan =1
2
Hc γ 4 x 20
c= = = 20 kN / m2 …..(1)
4 4
(i) Total active earth pressure is given by Equation
1
Pa = γ H2 cot2 - 2cH cot
2
1
= x 20 x (8)2 x 1 – (2 x 20 x 8) x 1
2
= 640 – 320 = 320 kN/m.
(ii) Total passive earth pressure is given by Equation
1
Pp= γ H2 tan2 + 2cH tan
2

1
= x 20 x (8)2 x 1 + (2 x 20 x 8) x 1
2
= 640 + 320 = 960 kN/m.

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UNIT II
1. Explain the various types of footing

The soil beneath structures responsible for carrying the loads is the FOUNDATION.
The general misconception is that the structural element which transmits the load to
the soil (such as a footing) is the foundation. The figure below clarifies this point.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Foundations can be can be categorized into basically two types: Shallow and Deep.
Shallow Foundations:
These types of foundations are so called because they are placed at a shallow
depth (relative to their dimensions) beneath the soil surface. Their depth may
range from the top soil surface to about 3 times their breadth (about 6 meters).
They include footings (spread and combined), and soil retaining structures
(retaining walls, sheet piles, excavations and reinforced earth). There are several
others of course.

Deep Foundations:
The most common of these types of foundations are piles. They are called deep
because the are embedded very deep (relative to their dimensions) into the soil.
Their depths may run over several 10s of meters. They are usually used when
the top soil layer have low bearing capacity.

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
To perform satisfactorily, foundations must carry the loads (and moments) and have
two main characteristics:

1. Be safe against overall shear failure (Bearing Capacity Failure).

2. Not undergo excessive displacement (Settlement).

These conditions will insure that the foundation i.e. the soil is safe and can carry the
loads without major problems. Therefore, when designing foundations, these two
characteristic must be satisfied.

In addition to satisfying the conditions for the foundation, the structural members
(concrete, steel and/or wood) must be able to transfer the load to the soil without
failing. In the case of concrete, two basic conditions must be satisfied:

1. No shear failure: This is satisfied by providing an adequate thickness of

concrete.
2. No tension failure: This is satisfied by providing adequate steel reinforcement.

This course covers the analysis and design (geotechnical and concrete design) of
the basic and most commonly used types of foundations including both shallow and
deep foundations.

(c) (d)

Fig. 1 Spread Footings: (a) Square, (b) Rectangular, (c) Wall (Strip) and (d) Circular

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BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

2. Explain the bearing capacity of soil.

Definitions

Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement.

Foundation soil is that portion of ground which is subjected to additional

stresses when foundation and superstructure are constructed on the ground. The
following are a few important terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf) : It is the maximum pressure that a

foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.

Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra pressure (in
addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand
without undergoing shear failure. qn = qf - qo

Fig. 7.1 : Main components of a structure including soil

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and is equal to
D for level ground without surcharge where is the unit weight of soil and D
is the depth to foundation bottom from Ground Level.

7.1.3 Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) : It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is
subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure.

Here. F represents the factor of safety.

7.1.4 Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the

foundation soil is subjected to considering both shear failure and settlement.
qn
qs = + qo
F
7.1.5 Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil.
Foundation transfers the forces and moments from the super structure to the soil
below such that the stresses in soil are within permissible limits and it provides
stability against sliding and overturning to the super structure. It is a transition
between the super structure and foundation soil. The job of a geotechnical
engineer is to ensure that both foundation and soil below are safe against failure

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and do not experience excessive settlement. Footing and foundation are

synonymous.

3. Explain the various Modes of shear failure.

Depending on the stiffness of foundation soil and depth of foundation, the

following are the modes of shear failure experienced by the foundation soil.
1. General shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1a)
2. Local shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1b)
3. Punching shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1c)

Shear failure in foundation soil P– curve in different foundation soils

Fig. 7. 1 : Footing on ground that experiences a) General shear failure, b) Local shear
failure and c) Punching shear failure

General Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in dense and stiff soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
1. Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops between the
edge of footing and ground surface.
2. Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.
3. Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.

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4. Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.

5. Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in P – curve.
6. The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
7. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and
spreads gradually downwards and outwards.
8. General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (<5%) in a soil with
considerable ( >36o) and large N (N > 30) having high relative density
(ID > 70%).

Local Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in relatively loose and soft soil. The following are
some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development
of plastic equilibrium is observed.
2. Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.
3. Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging of soil
around the footing is observed.
4. Failure surface is not well defined.
5. Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.
6. Well defined peak is absent in P – curve.
7. Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (> 10 to 20%) in a soil
with considerably low ( <28o) and low N (N < 5) having low relative
density (ID > 20%).

Punching Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper elevations. The
following are some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
2. Failure pattern is not observed.

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4 .Distinction between General Shear & Local or Punching Shear

Failures
The basic distinctions between general shear failure and punching shear failure
are presented in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 : Distinction between General Shear & Local Shear Failures
General Shear Failure Local/Punching Shear Failure
Occurs in dense/stiff soil Occurs in loose/soft soil
>36o, N>30, ID>70%, Cu>100 kPa <28o, N<5, ID<20%, Cu<50 kPa
Results in small strain (<5%) Results in large strain (>20%)
Failure pattern well defined & clear Failure pattern not well defined
Well defined peak in P- curve No peak in P- curve
Bulging formed in the neighbourhood of No Bulging observed in the
footing at the surface neighbourhood of footing
Extent of horizontal spread of Extent of horizontal spread of
disturbance at the surface large disturbance at the surface very small
Observed in shallow foundations Observed in deep foundations
Failure is sudden & catastrophic Failure is gradual
Less settlement, but tilting failure Considerable settlement of footing
observed observed

5. Explain Terzaghi’s bearing Capacity Theory

Terzaghi (1943) was the first to propose a comprehensive theory for evaluating
the safe bearing capacity of shallow foundation with rough base.

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Assumptions
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.
2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.
3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a two
dimensional plane strain problem.
4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to to the
horizontal.
5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing. Shear
resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected.
6. Method of superposition is valid.
7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by cohesion, PPq
produced by surcharge and PP produced by weight of shear zone).
8. Effect of water table is neglected.
9. Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.
10. Footing and ground are horizontal.
11. Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points. Complete shear
failure is mobilized at all points at the same time.
12. The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure

Limitations
1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations
2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully
plastic zone may not develop at the assumed .
3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is
near failure zone.

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Fig. 7.3 : Terzaghi’s concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in
foundation soil

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Concept
A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil underneath
due to the vertical load from superstructure. Let qf be the final load at which the
foundation soil experiences failure due to the mobilization of plastic equilibrium.
The foundation soil fails along the composite failure surface and the region is
divided in to five zones, Zone 1 which is elastic, two numbers of Zone 2 which
are the zones of radial shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the zones of
linear shear. Considering horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating
empirical relation, the equation for ultimate bearing capacity is obtained as
follows.
Ultimate bearing capacity, q f = cN c + γDN q + 0.5γBN γ
If the ground is subjected to additional surcharge load q, then
q f = cN c + (γD + q ) N q + 0.5γBN γ

Net ultimate bearing capacity, q n = cN c + γDN q + 0.5γBN γ − γD

q n = cN c + γD( N q − 1) + 0.5γBN γ

Safe bearing capacity, qs = [cN c + γD( N q − 1) + 0.5γBNγ ] + γD

1
F
Here, F = Factor of safety (usually 3)
c = cohesion
= unit weight of soil
D = Depth of foundation
q = Surcharge at the ground level
B = Width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing Capacity factors

Table 7.2 : Bearing capacity factors for different

Nc Nq Ng N'c N'q N'g
0 5.7 1.0 0.0 5.7 1.0 0.0

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6. Explain theEffect of shape of Foundation

The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and other
contributors have suggested the correction to the bearing capacity equation for
shapes other than strip footing based on their experimental findings. The
following are the corrections for circular, square and rectangular footings.

7.4.1 Circular footing

q f = 1.3cN c + γDN q + 0.3γBN γ

7.4.2 Square footing

q f = 1.3cN c + γDN q + 0.4γBN γ

7.4.3 Rectangular footing

B B
q f = (1 + 0.3 )cN c + γDN q + (1 − 0.2 )0.5γBN γ
L L
7.4.4 Summary of Shape factors
Table 7.2 gives the summary of shape factors suggested for strip, square,
circular and rectangular footings. B and L represent the width and length
respectively of rectangular footing such that B < L.

Table 7.3 : Shape factors for different shapes of footing

Shape sc sq s
Strip 1 1 1
Square 1.3 1 0.8
Round 1.3 1 0.6
B B
Rectangle (1 + 0.3 ) 1 (1 − 0.2 )
L L

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7.5 Local shear failure
The equation for bearing capacity explained above is applicable for soil
experiencing general shear failure. If a soil is relatively loose and soft, it fails in
local shear failure. Such a failure is accounted in bearing capacity equation by
reducing the magnitudes of strength parameters c and as follows.
2
tan φ 1 = tan φ
3
2
c1 = c
3
Table 7.3 summarizes the bearing capacity factors to be used under different
situations. If is less than 36o and more than 28o, it is not sure whether the
failure is of general or local shear type. In such situations, linear interpolation
can be made and the region is called mixed zone.

Table 7.4 : Bearing capacity factors in zones of local, mixed and general shear
conditions.
Local Shear Failure Mixed Zone General Shear Failure
< 28o 28o < < 36o > 36o
Nc1, Nq1, N 1 Ncm, Nqm, N m Nc, Nq, N

7.Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are some
important ones.
1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load
4. Depth of foundation
5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing
8. Depth of water table

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Major disadvantages of field tests are

• Labourious
• Time consuming
• Heavy equipment to be carried to field
• Short duration behavior

Plate Load Test

Sand Bags
Platform for
loading
Dial Gauge

Testing Plate
Foundation Level

Foundation
Soil

Fig. 7.8 : typical set up for Plate Load test assembly

1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement

characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level.
3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size,
25 mm thick acts as model footing.
4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on
plate on plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection.
5. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For
smaller loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the
load.

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6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A

hydraulic jack applies the reaction load.
7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings
are recorded after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002
mm) & average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded.
8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the
horizontal scale and settlement ( ) is plotted on the vertical scale.
9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the
local or punching shear failure.
10. The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil.
Reference can be made to IS 1888 - 1982.
The advantages of Plate Load Test are
1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both
shear failure and settlement.
2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.
3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are
identical to the actual conditions in the field.
4. It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P – behaviour of ground.

The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are

1. The test results reflect the behaviour of soil below the plate (for a
distance of ~2Bp), not that of actual footing which is generally very large.
2. It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect the long
term consolidation settlement of clayey soil.
3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect is
essential in such soils.
4. It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load and
carry out testing for several days in the tough field environment.

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7.12 Problems & Solutions
1. A square footing is to be constructed on a deep deposit of sand at a depth of
0.9 m to carry a design load of 300 kN with a factor of safety of 2.5. The
ground water table may rise to the ground level during rainy season. Design
the plan dimension of footing given sat = 20.8 kN/m3, Nc = 25, Nq = 34 and
N =32. (Feb 2002)
Data
C=0
F = 2.5
D = 0.9 m
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 20.8 kN/m3
Nc = 25
Nq = 34
N = 32

qs =
P P
[ ]
= 2 = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) RW 1 + 0.4γBN γ RW 2
A B
1
F
+ γD

∴ 300 = 142.272 B 2 + 53.249 B 3

B = 1.21 m
2. What will be the net ultimate bearing capacity of sand having = 36o and d

= 19 kN/m3 for (i) 1.5 m strip foundation and (ii) 1.5 m X 1.5 m square
footing. The footings are placed at a depth of 1.5 m below ground level.
Assume F = 2.5. Use Terzaghi’ s equations. (Aug 2003)
Nc Nq N
35o 57.8 41.4 42.4
40o 95.7 81.3 100.4

By linear interpolation Nc = 65.38, Nq = 49.38, N = 54 at = 36o

Data
B = 1.5 m
D = 1.5 m
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Strip Footing
q n = cN c + γD( N q − 1) + 0.5γBN γ

qn = 2148.33 kPa
Square Footing
q n = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) + 0.4γBN γ

qn = 1994.43 kPa

3. A square footing 2.5 m X 2.5 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of

density 19 kN/m3 having an angle of shearing resistance of 36o. The depth of
foundation is 1.5 m below the ground surface. Calculate the safe load that
can be applied on the footing with a factor of safety of 3. Take bearing
capacity factors as Nc= 27, Nq = 30, N = 35. (Feb 2004)
Data
C=0
F=3
B = 2.5 m
D = 1.5 m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 27
Nq = 30
N = 35

qs =
P P
[ ]
= 2 = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) RW 1 + 0.4γBN γ RW 2
A B
1
F
+ γD

Safe load, P = qs*B*B = 3285.4 kN

4. A strip footing 2 m wide carries a load intensity of 400 kPa at a depth of 1.2
m in sand. The saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5 kN/m3 and unit weight
above water table is 16.8 kN/m3. If c = 0 and = 35o, determine the factor of
safety with respect to shear failure for the following locations of water table.
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level

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b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level

c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
d. Water table is at Ground Level.
Using Terzaghi’ s equation, take Nq = 41.4 and N = 42.4. (Feb 2005)
Data
C=0
= 35o
B=2m
D = 1.2 m
b = 19.5 kN/m3 (bottom)
t = 16.8 kN/m3 (top)
Nc = 0
Nq = 41.4
N = 42.4
Safe load intensity = 400 kPa

[
q s = 400 = cN c + γD ( N q − 1) RW 1 + 0.5γBN γ RW 2 ] F1 + γD
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 1
= 16.8 kN/m3
F = 4.02
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
RW1 = 1, RW2 = 0.5
1
400 = [16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 + 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5] + 16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.227
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
RW2 = 0.5(1+1.3/2) = 0.825
16.8 X 1.3 + 19.5 X 0.7 3
γ eff = = 17.745 kN/m
2

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1
400 = [16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 + 0.5 X 17.745 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.825] + 16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.779
d. Water table is at Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 19.5 kN/m3
1
400 = [19.5 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 0.5 + 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5] + 19.5 X 1.2
F
F = 2.353

5. A square footing located at a depth of 1.3 m below ground has to carry a safe
load of 800 kN. Find the size of footing if the desired factor of safety is 3.
Use Terzaghi’ s analysis for general shear failure. Take c = 8 kPa, Nc = 37.2,
Nq = 22.5, N = 19.7. (Aug 2005)
d = 18 kN/m3 (Assumed)
c = 8 kPa
F=3
D = 1.3 m
Nc = 37.2
Nq = 22.5
N = 19.7
P = 800 kN
RW1 = RW2 = 1

qs =
P P
[ ]
= 2 = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) RW 1 + 0.4γBN γ RW 2
A B
1
F
+ γD

47.28 B 3 + 320.06 B 2 − 800 = 0

B = 1.436 m
6. A square footing 2.8 m X 2.8 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of
density 18 kN/m3 and = 36o. If the depth of foundation is 1.8 m, determine

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the safe load that can be applied on the footing. Take F = 2.5, Nc = 27, Nq =
36, N = 35. (Feb 2007)
Data
d = 18 kN/m3
c = 0 (sand)
F = 2.5
B = 2.8 m
D = 1.8 m
Nc = 27
Nq = 36
N = 35
P=?
RW1 = RW2 = 1

qs =
P P
[ ]
= 2 = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) RW 1 + 0.4γBN γ RW 2
A B
1
F
+ γD

P = qs*B*B = 6023 kN
7. A strip footing 1 m wide and a square footing 1 m side are placed at a depth
of 1 m below the ground surface. The foundation soil has cohesion of 10 kPa,
angle of friction of 26o and unit weight of 18 kN/m3. Taking bearing capacity
factor from the following table, calculate the safe bearing capacity using
Terzaghi’ s theory. Use factor of safety of 3. (July 2008)
Nc Nq N
15o 12.9 4.4 2.5
20o 17.7 7.0 5.0
25o 25.1 12.7 9.7

As = 28o, the ground experiences local shear failure

C’ = (2/3)X10 = 6.67 kPa
tan ’ = (2/3) X tan

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’ = 18.01o
By linear interpolation, Nc’ =15.79, Nq’ =5.97, N ’ =4.01
B=1m
D=1m
= 18 kN/m3
Strip footing

[
q s = cN c + γD ( N q − 1) + 0.5γBN γ ] F1 + γD =94.96 kPa
Square footing

[
q s = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) + 0.4γBN γ ] F1 + γD =103.08 kPa
8. A square footing placed at a depth of 1 m is required to carry a load of 1000
kN. Find the required size of footing given the following data. C = 10 kPa,
= 38o, = 19 kN/m3, Nc = 61.35, Nq = 48.93, N = 74.03 and F = 3. Assume
water table is at the base of footing. (July 2007)
Data
C = 10 kPa
= 38o
B=?
D=1m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 61.35
Nq = 48.93
N = 74.03
F=3
RW1 = 1
RW2 = 0.5

qs =
P P
[
= 2 = 1.3cN c + γD ( N q − 1) RW 1 + 0.4γBN γ RW 2
A B
1
F
]
+ γD

B 3 + 6.14 B 2 − 3.56 = 0 B = 0.72 m

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1.Determine the elastic settlement of a footing 3 m X 3 m resting on sandy

soil given Es = 45000 kPa and = 0.3. Footing carries a load of 2000 kN.
Take
I = 0.82 (Feb 2002) 1− µ 2
SI = qBI ρ
q = 2000/32 =222.22 kPa E
B=3m
I = 0.82
E = 45000 k Pa
= 0.3

SI = 0.011 m = 11 mm

2.Estimate the immediate settlement of a concrete footing 1 m X 1.5 m in

size, if it is founded at a depth of 1 m in silty soil whose compression
modulus is 9000 kPa. Footing is expected to transmit unit pressure of 200
kPa. Assume I = 1.06, = 0.3
Data 1− µ2
E = 9000 kPa S I = qBI ρ
E
= 0.3
q = 200 kPa
B=1m
I = 1.06
SI = 0.214 m

3.A series of plate load tests was conducted on three plates 300 mm, 450
mm and 600 mm square plates. The loads and corresponding settlements
in the linear portions of P – curves are as follows at a site. Find the
immediate settlement of a footing 2 m X 2 m subjected to a load of 1000 kN.

Table 8.8 : Details of Load settlement for different plate sizes

Plate size (mm) Load (kN) Settlement (mm)

300 X 300 4.50 1.00

450 X 450 8.71 1.50
600 X 600 14.40 2.00

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Table 8.9 : Variation of qB with settlement for different plate sizes

B P q S qB
(m) (kN) (kPa) (m) (kN/m)
0.30 4.50 50.00 0.0010 15.00

0.45 8.71 43.01 0.0015 19.36

0.60 14.40 40.00 0.0020 24.00

1− µ 2
SI = qBI ρ
E
SI 1− µ 2
∴ = Iρ
qB E
1− µ 2
I ρ = 0.000111( kPa) −1
E

24

22

20
qB (kN/m)

18

16

14

12

10
0.001 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 0.002 0.0022
Settlement (m)

Fig. 8.3 : Variation of qB with settlement for different plate sizes

Data
B=2m
q = 1000/(2*2) = 250 kPa

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1− µ 2
SI = I ρ qB
E

SI = 0.0555 m

Problem 4

The following are the results of plate load test on granular soil. Find the allowable
bearing pressure if B = 2 m, Bp = 0.3 m, permissible settlement in field = 12 mm.

Table 8.10 : Values of Load Settlement from Plate Load Test

P (kN) 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
(mm) 0.14 0.31 0.63 0.91 1.24 2.50 8.07

Load (kN)
0 20 40 60 80
0

-1

-2
Settlement (mm)

-3

-4

-5

-6
Pf = 50 kN;
-7 qf = 555.6 kPa
-8

-9
Fig. 8.4 : Load – Settlement curve for Plate Load Test data

2
sp B p ( B f + 0.3)
=
sf B f ( B p + 0.3)
2
0.3(2 + 0.3)
=
2(0.3 + 0.3)
∴ s p = 1 mm

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Based on settlement
Permissible plate settlement ~ 1 mm
ABP = 32 kN/(0.3X0.3) = 355.6 kPa

Problem 5

The following results were obtained from a plate load test conducted on dry sandy
stratum using square plate of 0.3 m width. Determine the settlement of square footing 1.5
m wide when the intensity of loading is 120 kPa.

Table 8.11 : Values of Load Settlement from Plate Load Test

Pressure (kPa) 50 100 150 200 250

Settlement (mm) 1.2 2.4 4.8 9.6 32.0

Data

Sandy stratum
BF = 1.5 m
BP = 0.3 m
SP = 3.2 mm

Plate Load Test Result

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

0

-5

-10
Settlement (mm)

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35
Soil Pressure (kPa)
Fig. 8.5 : Load – Settlement curve for Plate Load Test data

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8.5 Consolidation Settlement

1. It occurs due to the process of consolidation.

2. Clay and Organic soil are most prone to consolidation settlement.
3. Consolidation is the process of reduction in volume due to expulsion
of water under an increased load.
4. It is a time related process occurring in saturated soil by draining
water from void.
5. It is often confused with Compaction.
6. Consolidation theory is required to predict both rate and magnitude of
settlement.
7. Since water flows out in any direction, the process is three
dimensional.
8. But, soil is confined laterally. Hence, vertical one dimensional
consolidation theory is acceptable.
9. Spring analogy explains consolidation settlement.
10.Permeability of soil influences consolidation.

2
SP B ( B + 0.3)
= P F
SF BF ( BP + 0.3)
2
3 .2 0.3(1.5 + 0.3)
=
SF 1.5(0.3 + 0.3)
S F = 8.89 mm

Table 8.12 : Compaction Vs Consolidation

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION
1. Man made 1. Natural
2. Volume reduction due to 2. Volume reduction due to
expulsion of air expulsion of water
3. Sudden (Short duration) 3. Gradual
4. Dry density increases water 4. Dry density increases water
content does not change content decreases
5. Applicable for unsaturated soils 5. Applicable for saturated soils

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Time factor is obtained from the formulae shown below. It depends on the
degree of consolidation.
π U
TV =
4 100
TV =1.7813 − 0.9332 log 10 (100 − U %)

Commonly time factor at 50 % and 90 % degrees of consolidation are used

and are as mentioned below.

(TV)50 = 0.197
(TV)90 = 0.848

Problem 6

The total time taken for 50 % consolidation of clay layer is 4 years. What
will be the time taken for 90 % consolidation ? (Aug 2001)
(TV )90 d 2 (TV )50 d 2
(TV)50 = 0.197 CV = =
t90 t50
(TV)90 = 0.848
0.848d 2 0.197 d 2
∴ =
t90 4
∴ t90 = 17.22 years

Problem 7

A layer of clay 8 m thick underlies a proposed new building. The existing

overburden pressure at the center of layer is 290 kPa and the load due to new
building increases the pressure by 100 kPa. Cc = 0.45, = 50 %, G = 2.71.
Estimate the consolidation settlement. (Aug 2002)
Data
Cc = 0.45
eo = 1.355
H=8m
o = 290 kPa
= 100 kPa

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Cc σ + ∆σ
Sc = H log10 o
1 + eo σo
eo = ωG = 1.355

45o (Dispersion angle)

H
H/2 B H/2

Fig. 8.9 : Concept of Load dispersion

Cc σ + ∆σ
Sc = H log10 o
1 + eo σo

= 0.1967 m

Problem 8

A normally consolidated clay layer is 18 m thick. Natural water content is

45 %, saturated unit weight is 18 kN/m3, grain specific gravity is 2.7 and
liquid limit is 63 %. The vertical stress increment at the center of clay layer
due to foundation load is 9 kPa. Ground water table is at the surface.
Determine the settlement. (Aug 2003)

Data

Cc = 0.477
eo = 1.215
H = 18 m
o = 162 kPa
= 9 kPa

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CC = 0.009(ω L − 10%) = 0.477

eo = ωG =1.215

18
σ o = γ sat Z = 18 * = 162 kPa
2
∆σ = 9 kPa

Cc σ + ∆σ
Sc = H log10 o
1 + eo σo

= 0.091 m

Problem 9

A square footing 1.2 m X 1.2 m rests on a saturated clay layer 4 m deep. L

= 30 %, sat = 17.8 kN/m3, = 28 % and G = 2.68. Determine the settlement
if the footing carries a load of 300 kN.
4
σ o = γ sat Z = 17.8 * = 35.6 kPa
2
300
∆σ = = 11.095 kPa
( 2 + 1 .2 + 2 ) 2

CC = 0.009(ω L − 10%) = 0.18

eo = ωG = 0.28 * 2.68 = 0.75041
H = 4m

Cc σ + ∆σ
Sc = H log10 o
1 + eo σo

= 0.0485 m

Problem 10

A test on undisturbed sample of clay showed 90 % consolidation in 10

minutes. The thickness of sample was 25 mm with drainage at both top and
bottom. Find the time required for 90 % consolidation of footing resting on 5

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m thick compressible layer sandwiched between two sand layers. (Aug

2007)

Data
Dlab = 25/2 = 12.5 mm
Dfield = 5000/2 = 2500 mm
tlab = 10/(60*24*365) years
2 2
tlab d lab tlab d lab
= =
t field d field t field d field
∴ t field = 0.761 years

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11.Determine the creep settlement in a sensitive clay of thickness 6 m given

C = 0.01 when the laboratory sample 20 mm thick with double
drainage experienced complete consolidation in 10 minutes. The life span of
structure is 100 years.

Fig. 8.12 : Details of oedometer test

Data
tsec = 100 yrs
H=6m
C = 0.01
2
tlab d lab
=
t field d field
2
6000
t field = 10
20 / 2
= 36 X 105 mnts
∴ t prim = t field = 6.85 yrs

tsec − t prim
S S = Cα H log10 = 0.068 m
t prim

Problem 12

A 2 m X 2 m footing carrying a load of 1600 kN rests on a normally

consolidated saturated clay layer 10 m thick below which hard rock exists.
The life span of the structure is 150 years. Time taken for the completion of
primary consolidation of 20 mm thick laboratory specimen with double
drainage facility is 20 minutes. Find the total settlement, if the soil properties
are as follows. Soil modulus 20 MPa, Poisson’ s ratio 0.45, Influence factor
0.9, Liquid Limit 50 %, Natural water content 25 %, Specific Gravity of

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grains 2.7, saturated density 20 kN/m3 and coefficient of secondary

compression 0.001.

Total Settlement, S = SI + SC + SS

Data for Immediate Settlement

E = 20000 kPa
= 0.45
q = 1600/22 = 400 kPa
B=2m
I = 0.9

1− µ 2
SI = qBI ρ
E

S I = 0.02871 m = 28.71 mm

Data for Consolidation Settlement

L = 50 %
= 25 %
G = 2.7
Cc = 0.36
eo = 0.675
H = 10 m
o = 100 kPa
= 11.11 kPa
CC = 0.009(ω L − 10%) = 0.36
ωG 0.25 * 2.7
eo = = = 0.675
S 1

H
σ o = γ sat = 100 kPa
2

P
∆σ = 2
= 11.11 kPa
H
2 +B
2
Cc σ + ∆σ
Sc = H log10 o
1 + eo σo

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Data for Secondary Settlement

tsec = 150 yrs
H = dfield = 10 m
C = 0.001
dlab = 10 mm
tlab = 20 mnts
2
tlab d lab
=
t field d field
∴ t prim = t field = 38.05 yrs

tsec − t prim
S S = Cα H log10
t prim
= 0.0047 m = 4.7 mm

Total Settlement, S = SI + SC + SS

= 28.71 + 98.30 + 4.70

=131.71 mm

8.7 Factors Influencing Settlement

Many factors influence the settlement of foundation soil when a structure is

built on it. The following are a few important factors to be considered in the
evaluation of settlement.
1. Elastic properties of soil
2. Shape of footing
3. Rigidity of footing
4. Contact pressure
5. Width of footing
6. Compressibility characteristics of soil
7. Initial conditions of soil (Density, void ratio etc.)
8. Degree of saturation
9. Over Consolidation Ratio
10.Time available for settlement
11.Thickness of soil layer

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𝑄𝑄
𝑞𝑞 = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝛾𝛾𝐷𝐷𝑓𝑓 [5.16]

Where

𝑄𝑄 = dead weight of the structure and the live load

𝐴𝐴 = area of the raft

In all cases, q should be less than or equal to 𝑞𝑞all (net ).

Example 1

Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity of a mat foundation measuring 45 ft × 30 ft

on saturated clay with 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 = 1950 lb/ft 2 , 𝜙𝜙 = 0, and 𝐷𝐷𝑓𝑓 = 6.5 ft.

Solution

From equation (10)

0.195𝐵𝐵 𝐷𝐷𝑓𝑓
𝑞𝑞net (u) = 5.14𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 �1 + � �� �1 + 0.4 �
𝐿𝐿 𝐵𝐵

0.195×30 0.4×6.5
= (5.14)(1950) �1 + � �� �1 + � ��
45 30

= 12,307 lb/ft 2

Example 2

What will the net allowable bearing capacity of a mat foundation with dimensions be of
45 ft × 30 ft constructed over a sand deposit? Here, 𝐷𝐷𝑓𝑓 = 6 ft, allowable settlement = 1
in., and corrected average penetration number 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 10.

Solution

From equation (13)

0.33𝐷𝐷𝑓𝑓
𝑞𝑞all (net ) = 0.25𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒 ≤ 0.33𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
𝐵𝐵

0.33(6)
𝑞𝑞all (net ) = 0.25(10) �1 + � (1) ≈ 2.67kip/ft 2
30

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF MATS

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UNIT III

1 Introduction
A foundation is a integral part of the structure which transfer the load of the superstructure to the soil. A
foundation is that member which provides support for the structure and it's loads. It includes the soil and
rock of earth's crust and any special part of structure that serves to transmit the load into the rock or soil.
The different types of the foundations are given in fig. 4.1
Different types of footings

Fig. 4.1 Different types of footings

If the soil conditions immediately below the structure are sufficiently strong and capable of supporting the
required load, then shallow spread footings can be used to transmit the load. On the other hand, if the soil
conditions are weak, then piles or piers are used to carry the loads into deeper, more suitable soil.

Design Considerations:
Must not settle excessively.
Must be placed at depth sufficient to prevent damage from surface environmental effects (frost, swelling and
shrinkage, erosion and scour).
Must not cause failure of supporting soil (Bearing Capacity criteria).

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Advantages of using shallow foundation YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING
Cost (affordable)
Construction Procedure (simple)
Materials (mostly concrete)
Labor (does not need expertise)

Disadvantages of using shallow foundation

Settlement

Irregular ground surface (slope, retaining wall)

Foundation subjected to pullout, torsion, moment.

Shallow foundations are foundations where the depth of the footing ( ) is generally less than the width (B)

of the footing. Deep foundations are foundations where the depth of the footing ( ) is greater than the
width (B) of the footing.

Footings :

1. Spread Footing:

It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread
the load over a larger area. When spread footing is provided to support an individual column, it is called
“Isolated footing” as shown in fig.4.2.

Fig. 4.2 Isolated (spread) footing

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2. Strap Footing:

It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a lever, as shown in fig. 4.3. The strap
connects the footing such that they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as a connecting beam. A strap
footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and
distance between the columns is large.

Fig. 4.3 Strap footing

3. Combined Footing:
It supports two columns as shown in fig. 4.4. It is used when the two columns are so close to each other that
their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close
to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line.
By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A combine footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Trapezoidal footing is provided when the load on one of the columns is
larger than the other column.

Fig. 4.4 Combined footing

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4. Strip/continuous footings
A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a load bearing wall. A strip footing can
also be provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly
touch each other. In such a cases, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number
of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as “continuous footing”. Refer fig. 4.5

Fig. 4.5 Strip footing

4. Mat or Raft footings:

It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under entire structure or a large part of the
structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so
close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other. Mat foundations are useful in reducing
the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils or where there is large variation in the loads on
individual columns. In this there are two types:

Fig. 4.6 Typical Raft Foundation

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UNIT IV

1.EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF PILES.

Piles are structural members that are made of steel, concrete, and/or timber. They are
used to build pile foundations, which are deep and which cost more than shallow
foundations (chapters 3 and 4). Despite the cost, the use of piles often is necessary to
ensure structural safety. The following list identifies some of the conditions that require
pile foundations (Vesic, 1977).

1. When the upper soil layer(s) is (are) highly compressible and too weak to support
the load transmitted by the superstructure, piles are used to transmit the load to
underlying bedrocks or a stronger soil layer, as shown in figure 8.1a. When
bedrock is not encountered at a reasonable depth below the ground surface, piles
are used to transmit the structural load to the soil gradually. The resistance to the
applied structural load is derived mainly from the frictional resistance developed
at the soil-pile interface (figure 8. 1b).

Figure 8.1 Conditions for use of pile foundations

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2. ESTIMATING PILE LENGTH

Selecting the type of pile to be used and estimating its necessary length are fairly difficult
tasks that require good judgment. In addition to the classification given in section 2, piles
can be divided into three major categories, depending on their lengths and the
mechanisms of load transfer to the soil: (a) point bearing piles, (b) friction piles, and (c)
compaction piles.

Point Bearing Piles

If soil-boring records establish the presence of bedrocks or rocklike material at a site

within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended to the rock surface. (Figure 8.6a). In
this case, the ultimate capacity of the piles depends entirely on the load bearing capacity
of the underlying material; thus the piles are called point bearing piles. In most of these
cases, the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.

Figure 8.6 (a) and (b) Point bearing piles; (c) friction piles

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UNIT V

1. Explain the Rankine's theory.

+24-50
+292,0 : +292-0

& ;

• "
• /
• (

• #

2. % ! & ! '
!
(
)
1
<2= <> ?@1 ?

A <2= < = B / <>= < = =, ? = C- @ D1

1
B/= ?@,
1
=B/ ?

= B/

= 6
1 1
= ?= +C- @ D10

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CE6502-FOUNDATION ENGINEERING YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING

E = +2D10+ B A 0+A 0

F )*

A <2 = < = <> = < = B / =, ? = C- @ D1

1
=B/ ?@,
1
=B/ ?

= B/

= 6
1 1
= ?= +C- @ D10

E = +2D10+ B A 0+A 0

F AD>

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CE6502-FOUNDATION ENGINEERING YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING

' ;
G

!! ( ! ! ( +

: :

!! ( ! + (

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CE6502-FOUNDATION ENGINEERING YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING

!
) "
6

( ! ( ! (

1
A 'I = +C-J@ ID10 % &

" %
& #
(
/

1K /

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CE6502-FOUNDATION ENGINEERING YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING
3. Explain Coulomb's wedge theory.

, -# . / $
6 ) 6 +25530 $
/

6 &
(
(

% &(

6 & %F &
A 6 /

( 6 &

E +24C,0 6 +24330 +24520 H

+244,0 6 &

6 & /

6 & ;

# "

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CE6502-FOUNDATION ENGINEERING YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING

• (
(
6
•

•
"
L
% &
• "
% &

• F
+
0

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#

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• $
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0

•
•

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CE6502-FOUNDATION ENGINEERING YEAR:III/SEM:V CIVIL ENGINEERING
4. TYPES OF RETAINING WALL.
Gravity retaining walls (figure 7.1a) are constructed with plain concrete or stone
masonry. They depend on their own weight and any soil resting on the masonry for
stability. This type of construction is not economical for high walls.

Figure 7.1 Types of retaining wall

In many cases, a small amount of steel may be used for the construction of gravity walls,
thereby minimizing the size of wall sections. Such walls are generally referred to as
semigravity walls (figure 7.1b).

Cantilever retaining walls (figure 7.1c) are made of reinforced concrete that consists of a
thin stem and a base slab. This type of wall is economical to a height of about 25 ft (8 m).

Counterfort retaining walls (figure 7.1d) are similar to cantilever walls. At regular
intervals, however, they have thin vertical concrete slabs known as counterforts that tie
the wall and the base slab together. The purpose of the counterforts is to reduce the shear
and the bending moments.

To design retaining walls properly, an engineer must know the basic soil parameters-that
is, the unit weight, angle of friction, and cohesion-for the soil retained behind the wall
and the soil below the base slab. Knowing the properties of the soil behind the wall
enables the engineer to determine the lateral pressure distribution that has to be designed
for.

There are two phases in the design of conventional retaining walls. First, with the lateral
earth pressure known, the structure as a whole is checked for stability. That includes
checking for possible overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failures.

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Second, each component of the structure is checked for adequate strength, and the steel
reinforcement of each component is determined.

This chapter presents the procedures for determining retaining wall stability. Checks for
adequate strength of each component of the structures can be found in any textbook on
reinforced concrete.

Mechanically stabilized retaining walls have their backfills stabilized by inclusion of

reinforcing elements such as metal strips, bars, welded wire mats, geotextiles, and
geogrids. These walls are relatively flexible and can sustain large horizontal and vertical
displacement without much damage.

In this chapter the gravity and cantilever retaining walls will be described first, followed
by mechanically stabilized walls with metal strips, geotextiles, and geogrids reinforced
backfills.

GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS

PROPORTIONING RETAINING WALLS

When designing retaining walls, an engineer must assume some of the dimensions, called
proportioning, which allows the engineer to check trial sections for stability. If the
stability checks yield undesirable results, the sections can be changed and rechecked.
Figure 7. 2 shows the general proportions of various retaining walls components that can
be used for initial checks.

Figure 7.2 Approximate dimensions for various components of retaining wall for initial
stability checks: (a) gravity wall; (b) cantilever wall [note: minimum dimension of
𝐷𝐷 is 2 ft (≈ 0.6 m)]

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Distance
From
h1 top Every alternate bar
curtailed
Ast/2 h2
h1c

Ldt
Ast
h2
Ast/2 Ast
Provided
Ast

Distribution steel: 0.12% Gross area for HYSD bars, 0.15% for Mild steel bars

Temperature steel: Provide this steel at the outer face which is same as the distribution steel.

Also provide suitable development lengths for all steel meeting at the junction. Provide
suitable construction keys, drainage facilities, tile drains and weep holes as shown in the
drawing. Sketch the drawings and detail as per the requirements.

Retaining wall Design

Design example-1

Design a cantilever retaining wall (T type) to retain earth for a height of 4m. the backfill is
horizontal. The density of soil is 18kN/m3. Safe bearing capacity of soil is 200 kN/m2. Take
the co-efficient of friction between concrete and soil as 0.6. The angle of repose is 30 degrees.
Use M20 concrete and Fe415 steel.

Solution

Data: h' = 4m, SBC= 200 kN/m2, γ= 18 kN/m3, μ=0.6, φ=30°

To fix the height of retaining wall, H

H= h' +Df

Depth of foundation
2
SBC 1  sin   SBC 2
Rankine’s formula: Df =
 1  sin  
= ka
γ

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1.23m say 1.2m , therefore H= 5.2m

Proportioning of wall
Thickness of base slab= (1/10 to 1/14) H, 0.52m to 0.43m, say 450 mm
Width of base slab=b = (0.5 to 0.6) H, 2.6m to 3.12m say 3m
Toe projection= pj= (1/3 to ¼)H, 1m to 0.75m say 0.75m
Provide 450 mm thickness for the stem at the base and 200 mm at the top

Design of stem

To find Maximum bending moment at the junction

Ph= ½ x 1/3 x 18 x 4.752=67.68 kN

M= Ph h/3 = 0.333 x 18 x 4.753/6 = 107.1 kN-m
Mu= 1.5 x M = 160.6 kN-m

Taking 1m length of wall,

Mu/bd2= 1.004 < 2.76, URS (Here d=450- effective cover=450-50=400 mm)

To find steel
Pt=0.295% <0.96%
Ast= 0.295x1000x400/100 = 1180 mm2
#12 @ 90 < 300 mm and 3d ok
Ast provided= 1266mm2

Development length
Ld=47 φbar =47 x 12 = 564 mm

Curtailment of bars
Curtail 50% steel from top
(h1/h)2 = ½

(h1/4.75)2 = ½, h1 = 3.36m
Actual point of cutoff= 3.36-Ld =3.36-47 φbar = 3.36-0.564 = 2.74m from top.

Spacing of bars = 180 mm c/c < 300 mm and 3d ok

Distribution steel
= 0.12% GA = 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok

Secondary steel for stem at front (Temperature steel)

0.12% GA = 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok

Check for shear

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Max. SF at Junction = Ph=67.68 kN

Ultimate SF= Vu=1.5 x 67.68 = 101.52 kN
Nominal shear stress =τv=Vu/bd = 101.52 x 1000 / 1000x400 = 0.25 MPa
To find τc : 100Ast/bd = 0.32%, From IS:456-2000, τc= 0.38 MPa
τv< τc Hence safe in shear.

Stability analysis

W4 H
x1 W1
h
W
W2
x2 Pa

H/3
W3
T
e b/6
x b/2
b

0.75m 0.45m 1.8m

30.16 kN/m2
120.6 kN/m2
24.1
97.99
22.6

Pressure below the Retaining Wall

Bending moment
Distance from A,
Load Magnitude, kN about A
m
kN-m
Stem W1 0.2x4.75x1x25 = 23.75 1.1 26.13
0.75 +
Stem W2 ½ x0.25x4.75x1x25 = 14.84 13.60
2/3x0.25=0.316
Base slab W3 3.0x0.45x1x25 = 33.75 1.5 50.63
Back fill, W4 1.8x4.75x1x18 = 153.9 2.1 323.20
total ΣW= 226.24 ΣMR=413.55
Hori. earth PH =0.333x18x5.22/2
H/3 =5.2/3 MO=140.05
pressure =PH =81.04 kN

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Stability checks:

Check for overturning:

FOS = ΣMR/ MO= 2.94 >1.55 safe

Check for Sliding:

FOS = μ ΣW/ PH= 2.94 >1.55 safe

Check for subsidence:

Let the resultant cut the base at x from toe T,
x= ΣM/ ΣW= 1.20 m > b/3
e= b/2 –x = 3/2 – 1.2 = 0.3m < b/6

Pressure below the base slab

 W  6e 
Max. pressure= Pmax  1 
b  b
2
120.66 kN/m < SBC, safe
 W  6e 
Min. pressure = Pmin  1 
b  b
2
30.16 kN/m > zero, No tension or separation, safe

Design of Heel

To fine the maximum bending moment

Distance from BM,

Load Magnitude, kN
C, m MC, kN-m
Backfill 153.9 0.9 138.51
Heel slab 0.45x1.8x25 = 27.25 0.9 18.23
Pressure distribution,
30.16 x 1.8 =54.29 0.9 -48.86
rectangle
Pressure distribution,
½ x 24.1 x1.8=21.69 1/3x1.8 -13.01
triangle
Total BM at
Total Load at junction 105.17 ΣMC=94.86
junction

Mu= 1.5 x 94.86 =142.3 kNm

Mu/bd2= 0.89 < 2.76, URS
Pt=0.264% < 0.96%
Ast= 0.264x1000x400/100 = 1056 mm2
#16@ 190 < 300 mm and 3d ok
Ast provided= 1058mm2

Development length
Ld=47 φbar =47 x 16 = 752mm

Distribution steel

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Same, #10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok

Check for shear at junction (Tension)

Net downward force causing shear = 142.3kN. Critical section for shear is at the face as it is
subjected to tension.
Maximum shear =V=105.17 kN, VU, max= 157.76 kN, τv =0.39 MPa
pt=100x1058/(1000x400)=0.27%
τuc =0.37 MPa
Allowable shear force= 0.37x 1000 x 400 =148kN, slightly less than VU, max. May be
ok

Design of toe
To find the maximum bending moment
Distance from BM,
Load Magnitude, kN
C, m MC, kN-m
Toe slab 0.75x0.45x25=8.44 0.75/2 -3.164
Pressure distribution,
97.99x0.75=73.49 0.75/2 27.60
rectangle
½ x22.6
Pressure distribution, triangle 2/3x1=0.75 4.24
x1x0.75=8.48
Total BM at
Total Load at junction 73.53 ΣM=28.67kNm
junction

Mu= 1.5 x 28.67 =43 kNm

Mu/bd2= 0.27< 2.76, URS
Pt=0.085% Very small, provide 0.12%GA
Ast= 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 300 mm and 3d ok

Development length:
Ld=47 φbar =47 x 10 = 470 mm

Check for shear:

Since the soil pressure introduces compression in the wall, the critical section is taken at a
distance d from junction.
Net shear force at the section= (120.6+110.04)/2 x 0.35 -0.45x0.35x25=75.45kN
V=75.46 kN, VU,max=75.45x1.5=113.18 kN
τv=113.17x1000/(1000x400)=0.28 MPa
pt=0.25%
τuc =0.37 MPa
V,allowable = 0.37x 1000 x 400 =148 kN > VU,max, ok

Construction joint
A key 200 mm wide x 50 mm deep with nominal steel
#10 @ 250, 600 mm length in two rows

Drainage:
100 mm dia. pipes as weep holes at 3m c/c at bottom

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#12 @ 180

#10 @ 140

#12 @ 90
#16 @ 190

#10 @ 140
Cross section of wall Longitudinal section of wall

Note
 Adopt a suitable scale such as 1:20
 Show all the details and do neat
drawing
 Show the development length for all
bars at the junction
 Name the different parts such as
stem, toe, heel, backfill, weep holes,
blanket, etc.,
 Show the dimensions of all parts
 Detail the steel in all the drawings
 Lines with double headed arrows
represents the development lengths in
the cross section

Sectional plan of base slab

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