Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 1

Ex.No: DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION PARAMETERS OF

DATE: ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC SERVO MOTOR

AIM:
To determine the transfer function of an armature controlled dc servomotor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO Apparatus Name Range Range Type

1. Ammeter (0–2A) MC 1
2. Ammeter (0–5A) MC 1
3. Ammeter ( 0 – 10 A ) MC 1
4. Voltmeter ( 0 – 300 V ) MC 1
5. Loading Rheostat 5KW - 1
6. DC servo motor set up - - 1

CATEGORY: Hard experiment

THEORY:
Transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the output
variable to the Laplace transform of input variable at zero initial conditions.

Armature controlled DC shunt motor

In this system,
Ra= Resistance of armature in Ω
La= Inductance of armature windings in H
Ia= Armature current in A

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 2

1. Circuit diagram to determine Kt and Kb

2. Circuit diagram to determine Ra:

3. Circuit diagram to determine La:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 3

If= Field current in A

e = Applied armature voltage in V
eb= back emf in V
Tm= Torque developed by the motor in Nm
J = Equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft in kgm2
B= Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of inertia of motor and load referred to
motor shaft in Nm/(rad/s)

In Servo applications, DC motors are generally used in the linear range of the
magnetization curve. Therefore, the air gap flux φ is proportional to the field current.
φαIf
φ= KfIf, where Kf is a constant. ----------------------------- (1)
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the armature
current and air gap flux
TmαφIa
Tm=KiφIa= KKf If Ia, where Ki is a constant --------------(2)
In the armature controlled DC motor, the field current is kept constant. So the above
equation can be written as
Tm= KtIa, Where Ktis known as motor torque constant.------ (3)
The motor back emf being proportional to speed is given by
ebαdθ/dt,
eb= Kbdθ /dt, where Kbis the back emf constant.----------------(4)
The differential equation of the armature circuit is
e = IaRa+ LadIa /dt + eb----------------------------------------- (5)
The torque equation is
Tm= Jd2θ /dt2+ B dθ /dt ------------------------------------------ (6)
Equating equations (3) and (6)
Jd2θ /dt2+ B dθ /dt = KtIa---------------------------------------(7)
Taking Laplace transforms for the equations (4) to (7), we get
Eb(s) = Kbsθ(s) -------------------------------------------- (8)
(s La+ Ra) Ia(s) = E(s) – Eb(s). ------------------------------- (9)
( J s2+ B s)θ(s) = Tm(s) = KtIa(s) ---------------------------- (10)
From equations (8) to (10) ,
the transfer function of the system is obtained as

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 4

Tabulation to determine Kt

Armature Armature Spring Balance Torque

S.No Voltage Current Readings (Kg) T=9.81(s1-S2)r
(Volts) (Amps) S1 S2 (Nm)

Where r is the radius of the brake drum, r = _____________m

Tabulation to determine Kb

Armature Armature
Speed N Eb=Va-IaRa ω = 2πN/60
S.NO Voltage Current
(RPM) (volts) (rad/sec)
(Volts) (Amps)

Tabulation to determine Ra

Armature Armature Ra
S.No Voltage Current
(Volts) (Amps) (Ω)

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Block diagram

Using the above equations, the block diagram for the armature controlled DC motor is
given below:

PROCEDURE:

i) Load test to determine Kt

1. Initially keep all the switches in the off position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch on the power and the SPST switches S1 and S2.
5. Adjust the field voltage to the rated value.
6. Apply the armature voltage until the motor runs at the rated speed.
7. Apply load and note the armature voltage, current and spring balance readings.
8. Calculate torque and plot the graph between torque and armature current.
9. Determine Kt from graph.

ii) No-Load test to determine Kb.

1. Initially keep all the switches in the off position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch on the power and the SPST switches S1 and S2.
5. Set the field voltage to the rated value.
6. Adjust the armature voltage and note the armature voltage, current and speed.
7. Calculate the back emf eb and plot the graph between back emf and ω
8. Determine Kb from graph.

iii) To determine Ra:

1. Initially keep all the switches in the off position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch on the power and the SPST switches S1.
5. Note the armature current for various armature voltages.
6. Calculate Ra.

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Calculation by least square method

Ra= [V1I1+V2I2+V3I3+V4I4] / (I12+I22+I32+I42)

Tabulation to determine Za

Armature Armature Za
S.No Voltage Current
(Volts) (Amps) (Ω)

Average Za= ________Ω

MODEL GRAPH

MODEL CALCULATION

Ra= ……Ohms
Za= ……Ohms
La=√(Za2–Ra2) / 2πf = ……H
f = 50 Hz
J = 0.074 kg/m2
B = 0.001Nm/rad/sec

From Graph, Kt= Torque constant =∆T / ∆Ia= ………… Nm / A

Kb= Back emf constant =∆Eb/∆ω= ………V/(rad/s)

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 7

iv) To determine La:

1. Initially keep all the switches in the off position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch on the power.
5. Apply ac voltage to armature winding
6. Note down the current for various input ac voltage.
7. Calculate Ra

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 8

VIVA VOCE QUESTION :

1. Define transfer function?

2. What are the components of control system?
3. What are the types of servo motors?
4. What is servo motor?
5. How DC servo motor differs from DC shunt motor?
6. What are the methods of speed control on DC servo motor?
7. Enumerate the T/F function for armature controlled DC servo motor?
8. Armature controlled DC servo motor is an example for __________loop control
system?
9. What is the order of transfer function of armature controlled DC servo motor?
10. Define armature torque constant (KTa)?
11. Define back EMF constant (Kb)?
12. Define back EMF (Eb) with respect to armature controlled DC servo motor?
13. Define motor time constant (m)?
14. Write the system equation for armature controlled DC servo motor?
15. What is servomechanism?
16. What is control system?
17. What is feed back?
18. What type of feedback is employed in control system?
19. Define open loop system.
20. Define closed loop system.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 9

Ex. No: DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION PARAMETERS OF

DATE: FIELD CONTROLLED DC SERVO MOTOR

AIM:
To determine the transfer function of a field controlled dc servomotor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO Apparatus Name Range Range Type

1. Ammeter (0–2A) MC 1
2. Ammeter (0–5A) MC 1
3. Ammeter ( 0 – 10 A ) MC 1
4. Voltmeter ( 0 – 300 V ) MC 1
5. Loading Rheostat 5KW - 1
6. DC servo motor set up - - 1

CATEGORY: Hard experiment

THEORY:
The transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the output
variable to the Laplace transform of input variable at zero initial conditions.

Field controlled DC shunt motor

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 10

1. Circuit diagram to determine KmKf

2. Circuit diagram to determine Rf

3. Circuit diagram to determine Lf

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 11

In this system,
Rf = Resistance of the field winding in Ω
Lf = Inductance of the field windings in H
Ia= Armature current in A
If = Field current in A
e = Applied armature voltage in V
eb= back emf in V
ef = Field voltage in V
Tm= Torque developed by the motor in NmJ = Equivalent moment of inertia of motor
and load referred to motor shaft in kgm2
B= Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of inertia of motor and load referred to motor
shaft in Nm/(rad/s)
In Servo applications, the DC motors are generally used in the linear range of the
magnetization curve. Therefore the air gap flux φ is proportional to the field current.
φαIf
φ= Kf If , where Kf is a constant. -------------------------------- (1)
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the
armaturecurrent and air gap flux.
TmαφIa
Tm=K'φIa= K'Kf If Ia =KmKf If , where Ki is a constant ----(2)
Appling Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the field circuit, we have
Lf dIf /dt + RIf = ef ------------------------------------------------- (3)
Now the shaft torque Tmis used for driving the load against the inertia and
frictionaltorque. Hence,
Tm= Jd2θ /dt2+ B dθ /dt ------------------------------------------- (4)
Taking Laplace transforms of equations (2) to (4), we get
Tm(s) = KmKf If (s) ----------------------------------------------- (5)
Ef (s) = (s Lf + Rf ) If (s) -------------------------------------------- (6)
Tm(s) = (J s2+ B s)θ(s) ------------------------------------------- (7)
Solving equations (5) to (7), we get the transfer function of the system as

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 12

Tabulation to determine KmKf

Field Spring Balance Torque

S.No Current Readings (Kg) T=9.81(s1-S2)r
(Amps) S1 S2 (Nm)

Where r is the radius of the brake drum. r = _____________m

Tabulation to determine Rf

Field Field Rf
S.No Voltage Current
(Volts) (Amps) (Ω)

Calculation by least square method

Rf = [V1I1+V2I2+V3I3+V4I4] / (I12+I22+I32+I42)

Tabulation to determine Zf

Field Field Zf
S.No Voltage Current
(Volts) (Amps) (Ω)

Average Zf = ________Ω

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PROCEDURE:

i) Load test to determine KmKf

1. Initially keep all the switches in the OFF position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch ON the power and the SPST switches S1 and S2.
5. Apply 50% of the rated field voltage.
6. Apply the 50% of the rated armature voltage.
7. Apply load and note the field current and spring balance readings.
8. Vary the field voltage and repeat the previous step.
9. Calculate torque and plot the graph between torque and field current.
10. Determine KmKf from graph.

ii) To determine Rf

1. Initially keep all the switches in the OFF position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch ON the power and the SPST switch S2.
5. Note the field currents for various field voltages.
6. Calculate Rf
iii) To determine Lf

1. Initially keep all the switches in the OFF position.

2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position.
3. Give connections.
4. Switch ON the power.
5. Apply AC voltage to field windings
6. Note the currents for various input AC voltages.
7. Calculate Lf

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 14

MODEL GRAPH

To find KmKf

MODEL CALCULATIONS

1. Rf = ……..Ohms
2. Zf = …….. Ohms
3. Lf =√(Zf 2–Rf 2) / 2πf = ……. H
4. f = 50 Hz
5. J = 0.074 kg/m2, B = 0.001Nm/rad/s
6. From Graph, KmKf =∆T / ∆If = ………… Nm / A

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 15

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 16

VIVA VOCE QUESTION :

1. Define transfer function?

2. What are the components of control system?
3. What are the types of servo motors?
4. What is servo motor?
5. How DC servo motor differs from DC shunt motor?
6. What are the methods of speed control on DC servo motor?
7. Enumerate the T/F function for field controlled DC servo motor?
8. Field controlled servo motor is an example for ___________loop control system?
9. What is the order of transfer function of field controlled DC servo motor?
10. Define field torque constant (KTf)?
11. Define field time constant (m)?
12. Define motor time constant (m)?
13. Write the system equation for field controlled Dc servo motor?
14. What is viscous friction (Bm)?
15. What is moment of inertia (Jm)?
16. What is servo mechanism?
17. What is effect of positive feedback on stability?
18. What are the characteristics of negative feedback?
19. What are the two major types of control system?
20. Define time invariant system?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 17

Ex.No: DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION PARAMETERS OF

DATE: AC SERVO MOTOR

AIM:
To derive the transfer function of the given AC servomotor and experimentally
determine the transfer function parameters.

APPRATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO Apparatus Name Range Type Quantity

1. Ammeter (0–5A) MI 2
2. Voltmeter ( 0 – 300 V ) MI 2
3. 3Ф Autotransformer 400 V / (0 - 400V) - 1
4. Tachometer - - 1
5. AC Servo Motor Setup - - 1

FORMULA:
  s Km
1. Motor transfer function 
E 0  s  s  1  s m 
K1
2. Motor gain constant K m 
K2  B
J
3. Motor time constant  m 
K2  B

Where K1= slope of torque - control phase voltage characteristics

K2= slope of torque -speed characteristics
J = Moment of inertia of load and the rotor
B= viscous frictional coefficient of load and the rotor
CATEGORY: Hard experiment

THEORY:

A two phase Induction motor is normally used as AC servo motor. Its

characteristics are similar to three phase Induction motor. At no load Induction motor
will run at near synchronous speed. When the motor gets loaded, the torque will increase
to supply the load with the proportional decrease of speed and the torque reaches the
maximum at a particular speed. When the speed has fallen beyond the limit, both the
speed and torque fall as shown in Fig 1.

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Torque Speed Characteristics

Radius of brake drum =________

Vc= Vc= Vc=

Load N Torque Load N Torque Load N Torque
g RPM N-m g RPM N-m g RPM N-m

Model Graph:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 19

Torque
(T)
Speed (N)

Fig 1. Speed Torque Characteristics

This part of the characteristic is not suitable for control applications. The
required characteristics for control applications is when the Torque increases, the speed
of the motor should fall from synchronous speed to zero speed. Practically this
characteristic can be obtained by including more resistance in the rotor of the Induction
motor. The same is true for two phase Induction motor. When more resistance included
in the rotor of the two phase Induction motor, the characteristic becomes linear as shown
in Fig. 2
Torque (T)

V3

V2
V1

Speed (ω rad/sec)
Fig 2. Speed Torque Characteristic
Two phase Induction motor having two windings one is called main winding (or)
running winding and the other one is called starting winding or control winding. Besides
the two phase AC servo motor has large resistance in the rotor. For this motor, fixed AC
voltage is applied to the running winding. Unless the control winding is applied with AC

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 20

Torque –Control Voltage Characteristics

N1= N1= N1=

Load Vc Torque Load Vc Torque Load Vc Torque
g Volts N-m g Volts N-m g Volts N-m

Model Garph:

From Graph, K1=

K2=
Given, B =
J=
From Calculations, Km=
τm=

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 21

Voltage the motor will not develop torque. The torque speed characteristic is a straight
line and the torque applied by the motor will be increased with supply voltage
Hence the torque of the AC servo motor can be expressed as
T(t) = f(Vc,ω) (1)

Using Taylor’s series expansion

T T
Vc(t)  ω(t) (2)
Vc ω ω Vc

Where Vc = AC voltage signal applied to control winding

ω = Angular speed of the motor
T = Torque developed by the motor
T
The partial derivative is denoted by Kc and
Vc
T
is denoted by Km. The factors Kc and Km can be determined by simple load
ω
test
Derivation of Transfer Function:
Let Tm= Torque developed by the servomotor
θ= angular displacement of the rotor
ω= dθ/ dt = angular speedT
L= torque required by the load
J = Moment of inertia of the load and the rotor
B = Viscous frictional coefficient of the load and the rotor
K1= slope of the control phase voltage and torque characteristics.
K2= slope of the speed and torque characteristics.
The transfer function of the AC servomotor can be obtained by torque equation.
The motor developed torque is given by
d
Tm  K 1ec  K 2 -----------------------------(1)
dt
The rotating part of the motor and the load can be modeled by

MODEL CALCULATION:

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d 2 d
TL  J 2  B ---------------------------(2)
dt dt
At equilibrium, the motor torque is equal to load torque. Hence,
d d 2 d ----------------(3)
K 1 ec  K 2  J 2 B
dt dt dt
Taking Laplace Transform
K1 E c  s   K 2 s  s   Js 2  s   Bs  s  -----------(4)

  s K1 Km
Transfer function=  
E 0  s  s K 2  sJ  B  s 1  s m 

K1 J
Where, Motor gain constant K m  and Motor time constant  m 
K2  B K 2  B

PROCEDURE:

I. DETERMINATION OF TORQUE SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

1. Give the connections.
2. Connect voltmeter or a digital Multimeter across the control winding.
3. Apply rated voltage to the reference phase winding and control phase winding.
4. Note the no load speed.
5. Apply load in steps. For each load, note the speed.
6. Repeat steps 4,5 for various control voltage levels and tabulate the readings.

II. DETERMINATION OF TORQUE – CONTROL VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Make connections.
2. Connect voltmeter or a digital Multimeter across the control phase winding
3. Apply rated Voltage to Reference phase winding.
4. Apply a certain voltage to the control phase winding and make the motor run at low
speed. Note the voltage and the no load speed.
5. Apply load to motor. Motor speed will decrease. Increase the control voltage until the
motor runs at same speed as on no-load. Note the control voltage and load.
6. Repeat steps 5 for various loads
7. Repeat 4-6 for various speeds and tabulate.

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 24

VIVA VOCE QUESTION :

1. Define transfer function?

2. What are the components of control system?
3. What are the types of servo motors?
4. What is servo motor?
5. How AC servomotor differs from induction motor?
6. What is servo mechanism?
7. What are the 2 stator winding used in 2 phase AC servomotor?
8. How the 2 stator winding are arranged in 2 phase AC servomotor?
9. What type of rotor is used in 2 phase AC servomotor?
10. How the control voltage can be given to the control winding of 2 phase AC
servomotor?
11. Define stalling torque (To)?
12. Draw the speed-torque characteristics of 2 AC servomotor?
13. Enumerate the T/F function of 2 AC servomotor?
14. What is the order of 2 AC servomotor?
15. Write the system equation for 2 AC servomotor?
16. What is the salient feature of speed-torque characteristics of 2 AC servomotor?
17. What are the characteristics of servomotor?
18. What is the application of servomotor?
19. What are the different types of rotor that are used in AC servomotor?
20. Give the difference between the AC and DC servomotor?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 25

Ex.No: ANALOG SIMULATION OF TYPE-0 AND TYPE-1 SYSTEM

DATE:
AIM:
To simulate the time response characteristics of I order and II order, type 0and type-1

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO Apparatus Range Type Quantity
1. Process control simulation - 1
-
trainer Kit
2. Patch cards. - As Required
-
3. Multi meter - 1
-

CATEGORY: Hard experiment

THEORY:
Order of the system:
The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the
system. The input-output relationship of a system can be expressed byt ransfer function.
Transfer function of a system is obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential
equation governing the system and rearranging them as ratio of output and input
polynomials in ‘s’. The order is given by the maximum power of ‘s’ in denominator
polynomial Q(s)
P S 
T  s 
Q S 
P(s) --- Numerator polynomial
Q(s) --- Denominator polynomial
Q  S   a 0 s n  a1 s n 1  a s s n 2  .....  a n 1 s  a n

If n=0, then system is Zero-Order system.

If n=1, then system is First-Order system.
If n=2, then system is Second-Order system.
Type of the system:
Type of the system is given by the number of poles of the loop transfer function at the
origin

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P S   S  Z1  S  Z 2  S  Z 3 .......
G S  H  S   K 
Q S  S N  S  P1  S  P2  S  P3 ......
If N=0, the system is a Type Zero system.
TABULATION FOR FIRST ORDER SYSTEM:

(a)Type Zero system

(b)Type One System

TABULATION FOR SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

(a)Type Zero system

(b)Type One system

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 27

If N=1, the system is a Type One system.

If N=2, the system is a Type Two system.

First Order Type ‘0’ system

The generalized transfer function for first order Type –0 system is
C S 
TS  -------------------------------(1)
R S 
C(s) ---- Output of the system
R(s) ----- Reference input to the system
If input is a Step input
R(s) = 1/s ----------------------------------------------------- (2)
From eqn (1)
1
C  s   R s  ------------------------------------------- (3)
1  s
Substituting for R(s),

1 1
C s  -----------------------------------------(4)
s 1  s
To find C(t) , Take Inverse Laplace Transform of eqn (4)
t

C  t   1  e  ---------------------------------(5)
PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connections as per the block diagram in the process control simulator using
the front panel diagram.
2. Set the Input (set point) value using the set value knob.
3. Observe the Output (process value or PV) using CRO and plot it in the graph.
4. Tabulate the reading and calculate the % error.
5. Repeat the procedure in closed loop condition.

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 28

VIVA VOCE QUESTION:

1. Define type of the system.

2. What is an order of a system?
3. Why negative feedback is preferred in closed loop system?
4. Define open loop and closed loop system.
5. What are component of feedback control system.
6. Define poles and zeros.
7. What are the time domain specifications?
8. Define Delay time.
9. Define Rise time.
10. Define Maximum Overshoot.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 29

Ex.No: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF LINEAR SYSTEM

DATE:
OBJECTIVE:
To Obtain the time response of series RLC circuit with R = 150 Ω, L =
15mH using MAT Lab.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Computer system with MATLAB software package.

CATEGORY: Soft experiment

THEORY:

To obtain the step response we must first find the transfer function with
decreasing powers of S in numerator and in the denominator before using it in MAT Lab.
Consider the series R-L-C circuit,
di (t )
VO (t )  L ----------------- (1)
dt
di (t )
Vi (t )  Ri (t )  L --------------- (2)
dt

Take Laplace transform

Vo ( s )  SL.I ( S ) ----------------- (3)

Vi ( s)  I ( S )[ R  SL] ------------------ (4)

From (3)
Vo ( S )
I (S ) 
SL

Sub (3) in (4) we have

Vo ( S )
Vi ( S )  [ R  SL]
SL

Vo ( s ) SL

Vi ( s ) [ R  SL]

SL
= R
L( S  )
L

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 30

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR R-L CIRCUIT

LAPLACETRANSFORM OF R-L CIRCUIT

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 31

Vo ( s ) S

Vi ( s ) S  R
L

Substitute the given R = 150 Ω, L = 15mH in the above equation.

R 150
= = 10000
L 15 x10 3

Hence the transfer function

Vo ( s ) S num( S )
  = den( S )
Vi ( s ) S  10000

The transfer function is now in the standard form. Now let us make the
program and obtain its output.

MATLAB CODING

num = [1 0]
den = [1 10000]
step (num, den)
grid

By executing this MAT Lab program, the required response is obtained.

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 Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 32

SIMULINK DIAGRAM

1.0

Output Voltage

0
t in sec

TIME RESPONSE OF THE LINEAR SYSTEMS

RESULT:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 33

INFERENCE:

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 34

1. What is a system?
2. What are the types of control system?
3. Define open loop system?
4. Define linear system?
5. Give examples of linear system?
6. Define the transfer function?
7. List out the advantages of and disadvantages of transfer function?
8. State the superposition principle?
9. Give some examples of control systems?
10. What is time invariant system?
11. What is time response?
12. What is transient and steady state response?
13. What is importance of test signal?
14. Define parabolic signal?
15. Define ram signal?
16. what is impulse signal?
17. What is weighting function?
18. Name the test signals used in control system?
19. Define damping ratio?
20. What is damped frequency of oscillation?

Ex.No: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF NON-LINEAR SYSTEM

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 35

DATE:
AIM:
To simulate the response of Non - Linear systems using MATLAB.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Computer system with MATLAB software.

CATEGORY: Soft experiment

THEORY:
“MATLAB” is a software package for high performance numerical
Computerization & visualization. It provides an interacting environment with hundred
of built in function.
“MATLAB” is a matrix based system for mathematical & engineering
calculation. Each variable is treated as a matrix which the only data type handled by it.
“MATLAB” can be used as an application development because of graphical user
interference tools. The typical in the field of mathematics & computation development
of algorithm, modeling simulation & its prototype, data analysis, scientific &
engineering problems.
Tool box is a group of MATLAB function which are pre-defined that can be used
for obtaining solution in the different applications (control systems, fuzzy logic, digital
signal processing).

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the main supply.
2. Open the MATLAB command window.
3. Open the Simulink tool box and create a new file .
4. Drag a necessary blocks like input, transfer function, output blocks and connect
all of them.
5. Include the nonlinearities like saturation and dead zone to the process
6. Run the program and click the oscilloscope to view the output.
7. Observe the waveform and comment on it.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 36

SIMULINK DIAGRAM

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 37

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

DISCUSSION QUESTION:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 38

1. What is the difference between linear and non linear system?

2. What is meant by simulation?
3. What is meant by MATLAB?
4. What are the applications of MATLAB?
5. What is mean by non linear system?
6. What is non-linear system?
7. Give examples for non-linear systems?
8. Give the expression for damping ratio of mechanical and electrical system?
9. How the system is classified deping on the value of damping?
10. Give the expression for natural frequeny of oscillations of electrical and
mechanical system?
11. What will be the nature of response of a second order system with different types
of damping?
12. Sketch the response of a second order under damped system?
13. What is damped frequency of oscilltion?
14. List the time domain specifications?
15. What is type number of system?
16. What is the significansce of type number of system ?
17. Define acceleration error constant?
18. What is generalized error coefficient?
19. Give the relation between generalized and static error coefficient?
20. Mention two advantages of generalized error constant and static error constant?
21. What is principle of argument?
22. What is necessary and sufficient condition for stability?
23. What is impulse impulse reponse?
24. What is the effect of positive feed back on stability?
25. What is the effect of negative feed back on stability?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 39

Ex.No:
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS USING MATLAB
DATE:

OBJECTIVE:
In this experiment, concepts of Bode Plots, Phase Margin and Gain Margin
will addressed using MATLAB
LIST OF EQUIPMENT/SOFTWARE

Following equipment/software is required:

• MATLAB

CATEGORY: Soft Experiment

THEORY:
Introduction:
The frequency response method may be less intuitive than other methods you
have studied previously. However, it has certain advantages, especially in real-life
situations such as modeling transfer functions from physical data. The frequency
response of a system can be viewed two different ways: via the Bode plot or via the
Nyquist diagram. Both methods display the same information; the difference lies in the
way the information is presented. We will explore both methods during this lab exercise.
The frequency response is a representation of the system's response to sinusoidal inputs
at varying frequencies. The output of a linear system to a sinusoidal input is a sinusoid of
the same frequency but with a different magnitude and phase. The frequency response is
defined as the magnitude and phase differences between the input and output sinusoids.
In this lab, we will see how we can use the open-loop frequency response of a system to
predict its behavior in closed loop. To plot the frequency response, we create a vector of
frequencies (varying between zero or "DC"and infinity i.e., a higher value) and compute
the value of the plant transfer function at those frequencies. If G(s) is the open loop
transfer function of a system and ω is the frequency vector, we then plot G( jω) vs. ω .
Since G( jω) is a complex number, we can plot both its magnitude and phase (the Bode
plot) or its position in the complex plane (the Nyquist plot).
As noted above, a Bode plot is the representation of the magnitude and phase of
G( jω) (where the frequency vector ω contains only positive frequencies). To see the
Bode plot of a transfer function, you can use the MATLAB "bode" command. For
example,
num = 50;
den = [1 9 30 40];
sys = tf(num,den);
bode(sys)
This displays the Bode plots for the transfer function:
50
-----------------------
s^3 + 9 s^2 + 30 s + 40

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 40

Please note the axes of the figure. The frequency is on a logarithmic scale, the phase is
given in degrees, and the magnitude is given as the gain in decibels.

Note: a decibel is defined as 20*log10 ( |G(j*w| )

Gain and Phase Margin

Let's say that we have the following system:

Where K is a variable (constant) gain and G(s) is the plant under consideration. The gain
margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the system Unstable.

Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater changes in system parameters
before becoming unstable in closed loop.Note: Unity gain in magnitude is equal to a gain
of zero in dB.The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift
required to make a closed loop system unstable.The phase margin also measures the
system's tolerance to time delay. If there is a time delay greater than PC 180/ω in the
loop (where PC ω is the frequency where the phase shift is 180 deg), the system will
become unstable in closed loop. The time delay can be thought of as an extra block in
the forward path of the block diagram that adds phase to the system but has no effect on
the gain. That is, a time delay can be represented as a block with magnitude of 1 and

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 41

phase ω *time_delay (in radians/second).The phase margin is the difference in phase

between the phase curve and -180 deg at the point corresponding to the frequency that
gives a gain of 0dB (the gain cross over frequency, gc ω ).Likewise, the gain margin is
the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at the point corresponding to the
frequency that gives a phase of -180 deg (the phase cross over frequency, PC ω ).

When changing the gains, the phase margin plots do not require updating all Bode
curves in order to find the new phase margin. Multiplying the system by a gain shifts the
magnitude plot up or down. Finding the phase margin is a simple matter of finding the
new cross-over frequency. For example, suppose you entered the command bode(sys).
You will get the following bode plot:

You should see that the phase margin is about 100 degrees. Now suppose you added a
gain of 100, by entering the command bode(100*sys). You should get the following plot
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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 42

(note we changed the axis so the scale would be the same as the plot above, your bode
plot may not be exactly the same shape, depending on the scale used):

As you can see the phase plot is exactly the same as before, and the magnitude plot is
shifted up by 40dB (gain of 100). The phase margin is now about -60 degrees. This same
result could be achieved if the y-axis of the magnitude plot was shifted down 40dB. Try
this, look at the first Bode plot, find where the curve crosses the -40dB line, and read off
the phase margin. It should be about -60 degrees, the same as the second Bode plot.
We can find the gain and phase margins for a system directly, by using MATLAB. Just
use the margin command. This command returns the gain and phase margins, the gain
and phase cross over frequencies, and a graphical representation of these on the Bode
plot. MATLAB can determine the phase margin using margin(sys)
>>margin(sys)

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 43

BANDWIDTH FREQUENCY
The bandwidth frequency is defined as the frequency at which the closed-loop
magnitude response is equal to -3 dB. However, when we design via frequency response,
we are interested in predicting the closed-loop behavior from the open-loop response.
Therefore, we will use a second-order system approximation and say that the bandwidth
frequency equals the frequency at which the open-loop magnitude response is between
-6 and - 7.5dB, assuming the open loop phase response is between -135 deg and -225
deg. For a complete derivation of this approximation, consult your textbook. In order to
illustrate the importance of the bandwidth frequency, we will show how the output
changes with different input frequencies. We will find that sinusoidal inputs with
frequency less than Wbw (the bandwidth frequency) are tracked "reasonably well" by
the system. Sinusoidal inputs with frequency greater than Wbw are attenuated (in
magnitude) by a factor of 0.707 or greater (and are also shifted in phase).Let's say that
we have the following closed-loop transfer function representing a system:
1
---------------
s^2 + 0.5 s + 1

First of all, let's find the bandwidth frequency by looking at the Bode plot:

num = 1;
den = [1 0.5 1];
sys = tf(num,den);
bode (sys)

Since this is the closed-loop transfer function, our bandwidth frequency will be the
frequency corresponding to a gain of -3 dB. Looking at the plot, we find that it is
approximately 1.4 rad/s. We can also read off the plot that for an input frequency of 0.3
radians, the output sinusoid should have a magnitude about one and the phase should be
shifted by perhaps a few degrees (behind the input). For an input frequency of 3 rad/sec,
the output magnitude should be about - 20dB (or 1/10 as large as the input) and the

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 44

phase should be nearly -180 (almost exactly out-ofphase).We can use the "lsim"
command to simulate the response of the system to sinusoidal inputs.
First, consider a sinusoidal input with a frequency lower than Wbw. We must also keep
in mind that we want to view the steady state response. Therefore, we will modify the
axes in order to see the steady state response clearly (ignoring the transient response).

w = 0.3;
num = 1;
den = [1 0.5 1];
sys = tf(num,den);
t = 0:0.1:100;
u = sin(w*t);
[y,t] = lsim(sys,u,t);
plot(t,y,t,u)
axis([50,100,-2,2])

Note that the output (blue) tracks the input (purple) fairly well; it is perhaps a few
degrees behind the input as expected.However, if we set the frequency of the input
higher than the bandwidth frequency for the system, we get a very distorted response
(with respect to the input):
w = 3;
num = 1;
den = [1 0.5 1];
sys = tf(num,den);
t = 0:0.1:100;
u = sin(w*t);
[y,t] = lsim(sys,u,t);
plot(t,y,t,u)
axis([90, 100, -1, 1])

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 45

Again, note that the magnitude is about 1/10 that of the input, as predicted, and that it is
almost exactly out of phase (180 degrees behind) the input. Feel free to experiment and
view the response for several different frequencies w, and see if they match the Bode
plot.

CLOSED-LOOP PERFORMANCE

In order to predict closed-loop performance from open-loop frequency response, we

need to have several concepts clear:
• The system must be stable in open loop if we are going to design via Bode plots.
• If the gain cross over frequency is less than the phase cross over frequency (i.e. Wgc
< Wpc), then the closed-loop system will be stable.
• For second-order systems, the closed-loop damping ratio is approximately equal to the
phase margin divided by 100 if the phase margin is between 0 and 60 deg. We can use
this concept with caution if the phase margin is greater than 60 deg.
• For second-order systems, a relationship between damping ratio, bandwidth frequency
and settling time exists.
• A very rough estimate that you can use is that the bandwidth is approximately equal to
the natural frequency.
Let's use these concepts to design a controller for the following system:

Where Gc(s) is the controller and G(s) is:

10
----------
1.25s + 1

The design must meet the following specifications:

• Zero steady state error.
• Maximum overshoot must be less than 40%.
• Settling time must be less than 2 secs.

There are two ways of solving this problem: one is graphical and the other is numerical.
Within MATLAB, the graphical approach is best, so that is the approach we will use.
First, let's look at the Bode plot. Create an m-file with the following code:
num = 10;
den = [1.25,1];
sys = tf(num,den);
bode(sys)

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 46

There are several characteristics of the system that can be read directly from this Bode
plot. First of all, we can see that the bandwidth frequency is around 10 rad/sec. Since the
bandwidth frequency is roughly the same as the natural frequency (for a first order
system of this type), the rise time is 1.8/BW=1.8/10=1.8 seconds. This is a rough
estimate, so we will say the rise time is about 2 seconds.

The phase margin for this system is approximately 95 degrees. The relation damping
ratio = pm/100 only holds for PM < 60. Since the system is first-order, there should be
no overshoot.

The last major point of interest is steady-state error. The steady-state error can be read
directly off the Bode plot as well. The constant (Kp, Kv, or Ka) is found from the
intersection of the low frequency asymptote with the w=1 line. Just extend the low
frequency line to the w=1 line. The magnitude at this point is the constant. Since the
Bode plot of this system is a horizontal line at low frequencies (slope = 0), we know this
system is of type zero. Therefore, the intersection is easy to find. The gain is 20dB
(magnitude 10). What this means is that the constant for the error function it 10.

The steady-state error is 1/(1+Kp)=1/(1+10)=0.091. If our system was type one instead
of type zero, the constant for the steady-state error would be found in a manner similar to
the following

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 47

Let's check our predictions by looking at a step response plot. This can be done by
adding the following two lines of code into the MATLAB command window.
sys_cl = feedback(sys,1);
step(sys_cl)

As you can see, our predictions were very good. The system has a rise time of about 2
seconds,has no overshoot, and has a steady-state error of about 9%. Now we need to
choose a controllerthat will allow us to meet the design criteria. We choose a PI
controller because it will yield zero steady state error for a step input. Also, the PI
controller has a zero, which we can place. This gives us additional design flexibility to
help us meet our criteria. Recall that a PI controller is given by:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 48

K*(s+a)
Gc(s) = ------------
s
The first thing we need to find is the damping ratio corresponding to a percent overshoot
of 40%.Plugging in this value into the equation relating overshoot and damping ratio (or
consulting a plot of this relation), we find that the damping ratio corresponding to this
overshoot is approximately 0.28. Therefore, our phase margin should be at least 30
degrees. From our Ts*Wbw vs damping ratio plot, we find that Ts*Wbw ~ 21. We must
have a bandwidth frequency greater than or equal to 12 if we want our settling time to be
less than 1.75 seconds which meets the design specs.

Now that we know our desired phase margin and bandwidth frequency, we can start our
design. Remember that we are looking at the open-loop Bode plots. Therefore, our
bandwidth frequency will be the frequency corresponding to a gain of approximately -7
dB.

Let's see how the integrator portion of the PI or affects our response. Change your m-file
to look like the following (this adds an integral term but no proportional term):

num = 10;
den = [1.25 1];
plant = tf(num,den);
numPI = 1;
denPI = [1 0];
contr = tf(numPI,denPI);
bode(contr * plant, logspace(0,2))

Our phase margin and bandwidth frequency are too small. We will add gain and phase
with a zero. Let's place the zero at 1 for now and see what happens. Change your m-file
to look like the following:
num = 10;

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 49

den = [1.25 1];

plant = tf(num,den);
numPI = [1 1];
denPI = [1 0];
contr = tf(numPI,denPI);
bode(contr * plant, logspace(0,2))

It turns out that the zero at 1 with a unit gain gives us a satisfactory answer. Our phase
margin is greater than 60 degrees (even less overshoot than expected) and our bandwidth
frequency is approximately 11 rad/s, which will give us a satisfactory response.
Although satisfactory, the response is not quite as good as we would like. Therefore, let's
try to get a higher bandwidth frequency without changing the phase margin too much.
Let's try to increase the gain to 5 and see what happens. This will make the gain shift and
the phase will remain the same.
num = 10;
den = [1.25 1];
plant = tf(num,den);
numPI = 5*[1 1];
denPI = [1 0];
contr = tf(numPI,denPI);
bode(contr * plant, logspace(0,2))

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 50

That looks really good. Let's look at our step response and verify our results. Add the
following two lines to your m-file:

sys_cl = feedback(contr * plant,1);

step(sys_cl)

As you can see, our response is better than we had hoped for. However, we are not
always quite as lucky and usually have to play around with the gain and the position of
the poles and/or zeros in order to achieve our design requirements.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 51

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 52

DISCUSSION QUESTION:

1. What is the difference between linear and non linear system?

2. What is meant by simulation?
3. What is meant by MATLAB?
4. What are the applications of MATLAB?
5. What is mean by non linear system?
6. What is non-linear system?
7. Give examples for non-linear systems?
8. Give the expression for damping ratio of mechanical and electrical system?
9. How the system is classified deping on the value of damping?
10. Give the expression for natural frequeny of oscillations of electrical and
mechanical system?
11. What will be the nature of response of a second order system with different types
of damping?
12. Sketch the response of a second order under damped system?
13. What is damped frequency of oscilltion?
14. List the time domain specifications?
15. What is principle of argument?
16. What is necessary and sufficient condition for stability?
17. What is impulse impulse reponse?
18. What is the effect of positive feed back on stability?
19. What is the effect of negative feed back on stability?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 53

Ex.No:
COMPENSATOR DESIGN USING MATLAB
DATE:

OBJECTIVE:
The objective is to learn frequency response design method based on Root Locus
and Bode Plot to design controllers. Ball and Beam is used as the example system.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT/SOFTWARE

Following equipment/software is required:

• MATLAB

Category Soft Experiment

THEORY:
Introduction:
The open-loop transfer function of the plant for the ball and beam example is
given below:

The design criteria for this problem are:

• Settling time less than 3 seconds
• Overshoot less than 5%

A schematic of the closed loop system with a controller is given below:

Open-loop Bode Plot

`The main idea of frequency based design is to use the Bode plot of the open-
loop transfer function to estimate the closed-loop response. Adding a controller to the
system changes the open-loop Bode plot, therefore changing the closed-loop response.
Let's first draw the bode plot for the original open-loop transfer function. Create an m-
file with the following code and then run it in the MATLAB command window:
m = 0.111;
R = 0.015;
g = -9.8;

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 54

L = 1.0;
d = 0.03;
J = 9.99e-6;
K = (m*g*d)/(L*(J/R^2+m)); %simplifies input
num = [-K];
den = [1 0 0];
ball=tf(num,den);
bode(ball)

You should get the following Bode plot:

From this plot we see that the phase margin is zero. Since the phase margin is defined as
the change in open-loop phase shift necessary to make a closed-loop system unstable this
means that our zero phase margin indicates our system is unstable. We want to increase
the phase margin and we can use a lead compensator controller to do this.

Phase-Lead Controller
A first order phase-lead compensator has the form given below:

The phase-lead compensator will add positive phase to our system over the frequency
range 1/aT and 1/T, which are called the corner frequencies. The maximum added phase
for one lead compensator is 90 degrees. For our controller design we need a percent
overshoot of less than 5 %, which corresponds to a zeta of 0.7. Generally zeta * 100 will
give you the minimum phase margin needed to obtain your desired overshoot. Therefore
we require a phase margin greater than 70 degrees.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 55

To obtain "T" and "a", the following steps can be used.

1. Determine the positive phase needed: We need at least 70 degrees from our controller.
2. Determine the frequency where the phase should be added (center frequency): In our
case this is difficult to determine because the phase vs. frequency graph in the bode plot
is a flat line. However, we have a relation between bandwidth frequency (wbw) and
settling time which tells us that wbw is approximately 1.92 rad/s. Therefore we want a
center frequency just before this. For now we will choose 1.
3. Determine the constant "a" from the equation below, this determines the required
space between the zero and the pole for the maximum phase added.

Where phi refers to the desired phase margin. For 70 degrees, a = 0.0311.
4. Determine "T" and "aT" from the following equations:

For 70 degrees and center frequency (w) = 1, aT = 0.176 and T = 5.67

Now, we can add our lead controller to the system and view the bode plot. Remove the
bode command from your m-file and add the following:
phi=70*pi/180;
a=(1-sin(phi))/(1+sin(phi));
w=1;
T=1/(w*sqrt(a));
k = 1;
numlead = k*[T 1];
denlead = [a*T 1];
contr = tf(numlead,denlead);
bode(contr*ball)

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 56

You should get the following bode plot:

You can see that our phase margin is now 70 degrees. Let's check the closed-loop
response to a step input of 0.25m. Add the following to your m-file:
sys_cl = feedback(contr*ball,1);
t = 0:0.01:5;
step(0.25*sys_cl,t)

You should get the following plot:

Although the system is now stable and the overshoot is only slightly over 5%, the
settling time is not satisfactory. Increasing the gain will increase the crossover frequency
and make the response faster. With k = 5, your response should look like:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 57

The response is faster; however, the overshoot is much too high. Increasing the gain
further will just make the overshoot worse.

ADDING MORE PHASE

We can increase our phase-lead compensator to decrease the overshoot. In order to make
the iterative process easier use the following program.
function[ ] = phaseball()
%define TF
m = 0.111;
R = 0.015;
g = -9.8;

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 58

L = 1.0;
d = 0.03;
J = 9.99e-6;
K = (m*g*d)/(L*(J/R^2+m)); %simplifies input
num = [-K];
den = [1 0 0];
ball = tf(num,den);
%ask user for controller information
pm = input('Phase Margin?.......');
w = input('Center Frequency?...');
k = input('Gain?...............');
%view compensated system bode plot
pmr = pm*pi/180;
a = (1 - sin(pmr))/(1+sin(pmr));
T = sqrt(a)/w;
aT = 1/(w*sqrt(a));
numlead = k*[aT 1];
denlead = [T 1];
contr = tf(numlead,denlead);
figure
bode(contr*ball)
%view step response
sys_cl = feedback(contr*ball,1);
t = 0:0.01:5;
figure
step(0.25*sys_cl,t)
With this m-file you can choose the phase margin, center frequency, and gain. Run your
m-file with the following values and you should see the plots below on your screen.
Phase Margin.......80
Center Frequency...1
Gain...............1

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 59

The overshoot is fine but the settling time is just a bit long. Try different numbers and
see what happens.
Using the following values the design criteria was met.
Phase Margin.......85
Center Frequency...1.9
Gain...............2

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 60

Note: A design problem does not necessarily have a unique answer. Using this method
(or any other) may result in many different compensators. For practice you may want to
go back and change the added phase, gain, or center frequency. Designing Lead and Lag
Compensators
Lead and lag compensators are used quite extensively in control. A lead compensator can
increase the stability or speed of response of a system; a lag compensator can reduce (but
not eliminate) the steady state error. Depending on the effect desired, one or more lead
and lag compensators may be used in various combinations.
Lead, lag, and lead/lag compensators are usually designed for a system in transfer
function form.
Lead or phase-lead compensator using root locus
A first-order lead compensator can be designed using the root locus. A lead compensator
in root locus form is given by

where the magnitude of zo is less than the magnitude of po. A phase-lead compensator
tends to shift the root locus toward the left half plane. This results in an improvement in
the system's stability and an increase in the response speed.
How is this accomplished? If you recall finding the asymptotes of the root locus that lead
to the zeros at infinity, the equation to determine the intersection of the asymptotes along
the real axis is:

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When a lead compensator is added to a system, the value of this intersection will be a
larger egative number than it was before. The net number of zeros and poles will be the
same (one zero and one pole are added), but the added pole is a larger negative number
than the added zero.Thus, the result of a lead compensator is that the asymptotes'
intersection is moved further into the left half plane, and the entire root locus will be
shifted to the left. This can increase the region of stability as well as the response speed.
In MATLAB a phase lead compensator in root locus form is implemented by using the
transfer
function in the form
numlead = kc*[1 z];
denlead = [1 p];
lead = tf(numlead,denlead);
and we can interconnect it with a plant as follows:
sys = lead*plant;
Lead or phase-lead compensator using frequency response
A first-order phase-lead compensator can be designed using the frequency
response. A lead compensator in frequency response form is given by

Note that this is equivalent to the root locus form

with p = 1/T, z = 1/aT, and Kc = a. In frequency response design, the phase-lead

compensator adds positive phase to the system over the frequency range 1/aT to 1/T. A
bode plot of a phaselead compensator looks like the following

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The two corner frequencies are at 1/aT and 1/T; note the positive phase that is added to
the system between these two frequencies. Depending on the value of a, the maximum
added phase can be up to 90 degrees; if you need more than 90 degrees of phase, two
lead compensators can be used. The maximum amount of phase is added at the center
frequency, which is located at

The equation which determines the maximum phase is

Additional positive phase increases the phase margin and thus increases the stability of
the system. This type of compensator is designed by determining a from the amount of
phase needed to satisfy the phase margin requirements, and determining T to place the
added phase at the new gain-crossover frequency.
Another effect of the lead compensator can be seen in the magnitude plot. The lead
compensator increases the gain of the system at high frequencies (the amount of this
gain is equal to a). This can increase the crossover frequency, which will help to
decrease the rise time and settling time of the system.
In MATLAB, a phase lead compensator in frequency response form is implemented by
using the transfer function in the form
numlead = kc*[1 z];

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 63

denlead = [1 p];
lead = tf(numlead,denlead);
and we can interconnect it with a plant as follows:
sys = lead*plant;
Lag or Phase-Lag Compensator using Root Locus

A first-order lag compensator can be designed using the root locus. A lag compensator in
root locus form is given by

where the magnitude of zo is greater than the magnitude of po. A phase-lag compensator
tends to shift the root locus to the right, which is undesirable. For this reason, the pole
and zero of a lag compensator must be placed close together (usually near the origin) so
they do not appreciably change the transient response or stability characteristics of the
system. How does the lag controller shift the root locus to the right? If you recall finding
the asymptotes of the root locus that lead to the zeros at infinity, the equation to
determine the intersection of the asymptotes along the real axis is:

When a lag compensator is added to a system, the value of this intersection will be a
smaller negative number than it was before. The net number of zeros and poles will be
the same (one zero and one pole are added), but the added pole is a smaller negative
number than the added zero. Thus, the result of a lag compensator is that the asymptotes'
intersection is moved closer to the right half plane, and the entire root locus will be
shifted to the right.

It was previously stated that that lag controller should only minimally change the
transient response because of its negative effect. If the phase-lag compensator is not
supposed to change the transient response noticeably, what is it good for? The answer is
that a phase-lag compensator can improve the system's steady-state response. It works in
the following manner
At high frequencies, the lag controller will have unity gain. At low frequencies, the gain
will be z0/p0 which is greater than 1. This factor z0/p0 will multiply the position,
velocity, or acceleration constant (Kp, Kv, or Ka), and the steady-state error will thus
decrease by the factor z0/p0.
In MATLAB, a phase lead compensator in root locus form is implemented by using the
transfer function in the form
numlag = [1 z];
denlag = [1 p];

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 64

lag = tf(numlag,denlag);
and we can interconnect it with a plant as follows:
sys = lag*plant;

Lag or Phase-Lag Compensator using Frequency Response

A first-order phase-lag compensator can be designed using the frequency
response. A lag compensator in frequency response form is given by

The phase-lag compensator looks similar to a phase-lead compensator, except that a is

now less than 1. The main difference is that the lag compensator adds negative phase to
the system over the specified frequency range, while a lead compensator adds positive
phase over the specified frequency. A bode plot of a phase-lag compensator looks like
the following

The two corner frequencies are at 1/T and 1/aT. The main effect of the lag compensator
is shown in the magnitude plot. The lag compensator adds gain at low frequencies; the
magnitude of this gain is equal to a. The effect of this gain is to cause the steady-state
error of the closed-loop system to be decreased by a factor of a. Because the gain of the
lag compensator is unity at middle and high frequencies, the transient response and
stability are not impacted too much. The side effect of the lag compensator is the
negative phase that is added to the system between the two corner frequencies.
Depending on the value a, up to -90 degrees of phase can be added. Care must be taken

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 65

that the phase margin of the system with lag compensation is still satisfactory. In
MATLAB, a phase-lag compensator in frequency response form is implemented by
using the transfer function in the form
numlag = [a*T 1];
denlag = a*[T 1];
lag = tf(numlag,denlag);
and we can interconnect it with a plant as follows:
sys = lag*plant;
Instructions for Lead-lag Compensator using either Root Locus or Frequency Response
A lead-lag compensator combines the effects of a lead compensator with those of a lag
compensator. The result is a system with improved transient response, stability and
steady-state error. To implement a lead-lag compensator, first design the lead
compensator to achieve the desired transient response and stability, and then add on a lag
compensator to improve the steady-state response.

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 66

DISCUSSION QUESTION:

1. Define compensator.
2. Differentiate lag & lead compensator.
3. Explain the lag-lead compensator.
4. What are the applications of lag compensator?
5. What are the applications of lead compensator?
6. What is gain margin?
7. What is gain cross over frequency?
8. What is phase cross over frequency?
9. What is lag compensator?
10. Why the lag compensator act as low pass filter?
11. What is damping ratio?
12. What is damped frequency of oscillation?
13. What is time response?
14. What is transient and steady response?
15. What is the importance of test signals?
16. What is order of system?
17. Name the test signals used in control system.
18. How the system is classified depending on the value of damping?
19. Give the expression for damping ratio of mechanical and electrical system?
20. What will be the nature of response of a second order system with different types
of damping?
21. What are the advantages in frequency domain design?
22. Why compensation is necessary in feedback control system?
23. What are the information’s that can be obtained from frequency response plots?
24. What are the characteristics of a lag compensator?
25. Give the function of lag network.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 67

Ex.No:
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF P,PI AND PID CONTROLLERS
DATE:

OBJECTIVE:
Study the three term (PID) controller and its effects on the feedback loop
response. Investigate the characteristics of the each of proportional (P), the integral
(I), and the derivative (D) controls, and how to use them to obtain a desired
response.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT/SOFTWARE
Following equipment/software is required:
 MATLAB

CATEGORY: Soft – Experiment

THEORY:

Introduction: Consider the following unity feedback system:

Plant: A system to be controlled.

Controller: Provides excitation for the plant; Designed to control the overall system
behavior.
The three-term controller: The transfer function of the PID controller looks like the
following:

KP = Proportional gain
KI = Integral gain
KD = Derivative gain
First, let's take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loop system using the
schematic shown above. The variable (e) represents the tracking error, the difference
between the desired input value (R) and the actual output (Y). This error signal (e) will
be sent to the PID controller, and the controller computes both the derivative and the

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 68

integral of this error signal. The signal (u) just past the controller is now equal to the
proportional gain (KP) times the magnitude of the error plus the integral gain (KI) times
the integral of the error plus the derivative gain (KD) times the derivative of the error.

This signal (u) will be sent to the plant, and the new output (Y) will be obtained. This
new output (Y) will be sent back to the sensor again to find the new error signal (e). The
controller takes this new error signal and computes its derivatives and its internal again.
The process goes on and on.
Example Problem:
Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper problem.

The modeling equation of this system is

Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation (1), we get

The transfer function between the displacement X(s) and the input F(s) then becomes

Let
 M = 1kg
 b = 10 N.s/m
 k = 20 N/m

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 69

 F(s) = 1
Plug these values into the above transfer function

The goal of this problem is to show you how each of Kp, Ki and Kd contributes to obtain
 Fast rise time
 Minimum overshoot
 No steady-state error
Open-loop step response: Let's first view the open-loop step response.
num=1;
den=[1 10 20];
plant=tf(num,den);
step(plant)
MATLAB command window should give you the plot shown below.

This corresponds to the steady-state error of 0.95, quite large indeed. Furthermore, the
rise time is about one second, and the settling time is about 1.5 seconds. Let's design a
controller that will reduce the rise time, reduce the settling time, and eliminates the
steady-state error.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 70

PROPORTIONAL CONTROL:
The closed-loop transfer function of the above system with a proportional controller is:

Let the proportional gain (KP) equal 300:

Kp=300;
contr=Kp;
sys_cl=feedback(contr*plant,1);
t=0:0.01:2;
step(sys_cl,t)
MATLAB command window should give you the following plot.

Note: The MATLAB function called feedback was used to obtain a closed-loop transfer
function directly from the open-loop transfer function (instead of computing closed-loop
transfer function by hand). The above plot shows that the proportional controller reduced
both the rise time and the steady-state error, increased the overshoot, and decreased the
settling time by small amount.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 71

PROPORTIONAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROL:

The closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a PD controller is:

Let KP equal 300 as before and let KD equal 10.

Kp=300;
Kd=10;
contr=tf([Kd Kp],1);
sys_cl=feedback(contr*plant,1);
t=0:0.01:2;
step(sys_cl,t)

MATLAB command window should give you the following plot.

This plot shows that the derivative controller reduced both the overshoot and the settling
time, and had a small effect on the rise time and the steady-state error.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 72

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL CONTROL:

Before going into a PID control, let's take a look at a PI control. For the given system,
the closed-loop transfer function with a PI control is:

Let's reduce the KP to 30, and let KI equal 70.

Kp=30;
Ki=70;
contr=tf([Kp Ki],[1 0]);
sys_cl=feedback(contr*plant,1);
t=0:0.01:2;
step(sys_cl,t)
MATLAB command window gives the following plot.

We have reduced the proportional gain (Kp) because the integral controller also reduces
the rise time and increases the overshoot as the proportional controller does (double
effect). The above response shows that the integral controller eliminated the steady-state
error.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 73

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROL:

Now, let's take a look at a PID controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the given
system with a PID controller is:

After several trial and error runs, the gains Kp=350, Ki=300, and Kd=50 provided the
desired response. To confirm, enter the following commands to an m-file and run it in
the command window. You should get the following step response.
Kp=350;
Ki=300;
Kd=50;
contr=tf([Kd Kp Ki],[1 0]);
sys_cl=feedback(contr*plant,1);
t=0:0.01:2;
step(sys_cl,t)

Now, we have obtained a closed-loop system with no overshoot, fast rise time, and no
steady state error.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 75

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 76

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. What is the need for controller?

2. What are the different types of controllers?
3. What is function of P controller?
4. What is the purpose of the I controller?
5. What is the use of D controller?
6. What is the use of PI controller in the control system?
7. What is the use of PID controller in the controller system?
8. What is reset rate?
9. What is PD controller?
10. What is the drawback of P controller?
11. What is the advantage and disadvantage of integral controller?
12. Write the transfer fuction of P, PI, PD, PID controller?
13. Give an example for PID controller?
14. Why derivative controller is not employed in isolation?
15. Sketch the step response of P&PI controller?
16. What is integral control action?
17. Draw the ramp response of P, PI&PID controller?
18. What is automatic controller?
19. What are the basic components of automatic control system?
20. Addition of I controller into p controller provides good
How?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 77

Ex.No:
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS
DATE:
BOJECTIVE:
To analyze the stability of linear system using Bode plot/ Root Locus /
NyquistPlot.

List of Equipment/Software

Following equipment/software is required:

• MATLAB

CATEGORY: Soft Experiment

THEORY:
A Linear Time-Invariant System is stable if the following two conditions of
system stability are satisfied. When the system is excited by a bounded input, the output
is also bounded. In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero, irrespective
of the initial conditions.

PROCEDURE:

1. Write a Program to obtain the Bode plot / Root locus / Nyquist plot for the given
system.
2. Determine the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 78

PROGRAM:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 79

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 80

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. What is characteristic equation?

2. What are the necessary conditions for stability?
3. What is the relation between stability and coefficient of characteristic
polynomial?
4. Define BIBO stability?
5. What is the requirement for BIBO stability?
6. What will be nature of impulse response when the roots of characteristic equation
are lying on the imaginary axis?
7. How will you find root locus on real axis?
8. How will you find gain K at t point on root locus?
9. What is dominant pole?
10. How to find root locus in imaginary axis?
11. How will you fix dominant pole on root locus?
12. How the roots of the equation are related to stability?
13. What do you mean by relative stability?
14. What do you mean by root locus technique?
15. Define stability?
16. What is marginally stable system?
17. What are root contours?
18. What are break away points?
19. What should be the value of phase margin and gain for a stable closed loop
system?
20. What is conditionally stable system?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 81

Ex.No:
TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS USING MATLAB
DATE:

OBJECTIVE:
Study the time response analysis using MATLAB for the given system.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT/SOFTWARE

Following equipment/software is required:

 MATLAB

CATEGORY: Soft – Experiment

INTRODUCTION:

In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system to an input is

expressed as a function of time. It is possible to compute the time response of a system if
the nature of input and the mathematical model of the system are known.
Usually, the input signals to control systems are not known fully ahead of time.
In a radar tracking system, the position and the speed of the target to be tracked may
vary in a random fashion. It is therefore difficult to express the actual input signals
mathematically by simple equations. The characteristics of actual input signals are a
sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant velocity, and constant acceleration. The
dynamic behavior of a system is therefore judged and compared under application of
standard test signals – an impulse, a step, a constant velocity, and constant acceleration.
Another standard signal of great importance is a sinusoidal signal.
The time response of any system has two components: transient response and the
steady-state response. Transient response is dependent upon the system poles only and
not on the type of input. It is therefore sufficient to analyze the transient response using a
step input. The steady-state response depends on system dynamics and the input
quantity. It is then examined using different test signals by final value theorem.
Standard test signals
a) Step signal: r (t )  Au (t ).

b) Ramp signal: r (t )  At ; t > 0.

c) Parabolic signal: r (t )  At 2 / 2; t > 0.

d) Impulse signal: r (t )  d (t ).
Time response specifications
Control systems are generally designed with damping less than one, i.e.,
oscillatory step response. Higher order control systems usually have a pair of complex

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 82

conjugate poles with damping less than unity that dominate over the other poles.
Therefore the time response of second- and higher-order control systems to a step input
is generally of damped oscillatory nature as shown in Figure next (next page).
In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control system to a unit
step input, we usually specify the following:
1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time, tr
3. Peak time, t p
4. Peak overshoot, M p
5. Settling time, t s
6. Steady-state error, ess

1. Delay time, td : It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value
in first attempt.
2. Rise time, tr : It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100% of the
final value for the underdamped system.
3. Peak time, t p : It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time
response or the peak overshoot.
4. Settling time, t s : It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a
specified tolerance band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
5. Peak overshoot, M p : It is the normalized difference between the time response peak
and the steady output and is defined as,
c(t )  c(�)
%M p  p �100%
c(�)

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 83

6. Steady-state error, ess : It indicates the error between the actual output and desired
output as ‘t’ tends to infinity.
ess  lim[r (t )  c(t )] .
t ��

Let us now obtain the expressions for the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot, and
settling time for the second order system.
p 
1.Risetime, tr : Put y (t )  1 at t  tr , � sin(wd tr   )  0  sin p , � tr  ;
wd
  cos 1 z .
dy
2. Peak time, t p : Put  0 and solve for t  t p ;
dt
swn s t
0 e sin(wd t   )  wn e s t cos(wd t   ) .
wd

wd w n 1  z 2 1 z 2
� tan(wd t p   )     tan  ,
s zwn z
� wd t p  kp k  0,1, 2,L

Peak overshoot occurs at k = 1. � t p  p / wd  p / wn 1  z 2 .

w n s t s 4
3. Settling time, t s : For 2% tolerance band, e  0.02 , � ts @  4T .
wd s
4. Steady-state error, ess : It is found previously that steady-state error for step input is
zero.
Let us now consider ramp input, r (t )  tu (t ) .
1 1 wn2
Then, ess  lim s{R ( s)  Y ( s)}  lim s{ 2  2 �2 }
s �0 s �0 s s s  2zwn s  wn2

1��s  2zwn s  wn  wn �
2 2 2
1 wn2 � 2zwn 2z
ess  lim {1  2 }  lim � 2 � 2  .
s �0 s s  2zwn s  wn2 s �0 s
� s  2zwn s  wn
2
� wn wn
�
2z
Therefore, the steady-state error due to ramp input is .
wn

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 84

Effect of damping ratio ζ on performance measures. For a single-loop second order

feedback system given below

Find the step response of the system for values of ωn = 1 and ζ = 0.1, 0.4, 0.7, 1.0 and
2.0.

PROGRAM:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 85

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 86

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. What is known as position controller?

2. Why there is a need for position control?
3. What are the major types of control system?
4. What is open loop control system?
5. What is closed loop control system?
6. What is actual load position?
7. What is desired load position?
8. What is maximum peak overshoot?
9. What is bandwidth?
10. What are frequency domain specifications?
11. What is resonant frequency?
12. What is cut-off rate?
13. What is resonant peak?
14. Write the expression for resonant peak and resonant frequency?
15. How can you measured actual and load position is measured?
16. How the position of DC control system can be varied?
17. What is the relation between maximum overshoot and damping ratio?
18. What is peak time?
19. What are the components of feedback control system?
20. What are the basic components of automatic control system?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 87

Ex.No: STUDY OF SYNCHROS

DATE:

OBJECTIVE:
To study about
 The synchro transmitter and receiver pair and to draw the relation between
synchro transmitter input and synchro receiver output (angular position of both as
an error detector).
 The synchro transmitter and to draw the transformation of angular position of the
rotor of synchro transmitter into a set of stator voltages (as a transducer).

(A) SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER PAIR

(As an error detector)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

(i) Synchro transmitter receiver pair kit,

(ii) Patch cords.

CATEGORY: Soft Experiment

THEORY:

Synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular

position of the shaft into an electric signals, The basic synchro is usually called as
synchro transmitter. Its construction is similar to that of a three phase alternator. The
stator is of laminated steal and isolated to accommodate a balanced three phase winding
which is usually of concentric coil type (three identical coils are placed in the stator with
their axis 120 degree apart) and is star connected. The rotor is dumb bell construction
and wound with a concentric coils. An ac voltage is applied to the rotor winding through
slip rings.
Let the voltage VR(t) = VRSSinωt ----------------------------(1)
Be applied to the rotor of SR = Synchro transmitter. This voltage causes a flow of
magnetic circuit in the rotor coil which produces a sinusoidally in the air gap along stator
periphery. Because of transformer action voltages are induced in each stator coil.
The stator coil voltages are in time phase with other. Thus the synchro transmitter
acts like a single phase transformer in which the rotor coil is in the primary and stator
coil terms three secondary.
Let VS1N, VS2N, VS3N respectively be the voltages induced in the stator coils S1, S2,
S3 with respect to neutral then for rotor position of the synchro transmitter is as shown in
the figure. When the rotor axis makes an angle zero with the axis of stator coil S2.
Let VS1N = KVRSinωt Cos(θ+120) -----------------------------------(2)
VS2N = KVRSinωt Cos(θ) -----------------------------------(3)
VS3N = KVRSinωt Cos(θ+240) -----------------------------------(4)

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SYNCHRO DIAGRAM

The three terminal voltages of the stator are

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VS1S2 = VS1N – VS2N = 3KVRSinωt Sin (θ+240) ----------------(5)

VS2S3 = VS2N – VS3N = 3KVRSinωt Sin (θ+120) ----------------(6)
VS3S1 = VS3N – VS1N = 3KVRSinωt Sin (θ) ----------------(7)

When “θ” is zero from the equation it is seen that maximum voltages is induced in the
stator coil S2 while it follows from the equations 7 that the terminal voltage V S3S1 = 0.
This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the Tx and is used as a
reference for specifying the angular position
of the rotor thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position
of its rotor shaft and the output is set such that single phase voltages given by equations
5,6,7 the magnitudes of these voltages are the functions of the shaft position X.

The classical synchro system consist of two units,

(1) Synchro transmitter “Tx”
(2) Synchro receiver “TR”.

The synchro receiver is having almost the same constructional feature. The 2
units are connected as shown in the figure. Initially the winding S 2 of the stator of
transmitter is positioned for maximum coupling with rotor winding suppose the voltage
is V, the coupling between S1 & S2. The stator and primary rotor winding is a cosine
function. The effective voltages in this winding are proportional to cos60 degree or they
are V/2 each. So long as the rotor of the transmitter and receiver remain in this position
no current will flow between the winding because of voltage balance.

When the rotor of Tx is moved to a new position the voltage balanced is

disturbed. Assume that the rotor of Tx is moved through 30 degree the stator winding
voltage will be changed through zero, 0.866v respectively thus there is a voltage
inbalance between winding causes currents flow through the closed circuit producing
torque that tends to rotate the rotor of the receiver to a new position where the voltage
balance is again restored this balance is again restored. If the receiver turns through the
same angle as the transmitter and also the same angle as the transmitter and also the
direction of rotation is the same as that of Tx. The Tx, tr pair thus seems to transmit
information regarding angular position at one point to the remote point.

PRECAUTION:

 Handle the pointers for both the rotors in a gentle manner

 Do not attempt to pull the pointers
 Do not short the stator terminals

PROCEDURE:
(1) Connect the mains supply to the system with the help of cable provided
(2) Connect S1, S2 & S3 terminal of synchro transmitter to S1, S2 & S3 of synchro
receiver by patch cords provided.
(3) Switch ON the SW1, SW2 and also ON the main supply.

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OBSERVATION:

SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER PAIR (ANGULAR POSITION)

ANGULAR POSITION IN DEGREE ANGULAR POSITION IN DEGREE

SL.NO
SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER SYNCHRO RECEIVER

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(4) Move the pointer rotor position of synchro transmitter in steps of 30 degree and
observe the rotor new position of the synchro receiver.
(5) The readings are tabulated in the tabular column.
(6) It is observed that whenever transmitter is rotated the receiver follows it for both
the direction of rotation and their positions.

(B) SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER

(As a transducer)

THEORY:

Synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an

angular position of the shaft into an electric signal; the basic synchro is usually called as
synchro transmitter. Its construction is similar to that of a three phase alternator. The
stator is of laminated steel and isolated to accommodate a balanced three phase winding
which is usually of concentric coil type (three identical coils are placed in the stator with
their axis 120 degree apart).

The three terminal voltages of the stator are,

VS1S2 = VS1N – VS2N = 3KVRSinωt Sin (θ+240)
---------------- (1)
VS2S3 = VS2N – VS3N = 3KVRSinωt Sin (θ+120)
---------------- (2)
VS3S1 = VS3N – VS1N = 3KVRSinωt Sin (θ)
---------------- (3)

From the equation (3), the terminal voltage VS3S1= 0 this position of the
rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the tx and is used as reference for specifying the
angular position of the rotor. Hence it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is
the angular of its rotor shaft and the output is set such that single phase voltages given by
equation 1, 2, 3 the magnitudes of these voltages are the function of the shaft position.

PRECAUTION:
 Handle the pointers for both the rotors in a gentle manner
 Do not attempt to pull the pointers
 Do not short the stator terminals

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the mains supply to the system with the help of cable provided.
2. Do not connect any patch cords to terminals marked S1,S2, and S3.
3. Switch on main supply for the unit.
4. Starting from zero position of rotor shaft of synchro transmitter, note down the
voltage between stator winding terminals (i.e) Vs1n, Vs2n, Vs3n in a sequential
manner.

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OBSERVATION:

SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER – RECEIVER PAIR (TRANSDUCER)

SL.NO ROTOR SHAFT POSITION Stator Terminal Voltage

( DEGREES ) VS1S2 VS2S3 VS3S1

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5. In the zero position of the rotor shaft stator voltage VS3S1 is equal to almost zero
voltage.
6. The same procedure is repeated for different angular position of rotor shaft in the
way of varying 30 degree between the two readings.
7. The readings are tabulated in the tabular column.

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:

1. What is synchro?
2. What is the other name of synchro?
3. What are the parts of synchro?
4. What are the components of control system?
5. What is the application of synchro?
6. How the synchros act as a transducer?
7. How the synchros act as a error detector?
8. What is meant by transmitter?
9. Where the voltages are induced &AC voltage is applied to synchro?
10. What is the function of error detector?
11. What is null position in synchro?
12. What is aligned position of a synchro?
13. What are the trade names of synchro?
14. What is electrical zero of synchro?
15. What is synchro pair?
16. Give the difference between synchro transmitter and controlled transformer?
17. Give the relation for induced emf in the stator coil?
18. What is meant by coupling coefficient?
19. Define turns ratio?
20. Where the voltages are induced &AC voltage is applied to synchro?

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Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 95

Ex.No:
STUDY OF STEPPER MOTOR
DATE:

Aim:
By conducting the suitable experiment study the construction and working
principle of a DC stepper motor

Theory:
The stepper motor is a special type of synchronous motor which is designed to
rotate through a specific angle for each electrical pulse received from its control unit
In recent years, the growth of computer industry induced a wide-spread demand for
stepper motor can be controlled directly by computers, microprocessors and
programmable controllers.
The stepping motor ideally suited for precision positioning of an object or
precision control of speed without using a closed loop feed back. The shaft of the stepper
motor rotates in a series of discrete angular intervals or steps, one step being taken each
time a command pulse is received. When a definite number of pulses are supplied, the
shaft turns through a definite known angle this makes the motor well suited for open
loop position control because no feedback is required from the shaft. The only moving
part in a stepping motor its rotor which has no winding, commutator or brushes.

STEP ANGLE
The angle through which the motor shaft rotates for each command pulse is
called step angle β. Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps / revolution and
higher the resolution or accuracy of positioning obtained. The step angle can be as small
as 0.72ْ degrees or as large as 90ْ. But most common step sizes are 1.8ْ , 2.5ْ , 7.5ْ & 15ْ .
The value of step angle can be expressed either in terms of a rotor and stator poles
(teeth) Nr and Ns respectively or in terms of the number of stator phases (m) and
number of rotor teeth (Nr).

NS ~ Nr
β  360
NS  Nr

OR
360 360
β 
m  Nr No.of Stator Phases  No. of rotor Teeths

Resolution is the number of steps needed to complete one revolution.

No. of Steps 360 No. of Pulses

Resolution = Revolution  β

Revolution

The stepper motor has the extraordinary ability to operate at very high stepping rate of
20,000 steps per second in some motors. Operation at very high speed is called

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‘slewing’. When in the slewing range, the motor generally emits an audible whine
having a fundamental frequency equal to stepping rate .if f is the stepping frequency (or)
pulse rate in pulse per second and β is step angle then the motor shaft speed is given by
No. of pulse Revolution
f  , n and
βf Second Second
n Rps. Where
360 No. of pulse 360
Resolution  
revolution Second

Stepping motors are designed to operate for long periods with the rotor held in a fixed
position and with the rated current flowing in the stator winding for other motors this
will result in collapse of back emf and very high current which can lead to quick burn
out the stator winding.

Permanent-Magnet Stepping Motor

Construction: It has a wound stator poles and the rotor is made of permanent magnet
material like magnetically ‘hard’ ferrite. As shown in the Fig.1, the rotor has projecting
poles but the rotor is cylindrical and has radially magnetized permanent magnets. The
operating principle of such a motor can be understood with the help of Fig.1 (a) where
the rotor has two poles and the stator has four poles. Since two stator poles are energized
by one winding, the motor has two windings or phases marked A and B. The step angle
of this motor β = 360°/mNr = 360° / 2 x 2 = 90° or β =(4 - 2) x 360° /2 x 4 = 90°.
Working: When a particular stator phase is energized, the rotor magnetic poles move
into alignment with the excited stator poles. The stator windings A and B can be excited
with either polarity current. Fig.1 (a) shows the condition when phase A is excited with
positive current. Here, θ = 0°. If excitation is now switched to Phase B as in Fig.1 (b),
the rotor rotates by full step of 90° in the clockwise direction. Next, when phase A is
excited with negative current, the rotor turns through another 90° in CW direction as
shown in Fig. 1 (c). Similarly, excitation of phase B with negative current further turns
the rotor through another 90° in the same direction as shown in Fig. 1 (d). After this,
excitation of phase A with positive current makes, the rotor turn through one complete
revolution of 360°. It will be noted that in a permanent-magnet stepper motor, the
direction of rotation depends on the polarity of the phase currents.

A A B B΄ θ
1 0 0 0 0°
1 0 1 0 45°
A A B B΄ θ 0 0 1 0 90°
A A B B΄ Θ
1 0 1 0 45° 0 1 1 0 135°
0 1 1 -0-Bannari 0 1 0 0 180°
135° Amman Institute of
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering- Technology
0 1 0 1 225° 0 1 0 1 225°
1 0 0 1 315° 0 0 0 1 270°
1 0 1 0 45° 1 0 0 1 315°
1 0 0 0 0°
Control Systems Laboratory Manual Page 97

1 0 0 0 0°
0 0 1 0 90°
0 1 0 0 180°
0 0 0 1 270°
1 0 0 0 0°
2-Phase-On Mode
1-Phase-On Mode Table No. 2
Table No. 1

1-Phase-On Mode &

2-Phase-On Mode
Table No. 3

Truth tables for three possible current sequences for producing clockwise rotation are
given in Fig.2. Table No.1 applies when only one phase is energized at a time in I-phase-
ON mode giving step size of 90°. Table No.2 represents 2-phase-ON mode when two
phases are energized simultaneously. The resulting steps are of the same size but the
effective rotor pole positions are mid way between the two adjacent full-step positions.
Table No.3 represents half-stepping when 1-phase-ON and2-phase-ON modes are used
alternately. In this case, the step size becomes half of the normal step or one-fourth of the
pole-pitch (i.e. 90° / 2 = 45° or 180°/4 = 45°). Micro step can also be employed which
will give further reduced step size there by increasing the resolution

The specification of the Stepper Motor:

1. Permanent magnet stepper motor

2. Number of phases =2
3. Step per revolution = 200
4. Step angle = 1.8° ± 0.1° Non-cumulative.
5. Holding Torque = 2.8 Kg. cm. to 84 Kg. cm. covered in different frame size
(1 Kg. cm. =0.1 N.m)

Procedure:
1. Select the stepping rate by patching on the top panel to either 100 Hz or 10 Hz or
1 Hz pulse output
2. Set the direction control toggle switch to CCW rotation.
3. Set the CON/OSC toggle switch to the CON position.
4. Connect the motor by plugging the socket on to the controller unit.
5. Switch on the AC main supply then the stepper motor will start stepping in the
CCW direction on the continuous basis.
6. Repeat the above procedure at different stepping rate selectable by the patch card
connection.
7. Repeat the above procedure for CW direction of rotation.
8. Repeat the above procedure for OSC mode of operation.

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9. Repeat the above procedure for single step operation by linking the step rate
socket to ground and single pulse command given through the push switch
marked MONO.
10. Observe the wave forms of the control logic and driver stage circuitry on a high
input impedance oscilloscope (10 M Ω or more) and the plot the wave forms.
11. Measure the frequency of pulse output at socket marked 100 Hz and measures
the rotation speed of the shaft with a non contact digital tachometer. The
rotational speed related to the pulse frequency as per the following expression.
1.8  f  60
Speed n  R.P.M.
360

INFERENCE:

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

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1. What is step angle?

2. Why there is a need for stepper motor?
3. What are the major types of stepper motor?
4. What is the resolution of stepper motor?
5. What are the directions used in stepper motor?
6. What is the difference between stepper motor and servo motor?
7. Classify stepper motor.
8. What are the specifications of the stepper motor?
9. What is slewing in stepper motor?
10. What is magnetic locking?

Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering- - -Bannari Amman Institute of Technology