Surface Chemistry

Of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Surface Chemistry
Of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Professor H. Yıldırım Erbil

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
Gebze Institute of Technology
Turkey
© 2006 Yıldırım Erbil
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Contents

Preface xi

PART I Principles

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Surfaces and Interfaces 3

1.1 Definition of a Surface and an Interface 3
1.2 Liquids and Liquid Surfaces 4
1.3 Surface Area to Volume Ratio 5
1.4 Solids and Solid Surface Roughness 6
1.5 Chemical Heterogeneity of Solid Surfaces 7

Chapter 2 – Molecular Interactions 9

2.1 Intramolecular Forces: Formation of a Molecule by Chemical
Bonding 9
2.1.1 Interatomic forces, bonds 9
2.1.2 Molecular geometry 11
2.1.3 Dipole moments 11
2.2 Intermolecular Forces and Potential Energies 18
2.3 Coulomb Interactions 24
2.4 Polar Interactions 27
2.4.1 Interactions between ions and dipolar molecules
(fixed and rotating) 27
2.4.2 Interactions between dipolar molecules (fixed) 30
2.4.3 Keesom orientation interactions: interactions between
dipolar molecules (rotating) 31
2.5 Induction Effects: Interactions Between Induced Non-polar and
Polar Molecules 32
2.5.1 Polarizability of non-polar molecules 32
2.5.2 Polarizability of polar molecules 34
2.5.3 Solvent medium effects and excess polarizabilities 34
2.5.4 Interactions between ions and induced non-polar
molecules 35
2.5.5 Interactions between ions and induced polar molecules 36
vi Contents

2.5.6 Interactions between dipolar molecules and induced

non-polar molecules (fixed) 37
2.5.7 Debye interactions: interactions between dipolar molecules and
induced dipolar molecules (rotating) 37
2.5.8 Unification of angle-averaged induction interactions 38
2.6 van der Waals Interactions 39
2.6.1 London dispersion interactions 40
2.6.2 Correllation with van der Waals constants 43
2.6.3 Comparison of Keesom, Debye and London interactions in
polar molecules 46
2.6.4 van der Waals interactions in a medium 47
2.7 Repulsive Interactions, Total Interaction Pair Potentials 48
2.7.1 van der Waals radius 49
2.7.2 Repulsive pair potentials 49
2.7.3 Total intermolecular pair potentials, Mie and
Lennard-Jones potentials 50
2.7.4 Application of total intermolecular pair potentials in a
liquid medium 51
2.8 Hydrogen-bonding Interactions 52
2.8.1 Properties of hydrogen bonds 54
2.8.2 Hydrogen bonds in water 55
2.9 Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions 57
2.9.1 Hydrophobic effect 58
2.9.2 Hydrophobic interactions 59
2.9.3 Hydrophilic interactions 60

Chapter 3 – Thermodynamics of Interfaces 62

3.1 Introduction of Thermodynamical Concepts 62
3.1.1 Thermodynamical expressions for closed systems 63
3.1.2 Thermodynamical expressions for open systems 73
3.1.3 Equilibrium between phases in heterogeneous closed
systems 78
3.2 Gibbs Dividing Interface 81
3.2.1 Thermodynamical definition of an interface 81
3.2.2 Physical description of a real liquid interface 82
3.2.3 Definitions of surface and interfacial free energy, and surface
and interfacial tension 85
3.2.4 Surface free energy and surface tension of liquids 86
3.2.5 Thermodynamics of Gibbs dividing interface and surface
excess functions 90
3.3 Thermodynamics of Adsorption 97
3.3.1 Gibbs adsorption isotherm 99
3.3.2 Surface equation of state 102
3.4 Conditions of Equilibrium where Several Surfaces Intersect 102
3.5 Relation of Thermodynamic Parameters with Intermolecular Forces 103
3.5.1 Internal pressure and van der Waals constants 105
 Contents vii

3.5.2 Relation of van der Waals constants with molecular pair

potentials 106
3.5.3 Cohesive energy and close-packed molecules in condensed
systems 109
3.5.4 Derivation of Trouton’s rule 111
3.5.5 Molecular interactions at the surface 113

PART II Liquids

Chapter 4 – Pure Liquid Surfaces 117

4.1 What is a Liquid State? 117
4.2 Phase Transition of Pure Liquids 121
4.2.1 Liquid–vapor boundary: vapor pressure change by
temperature: Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 123
4.2.2 Liquid–solid boundary 125
4.3 Curved Liquid Surfaces: Young–Laplace Equation 126
4.3.1 Young–Laplace equation from Newton mechanics 127
4.3.2 Young–Laplace equation from curvature 128
4.3.3 Young–Laplace equation from plane geometry 135
4.4 Capillarity 136
4.5 Liquid Surface Tension Variation by Temperature 140
4.6 Parachor 142
4.7 Liquid Surface Tension Variation by Pressure: Kelvin Equation 143
4.8 Capillary Condensation 147
4.9 Nucleation 149
4.9.1 Homogeneous nucleation during a phase transition 150
4.9.2 Rate of homogeneous nucleation 153
4.9.3 Heterogeneous nucleation during a phase transition 154

Chapter 5 – Liquid Solution Surfaces 156

5.1 Equilibrium in Solutions 156
5.2 Mixing and Excess Thermodynamic Functions 158
5.2.1 Mixing of ideal gas and liquid solutions 158
5.2.2 Excess thermodynamic functions 159
5.3 Regular Solutions and Solubility Parameter Approach 161
5.3.1 Cohesive energy density 161
5.3.2 Solubility parameter approach 165
5.3.3 Three-component solubility parameters 166
5.4 Solutions Containing Surface-active Solutes 169
5.4.1 Effect of hydrophilic and hydrophobic group types 171
5.4.2 Types of surfactant 172
5.4.3 HLB method 175
5.5 Gibbs Surface Layers of Soluble Materials on Liquid Solutions 176
5.5.1 Gibbs monolayers: thermodynamics of adsorption 176
5.5.2 Spreading pressure 180
5.5.3 Gaseous monolayers: two-dimensional perfect gas 182
viii Contents

5.5.4 Adsorption on a water surface 186

5.5.5 Adsorption on surfaces other than water 188
5.5.6 Molecular orientation at the interface 189
5.5.7 Marangoni effect 189
5.6 Langmuir Surface Layers of Insoluble Materials on Liquids 190
5.6.1 Spreading of one liquid on another 193
5.6.2 Experimental determination of spreading pressure in
monolayers: Langmuir balance 197
5.6.3 Expanded and condensed Langmuir monolayers 199
5.6.4 Monolayers between two immiscible liquids for
three-component solutions 201
5.7 Micelles and Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC) 201
5.8 Bilayers, Vesicles, Liposomes, Biological Cell Membranes and
Inverted Micelles 207
5.8.1 Bilayers and vesicles 207
5.8.2 Liposomes 208
5.8.3 Biological cell membranes 209
5.8.4 Inverted micelles 210
5.9 Use of Micelles in Emulsion Polymerization 210
5.10 Coating Mono- and Multilayers on Solid Substrates:
Langmuir–Blodgett Method 213
5.10.1 Monolayer film transfer to solids 214
5.10.2 Multilayer film transfer to solids 217
5.10.3 Properties of LB films 221

Chapter 6 – Experimental Determination of Surface Tension at Pure Liquid

and Solution Surfaces/Interfaces 223
6.1 Liquid Surface Tension from the Capillary Rise Method 223
6.2 Drop Volume and Drop Shape Methods, Video-image
Digitization Techniques 231
6.2.1 Drop volume or drop weight method 231
6.2.2 Drop shape method and video-image digitization techniques 234
6.3 Maximum Bubble Pressure Method 234
6.4 Ring, Wilhelmy Plate Detachment and the Height of a Meniscus
on a Vertical Plane Methods 236
6.4.1 du Noüy ring method 236
6.4.2 Wilhelmy plate method 238
6.4.3 Height of a meniscus on a vertical plane method 242
6.5 Dynamic Surface Tension Measurement Methods 244
6.5.1 Dynamic maximum bubble pressure method 244
6.5.2 Spinning drop tensiometer method 245
6.6 Methods Applicable to Interfaces Between Two Liquids 246
6.7 Microtensiometry 247
6.7.1 Micropipette tensiometry 247
6.7.2 Atomic force microscopy tensiometry 248
6.8 Measurements on Molten Metals 248
6.9 Surface Tension of Surfactant Solutions 249
 Contents ix

Chapter 7 – Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 250

7.1 Similarities and Differences Between Intermolecular and
Interparticle Forces 250
7.2 Combining Rules for Molecular, Particle and Surface Interactions 252
7.3 van der Waals Interactions Between Macroscopic Bodies 254
7.3.1 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between a molecule
and a slab surface 255
7.3.2 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between a spherical
particle and a slab surface 257
7.3.3 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between spherical
particles 260
7.3.4 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between parallel slab
surfaces 261
7.3.5 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between cylinder surfaces 263
7.3.6 Comparison of sphere–surface and sphere–sphere
interactions with surface–surface interactions:
Langbein approximation 263
7.3.7 Derjaguin approximation 264
7.3.8 Macroscopic approach of Lifshitz 265
7.4 Experimental Measurement of the Hamaker Constant 268
7.5 Relation Between Hamaker Constant and Surface Tension 270
7.6 Solvent Effects on Particle and Surface Interactions 272
7.6.1 Solvent effects on molecular interactions 272
7.6.2 Combining rules for three-component systems: molecules,
particles and surfaces in a third medium 273

PART III Solids

Chapter 8 – Solid Surfaces 279

8.1 General Properties of Solid Surfaces and Their Experimental
Investigation 279
8.1.1 Properties of solid surfaces 279
8.1.2 Experimental investigation of solid surfaces and the
requirement for ultra-high vacuum 281
8.2 Surface Tension, Surface Free Energy and Surface Stress of Solids 284
8.2.1 Surface stress and its relation with surface tension and
surface free energy of solid surfaces 284
8.2.2 Theoretical estimation of the surface free energy of solids 285
8.2.3 Experimental determination of surface free energy of solids 287
8.3 Gas Adsorption on Solids 288
8.3.1 Physisorption on a gas–solid interface 289
8.3.2 Chemisorption on a gas–solid interface 290
8.3.3 Thermodynamics of gas adsorption on solids: relation with
the Gibbs adsorption equation 291
8.3.4 Experimental determination of adsorption isotherms 293
8.3.5 Types of adsorption isotherm 294
8.3.6 Ideal gas behavior: Henry’s law limit 296
x Contents

8.3.7 Langmuir adsorption isotherm 297

8.3.8 B.E.T. multi-layer adsorption isotherm 300
8.3.9 Other adsorption isotherms 302
8.3.10 Heat of adsorption 303
8.4 Catalytic Activity at Surfaces 305

Chapter 9 – Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 308

9.1 Definition, Young’s Equation and Use of Contact Angles in Industry 308
9.1.1 Theory of contact angles 308
9.1.2 Industrial applications of contact angles 311
9.2 Measurement of Static Contact Angles 312
9.2.1 Direct measurement of static contact angle by video
camera or goniometer 313
9.2.2 Captive bubble method 315
9.2.3 Sliding drop on an inclined plate method 316
9.2.4 Drop dimensions method 316
9.2.5 Static Wilhelmy plate method 318
9.3 Dynamic Contact Angle Measurement 318
9.4 Liquid Evaporation Effects During Contact Angle Measurement 321
9.4.1 Receding contact angle determination from drop evaporation 321
9.4.2 Drop evaporation theory for spherical and ellipsoidal drops 321
9.5 Contact Angle of Powders 324
9.6 Contact Angle Hysteresis and its Interpretation 325
9.6.1 Effect of surface roughness 326
9.6.2 Effect of chemical heterogeneity 327
9.6.3 Other reasons for contact angle hysteresis 328
9.7 Temperature Dependence of Contact Angle 329
9.8 Solid Surface Tension Calculations from Contact Angle Results 330
9.8.1 Critical surface tension of solids (Zisman’s method) 330
9.8.2 Geometric-mean approach (Fowkes’ and later Owens and
Wendt’s method) 331
9.8.3 Harmonic-mean approach (Wu’s method) 333
9.8.4 Equation of state approach (Neumann’s method) 333
9.8.5 Acid–base approach (van Oss–Good method) 334

Chapter 10 – Some Applications Involving Solid–Liquid Interfaces 338

10.1 Adsorption from Solution 338
10.1.1 Properties and experimental aspects 338
10.1.2 Composite adsorption isotherms from binary liquid mixtures 339
10.1.3 Individual adsorption isotherms from dilute solutions 341
10.2 Detergency 342
10.2.1 Mechanisms of detergent action 342
10.2.2 Properties of a good detergent 345
10.2.3 Functions of detergent additives 345

Index 347
Preface

The main objective of this book is to provide a general physical chemistry background
in a clear manner to students and scientists working with solid–liquid interfaces. The
number of industries related to surface chemistry and physics have increased dramatically
during the past decades through the rapid development of surface coatings, adhesives, tex-
tiles, oil recovery, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, biomedical, biotechnology, agriculture,
mineral flotation, lubrication industries and the introduction of newly emerged nano-
technology. A great number of publications on these subjects over the last decade have
resulted in a better understanding of all of these scientific fields, which are mostly inter-
disciplinary in nature, where high-vacuum physicists, colloid and polymer chemists,
biologists, and chemical, material, biomedical, environmental, and electronic engineers are
all contributing.
Unfortunately, most standard textbooks on physical chemistry pay only limited atten-
tion to surface science at present. Consequently, many graduates in the fields of chemistry,
physics, biology, engineering and materials science enter their careers ignorant of even the
basic concepts of important surface interactions and are now under pressure to solve an
increasing number of challenging new problems. Thus, knowledge of the fundamental
principles of interfacial chemistry and physics is going to become a requisite for all the
research and technical personnel in these industries. Although a number of excellent books
are available in both surface and colloid sciences, and in polymer, solid physics and chem-
istry, these can seem daunting due to their written for experts nature. This book is intended
to meet the needs of newcomers to the surface field from academia or industry who want
to acquire a basic knowledge of the subject.
The text largely contains fundamental material and focuses on understanding the basic
principles rather than learning factual information. Since it is impossible to include all
branches of surface science in such an introductory book because of its wide and multi-
disciplinary scope, a specific and narrow topic, the interfacial interactions between solids
and liquids, has been chosen for this book. For this reason, the ionic interactions, charged
polymers, electrochemistry, electrokinetics and the colloid and particulate sciences cannot
be included. Some fundamental physical chemistry subjects such as basic thermodynam-
ics are covered, and many equations are derived from these basic concepts throughout the
book in order to show the links between applied surface equations and the fundamental
concepts. This is lacking in most textbooks and applied books in surface chemistry, and
for this reason, this book can be used as a textbook for a course of 14–15 weeks.
xii Preface

The book is divided into three parts: (1) Principles, (2) Liquids and (3) Solids. In Prin-
ciples, an introduction to surfaces and interfaces, molecular interactions and the thermo-
dynamics of interfaces are presented in three chapters in their most basic form. In Liquids,
the properties of pure liquid surfaces, liquid solution surfaces, the experimental determi-
nation of liquid surface tension and the potential energy of interaction between particles
and surfaces through a liquid medium are covered in four chapters. In Solids, the proper-
ties of solid surfaces, contact angles of liquid drops on solids and some applications involv-
ing solid/liquid interfaces are presented in three chapters. The aim is that both final year
undergraduate or graduate university students and also industrial researchers will find the
necessary theory they seek in this book, and will be able to use and develop these concepts
effectively. Considerable attention is devoted to experimental aspects throughout the book.
At the end of each chapter are bibliographies to which the reader may turn for further
details. Since much of the material in this book is drawn from existing treatments of the
subject, our debt to earlier writers is considerable and, we hope, fully acknowledged. This
introductory contribution cannot claim to be comprehensive; however it does hopefully
provide a clear understanding of the field by assessing the importance of related factors.
Some errors are unavoidable throughout the book and if found can be communicated by
e-mail to ([email protected]).
I am greatly indebted to my colleagues, who encouraged me to prepare this book, and
my wife Ayse and my children, Ayberk, Billur, Beril and Onur for their patience and under-
standing throughout its preparation.

H. Yıldırım Erbil
2006
 PART I

Principles
Chapter 1
Introduction to Surfaces and Interfaces

1.1 Definition of a Surface and an Interface

A phase of a substance is a form of matter that is uniform throughout in chemical com-
position and physical state. There are mainly three phases of matter namely solid, liquid
and gas. The word fluid is used to describe both gas and liquid phases. We usually classify
the phase of a material according to its state at the normal ambient temperature (20–25°C),
which is well above the melting point of most fluids. We mostly deal with two or more
phases, which coexist, in equilibrium or non-equilibrium conditions. Phase diagrams are
used as a convenient method of representing the regions of stability of solid, liquid and
gas phases under various conditions of temperature and pressure. An interface is the phys-
ical boundary between two adjacent bulk phases. The interface must be at least one molec-
ular diameter in thickness for the purpose of constructing a molecular model. In some
cases it may extend over several molecular thicknesses. We use the word surface in order
to define the physical boundary of only one of these phases, such as solid surface and liquid
surface etc. In reality, we deal with an interface in all cases other than absolute vacuum con-
ditions for solids, since every single phase is in contact with another phase such as solid–air,
liquid–air contacts. In many standard physical chemistry, surface chemistry and surface
physics textbooks, the words surface and interface are used interchangeably because the
authors neglect the small differences between the air phase and absolute vacuum condi-
tions. On the other hand, some authors define and use the word surface for only the
solid–gas and liquid–gas phase contacts, and the word interface for all of other phase con-
tacts, but this has no scientific basis and should be abandoned.
The molecules that are located at the phase boundaries (that is between solid–gas,
solid–liquid, liquid–gas and liquid1–liquid2) behave differently to those in the bulk phase.
This rule generally does not apply for solid–solid and gas–gas interfaces where atomic and
molecular bonding in the solid structure restrict the reorientation of interfacial molecules
for the former, and the ease of miscibility of different gas molecules in free space does not
allow any interface formation for the latter.
There is an orientation effect for molecules at fluid surfaces: the molecules at or near
the fluid surface will be orientated differently with respect to each other than the mole-
cules in the bulk phase. Any molecule at the fluid surface would be under an asymmetri-
cal force field, resulting in surface or interfacial tension. The nearer the molecule is to the
interfacial boundary, the greater the magnitude of the force due to asymmetry. As the dis-
4 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

tance from the interfacial boundary increases, the effect of the force field decreases and
vanishes after a certain length. Thus, in reality there is no very sharp interfacial boundary
between phases, rather there is a molecular gradient giving a change in the magnitudes of
both density and orientation of interfacial molecules. We must remember that this layer is
also very thin, usually between one and five monomolecular layers for liquid–vapour inter-
faces. The location of the so-called mathematically dividing surface (see Section 3.2.5) is
only a theoretical concept to enable scientists to apply thermodynamics and statistical
mechanics.
For solid surfaces, we should define the depth of the molecular layers, which are regarded
as surface. We may say that only the top monolayer of surface atoms and molecules, which
is the immediate interface with the other phases impinging on it, can be called the surface.
However, in practice, it depends on the spectroscopic technique that we apply: some so-
phisticated spectroscopic instruments can determine the chemical structure of the top 2–10
atomic layers (0.5–3.0 nm), thus taking this depth as the solid surface layer. In many older
books on surface chemistry or metallurgy, the surface is regarded as the top 100 nm or so
of the solid, because some older technologies can only determine the chemical structure
in the range of 10–100 nm and the surface was therefore assumed to be in this depth range.
However, at present, this range may be called an intermediate layer between the bulk and
surface structures, and only after 100 nm is it appropriate to regard such a layer in terms
of its bulk solid-state properties. Thus, in the recent scientific literature, it has become
necessary to report the solid surface layer with its thickness, such as the “top surface
monolayer”, the “surface film of 20 nm”, the “first ten layers”, or the “surface film less than
100 nm” etc.

1.2 Liquids and Liquid Surfaces

A liquid is defined as a medium which takes the shape of its container without necessar-
ily filling it. Water is the most abundant liquid on earth and is essential for living systems,
and non-aqueous liquids are widely used as solvents in synthetic, analytical, electrochem-
istry, polymer chemistry, spectroscopy, chromatography and crystallography. Molten me-
tals are also considered to be liquid solvents. We may also consider another property that
distinguishes liquids: the response of a liquid to an applied force is mainly inelastic; that
is a liquid does not return to its original shape following the application, then removal, of
a force.
The densities of liquids under normal pressures are not too dissimilar to those of their
solids between the melting and boiling points. Generally a liquid is less dense than its solid
at the melting point, but there are a few exceptions of which water is one; ice floats on
water. These less dense solids have rather open crystal structures. Silicon, germanium and
tin are other examples. Another similarity between normal liquids and solids is that they
have a low compressibility due to there not being a great deal of space between the mole-
cules in a liquid.
If we were able to observe the molecules in a liquid, we could see an extremely violent
agitation in the liquid surface. The extent of this agitation may be calculated by consider-
ing the number of molecules that must evaporate each second from the surface, in order
to maintain the measurable equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid. When a liquid is in
 Introduction to Surfaces and Interfaces 5

contact with its saturated vapor, the rate of evaporation of molecules is equal to the rate
of condensation in the equilibrium conditions. For example, it is possible to calculate from
kinetic theory that 0.25 g sec−1 water evaporates from each cm2, which corresponds to
8.5 × 1021 molecules sec−1 at 20°C having a saturated water vapor pressure of 17.5 mmHg.
However, the size of the water molecules permits only about ≈1015 molecules to be present,
closely packed in each cm2 of the surface layer at any particular moment, and we can con-
clude that the average lifetime of each water molecule is very short, ≈10−7 sec. This tremen-
dous interchange between liquid and vapor is no doubt accompanied by a similar
interchange between the interior of the liquid and its surface. However, although the
thermal agitation of water molecules is so violent that they jump in and out of the surface
very rapidly, the attractive forces between them are able to maintain the surface to within
one to three molecules thickness. The evidence for this can be derived from the nature of
light reflection from the liquid surfaces which results in completely plane polarized light
from very clean liquid surfaces, indicating an abrupt transition between air and the liquid
surface. On the other hand, the surface molecules of a liquid are mobile, that is they are
also in constant motion parallel to the surface, diffusing long distances. Other properties
of liquid surfaces will be described in Chapter 4.
Liquid surfaces tend to contract to the smallest possible surface area for a given volume
resulting in a spherical drop in equilibrium with its vapor. It is clear that work must
be done on the liquid drop to increase its surface area. This means that the surface mole-
cules are in a state of higher free energy than those in the bulk liquid. This is due to the
fact that a molecule in the bulk liquid is surrounded by others on all sides and is
thus attracted in all directions and in a physical (vectorial) balance. However for a surface
molecule there is no outward attraction to balance the inward pull because there are very
few molecules on the vapor side. Consequently, every surface molecule is subject to a strong
inward attraction perpendicular to the surface resulting in a physical force per length,
which is known as surface tension (see Section 3.2.4). In addition, the tendency to mini-
mize the surface area of a fluid surface can also be explained in terms of a thermodynamic
free energy concept (see Chapter 3), since the surface molecules have fewer nearest neigh-
bors and, as a consequence, fewer intermolecular interactions than the molecules in the
bulk liquid. There is therefore a free energy change associated with the formation of a liquid
surface reversibly and isothermally, and this is called the surface free energy or, more cor-
rectly, the excess surface free energy. The surface free energy term is preferred in the litera-
ture and it is equivalent to the work done to create a surface of unit area (Joules m−2 in the
SI system). It must be remembered that this is not the total free energy of the surface mol-
ecules but the excess free energy that the molecules possess by virtue of their being located
on the surface.

1.3 Surface Area to Volume Ratio

All liquid droplets spontaneously assume the form of a sphere in order to minimize their
surface free energy by minimizing their surface area to volume ratio, as we will see in the
thermodynamic treatment in Chapter 3. The surface area to volume ratio can easily be cal-
culated for materials having exact geometric shapes by using well-known geometric for-
mulas. For example, for a sphere and a cube this ratio is
6 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 A  = (4prsph ) = 3 ,  A 
2
6a 2 6
= 3c =
 V  sph (4 3 prsph
3
) rsph V cube ac ac
  (1)

where rsph is the radius of the sphere and ac is the edge length of the cube. A comparison
between the surface area to volume ratio of any geometrically shaped objects can be made
by equating their volumes and then calculating their respective surface areas. For example,
the edge length of a cube in terms of the radius of a sphere having the same volume is, ac
= rsph(3/4p)1/3 thus giving an area ratio of
13
Asph  p 
= ≅ 0.806 (2)
Acube  6 
The same approach may be applied to any geometric shape; the sphere has the minimum
surface area for a given volume due to the fact that it has a completely curved profile
without sharp edges (see Section 4.3 for the definition of curvature and its applications in
surface science). For materials having irregular geometric shapes, well-known integration
techniques from calculus are applied to calculate the surface area to volume ratio.

1.4 Solids and Solid Surface Roughness

An ideal solid surface is atomically flat and chemically homogenous. However, in reality
there is no such ideal surface, all real solid surfaces have a surface roughness over varying
length scales and they are also chemically heterogeneous to a degree due to the presence
of impurities or polycrystallinity differences. Surface roughness is defined as the ratio of
real surface area to the plan area and can be determined by Atomic Force Microscopy
(AFM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and other spectroscopic methods, and also
by measuring the advancing and receding contact angles of liquid drops on substrates.
Solid surfaces are very complex: they have numerous small cracks in their surfaces and
are not single crystals, but often aggregates of small crystals and broken pieces in all pos-
sible orientations, with some amorphous materials in the interstices. Even if the solid is
wholly crystalline, and consists of a single crystal, there may be many different types of
surface on it; the faces, edges and corners will all be different. A metallic, covalent and ionic
crystal is regarded as a single giant molecule. The atoms of a solid crystal (or molecules in
a molecular crystal) are practically fixed in position. They stay where they are placed when
the surface is formed, and this may result in no two adjacent atoms (or molecules) having
the same properties on a solid surface. Crystal defects affect the crystal’s density and heat
capacity slightly, but they profoundly alter the mechanical strength, electrical conductivity
and catalytic activity. In a simple metal surface, there are many possible types of position
and linkage of the surface atoms, which confer different chemical properties in different
regions. For materials other than metals, the possibilities of variety of surface structure
from atom to atom must be far greater through the formation of elevations and cavities.
The presence of cracks in a surface decreases the strength of the crystals from that deduced
from theoretical considerations. The loss of mechanical strength may be due to surface
imperfections or internal cracks.
Wettability and repellency are important properties of solid surfaces from both funda-
mental and practical aspects. Wettability is the ability of a substrate to be covered with
 Introduction to surfaces and Interfaces 7

water or other liquids. Wettability can be seen when a liquid is brought into contact with
a solid surface initially in contact with a gas or another liquid (see Chapters 9, 10). Many
processes may happen: this liquid may spread on the substrate without any limit, displac-
ing the entire original fluid surface from the entire solid surface area available, corres-
ponding to a contact angle of 0° (see Section 9.1 on the definition of contact angles).
Alternatively, the liquid may move out over the solid displacing the original fluid; however
it halts when the contact angle between the liquid–fluid and solid–liquid interfaces reaches
a certain value. This shows the magnitude of the wettability of the substrate with this liquid.
Lastly, there is no wettability such that the substrate repels the liquid forcing it to form a
spherical drop corresponding to a contact angle of 180°. Thus, wettability can be deter-
mined by measuring the contact angle of a water drop resting on a solid substrate. When
the effects of surface stains or adsorption of other materials are ignored, the wettability of
the solid surface is a characteristic material property and strongly depends on both the
surface energy arising from the surface chemical structure and the surface roughness.
Wenzel and later Cassie and Baxter provided different expressions showing the relation-
ship between the contact angle and the roughness of a solid surface. The determination of
wettability is important in adhesion, detergency, lubrication, friction, coating operations,
flotation, catalysis and many other processes in chemical, mechanical, mineral, metallurgy,
microelectronics, biomedical and biological industries.

1.5 Chemical Heterogeneity of Solid Surfaces

The chemical structure of the top surface layers of a solid determines its surface free energy.
If these top surface layers consist of the same chemical groups, it is called chemically homo-
geneous, and if they consist of different chemical groups, it is called a chemically hetero-
geneous surface. The presence of two or more chemically different solid substances in a
surface layer enormously multiplies the possibility of variety in the type of surface. Copoly-
mer surfaces and catalysts having many different atoms at the surface are good examples
for this. If desired, it is possible to impart chemical heterogeneity locally, for example con-
centric cylinders, stripes, patches etc. for various special applications. Measuring the
contact angle hysteresis of liquid drops on a surface or measuring the heat of adsorption
can check the presence of chemical heterogeneity (see also Chapter 9). The surface free
energy is different for each region (or patch) for chemically heterogeneous surfaces and
during an adsorption process, the higher free-energy spots (or patches) are filled first. Some
dynamic experiments, for example adsorption chromatography, give information on sur-
face heterogeneity.
Chemical heterogeneity of a surface is an important property affecting adhesion, adsorp-
tion, wettability, biocompatibility, printability and lubrication behavior of a surface. It seri-
ously affects gas and liquid adsorption capacity of a substrate and also the extent of a
catalysis reaction. As an example, the partial oxidation of carbon black surfaces has an
important, influence on their adsorptive behavior. In a chemically heterogeneous catalyst,
the composition and the chemical (valence) state of the surface atoms or molecules are
very important, and such a catalyst may only have the power to catalyze a specific chemi-
cal reaction if the heterogeneity of its surface structure can be controlled and reproduced
during the synthesis. Thus in many instances, it is necessary to determine the chemical
8 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

composition, structural and electronic states and bonding properties of molecules at the
solid surface. Such a complete surface investigation can be done by applying several ad-
vanced spectroscopic surface analysis techniques.

References
1. Adam, N.K. (1968). The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
2. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
3. Lyklema, L. (1991). Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science (vol I). Academic Press, London.
4. Atkins, P.W. (1998). Physical Chemistry (6th edn). Oxford University Press, Oxford.
5. Murrell, J.N. and Jenkins, A.D. (1994). Properties of Liquids and Solutions (2nd edn). Wiley,
Chichester.
6. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973). An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Chapter 2
Molecular Interactions

Molecules in gas, liquid, solid and colloidal particles in a sol and biological macromole-
cules in living systems interact with each other. Knowledge of these interactions is manda-
tory since they determine all of the static and also the dynamic properties of the system.
First of all, we should discriminate between the chemical and physical interactions.
Chemical interatomic forces form chemical bonds within a molecule. However, the inter-
molecular forces between molecules are different from chemical interatomic forces because
they are physical in nature. In the first part of this chapter (Section 2.1) we will examine
the chemical bonding within a molecule and also the effects of geometry and dipole
moments in molecules. We will consider the physical interactions between molecules in
the rest of the chapter (Sections 2.2 to 2.9).

2.1 Intramolecular Forces: Formation of a Molecule by

Chemical Bonding
2.1.1 Interatomic forces, bonds

The interatomic forces between atoms result in an atomic aggregate with sufficient stabil-
ity to form chemical bonds within a molecule. According to the valence bond theory, a
chemical bond is formed when an electron in one atomic orbital pairs its spin with that of
an electron supplied by another atomic orbital, these electrons are then shared between
two or more atoms so that the discrete nature of the atom is lost. Three main types of
chemical bond are considered: covalent, electrostatic (ionic) and metallic bonds.
In the covalent bond type, two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons between them
to attain a more stable electronic grouping. Sharing of pairs of electrons is a simple way of
enabling two atoms to complete octets, which lack only a few electrons. Covalent bonding
is the opposite extreme from pure ionic bonding because the bond is formed between like
atoms and there is no excess net charge on one atom over that on the other. The electrons
are shared by the two atoms and there is a physical accumulation of electrons in the space
by the two nuclei. An electron outside two nuclei would tend to pull them apart, by pulling
on the nearby nucleus more strongly than on the far one. On the other hand, an electron
between two nuclei tends to draw them together. That shared electron acts almost like a
glue in bonding atoms together. Examples of covalent bonds are provided by the diatomic
10 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

molecules, H2, N2, O2, Cl2 etc. and the carbon compounds in the whole of organic chem-
istry. Covalent bonds can only be understood by wave mechanics. Wave and quantum
mechanics explain that atoms are bonded covalently because an increase in electron prob-
ability in the internuclear region leads to lowering of the electrostatic potential energy
(it becomes more negative) relative to the separated atoms.
Covalent bonds are very short-ranged, highly directional and strong. They have direc-
tionality so they are oriented at well-defined angles relative to each other. In crystalline
solids, the covalent bonds determine the way they will coordinate themselves to form an
ordered three-dimensional lattice. Covalent bonds operate over very short interatomic
separations (0.1–0.2 nm). Typically covalent bond formation energies range from 80 to
400 kT per molecule, which corresponds to 200 to 1000 kJ mol−1 at room temperature
(where k = 1.381 × 10−23 JK−1 is Boltzmann’s constant) and they decrease in strength with
increasing bond length. The covalent bond is so strong that extreme temperatures or strong
electrostatic energy sources are required to disassociate the covalently bound molecules
into their constitutent atoms.
In an electrostatic (ionic) bond type, one atom gives one or more electrons to another
atom or atoms; then ions are produced which are said to form an electrostatic bond
between them to attain a more stable electronic grouping in a molecule. The most impor-
tant electrostatic bond is the ionic bond resulting from the Coulomb attraction of oppo-
site charges. The atoms of metallic elements such as sodium, potassium etc. lose their outer
electrons easily, whereas those of nonmetallic elements tend to add additional electrons; in
this way stable cations and anions may be formed which essentially retain their electronic
structures as they approach one another to form a stable molecule or crystal. Ionic crys-
tals have been found to be the most suited to simple theoretical treatment. The simplicity
of the theory is due in part to the importance in the electrostatic interactions of the well-
understood Coulomb terms (see Section 2.3) and in part to the spherical symmetry of the
electron distributions of the ions with noble-gas configurations whose electronic group-
ings are the most stable, having complete octet electrons in their outer shell. The resultant
ionic bonds are long-ranged, non-directional and not so strong. For example, the transfer
of electrons from sodium metal atoms to chlorine gas atoms generates ionically bonded
sodium chloride molecules for which the bond formation energy is 185 kT per molecule
at room temperature.
In a metallic bond, the valence electrons of the atoms are common to the entire metal
aggregate, so that a kind of gas of free electrons pervades it. The interaction between this
electron gas and the positive metal ions leads to a strong interaction force. An ideal metal
crystal consists of a regular array of ion-cores with valence electrons somewhat free to move
throughout the whole mass resulting in exceptionally high electrical and thermal conduc-
tivity. Nevertheless, no electrons in any metal are able to move throughout its interior with
total freedom. All of them are influenced to some extent by the other atomic particles
present. Metallic bonds are sometimes as strong as ionic bonds.
Since the valence bond theory is insufficient to explain the structure and behavior of
polyatomic molecules, the molecular orbital theory was developed. In this theory, it is
accepted that electrons in a polyatomic molecule should not be regarded as belonging to
particular bonds but should be treated as spreading throughout the entire molecule; every
electron contributes to the strength of every bond. A molecular orbital is considered to be
a linear combination of all the atomic orbitals of all the atoms in the molecule. Quantum
 Molecular Interactions 11

mechanics has been successfully applied to explain the structures of simple molecules in
this theory. For example, for N2 and NaCl, we can solve the Schrödinger equation to obtain
electron density maps, and we can calculate atomic dissociation energies, internuclear dis-
tances, bond lengths and angles of molecules from first principles. However the applica-
tion of quantum mechanics to molecules containing many atoms was not so successful,
and obtaining electron density maps and intramolecular energies and bond lengths of more
complex polyatomic molecules requires a combination of theoretical and experimental
information.

2.1.2 Molecular geometry

The bond length and bond strength are sufficient to define the molecular structure of a
diatomic molecule. However, a triatomic molecule requires three parameters for similar
definition: two bond lengths and a bond angle, q. The presence of the bond angles intro-
duces the molecular geometry concept. Triatomic molecules can be illustrated using plane
geometry. We can still define molecules comprising more than three atoms, in terms of
bond length and bond angles. However, in this case, three-dimensional geometry should
be used. Although the bond angles and bond lengths remain constant, the variation of the
twist between the inner atoms would allow the molecule to take on an infinite number of
structures between these limits. We need to state a dihedral angle, f, to define the struc-
ture, showing the angle of the twist in relation to a fixed position of the molecule. A
molecule with five atoms in the chain will require two dihedral angles for its full descrip-
tion, as well as some agreement as to how one angle is measured with respect to the other.
When we describe molecules with their dihedral angles, we reveal their conformations.
Conformation is especially important for molecules containing chains of carbon atoms as
found in organic and polymer chemistry.

2.1.3 Dipole moments

A molecule is built up from positively and negatively charged particles – atomic nuclei and
electrons; and in a neutral molecule like H2 the numbers of units of positive and negative
charges are exactly equal. When the molecule is centro-symmetric, as it is for a diatomic
molecule consisting of two atoms of the same kind, such as H2, N2, O2 or Cl2, the centers
of gravity of the positive and negative charges will coincide, their electron distribution is
symmetrical, and both atoms have the same electron density. However, when the atoms are
different in a molecule, known as a heteronuclear diatomic molecule – such as hydrogen flu-
oride, HF, the centers of gravity of the positive and negative charges will not coincide. Such
molecules carry no net charge but possess an electric dipole and are called dipolar or simply
polar molecules. In the HF molecule, the fluorine atom tends to draw the hydrogen’s
electron towards itself so that it has greater electronegativity than the hydrogen atom.
The resultant electron distribution in the covalent bond between these atoms is not sym-
metrical, and the electron pair is closer to the F-atom than to the H-atom. Thus, the F-end
of the bond is slightly more negative, and the H-end is slightly more positive; this imbal-
ance results in a permanent dipole moment, m. The reason for the greater electron attrac-
12 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

tion of the F-atom is the larger positive charge in its nucleus and the effect of lone-pair
electrons in its orbits. However, if we compare the amount of the residual negative charge
at the F-atom and the residual positive charge at the H-atom, it is less than the unit elec-
tronic charge that is carried by each ion of Na+Cl− ionic bonds. Therefore, the HF mole-
cule, as it exists in the gaseous state, is not an ionic compound as the formula H+F− would
imply; rather it is partially covalent which can be shown as Hd+Fd−. Such a polar molecule
with this property of charge imbalance will tend to orient itself in an electric field. The
extent of polarity in a dipolar molecule is measured by the permanent dipole moment, m,
which is defined by the equation:
m = dl (3)

where d is the effective charge (positive d + or negative d −) at each end of the molecule, and
l is the distance between the centers of these respective charges. We shall represent dipole
moments by an arrow (− → +) pointing from the negative charge to the positive charge.
The unit of dipole moment is Debye where 1 D = 3.336 × 10−30 C m (Coulomb meter). For
comparison, if we consider two unit electric charges, d = ±e (where e is elementary charge
=1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb) separated by l = 0.1 nm, the dipole moment can be calculated as
m = (1.602 × 10−19)(10−10) = 1.6 × 10−29 C m = 4.8 D. In practice, most of the molecules are
not very polar, and the experimental dipole moment values for many organic molecules
are 1–2 D.
The polarity of a molecule arises both from the difference in the electronegativities of
the member atoms and also from the lack of molecular symmetry. In polyatomic mole-
cules the polarity of the molecule is broadly determined by the combined effect of all of
the bond dipoles present. Polyatomic molecules consisting of the same type of atom can
be polar if they have low symmetry because the atoms may be in different environments
and hence carry different partial charges. For example ozone, O3, is polar because the
electron density in the central oxygen atom is different from that of the outer two oxygen
atoms. However, polyatomic molecules having different atoms within them may be non-
polar if they have high symmetry because individual bond dipoles may then cancel. For
example the linear triatomic carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 (O¨C¨O) is non-polar for
this reason. To a first approximation, it is possible to resolve the dipole moment of a poly-
atomic molecule into contributions from various bond moments (mbond) in the molecule
by applying a vectorial summation,

mmolecule = 2m bond cos b 

q
(4)
 2

where qb is the bond angle. Permanent dipole moments of some molecules, bond moments
and group moments are given in Table 2.1. The bond and group moments in this table are
approximate only, but are useful for estimating the dipole moments of new molecules.
For example, if we want to calculate the dipole moment of water vapor, we must consider
the bond angle between hydrogen and oxygen, which is 104.5°, and by using
Equation (4) we obtain mwater = 2(1.51)(cos 52.25°) = 1.85 D which fits the experimental
result well.
The dipole moment of a molecular can be measured experimentally in an applied elec-
trical field, preferably in gaseous, but also in the liquid, state. In these fluids the molecules
are randomly arranged and in constant movement. If the molecules are polar but there is
 Molecular Interactions 13

Table 2.1 Dipole moments of molecules, bonds and molecular groups in Debye units. (Values com-
piled from standard references and books especially from David R. Lide (ed.) (2003) CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics 83rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton; Smyth, C. P. (1955) Dielectric Behavior and
Structure. McGraw-Hill, New York; Israelachvili, J. (1991) Intermolecular & Surface Forces 2nd edn. Aca-
demic Press, London.)

Dipole moments of molecules

Molecule name D Molecule name D Molecule name D

C6H6 (benzene) 0 C6H5OH 1.50 H2O 1.85

CnH2n+2 (alkanes) 0 C6H5NH2 1.50 CH3Cl 1.87
CCl4 0 SO2 1.62 C2H4O (ethylene oxide) 1.90
CO2 0 CH3OH 1.70 CH3COCH3 (acetone) 2.90
CO 0.11 C2H5OH 1.70 HCONH2 (formamide) 3.70
CHCl3 1.06 C6H11OH 1.70 C6H5NO2 4.20
(chloroform) (cyclohexanol)
HCl 1.08 CH3COOH 1.70 NaCl 8.50
NH3 1.47 C6H5Cl 1.80 CsCl 10.4

Dipole moments of bonds

Bond D Bond D Bond D

C¶C 0 C¶H+ 0.40 C+¶Cl 1.5–1.7

C¨C 0 C+¶O 0.74 F¶H+ 1.94
C+¶N 0.22 N¶H+ 1.31 N+¨O 2.00
N+¶O 0.30 O¶H+ 1.51 C+¨O 2.3–2.7

Dipole moments of molecular groups

Group D Group D Group D

C¶+CH3 0.40 C¶+NH2 1.2–1.5 C¶+COOH 1.70

C¶+OCH3 1.30 C¶+OH 1.65 C+¶NO2 3.1–3.8

no applied electric field, the dipoles are randomly oriented and the molecular polarizabil-
ity, a, which is the average dipole per unit volume, is zero. However if an electric field is
applied between parallel metal plates or by introducing an ion in a polar solvent, the
random orientations of the dipoles disappear as the dipolar molecules orient along the
direction of the electric field (for example oriented in a parallel position between two metal
plates where electricity is applied, or oriented around a single ion) resulting in an orienta-
tion polarization. Molecular polarizability is also defined as the response of the electron
cloud to an external electric field or the ability of electrons to move in the presence of an
electric field. This external electric field should be weak compared to the internal electric
fields between the nucleus and electron cloud. Molecular polarizability increases with
increasing number of electrons in a molecule and also as the electrons become less tightly
held by the atomic nuclei.
14 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

The application of an electric field always causes some physical changes in the medium:
even if the liquid molecules are non-polar, the electrons in the molecule will be affected
by the electric field. The movement of electrons within the molecule results in an induced
dipole, mi, and the alignment of the induced dipoles with the electric field gives induced
polarization. For example, if a positive charge is placed above the plane of a neutral benzene
molecule, the average positions of the electrons will shift upward, giving the benzene
molecule a dipole moment whose direction is perpendicular to the molecular plane. In
summary, when a non-polar molecule is subjected to an electric field, the electrons in the
molecule are displaced from their ordinary positions so that the electron clouds and nuclei
are attracted in opposite directions and a dipole is induced; thus the molecule tem-
porarily has an induced dipole moment, mi.
As we know from general physics, to avoid the notion of action at a distance, the concept
of an electric field was introduced. An electric field is present around each charge. An elec-
tric charge, q1 is said to produce an electric field in the space around itself, and this field
exerts a force on any charge, q2, that is present in the space around q1. The electric field
strength, E, whose unit is N C−1 (Newton Coulomb−1) at a point P in space is defined as
the electrical force per unit charge experienced by a test charge at rest at point P and is
given as,
F
E= (5)
d

where F is the force exerted to a point charge and d is the charge. The force on the point
charge has a direction as well as a magnitude and thus electric field is a vector. The direc-
tion of E is the same as the direction of F on the line from the first charge to the second
charge at point P. For a positive second charge, the vector E points outwards if the first
charge is positive, inwards if it is negative.
Another important aspect of an electric field is described by the electric potential, f.
This quantity represents the potential energy of a unit positive charge in an electric field.
The electrical potential difference, (f2 − f1) between points 2 and 1 in an electric field,
E, is defined as the work per unit charge to move a test charge reversibly from 1 to 2;
(f2 − f1) ≡ (dW1→2/dq). By assigning a value to the electric potential f1 at point 1, we have
then defined the electric potential f2 at any point 2. The usual convention is to choose a
point charge, 1 at r = ∞ (infinity) and to define f1 = 0. If a material has a larger charge than
the unit charge, and if we do reversible work to bring this material from infinity to point
1, we change its total electric potential energy so that VE = f q. Thus, the potential energy
of a point charge increases as it is brought closer to the positive charge that generates the
electric field so that
df = −Edr (6)

where dr is the change in center-to-center distance. The SI unit of electric potential is the
volt, 1 V = 1 J C−1 = 1 kg m2 s−2 C−1 and thus the unit of E is (V m−1 = N C−1). When a non-
polar molecule is subjected to an electric field, the electron cloud and nuclei are attracted
in opposite directions to form an induced dipole having a moment of mi, which is pro-
portional to the electric field E experienced by the molecule
mi = aE (7)
 Molecular Interactions 15

where a is the molecular polarizability as defined above. The unit of polarizability, a, in

the SI system is C2 m N−1 or C m2 V−1 from Equation (7). Formerly, a was expressed as cm3
in cgs units, in the range of 10−24 cm3 = 1 (A°)3. The conversion from cgs units to SI units
is a(C m2 V−1) = 4peo × 10−6 a(cm3) = 1.11265 × 10−16a(cm3).
On the other hand, for polar molecules having permanent dipole moments, when
subjected to an electric field, these molecules may have their existing permanent dipole
moments modified temporarily by the applied field, and the measured dipole moment is
the total dipole moment. For this reason, it is important to discriminate between induced
dipole moment, mi, and permanent dipole moment, m, for such polar molecules.
Dipole moments of molecules are calculated from the relative permittivity (previously
known as the dielectric constants) measurements (see also Section 2.3, Equation (22) and
Section 2.5), which are carried out in parallel metal plate capacitors (or condensers). When
a capacitor is connected to a battery, there will be a potential drop of V (volts) across the
capacitor. According to Equation (6) the electric field strength between the plates is
E = f/d where d is the distance (m) between the plates. The capacitance, C, of a capacitor
is defined as the ratio of the total charge to the applied voltage across the capacitor, C =
d/f in a vacuum. However, if there is a medium other than a vacuum present between the
parallel plates, the relationships are different: the electric field strength of a parallel metal
plate capacitor depends on the nature of the medium between the plates, since the applied
electric field causes an orientation of molecular charges present in the medium, and
permits a greater accumulation of charge for a given voltage than is observed when the
capacitor is evacuated. Thus, the ratio of the electric field strength in a vacuum (or approx-
imately in air), Eo, to the electric field strength with a medium, E, is called the relative per-
mittivity, er, or dielectric constant, of the medium,

Eo f o
er = = (8)
E f

and is calculated by measuring the voltage differences between the plates in a vacuum and
in the test medium. The parameter, er, increase, as the molecular polarizability, a, and per-
manent dipole moment of the molecules, m, increase, and er values range from 2
(for alkanes) to over 100 (as shown in Table 2.2).
The relation between relative permittivity and molecular properties is an important
subject and for non-polar molecules the problem is easier to solve. The relation which was
first derived by Clausius–Mossotti dates back to the nineteenth century,

 e r −1 N a
V = A = Pm (9)
 er + 2 m 3e o

where NA is the Avogadro’s number, eo is the vacuum permittivity, a fundamental constant

with the value eo = 8.854 × 10−12 C2 J−1 m−1 and Vm is the molar volume (Vm = M/r), M is
the molar mass, r is the density and Pm is the molar polarization; Pm varies with electrical
frequency applied (see also Section 2.5). This equation may also be used for polar mole-
cules for the cases where the frequency of the applied electric field is very high (larger than
≈1012 Hz) so that the polar molecules cannot orient themselves quickly enough to follow
the change in direction of the field and thus behave like non-polar molecules under this
applied very high frequency.
16 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Table 2.2 Dielectric constants, er, of some gas, liquid and solid molecules (Values compiled from stan-
dard references and books especially from David R. Lide (ed.) (2003) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics 83rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton; Israelachvili, J. (1991) Intermolecular & Surface Forces 2nd
edn. Academic Press, London.)

Static dielectric constants of some gases at 25°C

Molecule er Molecule er Molecule er

Air (dry) 1.00054 Hydrogen 1.00025 Argon 1.00052

Nitrogen 1.00055 Methane 1.00081 Propane 1.00200
CF4 1.00121 Dimethyl ether 1.00620 Carbon 1.00092
dioxide
Chloromethane 1.01080 Water vapor (0°C) 1.00144 Water vapor 1.00587
(100°C)

Static dielectric constants of some liquids at 25°C

n-C6H14 (hexane) 1.9 Silicone oil 2.8 C2H5OH 24.3

n-C8H18 (octane) 2.0 CHCl3 (chloroform) 4.8 CH3OH 32.6
C6H12 (cyclohexane) 2.0 CH3COOH 6.2 C6H6NO2 34.8
C12H26 (dodecane) 2.0 NH3 (ammonia) 16.9 HCOOH 58.5
(16°C)
CCl4 2.2 n-C4H9OH (butanol) 17.8 H2O 78.5
Paraffin 2.2 n-C3H7OH (propanol) 20.2 HCN 115.0
C6H6 (benzene) 2.3 (CH3)2CO (acetone) 20.7 HCONH2 109.5
(formamide)

Static dielectric constants of some solids at 25°C

Paraffin wax 2.2 Nylon ≈4.0 NaCl 6.0

PTFE 2.0 Quartz glass 3.8 Soda glass 7.0
Polystyrene 2.4 SiO2 4.5 Al2O3 8.5
(alumina)
Polycarbonate 3.0 Borosilicate glass 4.5 Water (ice, 92–106
at 0°C)

However when a normal or low-frequency electric field is applied, for polar molecules,
the er of the medium is due to both permanent and induced dipoles in the molecule, and
in order to measure the permanent dipole moment, the effect of the induced dipole
moment must be evaluated. One molecular property helps us to solve this difficult
problem: the induced dipole moment, mi is independent of the temperature since if the
position of the molecule is disturbed by thermal collisions, the dipole is immediately
induced again in the field direction. However, the contribution of permanent dipoles, m, is
temperature-dependent and decreases with increasing temperature because the random
thermal collisions of the permanent dipole molecules oppose the tendency of their dipoles
to line up in the electric field. In order to discriminate between mi and m, it is necessary to
calculate the average component of a permanent dipole in the field direction as a function
 Molecular Interactions 17

of temperature. Debye modified the molar polarization for polar molecules by using
Langevin function and Boltzmann distribution law (e−E/kT) to give the relation between the
relative permittivity and the electrical properties of a pure polar gas
NA  m2 
Pm = a +  (10)
3e o  3 kT 
where m is the permanent dipole moment. By combining Equations (9) and (10), the
well-known Debye–Langevin equation is obtained for polar molecules (see also
Section 2.5),
 e r −1 M N A  m2 
= a +  = Pm (11)
 er + 2 r 3e o  3 kT 
(in the absence of molecules having permanent dipole moments, the above equation
reduces to the Clausius–Mossotti equation when m = 0 is applied). In practice, PM is cal-
culated from experimental relative permittivity values using the left side of Equation (11)
and then it is possible to evaluate both a and m from the intercept and slope of PM versus
1/T plots using the middle part of Equation (11). The Debye–Langevin equation holds very
well for gases, although er needs to be measured very accurately. Unfortunately, when this
equation is used for pure polar liquids the results are very unsatisfactory due to the pres-
ence of short-range interactions. However, Equation (11) can be used for dilute liquid solu-
tions of polar molecules in non-polar solvents such as nitrobenzene dissolved in hexane
etc. because of the removal of close packing conditions in dilute solutions. In order to deter-
mine permanent dipole moments of polar molecules, the refractive index data are also
used. Maxwell found that the relative permittivity should be er = n2 for a transparent
medium from electromagnetic theory, where n is the refractive index (n = speed of
light in a vacuum/speed of light in the medium). Lorenz and Lorentz defined the molar
refraction, Rm
 n 2 −1
 2  V m = Rm (12)
 n + 2

As can be seen from Equations (9), (11) and (12), both Pm and Rm are similar quantities,
but there are differences too: only induced dipoles contribute to Rm in refractive index
measurements which is independent of temperature and varies also with frequency. For
non-polar molecules Rm and Pm are approximately equal over the whole frequency range
provided that the wavelength at which n is determined is not close to an absorption band.
For polar molecules, it is only at high frequencies (above ≈1012 Hz) Rm = Pm that the
Maxwell relation holds. At the normal frequency range, the use of refractive index data
(Equation (12)) gives the electronic (basic) polarizabilities of the polar molecules; and the
use of the Debye–Langevin equation (Equation (11)) gives the total polarizabilities of the
polar molecules. Consequently, the measurement of a difference between Rm and Pm at a
low frequency range indicates the presence of a polar molecule having a permanent dipole
moment.
More recently, dipole moments have also been calculated from the effect of electric fields
on molecular spectra (Stark effect) and from the electric resonance methods applied to
molecular beams; these are beyond the scope of this book.
18 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

2.2 Intermolecular Forces and Potential Energies

After examining the formation of a molecule by chemical bonds between atoms, we may
then ask the next question: can we calculate the interactions between un-bonded discrete
molecules and predict their behavior in advance? It is a very significant question because
these interactions are responsible for all the most important processes in nature and also in
the chemical industry. It was found that molecules with complete valence shells are still able
to interact with one another: they can exercise attractive forces over a range of several atomic
diameters, and they can repel one another when pressed together. All the properties of a bulk
material can be determined by the number and types of molecules it contains and their
arrangement in space with respect to each other. They account, for instance, for the con-
densation of gases and the structures of molecular solids. However, these interactions arise
from physical forces and they are different from chemical forces which give rise to chemical
(or covalent) interatomic bonds to form a molecule. Physical binding between molecules is
not a real bond because during chemical covalent bonding the electron charge distributions
of the uniting atoms change completely and merge, whereas during physical binding they
are only perturbed. Nevertheless, some authors call physical intermolecular interactions
non-covalent bonds or secondary bonds in order to distinguish them from covalent bonds.
Physical interactions lack the directionality and stoichiometry of chemical covalent bonds.
In general, physical interactions can be as strong as covalent bonds to hold the molecules
together in solids and liquids at room temperature, as well as in biological and colloidal
systems. As a result of this physical binding the molecules in a liquid can rotate and move
about, still remaining bonded to each other. These forces are also responsible for the struc-
tural organization of biological macromolecules since they twist the long polypeptide
chains of proteins into characteristic shapes and then pin them together in the arrangement
essential to their function. In summary, they are the regulating forces in all natural and tech-
nical phenomena that do not involve chemical reactions and thus are very important in all
branches of science and industry.
In order to estimate the magnitude of physical intermolecular interactions, we can extend
the molecular orbital approach and solve the Schrödinger equation to describe electron
density between any two molecules and determine their intermolecular cohesion and adhe-
sion potentials. However, this is a very difficult task analytically due to the fact that the elec-
tron charge distributions of the interacting molecules do not change completely and are
only perturbed (and also it is a very difficult task numerically, in spite of the advance of com-
puters, due to the lack of sufficient parameters); and in practice, it is more convenient and
conceptually simpler to represent the total intermolecular potential energy as the sum of
parts of several different interaction energies such as Coulomb, polar, induced-polarized,
van der Waals, repulsive, hydrogen-bonding, hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions,
which will be explained in detail in this chapter. In this approach, investigation of the vapor
phase interactions of the molecules is especially important because analyzing these relatively
simple unfettered interactions helps to establish fundamental concepts that prevail with the
more complex situations encountered in liquid and solid phases.
First of all, we must be aware of the fact that all physical forces acting between mole-
cules are essentially electrostatic (Coulomb forces between charges and dipoles; induced
dipole forces) or quantum mechanical (dispersion, and repulsive forces) in origin apart
from a minor contribution due to mass attraction gravitational forces. Gravitational forces
 Molecular Interactions 19

account for tidal motion and also determine the height of a liquid in a capillary when
acting together with intermolecular forces. Two other terms are also used to indicate the
physical forces between molecules, cohesion and adhesion: the term cohesion describes the
physical interaction forces between the same type of molecules and the term adhesion
between different types of molecules. All organic liquids and solids, ranging from small
molecules like benzene to essentially infinitely large molecules like cellulose and synthetic
polymers, are bound together by cohesion forces.
Second, we should consider the effect of the separation distance between molecules on
the interaction forces. It was found that these fall off exponentially as the distance between
atoms increases. The explanation for this behavior can be found in classical Newton
mechanics: according to Newton’s laws, a force, F, is a push or pull exerted on a body; it is
a vector quantity with magnitude (newton, N = kg m s−2, in the SI system) and direction.
The work, W, done by the force acting on a body is given as
dW = F dl (13)

where l is the displacement (m) of the body. Work is a scalar quantity and fully character-
ized by its magnitude ( joule = newton-m = kg m2 s−2) and can be calculated by integrating
Equation (13). If the force is not constant, then it should be expressed in terms of dis-
placement, f(l), in order to carry out this integration, as shown below:
l2 l2
W = ∫ Fdl = ∫ f (l )dl (14)
l1 l1

Energy is given to an object when a force does work on it. The amount of energy given
to an object equals the work done. Energy is also a scalar quantity and both energy and
work have the same unit (joule). Potential energy, V, is defined as the energy possessed by
an object because of its position in a gravitational and/or electrical field. It is the capacity
to do work. Newton applied gravitational interaction energy potential, V (rg) to spherical
bodies so that
m 1m 2
V ( r g ) = −G (15)
rg
where m1 and m2 are the masses (kg) of the interacting bodies, rg is the center to center
separation distance between these bodies (m), V(rg) is also called the pair potential and G
is the gravitation constant (G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2). All interactions may be attractive
or repulsive and the minus sign in Equation (15) is due to the international convention
for attractive interactions because of the opposite vectors of displacement and attraction
between the m1 and m2 bodies. In other words, we must specify a reference state in describ-
ing interactions between two bodies. Values of potential energies and free energies always
refer to the difference between the actual state and a reference state. The reference state is
taken to be at separation distance r = ∞. In Equation (15) this corresponds to V(rg) = 0,
and so a negative value of V(rg) corresponds to attraction and a positive value of V(rg) cor-
responds to repulsion in both the force and potential energy equations. (See also Figure 2.1
a and b.) Then Equation (13) can be rewritten for any interaction potential energy between
two spherical bodies as
dV(r) = −F(r) dr (16)
20 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Repulsive force
(positive)

rs r

re

Attractive force
F (max) (negative)

Repulsive interaction
energy (positive)

re r

ro

Attractive interaction
energy (negative)
V (max)

Figure 2.1 a. The change of physical interaction force versus separation distance between two spheri-
cal molecules across a vacuum. b. The change of interaction potential energy versus separation distance
between two spherical molecules across a vacuum.

By combining Equation, (15) and (16) and differentiating, we can find for Newton’s
gravitational force between two spherical bodies
dV ( r ) m m
F (r g ) = − = −G 1 2 2 (17)
dr g rg

However it should be kept in mind that Equation (17) is a special form of a general inter-
action potential equation. For interaction potential energies other than gravitational, a
general form of Equation (15) must be used so that
x 1x 2
V ( r ) = −C (18)
rn
 Molecular Interactions 21

where C is an interaction constant, x is the amount of the molecular property involved in

the bimolecular interaction, r is the center to center separation distance between these
bodies and n is an integer believed to be greater than 3 for molecules (possibly 4 or 5)
if intermolecular forces are not to extend over large distances. (In contrast, n = 1 for
Newton’s gravitational law where very big planets, suns etc. interact over very large dis-
tances.) It is instructive to show how we can conclude that n > 3 for molecules interacting
over short distances only: for gas molecules, we may consider a region of space where the
number density of these molecules is r (particle m−3), their diameter is d (m) and the size
of the system is L (i.e. one side length of a cube box containing the gas molecules, m). Let
us add all the interaction energies of one particular gas molecule together with all the other
gas molecules in the system. The number of gas molecules in a region of space between r
and (r + dr) away will be r4pr2 dr (since 4pr2 is the surface area of spherical shell and 4pr 2
dr is the volume of a spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr). The total interaction
energy of one molecule with all the other molecules in the system can therefore be given
by summing (integrating between d and L) all the pair potentials as given in classical
physics,
n −3
−4pCx1x 2 r   d  
L L
VT = ∫ V (r )r 4pr 2 dr = − 4pCx1x 2 r ∫ r 2 −n dr = 1−
(n − 3)d n −3   L   (19)
d d 
When L >> d and for n > 3, the term in the bracket can be taken as approximately equal to
1 and then Equation (19) becomes
4pCx 1 x 2 r
VT = − (20)
( n − 3)d n− 3
so that the size of the system (box), L, is not taken into account. Since d must be much
smaller than L for gas molecules in a box, 1 > (d/L), large distance contributions to the
interaction will disappear only for values of n greater than 3, and this fits the initial require-
ment so that the intermolecular forces are not to extend over large distances. Thus, the
bulk properties of gases, liquids and solids do not depend on their volumes but depend
only on the forces between molecules in close proximity to each other (short-range forces).
Short-range forces operate over very short distances of the order of interatomic separa-
tions (0.1–1.0 nm) usually corresponding to very close to molecular contact. However,
important long-range intermolecular forces also exist, especially between macroscopic
particles and surfaces (see Chapter 7), but their effective range of action rarely exceeds
100 nm. If n is smaller than 3, the second term in Equation (19) will be large and the con-
tribution from more distant molecules will dominate over that of nearby molecules. In
such cases the size of the system must be taken into account. This condition is suitable
for Newton’s gravitational force where n = 1 and the distant objects (stars, planets etc) are
still strongly interacting with each other.
The intermolecular potential energy is defined as the difference between the total energy
of interacting molecules and the sum of their separate molecular energies. If we consider
two spherical molecules interacting across a vacuum according to simple Newton mechan-
ics, Figure 2.1 a shows typical force, F, and Figure 2.1 b shows potential energy, V curves.
The negative parts at larger distances are caused by the attraction forces (mostly van der
Waals forces; see Section 2.6) and the positive repulsive part at shorter separation is due to
the outer electron shell overlap, called Born repulsion forces (see Section 2.7). As can be seen
in Figure 2.1 the minimum and zero positions in the force curve do not coincide with those
22 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

of the potential energy curve but these points can be interrelated. The force, F = 0 at
r = re, and the interaction potential energy V = 0 at two points, one at r = ro and the other
at r = ∞. At r = rs the force curve shows a minimum (a maximum for attractive force mag-
nitude, Fmax) which can be calculated mathematically from dF/dr = 0. At r = re the poten-
tial energy curve shows a minimum (a maximum for attractive potential energy magnitude,
Vmax) which can be calculated from dV/dr = 0. We can calculate the force, F(r) as the
negative of the slope of the V(r) – r curve as given in Equation (17) and, the minimum of
F(r), (Fmax) at r = rs where the V(r) – r curve has an inflection point, which can be calcu-
lated by d2V/dr 2 = 0 at this point. If we examine the potential energy V(r) – r curve, we see
that the potential energy decreases (attraction increases) with the decrease in their sepa-
ration distance due to the fact that work must be performed when they are drawn apart.
If the attractive interactions are unopposed, V diminishes as the molecules approach one
another and finally the two molecules would tend towards coalescence, the potential energy
falling to −∞, as r becomes 0. However, on the contrary, strong repulsive forces come into
play when two molecules come close together as a result of the negative charges carried by
the electrons belonging to the two molecules. The repulsion, rising dramatically as r
decreases, causes the curve to rise very steeply on the left-hand side. The curve combines
both attractive and repulsive interactions. At a certain distance, re, the forces are in equi-
librium and this distance corresponds to the minimum potential energy (Vmax), i.e. the
stable state. This distance, re, represents the normal intermolecular distance, and the height,
Vmax, represents the energy that must be supplied to cause two molecules to separate to
infinite distance.
In the early twentieth century, the purely Newtonian mechanistic view of intermolecu-
lar forces was abandoned and statistical thermodynamic concepts such as free energy and
entropy were adopted by van der Waals, Boltzmann, Maxwell and Gibbs (see Chapter 3).
Mie and later Lennard-Jones proposed semi-empirical pair potential equations which fit
the V(r) – r curve given in Figure 2.1 b (see Sections 2.6 and 2.7). On the other hand, we
should be aware of the fact that the above description assumes all molecules are spherical
and also rigid structures. However in reality, they are not; and also the atoms of a mole-
cule are vibrating even in their lowest energy state (zero-point vibration state) so that the
potential will change as atoms move. Nevertheless, intermolecular potentials can be con-
sidered to be averages over the vibration motions of the two molecules and can be used
successfully in many applications.
Now we may ask, how can we relate the pair potential energies to the behavior of real gases,
liquids and solids? First of all, historically, pair-wise interactions between molecules derived
from experiments on dilute gases, where mainly pair-wise interactions take place since
collisions in a dilute gas are sufficiently infrequent that they mostly occur between pairs of
molecules, with much fewer involving three or more molecules colliding simultaneously.
Under these conditions we can add up all the individual contributions to obtain the total
interaction, following the principle of linear superposition of potentials; in other words, we
can sum all the pair potentials. From the experimental data on the pressure–volume–
temperature behavior of gases, it was soon found that many different semi-empirical poten-
tial energy equations with a wide range of adjustable parameters could satisfactorily be
applied. Then analyzing these relatively simple, unfettered gas interactions, the fundamen-
tal concepts were established that also prevail with the more complex, condensed liquid and
solid phase situations. However, in liquids and solids, unlike gases, the molecules have
 Molecular Interactions 23

simultaneous contacts with several neighbors so that there is no fundamental reason why
the bulk properties must depend only on the pair potentials. Thus, the intermolecular inter-
action theories applied especially to liquids are not as successful as for gases because it is
apparent that there is a large difference between knowing the force or pair potential energy
between two isolated molecules and understanding how an ensemble of such molecules will
behave. Even today there is no ready recipe for deriving the properties of condensed phases
from the intermolecular pair potentials, and vice versa. But there are some exceptions: for
non-polar liquids, contrary to expectations, the semi-empirical pair potentials deduced
from liquid state properties are very similar to their true pair potentials, and many-body
potentials can be neglected. Unfortunately, when polar liquids are considered the many-
body terms are probably not negligible, although every system of interest may be examined
independently. Effective pair potential is a term used for pair potentials deduced semi-
empirically from the properties of any liquid for which the many-body energies are not
negligible. For metallic liquids many-body terms cannot be neglected because in the free-
electron model, the electrons move in a potential that is constant over the whole metal phase
and the total energy depends on the size and shape of the phase.
For fifty years, it was thought that the application of an ab initio method (from first
principles) by solving the Schrödinger equation in wave mechanics could explain the
behavior and interactions of a molecule; unfortunately, the form and exact solutions of the
Schrödinger equation even for many simple molecules are not easy obtain. The Hamil-
tonian operator for any molecule must contain kinetic-energy operators for nuclei, kinetic-
energy operators for electrons, potential energy of repulsion between the nuclei, potential
energy of attraction between the electrons and potential energy of attraction between the
electrons and the nuclei. Thus the molecular Schrödinger equation is extremely complex
and it was almost hopeless to attempt an exact solution. Born and Oppenheimer showed
that it is a good approximation to treat the electronic and nuclear motions separately. The
nuclei move far more slowly than the electrons because of their much greater mass and
the electrons “see” the slow-moving electrons as almost stationary point charges, whereas
the nuclei “see” the fast-moving electrons as essentially a three-dimensional distribution
of charge. For small molecules made up of light atoms such as H2, He etc. the Born–
Oppenheimer Approximation gives quite accurate descriptions of pair potentials by this
means, however for more complex molecules we can only determine the general functional
behavior of pair potentials such as how they depend on intermolecular distance and angles
of orientation. Instead of an ab initio method we may apply semi-empirical methods by
assuming a form of potential initially and testing its fit with experimental results. The dif-
ference in the fit is used to adjust the form of pair potential; such semi-empirical methods
sometimes give satisfactory results (see Chapter 4 for liquids).
In summary, our understanding of intermolecular forces is far from complete and qual-
itative results have been obtained only for simple and idealized models of real matter. For
this reason, it has been found useful to classify intermolecular interactions into a number
of seemingly different categories even though they all have the same fundamental origin.
Thus, such commonly encountered terms as Coulomb, polar, induced-polarized, van der
Waals, repulsive, hydrogen-bonding, hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions and solva-
tion forces are a result of this classification, often accompanied by further divisions into
short-range and long-range forces. Furthermore, the quantitative relations which link
intermolecular forces to macroscopic thermodynamic properties by using statistical
24 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

mechanics are also at present limited to simple and idealized cases. Therefore, the theory
of intermolecular forces gives us no more than a semi-quantitative basis to interpret and
generalize the existing experimental data.
More recently, the scope of intermolecular forces has broadened to include surface
science, such as thin-film phenomena, biological macromolecules, self-assembling poly-
mers, nanomaterial interactions etc. In addition to equilibrium (static) interactions,
dynamic and time-dependent interactions were also included, together with the applica-
tion of computer simulation techniques. We should keep in mind that in chemistry and
biology the forces are generally short range and rarely extend over one or two atomic dis-
tances, whereas in colloid science the forces such as electrical double-layer and steric
polymer interaction forces are generally long range.

2.3 Coulomb Interactions

Coulomb interactions between ions are responsible for the cohesion within some con-
densed phases such as ionic solids. These interactions are also operative in liquid solutions.
Although such interactions are usually regarded as versions of chemical valence forces
between atoms in the molecules, they also act as a physical force between molecules. The
physical Coulomb force between two ionic molecules is by far the strongest force we see,
stronger even than most chemical bonds. However, physical Coulomb force is long range
up to 70 nm distance compared with the extremely short range chemical covalent bonds
(0.1–0.2 nm)
In classical physics, electrostatics describes the interaction of stationary electric charges,
and the Coulomb potential energy equation is the fundamental expression in electrostat-
ics: if an ion (a point-like body) of charge q1 (note that q is the ionic charge and is
different from the residual charge, d, which is present in the polar molecules) is at a center-
to-center distance, r, away from another ion of charge, q2, in a vacuum, then the Coulomb
interaction potential energy, V, is given by
q1q 2
V (r ) = (21)
4pe o r
The charge unit is the coulomb, C, and the constant, eo is the vacuum permittivity, a funda-
mental constant with the value eo = 8.854 × 10−12 C2 J−1 m−1. The usual convention is that V(r)
= 0 is assumed to be the reference state for infinite separations (r = ∞). The vacuum per-
mittivity parameter, eo was derived from electromagnetic theory in classical physics. As we
know from Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, light consists of electromagnetic waves, so
that c = (4peo × 10−7 Ns/C)−1/2, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum (c ≅ 3 × 108 m/s).
When the Coulomb interaction takes place in a medium other than a vacuum, the mol-
ecules of the medium will be oriented and polarized in the electric field created by these
two charges, and the magnitude of V(r) is reduced so that Equation (21) becomes,
q1q 2
V (r ) = (22)
4pe oe r r
where er is the relative permittivity, or dielectric constant of the medium as defined initially by
Equation (8) in Section 2.1.3. Water has one of the highest er values of all liquids (er = 78.4 at
 Molecular Interactions 25

25°C) and this is the main reason for its ability to solubilize ionic solids, because the electro-
static attraction between anions and cations decreases 78.4 times in water. Polar liquids have
much higher er values than non-polar molecules, and hydrogen-bonded liquids have excep-
tionally high values. It should be noted that er is a macroscopic parameter derived for a con-
tinuous dielectric medium and cannot be used for interactions over molecular distances.
The magnitude and sign of each ionic charge may be given in terms of the elementary
charge (e = 1.602 × 10−19 C) multiplied by the ionic valency, z. For bi-ionic interactions, the
two ions can be shown as q1 = z1e and q2 = z2e and then Equation (22) becomes
z1 z 2 e 2
V (r ) = (23)
4pe oe r r
For example, z = +1 for monovalent cations such as K+, z = −1 for monovalent anions such
as Cl−, z = +2 for divalent cations such as Mg2+, and so on. By combining Equations (17)
and (23) and differentiating, one obtains the Coulomb force between two static ions,
z1 z 2 e 2
F (r ) = (24)
4pe oe r r 2
(Historically, the Coulomb force was found by Charles Coulomb in 1785, earlier than the
potential energy concept.) When we apply Coulomb forces to condensed states, we should
define the reference states, so that the ions in the lattice come together to form a condensed
phase from the gaseous state, where r = ∞ and the electrostatic interaction takes place in a
vacuum (er = 1). If two ions are interacting in a liquid medium, the reference state is also
at r = ∞, however, the dielectric constant has a value (er ≠ 1).
On the other hand, the Coulomb force between two static ions is the product of the elec-
tric field strength of one of the charges, q1 acting on the other charge, q2 (see Section 2.1.3).
An electric charge, q1 is said to produce an electric field in the space around itself, and this
field exerts a force on any charge, q2 that is present in the space around q1. The electric field
strength, E at a point P in space is defined as the electrical force per unit charge experi-
enced by a test charge at rest at point P. Thus, the electric field strength, E1 created by the
first ion, q1 on the second ion, q2 at a distance r away from the center of q1 is defined as,
from Equation (5), as (E1 ≡ F(r)/q2), so that we may write
q1
E1 = (25)
4pe oe r r 2

and when this electrical field acts on a second ion having a charge of q2 at distance r, this
results in a force from Equation (5) of
q1
F ( r ) = E1q 2 = q2 (26)
4pe oe r r 2

which gives the same result as in Equation (24). The direction of E is the same as the direc-
tion of F(r) on the line from the charge q1 to the charge q2 at point P. For a positive q2, the
vector E points outwards if q1 is positive, inwards if q1 is negative.
It is sometimes more convenient to use the electric potential terms, f instead of the elec-
tric field strength terms (see also Section 2.1.3). We can define the Coulomb potential, f1,
of a charge q1 in the presence of another charge q2 by using the electric field equation
(Equation (6)),
26 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

q1
f1 = (27)
4pe oe r r

Electric potential, f has units of joules per coulomb (J C−1) which is equivalent to volts.
Since, V(r) = f1 q2 from classical physics, we obtain Equation (22) again. If there are several
charges, q1, q2, q3, . . . present in the system, the total Coulomb potential experienced by the
charge, q is the sum of the potential generated by each charge
fT = f1 + f2 + f3 + . . . (28)

and, V(r) = fT q is used for this case. Both V(r) and F(r) are positive for like charges (++,
−−) and they are negative for unlike charges (+−) in Equations (23) and (24). When either
F(r) or V(r) is positive, the interaction is repulsive, and when F(r) or V(r) is negative the
interaction is attractive. To illustrate this, we can calculate V(r) for two isolated Na+ and
Cl− gas ions in contact in a vacuum: the separation distance is now the sum of two ionic
radii, r = 0.276 nm, and thus
(1)(−1)(1.602 × 10 −19 )
2

V (r ) = = −8.36 × 10 −19 J
4p (8.854 × 10 −12 )(1)(0.276 × 10 −9 )

If we want to use the thermal energy terms at a temperature of 300 K, kT = (1.38 × 10−23)
(300) = 4.1 × 10−21 J, and the above V(r) figure for two isolated Na+ and Cl− ions turns
out to be of the order of 200 kT in a vacuum, which is very large and similar to chemical
covalent bond energies within molecules. In addition, we may calculate that around
r = 56 nm, V(r) falls below 1 kT in a vacuum. In summary, the physical Coulomb interaction
energy is very strong and long-range. However, the above calculation of V(r) for
two isolated Na+ and Cl− gas ions in contact in a vacuum is too simplistic for estimating the
total interaction energy for a pair of Na+ and Cl− ions in a solid ionic crystal lattice. The solids
have a long range structural order and the Coulomb energy of an ion with all the other ions
in the crystal lattice has to be summed for the accurate determination of the lattice energy,
because the attractive part of the potential energy is not a vector, it is a scalar quantity and
does not cancel, but is additive. Since the Coulomb interaction energy is effective for long
range, all the possible interactions should be considered, and not only with its nearest neigh-
bors. If we examine the NaCl crystal lattice carefully, each Na+ ion has six nearest neighbor
Cl− ions at r = 0.276 nm, 12 next-nearest neighbor Na+ ions at r2 = 2r , eight more Cl− ions
at r3 = 3r and so on. Similar to the derivation of Equation (19), the total interaction energy
for a pair of Na+ and Cl− ions in the ionic crystal lattice is given by summing the pair poten-
tials (integrating) as
e2  e2
+ . . . = −1.748
12 8 6
VT = − 6− + − = −1.46 × 10 −18 J (29)
4pe or  2 3 20  4pe or
and the above VT figure for the crystal lattice energy of NaCl turns out to be of the order
of 350 kT, which is 1.75 times the two isolated Na+ and Cl− ion energies in a vacuum. This
is the result of the long-range interaction effects of distant ions. The constant 1.748 for an
ionic NaCl crystal lattice is known as the Madelung constant, and varies numerically for
other ionic crystal structures. In surface thermodynamics (Chapter 3) we will see that the
total Coulomb potential energy, VT is the cohesive energy of the ionic lattice. On the other
hand, we should be careful to realize that the dielectric constant parameter, er is absent in
the denominator of Equation (29), although er ≅ 6 for NaCl. This is because of the
 Molecular Interactions 27

reference state definitions: the ions in the lattice come together to form a condensed phase
from the gaseous state where the reference state is at r = ∞ and the interaction occurs in a
vacuum, so there is no room for er in this calculation. However, if two ions are interacting
in a liquid medium, say in water, the dielectric constant parameter, er, should now appear
in the denominator although the reference state is also at r = ∞, because the interaction is
now taking place within the solvent medium.
In reality, we should also consider the screening effect of neighbor ions for Coulomb
interactions. Since positive ions always have negative ions nearby, whether they are in a
lattice or in solution, the electric field becomes screened and thus decays more rapidly away
from them than from a truly isolated ion. This screening effect causes the decay of the elec-
tric field, exponentially with distance. Then the resulting Coulomb interactions between
ionic crystals, dissolved ions, charged particles and charged surfaces are of a shorter range
than the expected range from Equations (23) and (26). However, in general, the physical
Coulomb forces are still very effective in ionic interactions and of a much longer range
than chemical covalent forces.

2.4 Polar Interactions

As defined in Section 2.1.3, the permanent dipole moments of molecules, m, are important
because the partial charges in molecules may interact with the charges of ions (and con-
tribute to orientation and solvation), and also with the partial charges in other polar mol-
ecules (and contribute to molecular orientation and cohesion). The permanent dipole
moments of a dipolar molecule represent the first moment of charge distribution which is
asymmetrical and has two equal separated residual charges d + and d −. However, there are
higher dipoles called multipoles, such as quadrupole, octupole etc. and the relevant charge
distribution functions are called second moment for quadrupoles and third moment for
octupoles etc. Quadrupoles also have an asymmetrical charge distribution where the dis-
tribution of charge can be represented by four point charges, two positive and two nega-
tive; for octupoles there are eight point charges, four positive and four negative. The
presence of quadrupoles and octupoles can be best explained by giving an example: as
shown in Section 2.1.3, the CO2 molecule has a zero dipole moment because the two
dipoles associated with the carbon–oxygen bonds exactly cancel out; nevertheless it is
capable of interacting with an ionic charge, by its second moment (or quadrupole moment)
which represents the effective behavior of the set of separated charges, 2d + on the carbon
atom and d− on each of the oxygen atoms. Similarly, the CH4 molecule has a zero dipole
and quadrupole moment but has a significant third moment, and SF6 has a significant
fourth moment even though all of its lower moments are equal to zero. Multipole inter-
actions are beyond the scope of this book and we limit ourselves mainly to the dipole inter-
actions. In general, the dipole-orientation forces may be of two types: interactions between
ions and dipolar molecules, and interactions between dipolar molecules.

2.4.1 Interactions between ions and dipolar molecules (fixed and rotating)

When a polar molecule is near to an ion, it will tend to become oriented in the way sug-
gested in Figure 2.2 a due to Coulombic ion–dipole interactions. The molecule may be
28 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

d– d+
d– d+
d+ d– d+ d–

d+ d–
d+ d–

a b

Figure 2.2 a. Schematic representation of the possible orientation of charges in an ion–dipole interac-
tion, (+) and (−) are ionic charges and (d +) and (d −) are dipolar charges. b. Schematic representation of
the possible orientation of charges in a dipole–dipole interaction.

d+
Q
1
–l
r 2 q

q
1
X –l
2

Y
d–

Figure 2.3 Geometric relations in a schematic ion–dipole interaction: (Q) is the charge of the ion X and
(d +) at Z and (d −) at Y are the charges of dipolar molecule YZ having a dipole length of (l ) and a dipole
moment of (m = d l ) subtending an angle q to the line joining the two molecules. The X ion is at a dis-
tance of (r) away from the center of the dipolar molecule YZ.

revolving, but it will then spend more of its time in the direction shown than in any other.
The potential energy will be minimized in this position, since the attraction between oppo-
sitely charged points would exceed the repulsion between the more distant like charges. An
overall attraction of moderate strength will result. We can derive the interaction potential
from the geometric considerations shown in Figure 2.3. In this figure, a charged ion (X)
having a charge of q = ze is at a distance of r away from the center of a polar molecule (YZ)
which has a dipole length of l and a dipole moment of m = dl subtending an angle q to the
line joining the two molecules. The total interaction energy will be the sum of the Coulomb
energies of q with d − at Y and q with d + at Z.
qd  1 1 
V (r ) = − − (30)
4pe oe r  XY XZ 
By applying plane geometry rules we can write
12
 2 2

XY =  r − cos q  +  sin q  
l l
(31a)
 2   2  
 Molecular Interactions 29

12
 2 2

XZ =  r + cos q  +  sin q  
l l
(31b)
 2   2  

when r >> l then XY ≈ (r − l/2 cos q) and XZ ≈ (r + l/2 cos q) may be used. The interaction
energy in this limit becomes
 
qd  1 1 
V (r , q ) = −  −  (32)
4pe oe r  l
 r − cos q   l 
r + cos q 
  2   2  

When permanent dipole moments are considered by combining Equations (3) and (32),
and applying the r >> l condition we obtain
 
qd  l cos q  qm cos q
V (r , q ) = −  =− (33)
4pe oe r   2 l 2
2  4pe oe r r 2
  r − 4 cos q  

This expression shows that ion–dipole interactions are much weaker than the ion–ion
interactions. If we compare Equation (33) with Equation (22) we see that instead of q2 in
Equation (22) we have (m cos q) in Equation (33) and we have r2 instead of r in the denom-
inator. All of these parameters cause V(r) to decrease. When a cation is near a dipolar mol-
ecule, maximum negative energy (attraction) will occur when the dipole points away from
the ion (q = 0° and cos q = 1) as can be seen in Figure 2.2 a, and if the dipole points towards
the ion (q = 180° and cos q = −1) the interaction energy is positive and the force is repul-
sive. At typical interatomic separations (0.2–0.4 nm) ion–dipole interactions are strong
enough to bind ions to polar molecules and mutually align them. If the charge separation,
l, is less than 0.1 nm then Equation (33) is valid for all intermolecular separations, however
for greater l values in dipolar molecules, the deviations may be large and the interactions
are always stronger than expected from Equation (33).
All the expressions given in Equations (30)–(33) are for fixed dipoles. In reality, all dipoles
and ions are mobile and the dipole is rotating freely so that only angle-averaged potentials
can be applied. In this case, the q angle of the dipole in Figure 2.3 does not have a fixed value
and is changing with time. This occurs at large intermolecular separations or in a medium
of high er, where the angle dependence of the interaction energy falls below the thermal
energy, kT, and dipoles can now rotate more or less freely due to the presence of the weak
interaction potentials. For this case, the angle-averaged potential energies are not zero, even
though the value of cos q is zero when averaged over all of the space, because the Boltzmann
weighting factor gives more weight to those orientations that have a lower (more negative)
energy. Angle-averaged potential energies for the ion–dipole interactions can be calculated
by applying the potential energy distribution theorem and it is found that
q2 m 2
V (r ) = − (34)
6(4pe oe r ) kTr 4
2

for kT > (qm/4peoerr2) conditions. It should be noted that angle-averaged potential

energies are only attractive and temperature dependent. Values calculated from Equation
(34) may supersede the values calculated using Equation (33) at distances larger than
30 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

r = qm 4pe oe r kT . In general, the distance for many monovalent ions dissolved in water
is roughly 0.2 nm and thus the angle-averaged molecular interaction with the ion strongly
restricts the movement of water molecules in the first shell around the ion and causes the
difference in properties from those of bulk water values.

2.4.2 Interactions between dipolar molecules (fixed)

All neighboring polar molecules will tend to orientate themselves so as to minimize the
interaction energy. This results in a weak dipole–dipole attraction, especially between
organic liquids, as seen in Figure 2.2 b. A molecule (1) having a permanent dipole moment
of m1 experiences an effect if there is a gradient of an electric field from another molecule
(2) having a dipole moment of m2. Two such polar molecules are shown in Figure 2.4 in a
fixed position (without rotating around the axis). In such a fixed orientation, if the charge
separation distance, r12, is much larger than the diameter of the molecules, the mutual
potential energy of the two dipoles can be derived similarly to the procedure used for
ion–dipole interactions,
m1m 2
V (r12 , q 1 , q 2 , f ) = − [2 cosq1 cosq 2 − sin q1 sin q 2 cos f ] (35)
4pe oe r r123
where q1, q2 and f are the angles, in polar coordinates, describing the orientations of the
dipoles as shown in Figure 2.4. When q1 = q2 = 0, the two dipole molecules lie in line accord-
ing to the above equation so that the maximum attraction occurs:
2m1m 2
V ( r12 , 0°, 0°, f ) = − (36)
4pe oe r r123
If two dipoles are free to rotate relative to each other, they will take up the head-to-tail
(lowest energy) configuration as seen in Figure 2.2 b. For the same r12, when the two dipoles
align parallel to each other, that is V (r12, 90°, 90°, 180°) then the interaction potential
energy is half of the maximum value. However, when r12 is not constant, contrary to the
expectations that dipole–dipole attraction will prefer to orientate themselves in line, most
dipolar molecules prefer to align in parallel so as to become significantly closer to each

m1 m1

q1 r12 q2

Figure 2.4 Geometric relations in a schematic dipole–dipole interaction: m1 is the permanent dipole
moment of molecule (1) and m2 of molecule (2) and the charge separation distance, r12 is much larger
than the diameter of the molecules. q1, q2 are the angles of each dipole in the polar coordinates, and f
is the rotation angle around the axis; all three angles describe the orientations of the two dipoles to each
other.
 Molecular Interactions 31

other. Because they are anisotropic, that is they are longer along the direction of the dipole
turning to cigar shaped molecules, this makes the parallel interaction more favorable. The
3
smaller the r12 distance the stronger will be the interaction, due to the presence of r12 in the
denominator of Equation (36).
In general, independent dipole–dipole interactions are weaker than the ion–dipole
interactions, and only very polar molecules are strong enough to bind to each other at
normal temperatures in the liquid state. However, water is an exception to this due to its
hydrogen-bonding properties. Hydrogen bonding may be considered to be a special type
of directional dipole–dipole interaction (see also Section 2.8).

2.4.3 Keesom orientation interactions: interactions between dipolar

molecules (rotating)

Equations (35) and (36) can only be used for fixed dipole interactions. However, in reality,
all polar molecules are mobile and rotating freely so that only angle-averaged potentials can
be applied similarly for ion–dipole interactions. The Boltzmann weighting factor gives
more weight to the lower (more negative) energy orientations and angle-averaged poten-
tial energies are not zero. In a pure fluid, m1 = m2 and thermal agitation tends to make rel-
ative orientations random, while the interaction energy acts to favor alignment. We expect
therefore, that as the temperature rises, the orientations become increasingly random until
in the limit of very high temperature, the average potential energy due to polarity becomes
vanishingly small. This expectation is confirmed by experimental evidence of polar gas
behavior. In 1912, Keesom carried out statistical calculations averaging over all orienta-
tions with each orientation weighted according to its Boltzmann factor, in order to calcu-
late the average potential energy between two dipoles at a fixed separation, r12, and found
that
m 12 m 22
V ( r12 ) = − (37)
3( 4pe oe r ) kTr126
2

for kT > (m1m2/4peoerr12 3

) conditions. Thus, the Boltzmann-averaged interactions between
two mobile and permanent dipoles are usually referred to as Keesom orientation interac-
tions. Since they vary with the inverse sixth power of the separation distance, they con-
tribute to the total van der Waals interactions between molecules (see also Section 2.6). The
Keesom contribution becomes increasingly significant for small molecules having larger
dipole moments.
Ion–quadrupole interactions vary with the inverse eighth power of the separation dis-
tance; and the quadrupole–quadrupole interactions vary with the inverse tenth power of
the separation distance. The effect of quadruple moments on thermodynamic properties
is already much less than that of dipole moments and the effect of higher multipoles is
usually negligible. In general, neither ion–dipole nor dipole–dipole forces can produce
long-range alignment effects in liquids.
In reality, the dipolar energies are not pair-wise additive in multi-molecular interactions.
The head–to–tail configuration, which is the most stable one for two dipoles or
quadrupoles, is not even very common in the lowest-energy configurations when three or
more dipoles are present. Instead, a cluster of three dipoles has a lowest-energy configura-
tion with the dipoles arranged in a triangle. Since the dipoles in a condensed phase usually
32 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

form clusters containing three or more dipoles, an individual dipolar molecule cannot be
positioned in the same lowest-energy orientation with respect to all of its nearest neigh-
bors, resulting in diminished values of V(r) for Keesom orientation interactions. Thus,
every multimolecular interaction should be independently examined to find the lowest-
energy configuration.

2.5 Induction Effects: Interactions Between Induced Non-polar

and Polar Molecules
In deriving the above expressions, we have assumed that molecules are non-polarizable,
that is, they interact without perturbing the charge distributions of each other. However
in real systems, the electric fields emanating from nearby molecules induce dipole moments
both in non-polar and polar molecules, resulting in molecular polarizability, a, as defined
in Section 2.1.3. Actually, we have already seen polarization effects when considering
the relative permittivity, er (earlier called dielectric constants) measurements carried out
in parallel-metal plate capacitors (or condensers) as detailed in both Section 2.1.3
relating to dipole moments and Section 2.3 relating to Coulomb interactions. The
relative permittivity is a macroscopic property of the medium and it reflects the degree of
polarization of the molecules in the medium by the applied local electric field, as given
by Equation (8) in Section 2.1.3 and Equation (22) in Section 2.3. In this section, we
will see the physical nature of the polarizability and will derive some important dipole
moment expressions such as the Debye–Langevin equation (Equation (11)) from first
principles.

2.5.1 Polarizability of non-polar molecules

All molecules are polarizable. When a non-polar molecule is subjected to an electric field,
the electrons in the molecule are displaced from their ordinary positions so that the elec-
tron clouds and nuclei are attracted in opposite directions. The charges inside the
molecules shift, a dipole is induced, and the molecule has a temporarily induced dipole
moment, mi. One would expect that the molecular polarizability, a should increase with
the molecular size because in larger molecules the electrons can be displaced over longer
distances. In fact, a is proportional to the volume of the molecule. As a simplified example,
a one-electron Bohr atom is shown in Figure 2.5 a in which an electron (q = e−) moves
around a nucleus (q = e+) with a circularly symmetrical orbit having a radius, r, in the
absence of an external field. When this non-polar atom is subjected to an external electric
field, E, the electron orbit is shifted by a distance, l, from the nucleus as shown in Figure
2.5 b. The external force, Fext, on the electron due to the field E can be calculated from
Equation (5) so that
Fext = Ee (38)

This Fext must be balanced by the internal attractive Coulomb force between the displaced
electron orbit and the nucleus as given by Equation (24) where z1 = z2 = 1, er = 1 in a
vacuum and by considering the shift angle, q
 Molecular Interactions 33

e 2 (sinq )
Fint = (39)
4pe o r 2
At equilibrium, Fext = Fint and by plane geometry, sin q = l/r, which gives
e (sinq ) el
E= ≈ (40)
4pe o r 2 4pe o r 3
The induced dipole moment can be expressed by using the general dipole moment equa-
tion (Equation (3)), and can be related to molecular polarizability by using Equation (7)
so that,
mi = el = aE (41)

By combining Equations (40) and (41) we obtain

mi
E≈ (42)
4pe o r 3
and for a non-polar gas molecule in free space, the polarizability can be expressed as
a = 4peor3 (43)
2 2 −1
The units of polarizability are C m J and it is related to the volume of the Bohr atom so
that geometrically, VB = (4/3)pr3 and thus, a = 3 VBeo. This shows that there is a direct pro-
portionality between the polarizability and the volume of a molecule. However, the calcu-
lation of the molecular radius from Equation (43) is not recommended because such
calculations generally give values which are less than the real molecular radii. For example,
a water molecule has a radius of 0.135 nm, but Equation (43) gives a value of 0.114 nm,
which is 15% less than the real value.

r r
q
e+

l
e+

e– e–

a b

Figure 2.5 a. One-electron non-polar Bohr atom in which an electron (e−) moves around the nucleus
(e+) with a circularly symmetrical orbit having a radius, r, in the absence of any external electric field. b.
When this atom is subjected to an external electric field, E, the electron orbit is shifted by a distance, l,
and angle, q, from the nucleus.
34 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

2.5.2 Polarizability of polar molecules

In the above section, we considered the polarization of atoms and only non-polar gas mol-
ecules in free space. What happens to a dipolar molecule when it is subjected to an elec-
trical field? We know that a freely rotating dipolar molecule has a time-averaged zero dipole
moment. However, when an electrical field, E, is applied, the Boltzmann-averaged orien-
tations of the rotating dipoles are affected so that an orientation polarizability is formed
which will be weighted along the field. If the permanent dipole, m, is at an angle q to the
field, E, at any instant, its time resolved dipole moment along the field is (m cos q) and the
time-averaged induced dipole moment in free space is given (similarly to Equation (34) in
Section 2.4.1) by
m2E
mi = for (kT >> mE ) (44)
3kT
By combining Equations (41) and (44), the orientation polarizability of a dipolar molecule
can be calculated as
m2
a orient = (45)
3kT
and by combining Equations (43) and (45) we obtain the total polarizability of a dipolar
molecule in an electric field that can be considered as the initial state of the Debye–Langevin
equation
m2 m2
aT = a + = 4pe o r 3 + (46)
3 kT 3 kT
However there are exceptions: in a very high electrical field, such as when water molecules
are placed near a small ion or when the temperature is very low where kT is very small,
the orientation polarizability concept breaks down, and a dipolar molecule completely
aligns along the field; however the induced polarizability still applies.

2.5.3 Solvent medium effects and excess polarizabilities

The above expressions were derived for the polarizabilities of molecules in free space or in
a dilute gas (mostly air). However, we often encounter molecules interacting in a liquid
solvent medium, which reduces the interaction pair potential by around er or more; the
extent of this reduction depends on several factors. First of all, the intrinsic polarizability
and dipole moment of an isolated gas molecule may be different when it is itself in the
liquid state, or alternatively when dissolved in a solvent medium. This is because of the dif-
ference in interaction strength and also the separation distance between molecules. Thus,
the polarizability values are best determined by experiment. Second, a dissolved mole-
cule can only move by displacing an equal volume of solvent from its path. If the mole-
cule has the same polarizability as the solvent molecules, that is if no electric field is
reflected by the molecule, it is invisible in the solvent medium and does not experience any
induction force. Thus, the polarizability of the molecule, a, must represent the excess or
effective polarizability of a molecule over that of the solvent. Landau and Lifshitz applied a
continuum approach and modeled a molecule, i, as a dielectric sphere of radius, ai, having
 Molecular Interactions 35

a dielectric constant of ei, in a solvent medium. When such a dielectric sphere is polarized
by an electric field of, E, in this solvent medium having a dielectric constant of er, it will
have an excess dipole moment of
 ei − er  3
m i = 4pe oe r aE (47)
 e i + 2e r  i

and since mi = aE from Equation (41), the excess total polarizability of the molecule in this
solvent medium is
 ei − er  3  e −e 
a i T = 4pe oe r a = 3e oe r i r v i (48)
 e i + 2e r  i  e i + 2e r 

where vi = (4/3)pai3 is the volume of the dielectric sphere molecule. Since er = 1 in free
space, Equation (48) reduces to
 ei − 1  3  e −1
a i T = 4pe o a = 3e o i v (49)
 ei + 2  i  ei + 2  i

and if the dielectric constant is high that is ei >> 1, then its polarizability is roughly a ≈
4peoa3 which is similar to Equation (43). Instead, if er > ei then the polarizability is nega-
tive, showing that the direction of the induced dipole in a solvent medium is opposite to
that in free space.
On the other hand, Equation (49) can be used in the derivation of the classical
Clausius–Mossotti equation (Equation (9)) so that, for an isolated gas molecule in free
space, Equation (49) can be written as
a  e −1
= i vi (50)
3e o  e i + 2 
where ei is now the dielectric constant of the gas molecules. Since vi = (Vm/NA), then Equa-
tion (50) is the same as Equation (9). This derivation also shows the success of treating a
molecule as a dielectric sphere in a medium.

2.5.4 Interactions between ions and induced non-polar molecules

When an ion and a non-polar molecule are separated by a distance, r, in the same
medium, as shown in Figure 2.6 a, the electric field of the ion (see Equation (25), E =
q/4peoerr2) will form a shift of distance, l, in electron clouds of the non-polar molecule,
and will tend to polarize it to form an induced dipole moment as long as the ion is suffi-
ciently close
aq
m i = aE = (51)
4pe oe r r 2
If, ∆E is the difference in E at either end of the dipole so that

∆E =   l
dE
(52)
 dr 

the resulting force on the neutral molecule is therefore F = q∆E from Equation (38), and
by combining with Equations (41) and (52) we obtain
36 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

m m

q a q a a

r r r

(Fixed) (Rotating)

Ion–Nonpolar Dipole–Nonpolar Dipole–Nonpolar

a b c

Figure 2.6 a. Schematic representation of the interaction between an ion (q) and a nonpolar molecule
(a) with a separation distance of r. The electric field of the ion will form a shift in electron clouds of the
non-polar molecule and will tend to polarize it to form an induced dipole moment if the ion is near
enough. b. Schematic representation of the interaction between a dipolar molecule having a fixed dipole,
m, and a non-polar molecule (a) with a separation distance of r. The fixed dipole, m, is oriented at an
angle, q, to the line joining it to the polarizable molecule. c. Schematic representation of the angle-
averaged interaction between a dipolar molecule having a rotating dipole, m, and a non-polar molecule
(a) with a separation distance of r.

F = q  l = aE  
dE dE
(53)
 dr   dr 

Then the pair potential energy can be calculated as

2
V ( r ) = − ∫ Fdr = − ∫ aE   dr = −
dE aE
(54)
 dr  2

By combining Equations (51) and (54), we obtain

q 2a
V (r ) = − (55)
2(4pe oe r ) r 4
2

It is important to note that this is half of the pair potential that is expected for the inter-
action of an ion with a molecule having a permanent dipole moment (rotating) similarly
aligned [V(r) = −aE2, compare with Equation (34) in Section 2.4.1]. Since some energy is
taken up in polarizing a molecule to induce a dipole moment rather than having a per-
manent dipole moment, it is reasonable that a weaker pair potential is obtained for the
interactions between ions and induced non-polar molecules.

2.5.5 Interactions between ions and induced polar molecules

When an ion and an induced dipolar molecule interact, as shown in Figure 2.2 a, we should
consider the total polarizability of this dipolar molecule (see Equation (46)), and then
similar to the derivation of Equation (55), one obtains,

V (r ) = −
q 2a T
=−
( ze ) 2

a+
m2 
2 4   (56)
2(4pe oe r ) r 2(4pe oe r ) r  3kT 
2 4
 Molecular Interactions 37

2.5.6 Interactions between dipolar molecules and induced non-polar

molecules (fixed)

When a dipolar and a non-polar molecule interact, as shown in Figure 2.6 b, the polariz-
ing field arises from the permanent dipole and not from an ion. As a result, the applied
electrical field is weaker than the interactions between ions and non-polar molecules. The
magnitude of this electric field can be calculated for a fixed dipole, m, oriented at an angle,
q, to the line joining it to the polarizable molecule,
m (1 + 3 cos 2 q )
E= (57)
4pe oe r r 3
and the pair potential for a fixed q angle can be calculated by combining Equations (54)
and (57) so that
aE 2 m 2a (1 + 3 cos 2 q )
V (r , q ) = − =− (58)
2(4pe oe r ) r 6
2
2

For typical values of m and a the strength of this interaction is so weak that it is not
sufficient to mutually orient the molecules.

2.5.7 Debye interactions: interactions between dipolar molecules and

induced dipolar molecules (rotating)

The above derivation for the fixed angle dipole–induced non-polar molecule interaction
is not realistic and we need the angle-averaged interaction potential for the rotating dipole-
induced non-polar molecule interactions as shown in Figure 2.6 c. Since the angle average
of cos2q = 1/3 mathematically, Equation (58) becomes
m 2a
V (r ) = − (59)
(4pe oe r )2r 6
Debye derived a more general expression from Equation (59) for the interactions between
dipolar molecules and induced dipolar molecules (rotating) in 1920. He found that when
induction takes place, the pair potential energy between two different dipolar molecules
each possessing permanent dipole moments of m1 and m2 and polarizabilities a1 and a1,
can be expressed as,

V (r ) = −
[ m 12a 2 + m 22a 1 ] (60)
( 4pe oe r ) 2 r 6
These are often called Debye induced dipole interactions. It is interesting to note that
the Keesom orientation interaction expression (Equation (37) in Section 2.4.3) may
also be obtained from Equation (59) by replacing a with aorien = m2/3 kT. This fact
also indicates the presence of induction in orientation interactions. Thus, both
Keesom and Debye interactions vary with the inverse sixth power of the separation
distance and they both contribute to the van der Waals interactions, which we will see in
Section 2.6.
38 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

There are extensions to the Debye equation, for example, an electric field may also
be caused by a permanent quadrupole moment. In that case, Equation (60) can be
written as
3[ m12a 2 + m22a 1 ]
V (r ) = − (61)
2r 8

Quadrupole induction pair potential energy is less than dipole induction pair potential
energy.

2.5.8 Unification of angle-averaged induction interactions

If we exclude the simple Coulomb interaction between two charges in a vacuum, all
the other interactions we have considered so far have involved polarization effects, either
explicitly for non-polar molecules, or implicitly for rotating dipolar molecules having
permanent polar moment. It is possible to express all these angle-averaged interactions
in a unified equation. If a charged dipolar molecule 1 having q1 as its charge, a1
polarizability and m1 permanent dipole moment, interacts with a second dipolar
molecule 2 having a2 as its polarizability and m2 permanent dipole moment, we may
write an expression by combining all angle-averaged ion–dipole (Equation (34)),
Keesom (Equation (37)), Debye (Equation (60)) and also ion–induced and
induced–induced interactions,
  m12 
 q12 3kT  3kT + a 1   m22 
 4 +  + a2 
 2r r 6
  3kT 
 
V (r ) = − (62)
(4peoe r )2
If no ion is present in the system (q1 = 0) then the above expression gives the sum of the
Keesom-dipolar orientation and Debye-induction contributions to the total van der Waals
forces between two molecules. A third contribution to van der Waals forces is also present,
the dispersion forces (see Section 2.6.1).
Equation (62) can be used to compare the relative magnitudes of ionic, dipolar, and
induction contributions to a molecular interaction, and a ratio of 800 : 3 : 1 was calculated,
respectively, when q1 = 1 e, m1 = m2 = 1 D, a1 = a2 = (4peo)3 × 10−30 m3, and a molecular sep-
aration distance of r = 0.5 nm at T = 300 K, were selected for an indicative example. This
shows the importance of the presence of an ion in a medium. Equation (62) also shows
the molecular volume effect such that the efficiency of a dipolar interaction depends on
(m2/r6 ª (m/V)2). rather than the absolute value of the dipole moment.
The unified expression can be used while commenting on very practical situations in
solvents. Assume that two spherical solute molecules 1 and 2 having dielectric constants of
e1 and e2 and radii of a1 and a2, respectively, are present in a solvent medium having a
dielectric constant of er. What will be the net resultant interaction? If we combine
Equation (62) with the excess total polarizability expression (Equation (48)), given for
molecules dissolved in a solvent medium, we obtain
 Molecular Interactions 39

 e −e
 q12 3kT  1 r  a13 
 e1 + 2e r   e2 − er  3
V (r12 ) = −  +  a2 (63)
  e 2 + 2e r 
4 6
 8pe o e r r r
 

for the resultant pair potential.

We can derive some conclusions from Equation (63):
1 The interaction type between solute molecules dissolved in a solvent medium
may be attractive, repulsive or zero depending on the relative magnitudes of e1, e2
and er.
2 The interaction between any two identical uncharged molecules (e1 = e2 and a1 = a2) is
always attractive regardless of the nature of the solvent medium. (Note that we
must use the square of the parentheses including e1 and e2 in Equation (63) for
this case.)
3 When ions are present in the solvent medium, they are attracted to very polar molecules
(e2 > er) but repelled from non-polar or very low polar molecules (e2 < er).
This approach depends on the general continuum model and can be used to predict
the interaction behavior of solutes in solvents; however it cannot be used for quantitative
calculations.
In summary, induced interactions are weak and more short-ranged. Induced interac-
tions are not pair-wise additive, and this fact adds complications to the calculation of
molecular interactions. For example a molecule midway between two similar ions does not
experience any electrical field, and the interaction potential from the ion–induced dipole
term is zero. If we use Equation (55) and assume pair-wise additivity in such a case, we
will get a large and quite erroneous result for the interaction energy.

2.6 van der Waals Interactions

The classical insight concerns intermolecular forces, as clearly formulated by van der Waals
in 1873 in his equation of state for gases, to explain why real gases do not obey the ideal
gas law (P V = n R T),

 an 2 
 P + 2  ( V − nb) = nRT (64)
 V 

where P is the external pressure (Pa), V is the molar volume (m3), R is the gas constant (R
= 8.3145 J K−1 mol−1), T is the absolute temperature (K), a is the attraction constant for
molecules (Pa m6 mol−2), b is the actual volume of the molecules (m3 mol−1) and n is the
number of moles. van der Waals subtracted the term (nb) from the total gas volume to
account for the finite size of molecules, to find the free volume space that the gas mole-
cules can actually occupy, and added the term (an2/V 2) to the measured gas pressure to
account for the attractive intermolecular forces, now known as van der Waals forces, which
are long range in nature. van der Waals forces cause an attraction between the gas mole-
cules and restrict them to hit the walls of the container with their full translation momen-
tum thus decreasing the measured gas pressure from that of the ideal gas state.
40 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

The basis for the parameters a and b depends upon real facts: when a molecule is in close
proximity to another, if there were no forces of attraction, gases would not condense to
form liquids and solids; and in the absence of repulsive forces, condensed matter would
not show resistance to compression. We shall now consider the attractive interaction part
in some detail. It was realized that van der Waals forces consist of only long-range forces
and the interaction pair potential, V(r), decreases with the inverse sixth power of the dis-
tance between gas molecules, r−6, for not too great a distance between interacting mole-
cules (however, the interaction force, F(r), decreases as r−7). From the previous sections, we
know that there are three main types of interaction to obey the rule of inverse sixth power
of the distance between molecules, namely, Keesom (dipole–dipole angle-averaged orien-
tation, see Section 2.4.3), Debye (dipole–induced dipolar (angle-averaged), see Section
2.5.6), and London (dispersion) interactions. As we have seen above, the Keesom and
Debye interactions can be fully understood in terms of classical electrostatics, based on
Coulomb and Boltzmann distribution laws; however, London dispersion forces are differ-
ent and quantum mechanical in nature.

2.6.1 London dispersion interactions

All gases and liquids, including those whose molecules have zero dipole moment, and even
the inert gases, show serious deviations from the ideal gas laws even at moderate pressures.
Until about 1930, there was no adequate explanation for the forces acting between non-
polar molecules. In 1930, London showed by using wave and quantum mechanics that
some other types of intermolecular forces, the dispersion forces, are present. London stated
that so-called non-polar molecules are, in fact, non-polar only when viewed over a period
of time, and their time-averaged distribution of electrons is symmetrical; if an instanta-
neous photograph of such a molecule could be taken, it would show that, at a given instant,
the oscillation of the electrons about the nucleus had resulted in distortion of the electron
arrangement sufficient to cause a temporary dipole moment. The electrons circulate with
extremely high frequency (of the order of 1016 s−1) and at every instant the molecule is there-
fore polar, but the direction of this polarity changes with the high frequency. This dipole
moment is rapidly changing its magnitude and direction and therefore averages out to zero
over a short period of time; however, these quickly varying dipoles produce an electric field
which then induces dipoles in the surrounding molecules. The result of this induction is
usually an attractive force between induced non-polar or dipolar molecules. The disper-
sion attraction force is then this instantaneous force averaged over all instantaneous con-
figurations of the electrons in the molecule. Dispersion attraction force is proportional to
1/r6 and is always operative between all atoms, molecules and particles, even totally neutral
ones such as helium, carbon dioxide and paraffinic hydrocarbons. Since London disper-
sion forces are always present, they play an important role in the properties of gases, liquids,
thin films, adhesion, surface tension, physical adsorption, wetting, flocculation and struc-
ture formation of condensed macromolecules such as polymers and proteins. Dispersion
interactions are also long-ranged (0.2–15.0 nm) and may be repulsive for very short
spacing.
It is possible to give a qualitative summary of London’s quantum mechanical treatment
on how an instantaneous dipole moment would arise and on the magnitude of its inter-
 Molecular Interactions 41

action with neighboring molecules. First, the electron cloud of an atom or molecule can
be considered to be an oscillator since whenever the electron cloud is unsymmetrically dis-
tributed, the attraction of the positive nucleus provides a restoring force, which increases
with the displacement. Quantum mechanics shows that the energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator is given by

V n = h
o  n + 
1
(65)
 2

where Vn is the potential energy of the oscillator in the nth quantum level, h is Planck’s
constant, n is an integer and uo is the frequency of the oscillator corresponding to the wave-
length of an electronic absorption band for the molecule in the ultraviolet region. The sig-
nificance of the (1/2) term in Equation (65) is that the oscillator has a definite amount of
energy even at absolute zero, and that the fluctuations in distribution of electrons persist
even down at 0 K. Hence the instantaneous dipole moment of the molecule exists even at
0 K.
The magnitude of the instantaneous dipole is proportional to the polarizability, a, given
by Drude:
2
 q 
a= (66)
 2pmu o 

where q is the charge and m is the mass of the body (i.e. an electron) which oscillates with fre-
quency uo. The magnitude of the frequency, uo, can be experimentally determined via polariz-
ability measuring refractive index and also relative permittivity for the substance in question,
and Equations (9), (11), (12) and (66) are used in the calculations. Indeed, the name dispersion
force arises from the dispersion of the refractive index due to the frequency difference. Subject
to certain simplifying assumptions, the dispersion potential energy, Vd, between two simple,
spherically symmetrical molecules 1 and 2 at large distances, r, is given by
3 a 1a 2  hu o1 hu o2 
Vd = −   (67)
2 (4pe o )2 r 6  hu o1 + hu o2 

For a molecule, the product, huo is very nearly equal to its first ionization potential, I, which
is the work required to be done to remove one electron from an uncharged molecule. Equa-
tion (67) is therefore usually written in the London dispersion form,
3 a 1a 2  I 1I 2 
Vd = − (68)
2 (4pe o )2 r 6  I 1 + I 2 

If molecules 1 and 2 are of the same species, Equation (68) reduces to

3 a 2I
Vd = − (69)
4 ( 4pe o ) 2 r 6

A useful version of Equation (68) was given by Slater and Kirkwood in 1931,
363a 1a 2
Vd = − (70)
 a 12 12

r 6  1  +  2  
a
 n1   n2  
42 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

where n1 and n2 are the numbers of electron in the outer shells, r is in Å units, Vd is in
kcal/mole and ao is in Å3.
Since, London dispersion energy is the potential energy between non-polar molecules,
Equations (68) and (69) show that Vd is independent of temperature. On the other hand,
the first ionization potentials of most substances do not differ very much from one another,
so London’s equation is more sensitive to the polarizability than it is to the ionization
potential. We can rewrite Equations (68) and (69):

a 1a 2 a2 a2
V d12 = k 6
, V d1 = k 16 , V d2 = k 62 (71)
r r r

where k is a constant which is approximately the same for the three types of interactions,
1–1, 2–2, 1–2. It then follows that
Vd12 = (Vd1 Vd 2 )
12
(72)

Equation (72) gives some theoretical basis for the frequently applied geometric-mean rule,
which is so often used in equations of state for gas mixtures and theories for liquid solu-
tions. Berthelot was the first to use the geometric mean rule:
a12
≅1 (73)
(a11a22 )1 2
where the a terms are the attractive constants in the van der Waals equation, a12 being the
constant for unlike molecules.
Although the London equation can only be derived using quantum mechanical pertur-
bation theory, it is instructive to use a simple approach on how these interactions take
place, using the one-electron Bohr atom where the shortest distance between the electron
and proton is known as the first Bohr radius, rB, at which the Coulomb energy (e2/4peo rB)
is equal to 2hυo, so that we can calculate rB as
e2
rB = = 0.053 nm (74)
2(4pe o )hυo

Since the product huo is very nearly equal to its first ionization potential, I, we know that
uo = 3.3 × 1015 s−1 for a Bohr atom, so that I = 2.2 × 10−18 J. The Bohr atom has no perma-
nent dipole moment, however, at any instant there exists an instantaneous dipole moment
of (minstan = rBe) whose field will polarize a nearby neutral Bohr atom giving rise to an attrac-
tive interaction that is entirely analogous to the dipole–induced dipole interaction as given
in Section 2.5.6. The energy of this interaction in a vacuum can thus be calculated using
Equation (59) so that

V (r ) = −
m 2a (r e ) a
=− B 2 6
2

(75)
(4pe o ) r
2 6
(4pe o ) r
where we can write a = 4peo rB3 by using Equation (43). By combining Equations (74), (75),
and using the I parameter, the dispersion interaction energy can be written as
2a 2 I
V (r ) = − (76)
(4pe o )2 r6
 Molecular Interactions 43

Equation (76) is very similar to London’s Equation (69), except for the (3/8) numerical
factor which is necessary for atoms having more electrons than the Bohr atom. It can be
understood from the above simple Bohr atom model that, although the dispersion forces
are quantum mechanical in origin, the basis of interaction is still essentially electrostatic,
as a kind of quantum polarization force.
The strength of London dispersion interactions is generally high. These interactions are
more than 1 kT at room temperature and cannot be neglected. Thus, many large molecules
such as non-polar hydrocarbon liquids and solids can be held together solely by disper-
sion forces. When such molecules are solidified through a decrease in temperature they are
called van der Waals solids, and they have weak, undirected physical bonds between them,
low melting points and low heats of melting. The spherically symmetrical inert neon, argon
and methane molecules form van der Waals solids with close-packed structures and having
12 nearest neighbors per atom at low temperatures (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.8). Their lattice
energy may be calculated from pair potentials so that 12 molecules share 12 London bonds
(or six full London bonds per molecule), but generally the attractions of more distant mol-
ecules are also included in the calculations and the factor of 6 rises to 7.22 to multiply the
pair potential. Of course, other interactions are interfering, such as very short-range
stabilizing repulsive interactions (see Section 2.7) and other attractive interactions such as
fluctuating higher multipole interactions and from other adsorption frequencies; however
these opposing effects partially cancel each other out so that the London dispersion inter-
actions, which are calculated directly from Equations (68) and (69), fit well with molar
experimental cohesive energy results for molecules with a diameter of less than about
0.5 nm. Nevertheless, Equations (68) and (69) cannot be applied to non-spherical and large
molecules (>0.5 nm) such as alkanes, polymers, cyclic or planar molecules, because the
dispersion force no longer acts between the centers of the molecules, but acts between
the centers of electronic polarization within each molecule where the covalent bonds
are located. In order to compute the attractions between such complex molecules, the
molecular packing in the solid or liquid must be known and the contributions from the
different parts of the molecule must also be considered separately. Thus London disper-
sion forces may be non-additive depending on the conditions. As an extension, the London
dispersion interactions are also operative between spherical colloidal particles in a medium
or spherical-flat surfaces, as will be shown in Chapter 7.

2.6.2 Correlation with van der Waals constants

In the classical van der Waals expression (Equation (64)) we considered the gas molecules
to be hard spheres of diameter, s. If we write this expression in terms of the molecular
parameters of a gas then we have
 P + a  v − b = kT

( ) (77)
v2 

where v is the gaseous volume occupied per gas molecule v = (Vm/NA) and k is the Boltz-
mann constant. The London dispersion pair interaction potential between these hard
sphere molecules may be simplified from Equation (69) so that for r > s
44 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

3 a 2I C
Vd (r ) = − = − 6d (78)
4 (4pe o )2 r 6 r

then, we can say for the London dispersion interaction coefficient Cd,
3a 2 I
Cd = (79)
4( 4pe o )
2

Vd = ∞ for r < s. For two dissimilar molecules, the London dispersion interaction coeffi-
cient Cd, from Equation (68), is
3a 1a 2  I 1 I 2 
Cd = − (80)
2(4pe o )2  I 1 + I 2 

On the other hand, we may also use gas constants, a and b to calculate the dispersion pair
potential. As we will see its derivation in Section 3.4.2, the van der Waals constant, a, can
be expressed as
2pC W 2pC W
a= = for n = 6 (81)
(n − 3)s n −3 3s 3

where CW is the van der Waals interaction coefficient. If we want to write Equation (81)
using the classical van der Waals terms, containing one molar volume of the gas, V, as in
Equation (64) (by analogy with the a/v 2 term), we obtain
2pNA2 C W
a= (82)
3s 3

We know that the constant b is the volume of the rigid molecules (dm3 mol−1), which is
the volume unavailable for the molecules to move in, and the excluded volume per mole =
4/3ps3 because the spherical diameter, s, is the closest that one molecule can approach
another. Thus the constant, b, can be written in terms of molecular diameter so that (see
also Section 3.4)
2pNAs 3
b= (83)
3

which is four times the spherical volume of the molecules which, as we know from geom-
etry, is equal to 4/3m NA (s/2)3 By combining Equations (82) and (83) we obtain for the
van der Waals interaction coefficient, CW,
9 ab
CW = = 1.05 × 10 −76 ab (84)
4p 2 N A3

where, CW is in units of J m6, a is in dm6 atm mol−2, and b is in dm3 mol−1. Equations (79),
(80) and (84) enable us to compare the Cd and CW values obtained for the same molecule
using different experimental parameters. For example, for the methane molecule, CH4,
CW = 101 × 10−79 J m6 was found from a and b gas constants obtained experimentally, and
Cd = 102 × 10−79 J m6 was found from a, eo and I measurements as seen in Table 2.3.
However, for a large molecule such as CCl4, having a diameter of s = 0.55 nm, the exper-
 Molecular Interactions 45

Table 2.3 Relative magnitudes of van der Waals interactions

Relative magnitudes of van der Waals interactions between two identical molecules at 0°C

Keesom
London polar Debye
dispersion orientation induced
Permanent coefficient coefficient coefficient
dipole Ionization (10−79 J m6) (10−79 J m6) (10−79 J m6)
moment Polarizability potential (Equation (Equation (Equation
Molecule (D) (10−24 cm3) (eV) 80) 86) 88)

He 0 0.20 24.7 1.2 0 0

Ne 0 0.39 21.6 4 4 0
Ar 0 1.63 15.8 50 0 0
CH4 0 2.60 12.6 102 0 0
Cyclohexane 0 11.00 11.0 1560 0 0
CO 0.12 1.99 14.3 68 0.0034 0.057
HCl 1.08 2.63 12.7 106 11 6
HBr 0.78 3.61 11.6 182 3 4
HI 0.38 5.44 10.4 370 0.2 2
CCl4 0 10.50 11.1 1520 0 0
CH3Cl 1.87 4.56 11.3 282 101 32
(CH3)2CO 2.87 6.33 10.1 486 1200 104
NH3 1.47 2.26 10.2 63 38 10
H2O 1.85 1.48 12.6 33 96 10

Relative magnitudes of van der Waals interactions between two different molecules at 0°C

Molecule 1 Molecule 2

CCl4 Cyclohexane 1510 0 0

CCl4 NH3 320 0 23
(CH3)2CO Cyclohexane 870 0 89
CO HCl 83 0.21 2.3
H2O HCl 64 70 11
(CH3)2CO NH3 185 315 33
(CH3)2CO H2O 135 493 35
Ne CH4 19 0 0
HCl HI 197 1 7
H2O Ne 11 0 1
H2O CH4 58 0 9

imental value obtained from a and b gas properties is CW = 2969 × 10−79 J m6, which is much
larger than Cd = 1520 × 10−79 J m6 from a, eo and I measurements as seen in Table 2.3. This
is because CCl4 has a stronger interaction potential than can be accounted for by applying
the London equation to the molecular centers.
46 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

2.6.3 Comparison of Keesom, Debye and London interactions in

polar molecules

As we have seen, London dispersion interactions, Keesom dipole–dipole orientation inter-

actions and Debye dipole–induced dipole interactions are collectively termed van der Waals
interactions; their attractive potentials vary with the inverse sixth power of the intermol-
ecular distance which is a common property. To show the relative magnitudes of disper-
sion, polar and induction forces in polar molecules, similarly to Equation (78) for London
Dispersion forces, we may say for Keesom dipole-orientation interactions for two dissim-
ilar molecules using Equation (37) that

m 12 m 22 CP
VP (r ) = − =− (85)
3( 4pe o ) kTr
2 6
12 r6

Thus, the Keesom dipolar orientation interaction coefficient, CP, can be written as
m 12 m 22
CP = (86)
3( 4pe o ) kT
2

We may say for Debye dipole–induced dipole interactions for two dissimilar molecules
using Equation (60) so that

VI (r ) = −
[ m 12a 2 + m 22a 1 ] = − C I (87)
( 4pe o ) 2 r 6 r6

and the Debye induced interaction coefficient CI, can be written as

CI =
[ m 12a 2 + m 22a 1 ] (88)
( 4pe o ) 2
Then, the total van der Waals force is the sum of these three contributions
C + CP + CI 
= −  d
CW
V W (r ) = −

(89)
r6  r6

and the van der Waals interaction coefficient CW, for two dissimilar polar molecules, can
be written as
 3a 1a 2  I 1 I 2  m 12 m 22 
 2  I + I  + 3 kT + ( m 1 a 2 + m 2 a 1 )
2 2

CW =−  1 2 
(90)
( o)
4pe
2

For the same molecules where 1 = 2, Equation (90) reduces to

 3a 2 I m4 2 
 4 + 3 kT + 2 m a 
CW =− 
(91)
( 4pe o ) 2
The values in Table 2.3 indicate that the most important contribution to van der Waals
interactions results from the London dispersion interactions. Keesom dipolar orientation
interactions are only operative for strongly polar and hydrogen-bonding substances such
 Molecular Interactions 47

as acetone, water and ammonia, because the contribution of Debye induction forces is
small for these molcules. For two dissimilar molecules, we again notice that polar forces
are not important when the dipole moment is less than 1 Debye, and the induction forces
are always much smaller than the dispersion forces. Agreement between the CW values
obtained from gas a, b constants and Equations (90) and (91) are surprisingly good for
some molecules, even for NH3 and H2O. For asymmetrical molecules it is not so good
because of the error in the molecular diameter. However, when two dissimilar molecules
are considered, the agreement between the CW values obtained from gas a, b constants and
Equations (90) and (91) is not good but is usually intermediate between the values of 1–1
and 2–2. The CW coefficient for 1–2 is often close to the geometric mean of 1–1 and 1–2,
but this rule breaks down many times especially for hydrogen-bonding molecules. This will
also be discussed in Sections 2.8 and 2.9.

2.6.4 van der Waals interactions in a medium

As we already discussed in Section 2.5.3 for excess polarizabilities of molecules dissolved

in a solvent, the London dispersion interactions between molecules in a solvent medium
may be very different from those of isolated molecules in free space. The intrinsic perma-
nent dipole moment, m, and polarizability of an isolated gas molecule, a, may be different
in the liquid state or when dissolved in a medium, and this can only be determined by
experiment.
In all the above London dispersion interaction expressions, the gas molecules were
assumed to have only single ionization potentials (one absorption frequency) in free space,
and this I cannot be used for interactions in a solvent. The polarizability of a molecule
varies with the change in frequency, so there is a definite need for an expression to compute
the dispersion forces between molecules that have a number of different absorption fre-
quencies or ionization potentials. In practice we need expressions to be applied to inter-
actions of two molecules, 1 and 2, which are present in a condensed solvent medium, 3. In
this case the polarizabilities of 1 and 2 are the excess polarizabilities as given by Equation
(48) in Section 2.5.3. McLachlan, in 1963, developed a generalized theory on van der Waals
interactions, including dispersion, orientation and induction interactions in a single
expression. This theory is also suitable for application in solvents. If the dielectric constants
are expressed by using the refractive index of the molecules, then McLachlan’s equation
may be given as

V (r ) = −
3hv e a13a23 (n12 − n32 )(n22 − n32 ) (92)
2r 6 (n 2
1 + 2n2
3 ) (n + 2 n32 ) [ (n12 + 2n32 ) + (n22 + 2n32 ) ]
2
2

where a1 and a2 are the radii of molecules (1) and (2), n1 and n1 are their refractive indices,
n3 is the refractive index of the solvent medium, h is Planck’s constant and ve is the common
adsorption frequency, which is assumed for simplicity. If we consider the interaction of like
molecules (1 = 2) in a solvent medium (3), Equation (92) reduces to

V (r ) = −
3hv e a16 (n12 − n32 )
2

(93)
2r 6
(n1 + 2n32 )(2 n12 + 2n32 )
2
48 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Equations (92) and (93) show that the presence of a solvent medium other than a
free space much reduces the magnitude of van der Waals interactions. In addition, the
interaction between two dissimilar molecules can be attractive or repulsive depending
on refractive index values. Repulsive van der Waals interactions occur when n3 is interme-
diate between n1 and n2, in Equation (92). However, the interaction between identical
molecules in a solvent is always attractive due to the square factor in Equation (93).
Another important result is that the smaller the (n12 − n32) difference, the smaller the
attraction will be between two molecules (1) in solvent (3); that is the solute molecules will
prefer to separate out in the solvent phase which corresponds to the well-known like dis-
solves like rule. However there are some important exceptions to the above explanation,
such as the immiscibility of alkane hydrocarbons in water. Alkanes have n1 ≅ 1.30–1.36
up to 5 carbon atoms, and water has a refractive index of n3 ≅ 1.33, and very high solubil-
ity may be expected from Equation (93) since the van der Waals attraction of two alkane
molecules in water is very small. Nevertheless, when two alkane molecules approach each
other in water, their entropy increases significantly because of the very high difference in
their dielectric constants and also the zero-adsorption frequency contribution; conse-
quently alkane molecules associate in water (or vice versa). This behavior is not adequately
understood.
van der Waals interactions in a solvent medium are not generally pairwise additive. Inter-
action between any two solute molecules is affected by the other molecules nearby (many-
body effects) and this prevents simple additivity of pair potentials. This effect on the total
interaction is usually less than 20% but it can be positive or negative and may be impor-
tant in some situations such as interactions between large particles and surfaces in a
medium (see Chapter 7).

2.7 Repulsive Interactions, Total Interaction Pair Potentials

All the different kinds of interactions we have discussed so far have been attractive forces.
There must also be some repulsive force, otherwise molecules would collapse. Two types
of repulsive force have been considered in the preceding sections: the Coulomb repulsion
between like-charged ions, and the repulsion between atoms and molecules brought too
close together which are very short-range. When repulsion occurs between two ions it is
generally called Born repulsion. For the second example, the repulsive forces increase very
suddenly as two atoms or molecules approach each other very closely, this is due to the
repulsion between electron clouds overlapping at very small separations. This repulsion,
which increases very steeply with decreasing distance, is due to the Pauli principle, which
forbids outer electrons of one molecule from entering occupied orbitals of the other. This
repulsion is called hard core or Born repulsion. We will use the name hard core repulsion for
the interactions between two uncharged molecules in order to discriminate them from
ionic repulsions. These repulsion interactions are quantum mechanical in nature and there
is no general expression for their distance dependence, but some empirical potential func-
tions are derived. Hard core repulsions are responsible for the magnitude of the densities
of solids and liquids.
 Molecular Interactions 49

2.7.1 van der Waals radius

The repulsive force between atoms and molecules is negligible beyond a certain distance,
and it is a characteristic of such repulsive forces that they increase very suddenly at very
small separations with the approach of two atoms or molecules towards each other. It is
this repulsive force that gives the atom or molecule a well-defined boundary at the van der
Waals radius, rW. If we consider the atoms and molecules as incompressible hard spheres
then the repulsive force becomes infinite at a certain interatomic or intermolecular sepa-
ration. It is possible to determine the molecular van der Waals packing radius for gases from
pressure–volume–temperature data, and also from viscosity, solubility and spectroscopic
data; for liquids from self-diffusion and compressibility measurements; and for solids from
X-ray and neutron diffraction data. The values obtained from these different methods can
differ by as much as 30% because each method measures a slightly different property. Thus,
when pressure–volume–temperature data are used the van der Waals radius may be calcu-
lated from the coefficient b of the van der Waals equation of state by using Equation (83)
and taking rW = (σ/2); this gives the smallest value because gas molecules approach each
other more closely than their equilibrium separations. However, if we determine rW values
from the mean molecular volume occupied in the liquid state by assuming close packing
conditions (each molecule is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbors), so that we may use the
expression
4 3  M 
pr W = 0.7405  (94)
3  N Ar

then this results in the highest rW values, because the mobile molecules in the liquid
state are 5–10% farther apart than in their corresponding close packed crystalline
solids. When non-spherical molecules are considered, the effective van der Waals radius can
be calculated by considering the bond angles and covalent radii of individual atoms in
the molecule. This method can only be used for small and nearly spherical molecules, it
cannot be used for cigar shaped molecules such as long chain alkanes. When the van
der Waals radii of ions are measured, they are known as the bare ion radius, this is
different (smaller) than the hydrated ion radius in water. In general, the van der Waals
radius of most small molecules will lie between 0.1 and 0.2 nm, and the bare radii of
anions are larger than those of cations due to the fact that anions have additional electrons
in their outer shell adding additional repulsion force to increase the repulsive radius of
the anion.

2.7.2 Repulsive pair potentials

Conveniently, the repulsive pair potential of two hard sphere molecules is represented by
an inverse-power law of the type:
m
V r (r ) = +  W  = + m
r B
(95)
 r  r
50 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

where B is a constant, m is an integer usually taken to be between 8 and 16 and r is the

intermolecular separation distance. When r > rW the value of Vr(r) is approximately zero,
whereas when rW > r the value of Vr(r) is approximately infinite.
Contrary to attractive interactions, repulsive interactions are directional and their ori-
entation dependence has a large effect on the way that molecules can pack together when
they solidify. This property determines the lattice structure, rigidity and especially the solid
density and melting point. Melting points of solids depend on the geometry of how they
pack together; that is if the repulsive interactions and their shapes allow them to comfort-
ably pack together then they have high melting points, and if they are packed loosely, their
melting points will be low.

2.7.3 Total intermolecular pair potentials, Mie and Lennard-Jones potentials

It is possible to obtain the total intermolecular pair potential by simply summing the attrac-
tive and repulsive potentials. In 1903, Mie proposed a semi-empirical interaction pair
potential in the form
A B
V total ( r ) = V attractive( r ) + V repulsive( r ) = − + (96)
rn rm

where A, B, n and m are constants, and m > n by taking both repulsive and London dis-
persion attractive potentials into account. Mie’s potential applies to two non-polar, spher-
ically symmetric molecules, which are completely isolated in free space. The Lennard-Jones
potential is a special case of a Mie potential
A B
V total ( r ) = − + (97)
r 6 r 12

where the magnitude of n = 6 is taken from the well-known inverse sixth power depend-
ence of the separation distance in van der Waals interactions, and m = 12 is used for repul-
sive interactions. Lennard-Jones potentials are very useful and still in use today. As can be
seen in Figure 2.1, V = Vmax when r = re and r = ro (the intermolecular distance) when Vtotal
= 0. Let us try an indicative calculation by using some normal values such as A = 1 ×
10−77 J m6 and B = 1 × 10−134 J m12. We know that Vtotal = 0 at ro = (B/A)1/6 = 3.16 × 10−10 m
which can easily be calculated from Equation (96). The value of Vmax can be obtained when
(dV/dr) = 0. This occurs at r = re = (2B/A)1/6 = 3.55 × 10−10 m. By rearrangement, we also
obtain Vmax = −(A2/4B) = −(A/2 re6) = −2.5 × 10−21 J = 0.607 kT at 25°C. It is also possible to
show that re/ro = 21/6 = 1.12. As can be seen in Figure 2.1, the maximum attractive force,
Fmax occurs at (d2V/dr2) = 0, that is when r = rs = (26B/7A)1/6 = 3.94 × 10−10 m. Then we can
find (rs/ro) = (27/6)1/6 = 1.24. Since Fmax = −(dV/dr) = −6A/r7 + 12B/r13, then by inserting rs
= (26B/7A)1/6 one obtains Fmax = −(126A2/169B)(7A/26B)1/6 = −1.894 × 10−11 N (maximum
attractive force). However, the conventional laboratory balances can measure down to
about 10−9 N, and we need specialized equipment such as Surface Force Apparatus (SFA)
or Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) to measure Fmax in this case.
The Lennard-Jones expression may have some weak points in it but it gives good results
when compared with the experimental lattice energies of non-polar solids. This may be
due to the cancellation of a variety of erroneous factors.
 Molecular Interactions 51

2.7.4 Application of total intermolecular pair potentials in a liquid medium

In condensed phases such as liquids, two molecules are not isolated but have many
other molecules in their vicinity. If these two molecules are dissolved in another
solvent medium then the situation may be very complicated, and only by introducing sim-
plifying assumptions is it possible to construct a simple theory of dense media and a solu-
tion using Lennard-Jones or similar total intermolecular pair potentials. Some important
facts, which should be taken into account before applying any simplifying assumptions, are
given below:
1 As we have already discussed in Section 2.5.3 for excess polarizabilities of molecules dis-
solved in a solvent, and in Section 2.6.4 for van der Waals interactions in a medium,
when two molecules 1 and 2 are dissolved in a medium 3, the van der Waals forces
between them are reduced because of the dielectric screening of the medium. This reduc-
tion is particularly important for liquids with high dielectric constants. The attraction
force is decreased by a factor of the medium’s er for Keesom and Debye interactions and
by a factor of e r2 for London dispersion interactions. This strong reduction in the attrac-
tive pair potential means that the contributions of molecules further apart tend to be
relatively minor, and each interaction is dominated only by contributions from its
nearest neighbors.
2 The dielectric constant (relative permittivity) is a macroscopic property. If molecules
1 and 2 approach each other so closely, there will be no room for a solvent
molecule between them. Then we may question the use of the medium’s er in the
denominator of the related expressions, because if any polarization takes place, this
may be due to a much smaller effective value of er. On the other hand, some associated
solvents apply forces on solute molecules, which are determined mainly by the
orientation of the molecules of 1 and 2 in the medium 3, so that the resultant
distribution functions are not only functions of r but also dependent on the orientation
angle.
3 If molecules 1 and 2 are in complete contact in liquid 3, the hard-core repulsion inter-
action must also be considered. This sometimes gives rise to positive values in potential
expressions.
4 According to Archimedes’ principle, a dissolved solute molecule can approach
another only by displacing the solvent molecules from its path. The net force
therefore depends on the attraction between the solute molecules and also the solvent
molecules. Thus the pair energy cannot be determined just by V12 but also by V13, V23,
and V33.
5 The interactions may be pair-wise additive or may not be additive due to the presence
of other identical molecules of 1 and 2 nearby.
6 Coulomb forces operate between ions in electrolyte solutions. Coulomb interactions are
much longer range and stronger than van der Waals interactions. However this does not
mean that van der Waals interactions can always be ignored in electrolyte solutions. As
we saw in Section 2.4.1, there are interactions between ions and dipolar molecules; in
Section 2.5.4 interactions between ions and induced non-polar molecules; and in Section
2.5.5 interactions between ions and induced polar molecules. All of these interactions
affect the total interaction potential.
52 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

In summary, the application of pair potentials is not a straightforward process, but also
not particularly complicated. One should be careful to think about all the intrinsic prop-
erties of the interacting molecules and the medium (molecular diameter, shape, dipole
moment, polarizability, ionization potential, density, density distribution function, surface
tension, viscosity, the distance between interacting molecules, the presence of association
in the solvent, ionic strength of the solution etc.), and also the possible consequences after
the interaction takes place, before starting to model a specific molecular interaction. Some-
times, the simplest form of pair potential may fit the experimental findings very well due
to the cancellation of the errors.

2.8 Hydrogen-bonding Interactions

Hydrogen-bonding interaction is a donor–acceptor (or Lewis acid–base) interaction
involving hydrogen atoms. They exist between electronegative atoms such as O, N, F, Cl,
with H atoms covalently bound to similar electronegative atoms. Examples of groups in
molecules possessing such H atoms are —OH (in water, alcohols, carboxylic acids),
—NH (in primary and secondary amines, amides), HF and HCl. A hydrogen bond is
formed if the covalently bound H atom comes into contact with a strongly electronegative
group in another molecule, for example with an oxygen (in water, alcohols, carboxylic
acids, ketones, esters, ethers), a nitrogen, fluorine or chlorine atom in other molecules. The
presence of such interactions was first proposed by German chemists during the 1902–1914
period, and also by M.L. Huggins in 1919; later, in 1930, L. Pauling called the —O . . . H
interaction a hydrogen bond for the first time.
Hydrogen bond formation is both quantum mechanical and electrostatic in nature and
applies to a wide range of interactions. Formerly it was believed that a hydrogen bond was
only quasi-covalent in nature and the H atom (or proton) was shared between two elec-
tronegative atoms. Now it is also believed that, especially for weak H-bonds, it is predom-
inantly an electrostatic interaction.
In general, when an H-bond is formed between an AH molecule and a B molecule, this
can be shown schematically as A—H . . . B. The A and B terms are used for hydrogen-bond
donor and acceptor atoms by analogy with the Brönsted acid and base terms, respectively,
because the donor–acceptor interactions between atoms and molecules are related to their
acidity and basicity. An acid is a substance, in classical Brönsted terms, whose molecule can
donate a proton, whilst a base is a substance whose molecule can accept a proton. This is
the protonic concept of acid–base behavior and cannot be applied to hydrogen-bonding
interactions directly because there is no complete proton transfer in this process. Some sci-
entists even believe that there is no sharing of the H atom between two electronegative
atoms, but it remains covalently bound to its parent atom. It was experimentally deter-
mined that the covalent bond between A—H is weakened after the A—H—B hydrogen
bond forms.
As we know from Section 2.1, electronegativity is the power of an atom in a molecule
to attract electrons to itself. When two atoms have different degrees of electronegativity,
the bond between them will have partial ionic character. If electrons are available to occupy
the resulting molecular orbitals, the bond will have some covalent character. Hydrogen
bonds are formed when the electronegativity of A relative to H in an A—H covalent bond
 Molecular Interactions 53

is such that it withdraws electrons from the H atom and leaves the proton partially
unshielded. The result is a molecule with a localized positive charge, d +, which can link up
with the concentration of negative charge, d −, elsewhere in another molecule of the same
kind. The key factor is the small effective size of the poorly shielded proton, since electro-
static forces vary as the second power of separation distance, r−2. The acceptor B is also an
electronegative atom and must have a lone-pair of electrons or polarizable p electrons in
order to interact with this donor A—H bond. In H-bonding, a delocalized molecular
orbital formation takes place in which A, H, and B each supply one atomic orbital from
which three molecular orbitals are constructed. Initially, 1s orbitals in A and H are used to
form the A—H bond in the AH molecule, and the B orbital originally accommodates the
lone pair on B. After the H-bonding takes place, there are four electrons to accommodate
and they occupy the two lowest molecular orbitals of the AHB fragment. Since the most
anti-bonding, uppermost orbital is vacant, the energy lowering for the formation of the
H-bond is a feasible result. The distance between AH and B is very important, and H-bonds
are formed when AH touches B since H-bonding depends on orbital overlap. When the
molecular contact is broken, H-bonds are also broken.
Later, G.N. Lewis suggested the electronic concept for acid–base behavior. An acid is now
defined as a substance whose molecule can accept a pair of electrons to form a bond, and
a base, one whose molecule can donate a lone pair of electrons to form a bond. This
approach has much wider applicability for all donor–acceptor interactions and was also
used to define both former Brönsted protonic acids and bases, and also to define such mol-
ecules as BF3 and AlCl3 as acids, and aromatic hydrocarbons as bases. The Lewis acid–base
definition can be successfully applied to H-bonding especially in non-aqueous mediums.
Thus, H-bonds are formed when any hydrogen-bond donor group (N—H, O—H, F—H)
is near a hydrogen-bond acceptor group (Lewis base solvents containing N, O, F or Cl
atoms). While F− ions are good H-bond acceptors, the F atom in a C—F bond is not, so
there is no H-bonding in fluorocarbon solvents.
Hydrogen bonding is very important in aqueous media. Water is an unusual molecule
because of the presence of H-bonds within it. Water has unexpectedly high melting and
boiling points and latent heat of vaporization for such a small molecule. Without H-
bonding all the oceans would evaporate at ambient temperature. Water also has associa-
tion properties, very low compressibility, and an unusually high solubility capacity both as
a solvent and as a solute. All of this strange behavior can only be explained by the pres-
ence of H-bonds in water (see Section 2.8.2).
Hydrogen bonding also takes place between alcohol molecules, greatly increasing their
boiling points: ethanol, CH3CH2—OH, and methoxymethane, CH3—O—CH3, both have
the same molecular formula, C2H6O. They have the same number of electrons, and similar
molecular lengths. The van der Waals attractions (both dispersion forces and dipole–dipole
attractions) in each will be much the same. However, ethanol has a hydrogen atom attached
directly to an oxygen – and that oxygen still has exactly the same two lone pairs as in a water
molecule. Hydrogen bonding can occur between ethanol molecules, although not as effec-
tively as in water. The strength of this H-bonding is limited by the fact that there is only one
hydrogen in each ethanol molecule with a sufficient d + charge. In methoxymethane, the
lone pairs on the oxygen are still there, but the hydrogens are not sufficiently charged for
hydrogen bonds to form. The boiling points of ethanol and methoxymethane show the dra-
matic effect of the hydrogen bonding: ethanol (with hydrogen bonding) has a b.p. of 78.5°C
54 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

and methoxymethane (without hydrogen bonding) has a b.p. of −24.8°C. It is important

to realise that H-bonding exists in addition to van der Waals attractions. For example,
if we compare the structure of pentane (CH3CH2CH2CH2—CH3) with butan-1-ol
(CH3CH2CH2CH2—OH), we see that they contain the same number of electrons, and are
much the same length. However, the higher boiling point of the butan-1-ol (b.p. = 117°C)
over pentane (b.p. = 36.3°C) is due to the additional H-bonding property.
Hydrogen bonding is also very important in biological systems with N and O atoms in
their structure and which also contain water as their normal solvent. H-bonds are formed
between biological macromolecules such as amino acids (the building blocks of proteins)
and nucleic acids and bases, which are present in all living matter. Without H-bonds
all living things would disintegrate into inanimate matter, and all wooden materials would
collapse. Examples range from simple molecules such as HOOC—CH2—NH2 (glycine)
to large molecules like proteins and DNA. The ability of main chain carbonyl oxygen
bonds to form hydrogen bonds with the main chain amino groups leads to the possibility
of forming different secondary structures, such as the alpha helix in DNA. When the
proteins are crystallized, more than half the volume of the crystal is often still occupied
by water, and the water molecules near the protein crystal surface are in an ordered
structure due to the presence of the H-bonds; these are known as bound water. In bio-
chemistry, it is determined that the strongest H-bonds are formed as salt bridges such as
N¶H . . . O¨C in proteins and P¶OH . . . O¨P bonds in nucleic acids. We often
encounter the weak H-bonds in biological molecules because they are not rigid and can
easily be broken. Recently very weak H-bonds such as C¶H . . . O and the minor com-
ponents of three-center bonds have been examined to give a better understanding of inter-
actions in living systems.
There is also an important property of H-bonds: H-bonding interactions are not
dependent on intrinsic material properties and can be active between two surfaces having
no H-bonds within them. Unlike van der Waals interactions, H-bonding interactions are
essentially asymmetrical and can only be satisfactorily treated by taking that asymmetry
into account.

2.8.1 Properties of hydrogen bonds

There are many types of hydrogen bonding varying in strength between 1 and 40 kJ mol−1
and with bond lengths from 0.12 to 0.32 nm. Very strong H-bonds are formed (≈40 kJ
mol−1) which are weaker than but resemble covalent bonds (>150 kJ mol−1). Very weak H-
bonds can also be formed which are comparable with van der Waals interactions (≈1 kJ
mol−1), and these weak H-bonds interact mostly with electrostatic forces. If H-bonding is
present, it sometimes dominates the other intermolecular interactions. In general, most H-
bonds are weak attractions with a binding strength about one tenth of that of a normal
covalent bond. Some authors divide the H-bonding interactions into three categories,
strong (14–40 kJ mol−1), moderate (4–15 kJ mol−1) and weak (<4 kJ mol−1), and examine their
properties within these categories in order to prevent any confusion.
Two hydrogen-bonded electronegative atoms can approach each other more closely than
the sum of their molecular radii. In other words, the intermolecular distance between
B . . . H is less than the value expected from summing the two van der Waals radii of
 Molecular Interactions 55

the B and H atoms. Hydrogen bonds are directional and thus result in three- or two-
dimensional structures, or one-dimensional chains.
Hydrogen bond strength decreases with the increase in temperature and thermal motion
of the atoms involved, and after a certain temperature, the H-bonds break. Conversely, the
formation of H-bonds liberates heat, and H-bond formation energies can be measured by
determination of the enthalpy of mixing or dilution of donor–acceptor liquid mixtures by
calorimetry, or by infrared shifts. Good correlation is obtained between H-bond enthalpies
falling between 3 and 20 kcal mol−1 with discrepancies of 2–3 kcal mol−1 being found from
different measurements. It was determined that H-bond energies are neither additive nor
transferable.
The measurement of any physical property that is sensitive both to H-bonding and tem-
perature provides access to thermodynamic properties of the H-bonds formed. The most
important spectroscopic methods are infrared (IR), Raman, nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction and neutron inelastic scatter-
ing methods. In addition, some special techniques such as gas-phase microwave rotational
spectroscopy and deuteron nuclear quadrupole coupling have also been applied success-
fully. More recently, computational chemistry has become an important tool for under-
standing H-bonding, and especially ab initio molecular orbital calculations are applied.
This method seeks minimum energy intermolecular geometry by solving the wave equa-
tion using a linear combination of atomic orbitals known as the LCAO approximation.
These atomic orbitals have to be expressed mostly by using Gaussian distribution func-
tions to facilitate the computer calculations. The translational, rotational and vibrational
energies have to be calculated in order to relate the computational chemistry results with
experimentally measured enthalpies of gas-phase H-bonding interactions. H-bond ener-
gies in the gas phase can also be related to the difference in proton affinities for the donor
and acceptor; one of these will be an ion and the other a molecule. Proton affinities can
be calculated by applying the ab initio computational methods.

2.8.2 Hydrogen bonds in water

Water is the most important liquid on earth. As stated above, water has unexpectedly high
melting and boiling points and latent heat of vaporization, for a small non-ionic molecule.
This shows that there is one more interaction present than for normal polar molecules.
Water molecules are exceptionally prone to form H-bonds because the four pairs of elec-
trons around the O atom occupy sp3 hybrid orbitals that project outwards as though
towards the vertexes of a tetrahedron. Hydrogen atoms are at two of these vertexes, which
accordingly exhibit localized positive charges, while the other two vertexes exhibit some-
what more diffuse negative charges. Thus, a water molecule has a tetrahedral coordination
(four nearest neighbors per molecule) rather than a close-packed structure (12 nearest
neighbors per molecule), and the bonds in water are directional. Each water molecule can
therefore form H-bonds with four other water molecules; in two of these bonds the central
water molecule provides the bridging protons, and in the other two the attached water mol-
ecules provide them, as seen in Figure 2.7. In bulk liquid water, each molecule can form a
maximum of four hydrogen bonds with neighbors. It actually achieves an average of
3.4 bonds per molecule. However, owing to the thermal agitation, the H-bonds between
56 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

d– O

d+
H

H d+ H-bonds

d– O

d+
H

H
d+

Figure 2.7 Hydrogen bonds between water molecules: (d +) and (d −) are charges on the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms respectively. A water molecule has four nearest neighbors per molecule and can form
hydrogen bonds with four other water molecules; in two of these bonds the central water molecule pro-
vides the bridging protons, and in the two other bonds, the attached water molecules provide the required
protons.

adjacent water molecules are continually being broken and reformed (reorienting every
∼10−12 s) but even so, at any instant, the water molecules are combined in definite clusters
which are made of four to seven water molecules that resemble short-lived ice-like lattices.
In the solid state (ice), these clusters are large and stable, and form the lattice crystals.
The density of ice is less than the liquid water indicating that the molecules are farther
apart than in the liquid. Thus, this indicates that the presence of H-bonds in ice results in
a longer intermolecular distance between molecules than that of liquid water. In addition,
the proton conductivity in ice is also higher than in liquid water showing that the ice lattice
has some easy pathways for the movement of charges. Thus it is a good idea to measure
the intermolecular distances in ice: the intramolecular distance between the covalently
bound O—H atoms is about 0.100 nm, as expected, but the intermolecular distance
between O . . . H atoms is found to be about 0.176 nm, which is much less than the
0.260 nm expected from summing the two van der Waals radii of the O and H atoms.
 Molecular Interactions 57

The characteristic hexagonal pattern of an ice crystal arises from the tetrahedral arrange-
ment of the four H-bonds in which each water molecule can participate. Ice crystals have
extremely open structures with only four nearest neighbors around each molecule. When
many water molecules are involved in a large system, their equilibrium configuration can
only be solved by using a computer and this process can also account for the highly open
ice structure.
In liquid water, the tetrahedral ice structure is retained somewhat, but of course, the
structure is more labile and disordered. Because the molecular clusters are smaller and less
stable in the liquid state, water molecules on average are packed more closely together than
are ice molecules (the average number of nearest neighbors increases approximately to five)
and liquid water has the higher density; hence ice floats. This is known as association of
liquid water, by bringing water molecules together to form three-dimensional cluster struc-
tures. Other H-bonding liquids such as formamide, alcohols, ammonia, HF etc. also show
association properties. Formamide gives two-dimensional layered associated structures
where two N¶H . . . O¨C bonds form these layers. Hydrogen fluoride and alcohols give
one-dimensional chain structures.
As we know from carbon and silicone chemistry, only tetrahedral coordination allows
the formation of a three-dimensional network, and thus the formation of an associated
tetrahedral ice and liquid water structure is the main reason for all the unusual properties
of water. Some examples are given:
(i) The density of liquid water shows a maximum at +4°C, which is an unusual property:
the density of liquid water increases from 0°C to a maximum at +4°C as large clus-
ters of water molecules are broken up into smaller ones which occupy less space in
the water associate; only beyond +4°C does the normal thermal expansion of the
liquid decrease its density with increasing temperature.
(ii) The high dielectric constant of liquid water increases as it solidifies by freezing into
ice. This is contrary to most molecules whose liquid dielectric constant falls abruptly
during freezing due to the decrease in molecular rotations with the decrease in
thermal energy.
(iii) Water has a very low compressibility.
(iv) Water has unusual solubility properties both as a solvent and as a solute. Water dis-
solves ionic salts very readily because it is good at shielding charged atoms from one
another by forming H-bonds with anions and also cations.

2.9 Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions

Some molecules such as hydrocarbons, oils, fats, inert atoms, fluorocarbons and some
polymers that are incapable of forming H-bonds and do not like to interact with water, are
called hydrophobic molecules. Hydrophobic means water-fearing or water-repelling. The
more general name is lyophobic or solvophobic, which means solvent-repelling, and
when the solvent is water, the solute is called hydrophobic. Similarly, if a solute is solvent-
attracting, then it is called lyophilic or solvophilic, and if the solvent is water, the solute is
called hydrophilic. Hydrophilic molecules are mostly polar and have a high H-bonding
capacity. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions are very important in surface and
58 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

colloid chemistry and biochemistry, and they determine the three-dimensional shape of
polymers and biologically important molecules such as proteins and cell membranes.

2.9.1 Hydrophobic effect

When water molecules come into contact with a non-polar hydrophobic molecule, one or
more of the four charges of the water molecule will have to point towards the inert solute
molecule, and thus be lost to H-bond formation. This is unfavorable thermodynamically
and if the non-polar solute molecule is small, water molecules prefer to pack around it
without giving up any of their H-bonding sites. Then, water molecules form cages around
the hydrophobic molecule, known as clathrate and these are labile structures. Although the
H-bonds in the cage structure are not stronger than in bulk water, the water molecules are
more ordered. As we know from H-bonding interactions, in bulk water, each molecule can
form an average of 3.4 H-bonds per molecule (between 3.1 and 3.5 bonds) with its neigh-
bors. Thermodynamically, if a molecule is immobilized when it forms a bond, it must lose
entropy, but in bulk water the molecules remain highly mobile. They are constantly rotat-
ing around the single bonds, and also breaking bonds and reforming them to new part-
ners. The molecules in the bulk water therefore retain a high state of entropy, which is
favorable from free energy considerations (see below). However, when a cage is formed
around a small hydrophobic molecule, the water molecules actually have four coordina-
tion H-bonds thus rendering them even more ordered than in the bulk liquid, and their
entropy decreases.
Water–hydrophobic molecule interactions are driven entropically rather than enthalpi-
cally and are affected greatly by temperature. The unfavorable entropy resulting from the
ordering of water around a hydrophobic solute provides a driving force for solutes to aggre-
gate and thereby reduces the hydrophobic material surface area available to the surround-
ing water molecules. In thermodynamic terms, the free energy of transfer of a hydrophobic
compound from some reference state, such as its pure solvent state, into water, ∆Gtr, is made
up of an enthalpy, ∆Htr, and an entropy, ∆Str, term. At room temperature, the enthalpy of
transfer from a hydrophobic solvent into water is negligible; the interaction enthalpies are
nearly the same in both cases. The entropy term however is negative because water tends
to form ordered cages around the hydrophobic molecule, and this leads to a decrease
in total entropy, ∆Str. According to the free energy equation (∆Gtr = ∆Htr − T∆Str, see
Chapter 3), if we assume that ∆Htr ≅ 0 and ∆Str is negative, then ∆Gtr is positive,
which means that a hydrophobic molecule does not favor being transferred into the water
phase and thus will prefer to aggregate in a separate phase, and it is for this reason that
hydrophobic compounds are so sparingly soluble in water. In practice, hydrophobic mol-
ecules, in contact with water, prefer to interact with each other instead of the water and
try to minimize their total surface area and form a water-immiscible phase. For example,
when we add some drops of a hydrocarbon to water, the drops combine to form a larger
drop. The attractiveness of the water molecules for each other then has the effect of squeez-
ing the oil drops together to form a larger drop. The ability of water to push together
hydrophobic molecules is called the hydrophobic effect and this figures prominently in
biochemistry.
 Molecular Interactions 59

At high temperatures (∼110°C), because of the contribution of thermal motions,

the clathrate cages are broken, and the entropy contribution tends towards zero.
Thus, when the temperature increases, the water molecules around the hydrophobic
groups become disoriented and the hydrophobic groups attract each other more strongly.
The enthalpy of transfer, however, is now positive (and ∆Gtr may also be unfavorable
according to the temperature, as we see from the free energy equation). In summary,
because the temperature dependences of entropy and enthalpy are not the same, there is
some temperature at which the hydrophobic effect is strongest, and it decreases at tem-
peratures above and below this temperature. The decrease in the strength of the hydropho-
bic effect with decreasing temperatures is probably the major cause of cold denaturation
in proteins.
In biology, the hydrophobic effect is considered to be the major driving force for the
folding of globular proteins and forming protein–protein interactions. At the hydropho-
bic protein surface there is an interesting constraint: the water molecules next to this surface
cannot make hydrogen bonds to the protein (except very few donor or acceptor sites), but
they can still make bonds to neighboring water molecules. However, here they either lose
a couple of hydrogen bonds, or orient themselves in a position that will place their hydro-
gen bonding sites facing the solvent. In thermodynamic terms their entropy is decreased.
Then, the water molecules next to the surface actually achieve about three hydrogen bonds
each, but in order to do this they are much more constrained than those in the bulk solu-
tion. These water molecules are partially frozen; they have less mobility than molecules in
the bulk water. When two proteins come together to make the interface, this layer of frozen
water is released from each surface. The water molecules can now make H-bonds in all
directions, and they have more freedom, i.e. increased entropy and a lower (more favor-
able) free energy.

2.9.2 Hydrophobic interactions

Hydrophobic interaction describes the strong attraction between hydrophobic molecules or

surfaces in water. This is often stronger than their attraction in free space. This is contra-
dicted by the prediction of a decrease in the van der Waals attraction in water medium. If
we compare hydrophobic interactions with other molecular interactions already present,
the interaction between a hydrophobic molecule and water is actually attractive, due
to dispersion interactions, and these dispersion interactions between water and
hydrophobic molecules are not very different from those between water–water or
hydrophobic–hydrophobic. However, the interaction of water with itself is much more
attractive due to the H-bonding interactions, and water then has the effect of squeezing
the hydrophobic molecules to attract each other to form a larger aggregate. When two
hydrophobic molecules come together, the water is also ejected into the bulk thereby reduc-
ing the total free energy of the system.
The attraction between hydrocarbons or fluorocarbons in air (mainly van der Waals)
increases very much when we place these molecules in water. For example, for two con-
tacting methane molecules in free space the interaction pair potential energy is −2.5 ×
10−21 J, whereas in water it is −14 × 10−21 J. On the other hand, experimental evidence
60 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

suggests that the hydrophobic attraction between macroscopic surfaces is operative at

a surprisingly long range, and it decays exponentially with a characteristic decay length of
1–2 nm in the range 0–10 nm, and sometimes more gradually farther out. At small sepa-
rations it has been determined that the hydrophobic attraction is much stronger than the
van der Waals attraction. The magnitude of the hydrophobic attraction decreases with
reducing hydrophobicity in the solute molecule. It is also found experimentally that, for
different hydrocarbons, the surface areas of the hydrocarbons determine the magnitude of
the free energy transfer. An increase in the temperature can increase the hydrophobic
attraction. It has been assumed that long-range hydrophobic attraction forces are respon-
sible for the coalescence of gas bubbles in water, since there are strong similarities between
water at a hydrophobic surface and at the liquid/vapor interface. This would suggest that
the rate of coalescence of bubbles is related to the hydrophobicity of the gas within the
bubbles. Hydrophobic particle attachment to rising air bubbles is the basic mechanism in
froth flotation which is used to separate the hydrophobic and hydrophilic particles in the
mineral industry.
Hydrophobic attraction is also very important in understanding molecular self-
assembly, micelle-formation, biological membrane structure and protein conformations,
which will be discussed in Chapters 5, 7, 9 and 10.

2.9.3 Hydrophilic interactions

A hydrophilic molecule or a hydrophilic group of a molecule is generally polar and capable

of H-bonding, enabling it to dissolve more readily in water than in oil or other hydropho-
bic solvents. It has a strong affinity with water; tending to dissolve in, mix with, or be wetted
by water. When two solute molecules repel each other in water it is called hydrophilic inter-
action. However there is no phenomenon known as the hydrophilic effect.
Strongly hydrated ions, and electronegative atom (such as N and O) containing mol-
ecules are hydrophilic. These groups should associate with the H-bonded water network.
However, contrary to some claims, a polar group is not necessarily always hydrophilic. The
most important hydrophilic molecules are alcohols, glycols, glycerol, glucose and other
sugars, urea, soluble proteins, polyethylene oxide and acrylic acid and methacrylic acid
containing polymers. The most important hydrophilic groups are carboxylate (¶COO−),
sulfonate (¶SO−3), sulfate (¶SO4−2), phosphate ester (¶OPO2−O¶) anions; dimethyl
ammonium [¶N+(CH3)2], trimethyl ammonium [¶N+(CH3)3] cations; and hydroxyl
(¶OH), amine (¶NH2), amine oxide [¶NO(CH3)2], suphoxide (¶SOCH3), and phos-
phine oxide [¶PO(CH3)2] polar compounds. Hydrophilic groups prefer to be in contact
with water rather than with each other. Hydrophilic group containing molecules are often
hygroscopic in that they absorb water from water vapor present in the air or in other gases.
When dissolved, water molecules surround the hydrophilic molecules and this layer is
called a hydration shell. In contrast to the effect of hydrophobic molecules, hydrophilic mol-
ecules have a disordering effect on water molecules, surrounding them, thus causing drastic
effects on other solute molecules dissolved in the water. For example, when urea is dis-
solved in water, previously dissolved proteins unfold.
Certain polar groups, which are good hydrophilic candidates, do not show any
hydrophilic properties when attached to a long hydrocarbon (hydrophobic) chain. These
 Molecular Interactions 61

are alcohol (¶OH), ether (¶OCH3), mercaptan (¶SH), amine [¶NH(CH3)], amide
(¶CONH2), nitro (¶NO, ¶NO2), aldehyde (¶CHO) and ketone (¶COCH3) groups.
The hydrophobic portion of the molecule prevents their hydrophilic activity. Most surfac-
tants and biological lipids are made of a combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic
groups. These molecules are called amphiphilic molecules, one end containing a hydrophilic
group while the rest of the molecule is hydrophobic, usually a long hydrocarbon chain (see
Section 5.4). Such molecules form spherical micelle structures in water due to the fact that
their hydrophobic parts associate with one another whilst the hydrophilic parts expand to
interact with the water.

References
1. Israelachvili, J. (1991). Intermolecular & Surface Forces (2nd edn). Academic Press, London.
2. Hirschfelder, J.O., Curtiss, C.F. and Bird, R.B. (1954). Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids.
Wiley, New York.
3. Pauling, L. (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (3rd edn). Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
4. Verwey, E.J.W. and Overbeek, J.Th.G. (1948). Theory of Stability of Lyophobic Colloids. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
5. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
6. Lyklema, L. (1991). Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science (vols. I and II). Academic Press,
London.
7. Erbil, H.Y. (1997). Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed). Handbook of Surface
and Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
8. Stokes, R.J. and Evans, D.F. (1997). Fundamentals of Interfacial Engineering. Wiley-VCH,
New York.
9. Jeffrey, G.A. (1997). An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
10. Pimental, G.C. and McClellan, A.L. (1960). The Hydrogen Bond. Freeman, San Francisco.
11. Smyth, C.P. (1955). Dielectric Behavior and Structure. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Chapter 3
Thermodynamics of Interfaces

3.1 Introduction of Thermodynamical Concepts

Thermodynamics is the branch of science that is concerned with the principles of energy
transformation in macroscopic systems. Macroscopic properties of matter arise from the
behavior of a very large number of molecules. Thermodynamics is based upon experiment
and observation, summarized and generalized in the Laws of Thermodynamics. These laws
are not derivable from any other principle: they are in fact improvable and therefore can
be regarded as assumptions only; nevertheless their validity is accepted because exceptions
have never been reported. These laws do not involve any postulates about atomic and
molecular structure but are founded upon observation about the universe as it is, in terms
of instrumental measurements. In order to represent the state of a gas or a liquid or a solid
system, input data of average quantities such as temperature (T), pressure (P), volume (V),
and concentration (c) are used. These averages reduce the enormous number of variables
that one needs to start a discussion on the positions and momentums of billions of
molecules. We use the thermodynamic variables to describe the state of a system, by
forming a state function:
P = f(V, T, n) (98)

This simply shows that there is a physical relationship between different quantities that one
can measure in a gas system, so that gas pressure can be expressed as a function of gas
volume, temperature and number of moles, n. In general, some relationships come from
the specific properties of a material and some follow from physical laws that are inde-
pendent of the material (such as the laws of thermodynamics). There are two different
kinds of thermodynamic variables: intensive variables (those that do not depend on the size
and amount of the system, like temperature, pressure, density, electrostatic potential, elec-
tric field, magnetic field and molar properties) and extensive variables (those that scale
linearly with the size and amount of the system, like mass, volume, number of molecules,
internal energy, enthalpy and entropy). Extensive variables are additive whereas intensive
variables are not.
In thermodynamic terms, the object of a study is called the system, and the remainder
of the universe, the surroundings. Amounts of the order of a mole of matter are typical
in a system under consideration, although thermodynamics may remain applicable for
considerably smaller quantities. The imaginary envelope, which encloses the system and
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 63

separates it from its surroundings is called the boundary of the system. This boundary may
serve either to isolate the system from its surroundings, or to provide for interaction in
specific ways between the system and surroundings. In practice, if a reactor is used to carry
out a chemical reaction, the walls of the reactor that are in contact with the thermostated
liquid medium around the reactor may be assumed to be the surroundings of the experi-
mental system. For particles such as colloids, the medium in which they are immersed may
act as the surroundings, provided nothing beyond this medium influences the particle.
An isolated system is defined as a system to or from which there is no transport of matter
and energy. When a system is isolated, it cannot be affected by its surroundings. The
universe is assumed to be an isolated system. Nevertheless, changes may occur within the
system that are detectable using measuring instruments such as thermometers, pressure
gauges etc. However, such changes cannot continue indefinitely, and the system must even-
tually reach a final static condition of internal equilibrium.
If a system is not isolated, its boundaries may permit exchange of matter or energy
or both with its surroundings. A closed system is one for which only energy transfer is
permitted, but no transfer of mass takes place across the boundaries, and the total
mass of the system is constant. As an example, a gas confined in an impermeable cylinder
under an impermeable piston is a closed system. For a closed system, which interacts with
its surroundings, a final static condition may be reached such that the system is not only
internally at equilibrium but also in external equilibrium with its surroundings. A system
is in equilibrium if no further spontaneous changes take place at constant surroundings.
Out of equilibrium, a system is under a certain stress, it is not relaxed, and it tends to equil-
ibrate. However, in equilibrium, the system is fully relaxed. If a system is in equilibrium
with its surroundings, its macroscopic properties are fixed, and the system can be defined
as a given thermodynamic state. It should be noted that a thermodynamic state is completely
different from a molecular state because only after the precise spatial distributions and
velocities of all molecules present in a system are known can we define a molecular state of
this system. An extremely large number of molecular states correspond to one thermody-
namic state, and the application of statistical thermodynamics can form the link between
them.
An open system is a system in which both matter and energy transport are permitted
through the boundaries. When a closed or an open system is displaced from an equilib-
rium state, to another state, it undergoes a process, a change of state, which continues until
its properties attain new equilibrium values. During such a process the system may be
caused to interact with its surroundings so as to interchange energy in the forms of heat
and work. Except for isolated systems, all systems can be transformed from one thermo-
dynamic state to another by changing the properties of the surroundings.

3.1.1 Thermodynamical expressions for closed systems

The First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy; it simply requires
that the total quantity of energy be the same both before and after the conversion. In other
words, the total energy of any system and its surroundings is conserved. It does not place
any restriction on the conversion of energy from one form to another. The interchange of
heat and work is also considered in this first law.
64 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

The total energy of a system is called its internal energy, U. The internal energies is the
sum of the potential and kinetic energies of the molecules and sub-molecular particles
composing the system, and it is a state function so that its value depends only on the prop-
erties that determine the current system and is independent of how that state has been pre-
pared. If the system is not moving, the changes in internal energy include only the changes
in the potential energy of the system and also the energy transferred as heat. (In chemistry,
the potential energy of the system is the sum of the potential energy of the molecules in
the system and also the energy changes caused by the rearrangements of molecular con-
figurations.) If the system is moving, the kinetic energy of this translation is also added
to U.
In principle, the internal energy of any system can be changed, by heating or doing work
on the system. The First Law of Thermodynamics requires that for a closed (but not iso-
lated) system, the energy changes of the system be exactly compensated by energy changes
in the surroundings. Energy can be exchanged between such a system and its surround-
ings in two forms: heat and work. Heat and work have the same units (joule, J) and they
are ways of transferring energy from one entity to another. A quantity of heat, Q,
represents an amount of energy in transit between a system and its surroundings, and is
not a property of the system. Heat flows from higher to lower temperature systems. Work,
W, is the energy in transit between a system and its surroundings, resulting from the dis-
placement of external force acting on the system. Like heat, a quantity of work represents
an amount of energy and is not a property of the system. Temperature is a property of a
system while heat and work refer to a process. It is important to realize the difference
between temperature, heat capacity and heat: temperature, T, is a property which is equal
when heat is no longer conducted between bodies in thermal contact and can be deter-
mined with suitable instruments (thermometers) having a reference system depending on
a material property (for example, mercury thermometers show the density differences of
liquid mercury metal with temperature in a capillary column in order to visualize and
measure the change of temperature). The heat capacity at constant pressure, C P = 
dU 
 dT  P
corresponds to how much the temperature changes as heat is added to a body that remains
in the same state.
Suppose any closed system (thus having a constant mass) undergoes a process by which
it passes from an initial state to a final state. If the only interaction with its surroundings
is in the form of transfers of heat, Q, and work, W, then only the internal energy, U, can
be changed, and the First Law of Thermodynamics is expressed mathematically as
∆U = Ufinal − Uinitial = Q + W (99)

where Q and W are quantities inclusive of sign so that when the heat transfers from the
system or work is done by the system, we use negative values in Equation (99). Processes
where heat should be given to the system (or absorbed by the system) (Q > 0) are called
endothermic and processes where heat is taken from the system (or released from the
system) (Q < 0) are called exothermic. The total work performed on the system is W. There
are many different ways that energy can be stored in a body by doing work on it: volu-
metrically by compressing it; elastically
r by straining it; electrostatically rby charging it; by
polarizing it in an electric field E ; by magnetizing it in a magnetic field H ; and chemically,
by changing its composition to increase its chemical potential. In surface science, the
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 65

formation of a new surface area is also another form of doing work. Each example is a
different type of work – they all have the form that the (differential) work performed is
the change in some extensive variable of the system multiplied by an intensive variable. In
thermodynamics, the most studied work type is pressure–volume work, WPV, on gases
performed by compressing or expanding the gas confined in a cylinder under a piston. All
other work types can be categorized by a single term, non-pressure–volume work, Wnon-PV.
Then, W is expressed as the sum of the pressure–volume work, WPV, and the non-
pressure–volume work, Wnon-PV, when many types of work are operative in a process, which
we will see in Section 3.2.1.
Equation (99) states that the internal energy, ∆U depends only on the initial and final
states and in no way on the path followed between them. In this form, heat can be defined
as the work-free transfer of internal energy from one system to another. Equation (99) applies
both to reversible and irreversible processes. A reversible process is an infinitely slow process
during which departure from equilibrium is always infinitesimally small. In addition, such
processes can be reversed at any moment by infinitesimal changes in the surroundings (in
external conditions) causing it to retrace the initial path in the opposite direction. A
reversible process proceeds so that the system is never displaced more than differentially
from an equilibrium state. An irreversible process is a process where the departure from
equilibrium cannot be reversed by changes in the surroundings. For a differential change,
Equation (99) is often used in the differential form
dU = dQ + dW (100)

for reversible processes involving infinitesimal changes only. The internal energy, U is a
function of the measurable quantities of the system such as temperature, volume, and pres-
sure, which are all state functions like internal energy itself. The differential dU is an exact
differential similar to dT, dV, and dP; so we can always integrate [∫12f(U)dU] expression.
The Euler reciprocity relation is often used in a number of derivations of thermodynamic
equations from exact differentials. If we apply Euler reciprocity, i.e. for the case,
U = f(T, V), then the total differential, dU can be defined in terms of the partial deriva-
tives and the differentials of independent variables:

dU = 
dU 
dT + 
dU 
dV (101)
 dT  V  dV  T

On the other hand, dQ and dW are inexact differentials because they cannot be obtained
by differentiation of a function of the system.
All the state variables and the changes in thermodynamic quantities during a process are
measurable in principle. The value of ∆U is measurable, but the absolute values of U cannot
be obtained. Thus, the thermodynamic data are reported with respect to certain interna-
tionally agreed standard or reference state values. Normally, a temperature of 25°C and a
pressure of 1 bar = 105 pascal (Pa = N/m2) are taken as standard conditions, and for solu-
tions, a molar concentration, c, of 1 mol/dm3 is used as a reference state.
Fluids (liquid or gas) are known as PVT systems, where the macroscopic properties at
internal equilibrium can be expressed as functions of temperature, pressure and composi-
tion only. In accepting this model, one assumes that the effects of fields (e.g., electric,
magnetic or gravitational) are negligible and that surface and viscous-shear effects are
unimportant. The PVT system serves as a satisfactory model in an enormous number of
66 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

practical applications. As we know, for a gas confined in an impermeable cylinder under

an impermeable piston, the contribution to dW is the pressure–volume work, dWPV =
−PdV, where P is the external pressure and V is the volume of the system. There is no non-
pressure–volume work, Wnon-PV in this system, so that W = WPV. If the system is expanded,
dV > 0 then the work is done by the system dW < 0; hence the minus sign appears in the
dW = −PdV expression. In order to maintain a mechanical equilibrium, the inner and outer
pressures must be equal. If a system is expanding, the pressure of the surroundings (exter-
nal pressure) must be slightly lower than the pressure of the system, by an amount dP. As
P >> dP, we may assume that (P + dP)dV ≅ PdV, and in a reversible process the pressure
of the system may be assumed nearly equal to the external pressure (P = Psystem). However,
for an irreversible process the pressure of the system is not defined and only the external
pressure can be used in the calculations.
If no work is done during a process (dW = 0) then the exchanged heat, Q, would be
equal to ∆U, according to Equations (99) and (100), and would only show the increase or
decrease in the internal energy of the system by the exchange of heat. If only the volume
expansion (P∆V) work is done by the system when the external pressure is held constant
then, Equation (99) can be written as
∆U = U2 − U1 = QP − P∆V = QP − P(V2 − V1) (102)

where QP is the heat absorbed at constant pressure, P. Then, by rearrangement,

QP = (U2 + PV2) − (U1 + PV1) (103)

During most experimental calorimetric measurements, the external pressure is kept

constant (generally under approximately 1 bar) rather than the volume. For such cons-
tant pressure conditions, a new term, enthalpy, H, is defined as a new thermodynamic
function,
H ≡ U + PV (104)

H represents the available thermal energy at constant pressure. By combining Equations

(103) and (104) we obtain
QP = H2 − H1 = ∆H (105)

Since, U, P and V are all state functions, H is also a state function. In differential form,
Equation (104) may be written as
dH = dU + d(PV) = dU + PdV + VdP (106)

and since we know dU = dQ − PdV from the First Law, it follows that
dH = dQ + VdP (107)

and hence dP = 0 at constant pressure, which gives dH = (dQ)P as the enthalpy definition
implies.
For many systems, the non-pressure–volume work term, Wnon-PV is generally used (see
Section 3.2 for surface area expansion) and we need to consider other ways that work can
be done on a body. The rate at which work is done is always of the form dW = F dx where
dx is an extensive property and represents the change in the extent of some quantity, and
F is a force that resists this change. This should be familiar from, for example, springs and
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 67

mechanical objects. We might also think of dx as the change in the charge held in a capac-
itor, or the change in the number of sodium ions in an anode, or the change in the number
of solvent molecules in a polymer. Each one of these examples represents a different way
for a material to store internal energy – and each one has an intensive variable (general-
ized) force associated with it.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics is concerned with the direction of natural processes.
In nature, rivers run from the mountains to the sea, never in the opposite way. In general,
when non-relaxed systems are left to themselves, they always spontaneously change towards
equilibrium. The directions of these processes are neither given by the First Law nor by the
direction in which the total energy changes. From the First Law alone, it would be possi-
ble for a river to flow upstream, obtaining the required energy by extracting heat from the
surroundings, but of course this never happens. Therefore there must be another inde-
pendent law. The Second Law of Thermodynamics was derived to fill this gap, and this dic-
tates the direction of processes by introducing a new state function the entropy, S. In
combination with the First Law, the Second Law enables us to predict the natural direc-
tion of any process; in other words, it gives information as to whether or not the specified
change can occur spontaneously.
There are many statements of the Second Law, two of the most common are:
1 No process is possible that consists solely of the transfer of heat from one temperature
to a higher one.
2 It is impossible for a system operating in a cycle and connected to a single heat reser-
voir to produce positive work in the surroundings.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics is concerned mainly with reversible processes. It was
realized that some work is always wasted as heat during laboratory experimentation and
in industrial processes. In other words, not all of the work that is done on a body can be
stored as internal energy and some of it leaks out as heat. The amount of wasted work is
minimized when a process is carried out reversibly. A reversible process happens very slowly
and the system is always in equilibrium (i.e., the intensive variables are uniform). As we
know, there is a limiting process in mathematics when minimizing something, and we can
define a new state variable, entropy, S, based on this limiting idealization of wasted heat.
In order to formulate the entropy, we need to define the cyclic processes and their relation
to the state properties. A cyclic process is one where the property returns to its initial state,
so that the initial state and the final state are the same. A state property is such that the
sum of the changes of that property in a cyclic process is zero. For example, the sum of
changes in internal energy of a system in a cycle is given by
dU = 0. However, this is not
true for non-state functions such as work and heat transfer, so that
dW ≠ 0 and
dQ ≠ 0,
so we need even more information to integrate these, namely the path, and consequently
dW and dQ are not perfect differentials but can be solved by path-dependent integrals.
Mathematically, for a cyclic process, these path-dependent integrals can be related to the
internal energy as follows:

dU = 0 =
dW +
dQ =
(dW + dQ) (108)

Now, we need to define the relation between entropy and reversible cyclic processes. In
1824, Sadi Carnot proved that in any cyclic reversible process which takes place between
two heat reservoirs one hot, QH, and one cold, QC:
68 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

QH QC
+ =0 (109)
TH TC
It is clear that the left-hand side of Equation (109) is simply the sum over the cycle of the
quantity (Q/T). Thus, it can be written as the cyclic integral of the differential quantity for
reversible systems:
dQrev

=0 (110)
T

This quantity is the exact differential of some state property and it is later defined as the
entropy of the system:
dQrev
dS = (111)
T

where S is the entropy of the system and T is the absolute temperature of the system. The
entropy is also an intrinsic property and necessarily an extensive quantity for systems at
internal equilibrium. Since entropy is a state property, similar to Equation (110),
dS = 0
is also valid for reversible systems from fundamental principles.
A system plus its surroundings constitutes an isolated system and the entropy concept
should be applied to both the system and its surroundings for a better understanding of
the rules of spontaneous process formation. Depending on the conditions, the entropy of
the surroundings, dSsur may be equal to or different from dSsystem. If we consider a system
in thermal and mechanical contact with its surroundings at the same temperature, and if
the system is not in equilibrium with its surroundings, then an infinitesimal transfer of
heat, dQsystem = −dQsur from the surroundings to the system may take place (for example
heat transfer occurs in a gas confined in an impermeable cylinder with the movement of
the impermeable piston until the in and out pressure equilibrium is reached). This heat
transfer is accompanied by a change in the entropy of the system and also of the sur-
roundings. This process may be reversible or irreversible and we need to derive expressions
for both processes. In a reversible process, any heat flow between system and surroundings
must occur with no finite temperature difference; otherwise the heat flow would be irre-
versible towards the cooler side. In reversible isothermal processes, dQsystem = −dQsur. Now,
if we assume that the surroundings consist of reservoir of constant volume (dW = 0 from
dV = 0, as usual in a metal cylinder containing a confined gas), from the First Law of
Thermodynamics we have dUsur = dQsur. For the surroundings, as dUsur is a state function,
it is independent of whether the process is reversible or irreversible. Since the expression
dUsur = dQsur,irrev is also valid, then we have dQsur,rev = dQsur,irrev, and we may write
dQsur,rev dQsur,irrev
dSsur = = (112)
T T

(We must realize that Equation (112) is not valid for dSsystem.) Now, we may connect
dSsystem with dSsur by considering the total entropy. The total entropy is the sum of the
entropy of the system and its surroundings (∆Stot = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssur). In a reversible process,
since dQsystem = −dQsur, and the temperature is constant, then dStot = 0 and integration gives
∆Stot = 0. However, any irreversible change of state is accompanied by a change in both
dSsystem and dSsur. The special case of an adiabatic (no heat transfer) irreversible process
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 69

leads to a general result: in the Carnot Cycle, it was proved that for any irreversible adiabatic
closed process, dSsys,irrev > 0, and we may then state that the total entropy of an isolated system
increases during the course of a spontaneous change, as a new form of the Second Law of Ther-
modynamics. As we know, all real processes are irreversible, and their entropies are increas-
ing as these processes are occurring in an isolated system. The entropy of an isolated system
is maximized at equilibrium when the process ceases. For example, if two parts of an iso-
lated system are at different temperatures, heat will flow from the hot part to the cold part
until the temperatures of both parts are equalized; and at this stage, the entropy of the
isolated system is maximized. Since dStot ≥ 0, we may write, for any irreversible process,
(dSsystem + dSsur ≥ 0, and this may be rearranged as, dSsystem ≥ −dSsur. Since the heat supplied to
the system comes from the surroundings, that is dQsystem = −dQsur, or for irreversible
processes, dQsystem,irrev = −dQsur,irrev, and by combining these with Equation (112) we obtain
 dQsur,irrev dQsystem,irrev 
dSsystem ≥ − = (113)
 T T 

This is known as the Clausius inequality and has important applications in irreversible
processes. For example, dS > (dQ/T) for an irreversible chemical reaction or material
exchange in a closed heterogeneous system, because of the extra disorder created in the
system. In summary, when we consider a closed system and its surroundings together, if
the process is reversible and if any entropy decrease takes place in either the system or in
its surroundings, this decrease in entropy should be compensated by an entropy increase
in the other part, and the total entropy change is thus zero. However, if the process is irre-
versible and thus spontaneous, we should apply Clausius inequality and can state that there
is a net increase in total entropy. Total entropy change approaches zero when the process
approaches reversibility.
After realizing that the entropy of an isolated system is maximized at equilibrium, the
next question arises: what is maximized at equilibrium in physical terms? If we consider
the mixing of two ideal gases, A and B, why do we naturally obtain mixed gases from
unmixed gases, but we can never obtain unmixed gases from mixed gases? The answer lies
in the probability of these processes. The probability of mixing all the A and B molecules
in the whole container is very high but the probability that all the A molecules will be in
the left half and all the B molecules will be in the right half of the container is extremely
small. Thus, the increase in the entropy of an isolated system proceeding toward equilib-
rium is related to the system’s going from a state of low probability to one of high proba-
bility. At equilibrium, the thermodynamic state of an isolated system is the most probable
state.
In addition, there is a relation between entropy and disorder: disordered states have
higher probabilities than ordered states. In general, the changes that are accompanied by
an increase in entropy result in increased molecular disorder. Thus, entropy is also a
measure of the molecular disorder of the state. Although disorder may be related to entropy
qualitatively, the amount of disorder is a subjective concept and it is much better to relate
entropy to probability rather than to disorder. Such concepts can be described in terms of
thermodynamic probabilities (Ω) in statistical mechanics. The entropy of a system is a func-
tion of the probability of the thermodynamic state of this system, S = f(Ω). We know from
statistical mathematics that only logarithmic functions satisfy probabilistic equations, so
that we may use
70 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

S = k ln Ω + a (114)

for this purpose, where a is an additive constant. L. Boltzmann defined the Ω parameter
as the number of ways that microscopic particles can be distributed among the states acces-
sible to them,
n!
Ω= (115)
(n1!)(n2 !)(n3 !) . . .
where, n is the total number of particles and n1, n2, n3 etc. represent the numbers of parti-
cles in states 1, 2, 3 etc. (these states are generally considered as the energy states of the mol-
ecules or particles). Boltzmann’s definition relates the entropy of a system to the number
of different ways that the system can store a fixed amount of internal energy, so that Ω is
the number of distinguishable ways that the system can be arranged with a fixed amount
of internal energy.
From Equation (114), the entropy difference between initial (1) and final (2) states may
be given as
Ω2
∆S = S2 − S1 = (k ln Ω2 + a) − (k ln Ω1 + a) = k ln (116)
Ω1

By using Stirling’s statistical approximation, Botzmann reached the equation for the
isothermal, isobaric, irreversible mixing of two perfect gases having equal volumes:
∆S = kNA ln 2 = R ln 2 (117)

The proportionality constant, k, is the Boltzmann constant which relates kinetic energy to
temperature, and it is the ideal gas constant R divided by Avogadro’s number (k = R/NA).
The Boltzmann constant governs the distribution of molecules among energy levels and
also the thermodynamic systems among quantum states.
The application of the [S = k ln Ω + a] equation to situations other than mixing of perfect
gases requires knowledge of quantum and statistical mechanics via partition functions in
other ways; these can be found in statistical thermodynamics textbooks. As an example, we
may interpret the heat flow in terms of probability. The heat flow occurs via collisions
between molecules of the hot part with molecules of the cold part. It is more probable that
the high-energy molecules of the hot part lose some of their energy to the low-energy mol-
ecules of the cold part in such collisions. Thus, internal energy is transferred from the hot
to the cold until the thermal equilibrium is attained. This indicates that entropy is related
to the distribution or spread of energy among the available molecular energy levels. If an
isolated system (i.e., fixed U) is able to undergo some change such that the number of states
increases, it will do so. The interpretation of this statement is that if all observations are
equally probable, the state of the system with the most numerable observations is the one
that is most likely to be observed. Thus, the distribution of energy, which is directly related
to the entropy, determines the direction of spontaneity in irreversible processes. When the
process approaches equilibrium then the system has the most probable distribution of
energy.
Temperature is a way of measuring the average molecular energy of materials. The
increase of temperature in a system increases the disorganization either in terms of loca-
tion or in terms of the occupation of their available translational, rotational, and vibra-
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 71

tional energy states. The gain of heat stimulates disorderly motion in the surroundings,
whereas work transfer stimulates uniform motion of atoms in the surroundings; it does
not change the degree of disorder, so does not change the entropy. As we stated above,
macroscopic properties such as temperature, pressure and volume are manifestations of
behavior of countless microscopic particles, such as molecules, that make up a finite system.
Because of the enormous number of particles contained in any system of interest, such a
description must necessarily be statistical in nature. In pure substances, entropy may be
divided into three parts:
1 Translational degrees of freedom (e.g., monatomic ideal gas molecules moving in
space).
2 Rotational degrees of freedom (e.g., non-spherical molecules in fluids).
3 Vibrational degrees of freedom (e.g., non-spherical fluid molecules and solids).
For pure materials, it is easy to monitor the entropy–molecular disorder relationship
during phase changes. For example, in fusion, the system changes from the highly ordered
arrangement of a crystal lattice to the irregular molecular arrangement of the liquid state.
In vaporization, the molecules are released from the confined motion of the liquid state.
In the gas phase, as the temperature of a substance is increased an increasingly chaotic and
disordered motion of the molecules occurs. In non-pure substances (e.g., in a solution)
another degree of freedom arises which relates to the ways that the system can be mixed
up. The entropy change associated with mixing liquids, gases and also expanding gases can
be related to the increased freedom of position in space of the individual molecules.
From the scientific definition point of view, there is a slight difference between our
continuum thermodynamics definition of the Second Law and its statistical mechanical
version so that the continuum thermodynamics definition of the Second Law states that
an observation of decreased universal entropy is impossible in isolated systems; however
the statistical mechanical definition says that an observation of universal increased entropy
is not probable.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics relates the change of entropy to temperature, stating
that the limiting value of the entropy of a system can be taken as zero as the absolute value
of temperature approaches zero. Thus, the absolute entropy is zero for all perfect crystalline
substances at absolute zero temperature, and from this definition it is clear that entropy
has a universal reference state, while enthalpy and free energy quantities do not. The Third
Law allows us to calculate the absolute value of entropy by integrating Equation (111) so
that
T
dQrev
∆S = ∫ T
(118)
T =0

The entropy concept allows us to define two new extensive thermodynamic variables: the
Helmholtz Free Energy, F, which is the maximum amount of work a system can do at con-
stant temperature (isothermal changes); and the Gibbs Free Energy, G, which is the
maximum amount of work a system can do at constant pressure (isobaric changes) and is
a minimum for closed systems at equilibrium with a fixed temperature and pressure.
The Helmholtz free energy parameter, F, is defined as
F ≡ U − TS (119)
72 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

and for differential changes, it becomes

dF = dU − TdS − SdT (120)

Since, for reversible cycles in the isothermal pressure–volume change of pure substances
we know that dQrev = TdS and dWrev = −PdV, from the First and Second Laws of Ther-
modynamics, we may then obtain by rearrangement
dUrev = TdS − PdV (121)

and by combining Equations (120) and (121), for reversible processes

dFrev = −PdV − SdT (122)

since T is constant in an isothermal change, that is dT = 0, where F is defined, then

dFrev = −PdV = dWrev (123)

is obtained. Since a system does maximum work during a reversible process, this is in con-
junction with the definition of the Helmholtz free energy parameter, F, as the maximum
amount of work a system can do at a constant temperature. Thus, Frev is also defined as
the maximum work function. As Equation (123) implies, when both T and V are constant
(dV = 0), dFrev = 0, so the Helmholtz free energy parameter minimizes at equilibrium
in a process that takes place in a closed system capable of doing only P–V work.
On the other hand, for transformations under constant pressure (isobaric changes), the
Gibbs free energy parameter, G, is defined
G ≡ H − TS = U − TS + PV (124)

For both Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies the term free indicates that only the portion
(U − TS) of the internal energy is free to perform work. For differential changes in Gibbs
free energy and enthalpy, it becomes
dG = dH − TdS − SdT (125)

Since, for reversible cycles, in an isobaric temperature–volume change of pure substances,

dHrev = TdS + VdP, then by rearrangement, one obtains
dGrev = VdP − SdT (126)

since P is constant at isobaric change, that is dP = 0, where G is defined, then

dGrev = −SdT (127)

is obtained. As Equation (127) implies, when both P and T are constant (dT = 0), dGrev =
0, so that the Gibbs free energy parameter minimizes at equilibrium in a process that takes
place in a closed system capable of doing only P–V work. If a process takes place at con-
stant pressure and temperature, then both Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy functions may
be used together. By combining Equations (104), (119) and (124), one obtains
G ≡ F + PV (128)

For differential changes, this becomes

dG = dF + PdV + VdP (129)
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 73

and for isothermal and isobaric changes, it gives

dG = dF + PdV (130)

For reversible changes, the above derived dU = TdS − PdV, dH = TdS + VdP, dF = −SdT
− PdV and dG = −SdT + VdP equations are the fundamental thermodynamic property
expressions for a homogeneous fluid of constant composition. Implicit in these are the fol-
lowing:
∂U  ∂H 
T = = (131)
 ∂S  V  ∂S  P

∂U  ∂F 
P = − = − (132)
 ∂V  S  ∂V  T

∂H  ∂G 
V = = (133)
 ∂P  S  ∂P  T

∂F  ∂G 
S = − = − (134)
 ∂T  V  ∂T  P

In addition, four Maxwell equations result from application of the Euler reciprocity rela-
tion (Equation (101) was derived for internal energy, U) and the exact differentials rule
∂  ∂z  ∂  ∂z 
=   . Maxwell equations are used occasionally in thermodynamics for the
∂y  ∂x  ∂x  ∂y 
processes that take place in closed systems:
 ∂T  = − ∂P  (135)
 ∂V  S  ∂S  V

 ∂T  =  ∂V 
(136)
 ∂P  S  ∂S  P

 ∂P  =  ∂S  (137)
 ∂T  V  ∂V  T

 ∂V  = − ∂S  (138)
 ∂T  P  ∂P  T

3.1.2 Thermodynamical expressions for open systems

All the above thermodynamic relations can be used for homogeneous closed systems con-
sisting of a single phase of a pure substance which does not exchange matter with its sur-
roundings, although it may exchange energy. As we know, matter and energy transport are
only permitted in an open system where the composition of the system varies. Thermody-
namic expressions were developed to apply to varying compositions in open systems
regardless of the cause of the composition changes. When we alter the composition, we
change the internal energy of an open system. For instance, we know that NaCl salt has a
maximum solubility in water (it is about 300 g/l). If we place a salt crystal in an open
system, a fixed volume of water, we perform chemical work by dissolution of the salt crystal
in water to form a single phase solution by changing the internal energy of the system.
74 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

However, if the solution is saturated previously, and we add the same amount of salt to
this solution, then we form a salt precipitate in the solution forming two phases, and thus
the change in internal energy is different for this case from the first process.
The internal energy for a single homogeneous open system, which can exchange matter
as well as energy with its surroundings, is a function of S, V and also composition,
U = f(S, V, n1, n2, . . . , nm) (139)

where, n is the number of moles of various species and m is the number of species present
in the system. Then, the total differential of the internal energy for a single homogeneous
open system (similar to Equation (101)) can be written as

 ∂U 
dU = 
dU 
dS + 
dU 
dV + ∑ dn (140)
 dS  V,n  dV  S,n i
 ∂ni  V,S,n i
i i j

Now, a new parameter called the chemical potential, mi, of a substance, i, present in the
system, in terms of constant volume and entropy is defined as
 ∂U 
mi = (141)
 ∂ni  V ,S,n
j

where the subscript, nj, signifies that the amounts (mole numbers) of all other substances
present in the system (other than i) are constant. By combining Equations (131), (132) and
(141), we may rewrite Equation (140) in the form

dU = TdS − PdV + ∑ mi dni (142)

i

which is the fundamental thermodynamic equation for an open system. Similarly we may
derive three other fundamental equations for an open system, by using Equations (106),
(121), (122) and (126)

dH = TdS + VdP + ∑ mi dni (143)

i

dF = − SdT − PdV + ∑ mi dni (144)

i

dG = − SdT + VdP + ∑ mi dni (145)

i

Then, similar to Equation (141), it is possible to define the chemical potential in terms of
other thermodynamic parameters from Equations (143)–(145), so that

 ∂U   ∂H   ∂F   ∂G 
mi = = = = (146)
 ∂ni  V ,S,n  ∂ni  P,S,n  ∂ni  V ,T ,n  ∂ni  T,P,n
j j j j

It should be pointed out that there are many one-phase open systems in which the
composition is changing due to irreversible chemical reactions. Two or more-phase
open systems are also present if the irreversible interphase transport of matter takes
place in the closed system. In chemistry, the independent variables of T and P are mostly
used. Consequently, the chemical potential is generally expressed as the partial molar
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 75

Gibbs free energy as given in the far right-hand side of Equation (146). The chemical poten-
tial, mi, is also an intensive property and its value depends on T, P and the composition of
the system.
When mixtures and solutions are considered, an equation is required to describe the
changes in P, T and ni. If we integrate Equation (142) between zero and finite mass at con-
stant P, T and ni, it gives
U = TS − PV + ∑ mi ni (147)
i

Differentiation of this equation results in a more general expression of dU,

dU = TdS + SdT − PdV − VdP + ∑ mi dni + ∑ ni dmi (148)
i i

By combining Equations (142) and (148), we obtain the Gibbs–Duhem equation:

SdT − VdP + ∑ ni dmi = 0 (149)
i

For constant T and P, this can be simplified to

∑ n dm i i =0 (150)
i

which is a fundamental equation of solutions. Equation (150) shows that if the composi-
tion varies, the chemical potentials do not change independently, but in a related way. For
example, in a system of two constituents, Equation (150) can be written as
n1 dm1 + n2 dm2 = 0 (151)

Rearranging we have
n1
dm2 = − dm1 (152)
n2
Equation (152) shows that a simultaneous change in dm2 occurs if dm1 changes by the vari-
ation in composition.
In order to understand the equilibrium properties of gas and liquid solutions we should
explain how the chemical potential of a solution varies with its composition. For gases in
a closed system, dG = VdP − SdT, as we know from Equation (126). When the tempera-
ture is constant, dT = 0, we can calculate the Gibbs free energy at one pressure in terms of
its value at another pressure
P2
G2 − G1 = ∫ VdP (153)
P1

If the gas obeys ideal gas law, then it is easy to integrate Equation (153), since (V = nRT/P)
so that
P2 dP P 
G2 − G1 = nRT ∫ = nRT ln 2 (154)
P1 P  P1 

In order to have a standard Gibbs free energy value, Go, we set G1 = Go when P1 = P o = 1
bar, then we have
76 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

G( P ) = G o + nRT ln o 
P
(155)
P 

Now since chemical potential in a closed system is defined as m = (∂G/∂n)T,P, we can write
chemical potential terms instead of Gibbs free energy terms,

m = m o + RT ln o 
P
(156)
P 

where mo is defined as the standard chemical potential, the molar Gibbs free energy of the
pure gas at 1 bar.
For real pure gases, we cannot apply the (V = nRT/P) expression and we cannot inte-
grate Equation (153). However, we need to preserve the form of expressions that have been
derived for the ideal thermodynamic system. In order to adapt Equation (156) for real
gases, the replacement of the true measurable pressure, P, with another effective pressure
term called fugacity, f, was carried out in classical thermodynamics:

m = m o + RT ln o 
f
(157)
P 

Fugacity is known as the escaping tendency of molecules and has the same units as pres-
sure. We know that for an ideal gas, the pressure arises solely from the kinetic energy of
the molecules and there are no intermolecular interactions. However, for real gases, inter-
molecular interactions are present and we need to express them in thermodynamic terms.
Now, if we can define a hypothetical standard state in which all the intermolecular interac-
tions have been extinguished, this may serve as a basis for the expression of other states.
Then, it is assumed that at P o = 1 bar, any real gas behaves ideally with only the kinetic
energy of molecules accounting for its pressure, without any intermolecular interactions
taking place. This is the hypothetical standard state of a real gas. (Alternatively, we may
select P o = 0 bar (at which it certainly behaves ideally), as the standard state of a real gas
instead of P o = 1 bar, however we refrain from this choice because, for this case, when P
→ 0, then m → −∞, mathematically this is not scientific.) Now we need to relate the fugac-
ity to the measurable pressure:
f = fP (158)

where f is the dimensionless fugacity coefficient which depends on the entire effect of inter-
molecular interactions of the real gas. It is clear that f → 1 as P → 0, and f → P as P →
0. The fugacity coefficient, f, can be calculated from the measurable compressibility factor
of gases, Z (Z = PV/nRT) by using the expression
P Z − 1
lnf = ∫  dP (159)
0  P 

and by applying numerical (or graphical) integration from the experimental data of a real
gas, or if the Z = f(P) function is known, the analytical integration of Equation (159) is
also possible.
For liquid solutions, we need to express how the chemical potential of a solution va
ries with its composition. In order to derive a useful expression, we should remember
that, in equilibrium, the chemical potential of a substance in the liquid phase must be equal
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 77

to the chemical potential of this substance in its vapor phase, from the Gibbs Rule (see
Section 3.1.3 for the proof). If we denote A as the solvent in the solution, the chemical
potential of the vapor of pure solvent A in the gas phase can be obtained from Equation
(156)
P*
m A*(vapor) = m Ao + RT ln Ao  (160)
P 

where the superscript * denotes the quantities related to pure substances and P*A is the
vapor pressure of pure A. From the Gibbs rule, we know that m*A(liquid) = m*A(vapor), and
for Po = 1 bar, then we may write
m*A(liquid) = mAo + RT ln P*A (161)

Now, if we dissolve a solute B in pure solvent A, we obtain an A–B solution. The dissolu-
tion of B in A reduces the vapor pressure from P*A value to PA. For this solution, similar to
Equation (161), we may write
mA(solution) = mAo + RT ln PA (162)

If we subtract Equation (161) from Equation (162) to eliminate the standard chemical
potential term, mAo , we have
 PA 
m A = m*A + RT ln (163)
 PA* 

In a series of experiments, F. Raoult measured the vapor pressures of solvents and solu-
tions with changing concentrations of solutes in them, and found that some ideal liquid
solutions obey the following equation, named Raoult’s law:
 PA 
XA = (164)
 PA*  ideal

where XA is the mole fraction of the solvent where XB = 1 − XA. Then Equation (163)
rearranges to
mA = m*A + RT ln XA (165)

Some liquid mixtures obey Raoult’s law, but most of the solutions deviate from this. Thus,
the name ideal liquid solutions is defined for solutions that obey Raoult’s law. Similarly to
real gases, real solutions that do not obey Raoult’s law should also be expressed by ther-
modynamical equations. Since we can still measure the vapor pressure of real solutions,
instead of the mole fraction XA term in Equation (164), we may write
PA
aA = (166)
PA*
where aA is the activity of the solvent. The standard state of any solvent is defined as the
pure liquid at 1 bar when XA = 1. Activity is a kind of effective mol fraction as the fugacity
is an effective pressure. Then, for real solutions, Equation (165) turns into
mA = m*A + RT ln aA (167)

Now, we need to relate the activity with the measurable concentration of the solution:
78 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

aA = ϕAx XA = ϕcAcA (168)

where ϕ is the dimensionless activity coefficient which depends on the entire effect of inter-
molecular interactions of the real solution, and c is the molar concentration term. Activi-
ties may be expressed in many concentration terms such as mol fraction, X; molarity, c;
and molality etc. It is clear that ϕAx → 1 as XA → 1, and aA → XA as XA → 1, and the same
applies for other concentrations, too.
Equations (160)–(168) apply to solvent activities. For solute activities, aB, a similar ther-
modynamic derivation gives a final expression, similar to Equation (167)
mB = m*B + RT ln aB (169)

In summary, fugacity and activity coefficients were introduced in thermodynamics in order

to explain deviations from ideal behavior and thus serving as correction factors for non-
ideal behavior.

3.1.3 Equilibrium between phases in heterogeneous closed systems

As stated above, a system is in equilibrium if no further spontaneous changes take place at

constant surroundings and if the same state can be reached from different directions. In
general, there are two kinds of material equilibrium; phase equilibrium and chemical reac-
tion equilibrium. In surface and colloid science, thermodynamic systems generally contain
more than one phase. As stated in Section 1.1, a phase is defined as a homogeneous form
of matter that can be physically distinguished from any other such phase by an identifiable
interface. A phase equilibrium consists of the same chemical species present in different
phases. We will only consider phase equilibrium in this section. Thus, chemical potentials
deserve special attention in surface thermodynamics because material transport from one
phase to another is a common phenomenon. A heterogeneous closed system is made up of
two or more phases, with each phase considered as an open system within the overall closed
system. The heterogeneous system is in internal equilibrium with respect to the three
processes of heat transfer, boundary displacement and mass transfer. In order to have
thermal and mechanical equilibrium in the system, the temperature and pressure must be
uniform throughout the whole heterogeneous mass. If a closed multiphase system, having
uniform T and P, is not initially at internal equilibrium with respect to mass transfer (or
with respect to chemical reaction) then the changes occurring in the system are irreversible
and must necessarily bring the system closer to an equilibrium state. We may write from
the First Law (Equation (100)) for any irreversible process
dQsys,irrev = (dU − dW)sys,irrev (170)

If we combine the Clausius inequality given in Equation (113) with Equation (170), we
obtain for both irreversible and reversible systems
TdSsystem ≥ dQsystem = (dU − dW)system (171)

and for the mechanical equilibrium where dW = −PdV, for the system parameters, we may
write
0 ≥ dU + PdV − TdS (172)
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 79

This inequality applies to all incremental changes towards the equilibrium state, and the
equality holds at the equilibrium state where any change is reversible. It follows immedi-
ately that when S and V are constant,
0 ≥ (dU)S,V (173)

Since G = U + PV − TS, from its definition, that is dG = dU + PdV + VdP − TdS − SdT. If
T and P are constant in the entire heterogeneous system, we may write dGT,P = dU + PdV
− TdS, and by combining with Equation (172), we obtain
0 ≥ dGT,P or 0 ≥ d(U + PV − TS)T,P (174)

This expression shows that all irreversible processes occurring at constant T and P
proceed in a direction such that the total Gibbs energy of the system decreases. Thus the
equilibrium state of a heterogeneous closed system is the state with the minimum total
Gibbs energy attainable at the given T and P. At the equilibrium state, differential varia-
tions may occur without producing a change in G. This is the meaning of the equilibrium
criterion, dGT,P = 0. These equations may be applied to a closed, non-reactive, many-phase
system.
Gibbs was the first to prove that in a heterogeneous (multiphase) closed system, the
chemical potential of every phase is equal to the chemical potential of the other phase,
which is in equilibrium with it:
mai = mbi = . . . = mpi (175)

where superscripts a, b and p identify the phases. It was proved that a chemical species
could be spontaneously transported from a phase of larger chemical potential to one of
lower chemical potential. The criteria for internal thermal and mechanical equilibrium
simply require uniformity of temperature and pressure throughout the system. In these
equilibrium conditions, the Gibbs free energy of the system is minimized, and the chem-
ical potential of any transportable species is uniform throughout the system.
We may derive Equation (175) for a two-phase (a and b phases) closed system having
an interfacial flat boundary area A between them. The system as a whole is isolated and
the internal energy, U, volume, V and all the number of moles, ni s, are fixed. If infinites-
imal changes occur in U, V and ni of phases a and b, such changes are possible only pro-
vided that dUa = −dUb, dVa = −dVb and dnai = −dnib, in the given boundary conditions. In
a heterogeneous (multiphase) closed system, there is no heat exchange with the sur-
roundings and the entropy can only be changed by spontaneous changes in the system.
Before the system reaches the equilibrium, dS > 0 and this entropy increase can be statis-
tically shown as a change towards a more probable state, that is a state of higher Ω, as we
see in Equation (115). When the system reaches equilibrium, SU,V,A,ni becomes maximum
and hence (∂S)U,V,A,ni = 0. If we consider only the equilibrium between two bulk phases (this
means that we do not consider any special changes at the dividing interface which we will
see in Section 3.2), we may write for equilibrium conditions
(∂S)U,V,A,ni = 0 = (∂Sa + ∂Sb)U,V,A,ni (176)

When we apply Euler’s reciprocity relation to obtain the total differential of entropy by
using Equation (176) for a constant interfacial flat boundary area, A, between them, we
have
80 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 ∂S a   ∂S a   ∂S a 
0= 
 ∂U a  Va, na
dU a
+  
 ∂V a  Ua ,na
dV a
+ ∑  a
 ∂ni  Ua, Va , na
dnia
i i
i j ≠1
(177)
 ∂S b   ∂S b   ∂S b 
+ b
dU b +  b
dV b + ∑  b  dnib
 ∂U  V b ,n b  ∂V  U b ,n b i  ∂ni  U b , V b , n b
i i j ≠1

We may write from Equation (131),

1  ∂S 
= (178)
T  ∂U  V,ni

and from Equation (121),

P  ∂S 
= (179)
T  ∂V  U, ni

and from Equation (142), for constant U, V and nj,

mi  ∂S 
=− (180)
T  ∂ni  U,V,nj ≠1

Then, by combining Equations (177)–(180) for two phases followed by the introduction
of the boundary conditions we have
 dU a   PdV a   m a dn a 
0= a  + a 
− ∑ i a i 
 T   T  i  T 
(181)
 dU b   PdV b   mib dnib 
 T   Tb  ∑
+ b  + −  
i  T 
b

By rearrangement we obtain,
 dU a dU b   P a dV a P b dV b   mia dnia mib dnib 
 a + b  + +  − ∑ +  =0 (182)
 T T   T a
T b
 i  Ta Tb 

We can also derive Equation (182) by rearranging the fundamental equation of open
systems (Equation (142)) so that we may write for the homogeneous a bulk phase
dU a P a dV a  ma 
dS a = + − ∑  ia  dnia (183)
i T 
a a
T T

and if we write Equation (183) for the b bulk phase, and combine with Equation (176),
we can obtain Equation (182) again. Now, since dUa = −dUb, dVa = −dVb and dnai = −dnib
in the given boundary conditions, by rearranging Equation (182) we have
 1 − 1  dU a +  P − P  dV a −  mi − mi  dn a = 0
a b a b

T T 

T T 
 ∑   i (184)
i T Tb 
a b a b a

If the two-phase system is in thermal equilibrium, so that T = Ta = Tb, then Equation (184)
reduces to
 Pa − P b  a  mia − mib  a
  dV − ∑   dni = 0 (185)
 T  i  T 
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 81

If the pressures of all the phases are constant, as P = Pa = Pb, the left side of Equation (185)
vanishes and then it is clear that Equation (175) (mai = mib) is valid. This means that at equi-
librium there is no driving force for the transport of matter between phases. It is impor-
tant to realize that all the above equilibrium conditions can only apply to flat interfaces,
and if the interfaces are curved, then Pa and Pb differ by an amount of capillary pressure,
∆P, which depends on the radius of curvature (see Section 4.3).
There is another derivation of Equation (175). As we know, Equation (145) indicates
that at equilibrium, for a chemical species in a single phase, at constant T and P,
∑ mia dnia = 0 , because dGa = 0. If there is more than one phase, then we may naturally write
i
 
∑  ∑ m a
i dnia  = 0 for equilibrium, at constant T and P. Thus, for two materials 1 and 2, in

a i

two phases of a and b, at equilibrium, we may write, ma1 dna1 + ma2dna2 + mb1dnb1 + mb2dnb2 = 0.
If we consider the equilibrium of only one of the chemicals, we may write, ma1 dna1 + mb1dnb1
= 0. When n1 moles flow from the a phase to the b phase, we may write, −dna1 = dnb1 from
the material balance in a closed system, giving ma1 dna1 − mb1dna1 = (ma1 − mb1)dna1 = 0. Since,
dna1 ≠ 0, then we must have (ma1 − mb1) = 2, resulting in (mai = mbi ). If the system is irreversible,
since dG < 0, then we may write, ma1 dna1 + mb1dnb1 < 0, and by rearrangement we have mb1dnb1
< −ma1 dna1 or (mb1 < ma1 ) if (−dna1 = dnb1) is applied. This shows that any substance flows spon-
taneously from a phase with higher chemical potential (ma1 ) to a phase with lower chemi-
cal potential (mb1), until the chemical potential has been equalized. Similarly to temperature
governing the flow of heat, chemical potential governs the flow of matter from one phase
to another.

3.2 Gibbs Dividing Interface

3.2.1 Thermodynamical definition of an interface

While we were deriving Equations (173)–(185), we considered only the thermodynamical

equilibrium between two bulk phases, we did not consider any special changes at the divid-
ing interface (boundary), or the effect of the variation of the interfacial area. We assumed
strictly homogeneous thermodynamic systems with their intensive properties constant
throughout each phase. The former approach is a departure from reality because when
phases a and b are in contact with each other, it is clear that both phases are not strictly
homogenous throughout real systems. The atoms and molecules present in the interfacial
regions undergo some changes, resulting in a concomitant change in the internal energy.
So these atoms or molecules at the surface should be treated as being somehow different
from those of the bulk, in thermodynamical terms. Thus in real systems, there is a finite
distance across an interface over which the properties gradually change from those of one
adjacent bulk phase to those of the other.
The three-dimensional region of contact between phases a and b is called the interphase
region or interfacial layer. It is generally assumed that if the ions are not present, this region is
a few molecules in thickness (approximately 1–2 nm) and only an extremely small fraction of
the molecules in the system are present in the interfacial region due to geometrical con-
straints. (If ions are present the interfacial thickness is much larger because the concentration
82 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

of ions might vary over a large distance in the solvent.) Consequently, in most non-
electrolyte solutions, the influence of surface effects on the thermodynamic properties of
the bulk system is essentially negligible. However, in some cases where the surface area-
to-volume ratio is high, such as in nanotechnology, colloidal systems or gas adsorption or
catalysis on porous material processes, the surface effects are significant if not substantial.
As we know, intermolecular interactions lower the internal energy, and the molecules at
the surface of a liquid in contact with its own vapor have a higher average internal energy
than molecules in the bulk phase, because they experience fewer attractions at the surface
compared with molecules in the bulk liquid phase. One must do work to increase the
surface area of a liquid, because such an increase in surface area means an increase in the
more high-energy molecules at the surface, at the expense of fewer and low-energy mole-
cules in the bulk liquid. Since the interfacial internal energy cannot be measured by any
direct experimental process, we need some indirect methods to determine the internal
energy in the interphase region. One option is to apply the idea of treating the interface as
a very thin layer and defining the properties of this thin layer. However, this is not an easy
task because we face a major problem in that we do not know which part of the total energy
of the system with the two contacting phases must be attributed to the interface, U S, and
which part to the bulk phases, Ua and Ub.
This is a rather more complex problem because the interfacial layer is not infinitesimally
thin and some free energy is stored in this layer. There is a gradient of molecular density,
composition, enthalpy, entropy, electrical potential (for charged molecules) and many
other properties in this interfacial transition layer, as shown in Figure 3.1 a as a
property–distance plot. Actually, U S is located in a layer of certain thickness, ∆x, and
some assumption must be made if we want to define U S in thermodynamical terms,
because it is impossible to decide physically where phase a ends and phase b begins. The
thickness of this transition layer, ∆xg , for any two immiscible phases is shown in Figure 3.2
a and is dependent on the molecular nature of phases a and b, and also on external factors
such as temperature and pressure. It has been found experimentally that this interfacial
layer is usually a few molecules in thickness for most non-electrolytes.
J. W. Gibbs was the first to propose a method to idealize the interface as a mathemati-
cal dividing surface. He assumed that phases a and b are separated by an infinitesimally
thin boundary layer, known as the Gibbs dividing plane, as seen in Figures 3.1 b. and 3.2 b.
The a and b phases are considered to have their bulk properties up to this plane, and any
excess internal energy is supposed to be entirely located in this plane. Gibbs treated this
thin layer as a quasi-two-dimensional phase having no volume, but excess extensive inter-
facial quantities (see Section 3.2.5). The Gibbs dividing plane concept is a departure from
the physical reality but it is consistent and allows us to apply thermodynamics to surface
processes. However, the next questions then arise: where do we locate the Gibbs dividing
plane, xγo, in the transition layer between phases, and what is the surface free energy of
this layer?

3.2.2 Physical description of a real liquid interface

We have already seen that the boundary region between two bulk phases has a thickness,
∆x. Usually in the liquid–vapor and some liquid1–liquid2 interfaces the boundary layers are
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 83

Cb
b-phase
(liquid phase)
Property, C

Ca
a-phase
(vapor phase)
Distance, Xg
0 d

a. Property change in the vicinity of a real interface between two phases

∆Xg

Cb
–
Property, C

b-phase
(liquid phase)

+
Ca Gibbs dividing interface
a-phase
(vapor phase)
Distance, Xg
0 Xa Xg o Xb d

b. Idealization as a mathematical Gibbs dividing interface

Figure 3.1 a. The variation of a molecular property, C with the distance, x in the interfacial transition
layer between a and b phases. b. The same plot after the mathematical Gibbs dividing plane is located
at point xg o. ∆xg is the thickness of the transition layer.

only of the order of the dimension of one molecule – a monolayer. Rarely, several molec-
ular layers can be involved – a multilayer. This boundary region is necessarily static but the
dynamics of the situation should not be forgotten. The interfacial boundary region in real
liquids is in a very turbulent state. For a liquid–vapor interface, the liquid is in equilibrium
with its vapor and there is a two-way and balanced traffic of molecules hitting and con-
densing on the surface from the vapor phase, and of molecules evaporating from the bulk
phase. Kinetic theory of gases and liquids shows that, under zero external pressure (full
vacuum), the mass of molecules that strikes one m2 per second is
84 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Mw
ms = P (186)
2πRT
where P is the vapor pressure (Pa), Mw molecular mass (kgmol−1), T is the absolute tem-
perature in Kelvin, and R is the gas constant, 8.3144 (m3 Pa/mol K). For liquid water at
equilibrium, when the evaporation rate is equal to the condensation rate, at 20°C the vapor
pressure is 2333 Pa and ms = 0.253 g cm−2 so that each cm2 of liquid experiences (0.253/18)
NA = 8.47 × 1021 arrivals and departures of molecules per second. A water molecule has an
average area of 10 Å2 = 10−15 cm2, and the size of the closely packed water molecules permits
only 1015 molecules to be present in a 1 cm2 layer at any moment. Thus the average life of
each water molecule in the surface is only 1015/8.47 × 1021 ≅ 1.18 × 10−7 sec. There is also
a violent traffic between the surface region and the adjacent layers of the liquid. It is evident
that although there is extremely violent agitation of most of the liquid surfaces, the attrac-
tive forces between molecules are able to maintain the surface intact within a few mo-
lecular thicknesses. Because of the fluidity of the liquid molecules, the boundary region of
liquids is assumed to be homogeneous; that is, its properties do not vary from place to place
across the surface. (However, this is not true for solid surfaces, their boundary regions are
heterogeneous, and the chemical nature and adsorption characteristics of solids vary from
place to place across the surface (see Chapter 8).)
The differences between interfacial and bulk molecular interaction energies are due
mainly to the two-dimensional geometry of the surface and also to differences in interfa-
cial structure and differences in magnitude of the molecular interactions at the interface,
from those of the bulk. In principle, it would be possible to calculate the energy of cohe-
sion between molecules within a single phase if the potential energy functions and the
spatial distributions of all the atoms and molecules were known. Moreover, if the complete

a a

Dividing
Interfacial
∆X surface
region

b b

a. Real interface b. Imaginary Gibbs system

Figure 3.2 a. Schematic representation of the interfacial transition layer between the a and b phases:
∆xg is the thickness of the transition layer. b. Schematic representation of the interfacial transition layer
between the a and b phases after the imaginary Gibbs dividing plane is located.
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 85

geometrical deformation at an interface is known, it would also be possible to calculate the

energy of adhesion for this interface. However, in practice we are far away from such
success. Firstly, the potential energy functions are not well enough known, especially for
unsymmetrical polyatomic molecules and electron donor–acceptor interacting molecules.
Secondly, the structure of liquids is not completely understood (see Chapter 4). The inter-
facial structure and geometry between two liquids is even less understood. Consequently,
at present, it is necessary to apply semi-empirical approaches to interfacial free energy
problems. In order to do this, we have to define the surface free energy and surface tension
concepts in terms of thermodynamics.

3.2.3 Definitions of surface and interfacial free energy, and surface and
interfacial tension

Surface free energy, g1, of material (1) is the work that should be supplied to bring the mol-
ecules from the interior bulk phase to its surface to create a new surface having a unit area
(1 m2). Its dimension is energy per unit area, J/m2 in the SI system (mJ/m2 is generally used
in surface science to keep the numerical values the same as for the previously used ergs/cm2
values).
When we consider two immiscible phases, having a flat interface between them, we can
define the interfacial free energy, g12, as the work that should be supplied to bring the mol-
ecules from both of the interior bulk phases (1) and (2) to the contact boundary to create
a new (1–2) interface having an area of 1 m2. For this case, the intermolecular forces acting
on the surface molecules are similar to those encountered in the liquid–vapor system,
however as a result of the replacement of the vapor by a condensed phase, the mutual
attraction of unlike molecules across the interface becomes much more effective. Interfa-
cial free energy may also be called more correctly, the excess interfacial free energy, which
the molecules possess by virtue of their being in the interface.
The surface tension, g1, of a material (1) is the force that operates inwards from the
boundaries of its surface perpendicularly, tending to contract and minimize the area of the
surface. Its unit is force per unit length (N/m, or usually mN/m). The surface tension and
the surface free energy of substances are dimensionally equivalent (N/m = J/m2 = kg/s2)
and for pure liquids in equilibrium with their vapor, the two quantities are numerically
equal. However these two terms are different conceptually as we will see in Section 3.2.5,
and surface free energy is regarded as the fundamental property in thermodynamical terms,
and surface tension would be taken simply as its equivalent if there is no adsorption on a
surface. On the other hand, the unit of surface tension (N/m), is the two-dimensional ana-
logue of the bulk pressure unit (N/m2), and thus surface tension may be regarded as a two-
dimensional negative pressure (see Sections 3.3 and 5.5).
When we consider two immiscible phases and an interface between them, we should
define the interfacial tension, g12, as the force that operates inwards from the boundaries of
a surface perpendicularly to each phase, tending to minimize the area of the interface. The
interfacial free energy between liquids is dimensionally equivalent and numerically equal
to their interfacial tension.
86 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

3.2.4 Surface free energy and surface tension of liquids

In liquids, the cohesion forces keep the molecules close to each other, and translational and
rotational motion of molecules takes place within the liquid with considerable freedom.
As we see in Figure 3.3, each molecule is surrounded by others on every side in the inte-
rior of the bulk liquid and is attracted in all directions resulting in a zero sum of force
vectors. However, the molecules at the surface are attracted inwards, and also to each side
by their neighbors; but there is no outward attraction to balance the inward pull, because
there are very few molecules outside. Hence every surface molecule is subject to a strong
inward attraction perpendicular to the surface. The surface molecules are continuously
moving inwards more rapidly than interior molecules, which move upwards to take their
places. This process decreases the number of molecules in the surface, and this diminishes
the liquid surface area; this surface contraction continues until the interior accommodates
the maximum possible number of molecules. The inward attraction normal to the surface
causes the surface to be under a state of lateral tension as shown schematically in Figure
3.4. In this figure, if we assume that the surface molecules act similarly to simple pulleys,
then the direction of inward pull may be changed to a lateral pull at right angles and thus
cause a tension at the surface molecules, leading to the concept of surface tension. Thus,
for a plane surface, the surface tension can be defined as the force acting parallel to the
surface and at right angles to a line of unit length anywhere in the surface. This attraction
makes the liquid behave as though surrounded by an invisible membrane skin, although
there is actually no such skin in real systems (see below). At equilibrium conditions,

Vapor

Liquid

Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of a liquid molecule in the bulk liquid and at the surface. A down-
ward attraction force is operative on the surface molecule due to the lack of liquid molecules above it.
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 87

Vapor

Liquid

Figure 3.4 Schematic representation of the surface tension between two liquid molecules at the surface:
these molecules act similarly to simple pulleys, and the downward attraction forces cause a tension
between the surface molecules.

without any external forces acting on the drop, the surface area is the smallest possible for
a given liquid volume, which is geometrically a sphere, as we saw in Section 1.3. However
if gravity, magnetic, electrical or other forces are also present, then shape distortions may
happen according to the extent of the applied force and the size of the drop (for example
gravity may flatten the large drops).
Since a liquid contracts spontaneously, this fact shows that there is free energy associ-
ated with it. We can measure the surface free energy of a liquid by performing work against
the surface tension of its molecules by bringing the molecules from the interior to the
surface. For example, if we insert a metal frame in a liquid, and pull it out slowly, a liquid
film (or, if we use a soap or detergent solution, a soap film) is formed in the metal frame,
as can be seen in Figure 3.5. We can expand the surface area of this liquid film by apply-
ing a perpendicular pulling force infinitesimally as dFx, and the system moves from equi-
librium, which leads to an infinitesimal increase in interfacial area, dA. If dFx is slow
enough, the newly formed area will have time to relax completely and has the equilibrium
value of gfiil everywhere. If the equilibrium conditions can be reached in a short time, and
if the liquid film is sufficiently thick so that the two liquid–air interfaces are sufficiently far
apart from each other to be considered as independent interfaces, then
g film = 2g (187)

According to Newton mechanics, the infinitesimal work to pull the frame in Figure 3.5 is
dW = Fx dx. Since, the acting force, Fx, must be balanced by the force of surface tension
along the length of the wire, l, of the two sides contacting the two film surfaces
88 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Fx

Metal frame

∆x

l Liquid film

Liquid

Figure 3.5 When a metal frame of width l, previously placed in a liquid, is pulled out slowly, with a
perpendicular force of Fx, to a distance ∆x, a liquid film is formed in the frame having an interfacial area
of ∆A = l∆x. The opposite surface tension balances the Fx force.

Fx = g filml = 2gl (188)

and we know from simple geometry that dA = (2l)dx, for the total area of two independ-
ent film surfaces. Then the work performed against the surface tension of liquid molecules
can be given as
dW = (2gl)dx = gdA (189)

and by combining Equations (188) and (189), we have

 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 89

dW Fx
g = = (190)
dA 2l

expressing both surface free energy (as work) and surface tension definitions. We may also
prove that Equation (190) is valid with simple reasoning: the number of molecules in the
interphase region is proportional to the surface area, A, and by increasing A by dA we
increase the number of molecules in the interphase too. Since we must do positive work
to increase the number of molecules in this region at the expense of their attractions to
the bulk liquid, this work should be directly proportional to dA with a proportionality con-
stant, say g, thus giving Equation (190). The stronger the intermolecular attractions in a
liquid the greater is the value of g. (We will define surface free energy as a thermodynamic
term more properly by applying the Gibbs and Helmholtz free energy functions in Section
3.2.5.)
In practice, we can only measure the liquid–air interfacial tension instead of the real
surface tensions of liquids, in room conditions (see Chapter 6). This is not theoretically
applicable to real liquid surface tension, which must be strictly measured in liquid–vacuum
conditions. However, since liquids will continually evaporate in a high (or complete)
vacuum condition, it is physically impossible to measure their real surface tension. Never-
theless, the air molecules above the liquid are very dilute at low or moderate pressures, and
air is generally assumed to be inert to any liquid (the interaction between the air molecules
and the liquid molecules is neglected). On the other hand, some scientists have proposed
that most liquids have a saturated film of their own vapor at the liquid surface at room
temperature, which forms very rapidly and instantaneously, and thus we always measure
the liquid–saturated vapor surface tension instead of liquid–air surface tension. This may
be a feasible scientific explanation, but it needs experimental proof and is worth investi-
gating further.
Several authors have in the past stretched the term surface tension to imply that liquids
have a saturated film in their surfaces, some mechanism such as a stretched membrane or
contractile skin. However we should be careful since this view can lead to great problems
when the structure of the so-called skin is considered in terms of molecules. Some writers
propose that the surface molecules have their force-fields so deflected that they form a kind
of linked skin in the surface, and the attractions between the surface molecules are directed
along the surface instead of equally in all directions. This is wrong on two points:

1 Such a deflection of the force-field would be highly improbable unless the molecules are
capable of a very special orientation in the surface layer.
2 If such a closely knitted skin were to be formed spontaneously, it would prevent rather
than help the contraction of the surface, because the particularly strong linkage between
the closely knitted surface molecules would tend to keep them at the surface rather than
expel them from it as expected from a real contracted surface.

In addition, we cannot consider any concept of a skin at a liquid surface or at interfaces

between immiscible liquids due to the following facts. The interfaces between liquid–air or
immiscible liquid1–liquid2 normally possess a positive free energy. The interfaces between
miscible liquids have a negative free energy and the molecules mix by a diffusion mecha-
nism across the interface. If we suppose that a positive surface tension is due to a con-
tractile skin formation at the interface, then any interface with a negative surface tension
90 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

ought to have an expanding skin at the interface and should spontaneously extend itself
during mixing. This would cause folding and puckering of the interfacial skin as it expands.
Experimentally we know that miscible liquids do not mix by folding and puckering the
interface between them; they only diffuse through the interface. Thus, in reality, the driving
force of positive surface tension (or surface free energy) is the presence of an inward attrac-
tive force, exerted on the surface molecules by the underlying molecules. If the surface
tension became negative, it would mean that the inward attractive force would be replaced
by some other force tending to push the molecules outwards, away from the liquid. This
is why the interfacial tension between two miscible liquids is negative and the vanishing of
the positive interfacial tension is the condition of complete miscibility.
The surface area expansion process in Figure 3.5 must obey the basic thermodynamic
reversibility rules so that the movement from equilibrium to both directions should be so
slow that the system can be continually relaxed. For most low-viscosity liquids, their sur-
faces relax very rapidly, and this reversibility criterion is usually met. However, if the vis-
cosity of the liquid is too high, the equilibrium cannot take place and the thermodynamical
equilibrium equations cannot be used in these conditions. For solids, it is impossible to
expand a solid surface reversibly under normal experimental conditions because it will
break or crack rather than flow under pressure. However, this fact should not confuse us:
surface tension of solids exists but we cannot apply a reversible area expansion method to
solids because it cannot happen. Thus, solid surface tension determination can only be
made by indirect methods such as liquid drop contact angle determination, or by apply-
ing various assumptions to some mechanical tests (see Chapters 8 and 9).

3.2.5 Thermodynamics of Gibbs dividing interface and surface

excess functions

As already mentioned in Section 3.2.1, the Gibbs dividing interface is an imaginary math-
ematical interface enabling us to analyze the interfacial region between two phases. In this
interfacial region between a liquid with its vapor, or between two immiscible liquids, the
density of matter and of energy and entropy undergoes a gradual transition, as shown in
Figures 3.1 a and 3.2 a. For example, for a single-component, two-phase system such as a
liquid in equilibrium with its vapor, the density increases continuously from the low values
in the bulk vapor phase (a-phase) to the high values in the bulk liquid phase (b-phase).
(For two-component systems containing a solute and a solvent, these figures are redrawn
in Section 5.6 as Figures 5.3 a and 5.3 b.) In order to apply thermodynamics, Gibbs com-
pared a real system with a reference system formed by an imaginary Gibbs dividing surface,
in which it is assumed that all the extensive properties of two bulk phases are unchanged
up to the dividing surface, as shown in Figures 3.1 b and 3.2 b. There will be an excess
number of moles of each component, energy and entropy (may be positive or negative) in
the real system, as compared with the Gibbs reference system; all of these excess quantities
are known as surface excesses of the various extensive properties of the system and are
denoted by a superscript S. The surface excess of any component is defined as the amount
by which the total quantity of that component in the actual system, given in Figures 3.1 a
and 3.2 a, exceeds that in the idealized system, given in Figures 3.1 b and 3.2 b. As we
know from Section 3.2.1, the Gibbs dividing interface is defined as an infinitesimally thin
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 91

boundary layer with no volume (V S = 0) and zero thickness. The various properties of the
real system are then given by

V = Va + Vb (191)

U = Ua + Ub + US (192)

S =S +S +S
a b S
(193)

ni = nai + nbi + nSi (194)

where V, U, S and ni are the total volume, internal energy, entropy and number of moles
of component i, respectively; a and b refer to the two bulk phases of the reference system
and U S, SS and nSi are all surface excess quantities.
When a and b phases are in contact, it is assumed throughout that a, b and the inter-
face are in equilibrium with each other. However, the interphase region undergoes some
changes, resulting in a concomitant change in the internal energy. This cannot be directly
measured by experiment. However, the difference in internal energy between the two
phases in contact and the same phases apart is accessible. But we do not know which part
of the total energy of the system with the two contacting phases is attributed to the inter-
face, U S and which part to the bulk phases, U a and U b.
The concentration of the component i may be different in two phases so that nai ≠ nbi
(but dictated by the condition of mai = mbi at equilibrium, of course). Also, there is no require-
ment that the concentration should be uniform in the vicinity of the interface. Now, if we
consider a binary immiscible solution, i = 1, 2, where the a phase mainly consists of 1 and
the b phase mainly consists of 2; we should be careful that a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 2 because of the
presence of the number of moles of 1 and 2 in the interphase region. It is clear that n1 =
na1 + nb1 + n1S and n2 = na2 + nb2 + nS2, so that we can find the number of moles of each com-
ponent in the interphase region by applying the nSi = ni − nai − nbi equation. We have many
analytical techniques to determine the concentrations, as given by, ci = ni/V but unfortu-
nately we cannot use the cai = nai /V a and c bi = nbi /V b equations because we do not know
which part of the total volume, V can be used as V a and which part V b without knowing
the exact location of the Gibbs dividing plane. The conclusion is that the value of the inter-
facial excess of a given compound, nSi , depends on the location of the Gibbs dividing plane.
In differential form, Equation (192) can be written as

dU = dU a + dU b + dU S (195)

By combining with the fundamental thermodynamic equation for open systems (Equation
(142)), we can rewrite Equation (195)

dU = T a dS a − P a dV a + ∑ mia dnia + T b dS b − P b dV b + ∑ mib dnib + dU S (196)

i i

Now we need a thermodynamic expression for the internal energy in the interfacial region
dU S. As we have already explained in Section 3.1.1, there are mainly two types of work
function; one is pressure–volume work, WPV, and the other is the non-pressure–volume
work, Wnon-PV comprising all other work types. The total work can be written as

dW = dWPV + dWnon-PV = −PdV + dWnon-PV (197)

92 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

By combining Equation (197) with the First Law of Thermodynamics (Equation (100)) we
obtain
dU = dQ − PdV + dWnon-PV (198)

For a reversible system at equilibrium, dQrev = T dS, and then we may modify the funda-
mental equation for an open system as,
dU rev = TdS − PdV + dWnon− PV + ∑ mi dni (199)
i

In every interfacial region, there is a tendency for mobile surfaces to decrease spontaneously
in area. The system has a free energy and is doing work to reduce its interfacial area, and
since dA < 0 for the decrease of area, it is obvious that dWnon-PV will be negative, as expected
from a system doing work. Thus, the work spent by the system to decrease the surface area
for an amount of unit area (1 m2) can be given as
dWnon-PV = g dA (200)

By combining Equations (199) and (200), we can write for a general expression of the
surface excess of the internal energy

dU S = T SdS S − P SdV S + g dA S + ∑ miS dniS (201)

i

Then, the surface tension (or interfacial tension) can be expressed thermodynamically from
Equation (201) as
 ∂U S 
g = S  (202)
 ∂A  S S ,V S ,n S
i

and recalling that in the Gibbs dividing interface analysis V S = 0 for the interfacial region,
then the volume terms can be discarded in Equation (201). Unfortunately, Equation (202)
is impractical in experimental respects, because it is a very difficult task to conduct an
experiment in which we can expand the surface area at constant volume and entropy
conditions.
As we have already stated, the value of nSi depends on the location of the dividing surface,
and this can be seen in Figure 3.1 b. The volume of the infinitesimally thin slice taken in
parallel in the interfacial region may be calculated as dV = A dxg in this figure, where A is
the cross-sectional area = real interfacial area between two planar, flat phases. The total
number of moles in the system, ni, can be obtained from ci = ni/V by integrating the equa-
tion of the curve, c = f(xg), from 0 to d. If the homogeneity of the bulk phases a and b per-
sists up to the Gibbs dividing surface at xgo, then using the cai = nai /Va expression, nai can be
calculated by A times the rectangular area under the lower horizontal line between 0 and
xgo, from simple geometry. Analogously, nbi can be calculated by A times the rectangular
area under the higher horizontal line between xgo and d (without considering the c = f(xg)
curve). However this is not true in reality, because the amounts nai and nbi are equal to A
times the rectangular areas under the lower and upper horizontal lines between 0 and xa,
and between xb and d, respectively, plus their amounts in the interphase region between xa
and xb. Consequently, we have to calculate nSi by using the c = f(xg) curve present. To the
left of the xgo, under the c = f(xg) curve, above the ca horizontal line, we see that there is
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 93

additional ni which we should add; and at the right of xgo we see that some ni is absent over
the c = f(xg) curve, under the cb horizontal line, which we should subtract. Since niS = ni −
(nai + nbi ), the surface excess amount, nSi is equal to A times the difference between the area
under the c = f(xg) curve and the rectangular areas under the horizontal lines. Therefore
this area difference is equal to the shaded areas in Figure 3.1 b so that the shaded area at
the left of xgo will be plus and the shaded area to the right of xg o will be minus, to find nSi .
Arbitrarily, if we locate the dividing plane so that the positive and negative shaded areas
are equal to each other, then we have nSi = 0. We may check this on the plot, if the divid-
ing plane in Figure 3.1 b moves to the right, the positive area will increase, and the nega-
tive area will decrease giving a positive nSi value; and if the dividing plane moves to the left
then nSi becomes negative. Similar arguments show that SS and U S also depend on the loca-
tion of the dividing plane. We will see the results of the choice of the location of the Gibbs
dividing plane in adsorption processes given in Sections 3.3, 5.6 and 8.3.
The Helmholtz free energy parameter, dF = dU − T dS − S dT was given in Equation
(120), and if we combine Equations (120) and (201) we obtain

dF S = g d A S − P SdV S − S SdT S + ∑ miSdniS (203)

i

On the other hand, the total Helmholtz free energy of the whole system, is the sum of the
Helmholtz free energy of the a, b and the interfacial phases, given as dF = dFa + dFb + dF S,
and we may write by combining Equations (120) and (142)

dF = − S a dT a − P a dV a + ∑ mia dnia − S b dT b − P b dV b + ∑ mib dnib + dF S (204)

i i

If the volume, temperature and the number of moles are taken as constant, then the explicit
thermodynamic definition of surface tension may be written from Equations (203) and
(204),
 ∂F S  ∂F
g = S =  (205)
 ∂A  V S ,T S ,n S  ∂A  V,T,ni
i

for a plane interface. This means that g is the isothermal reversible work done to extend
the interface by unit area at constant V and ni. For a pure, one-component material, we
can write, g = (∂F/∂A)V,T from Equation (205), where the mass of the material is held con-
stant during the extension of the surface.
On the other hand, the Gibbs free energy function is defined as G ≡ U + PV − TS from
Equations (104) and (124), which may be expressed as, dG = dU + PdV + VdP − TdS −
SdT, and the excess Gibbs free energy, GS, of the interfacial region in a reversible process,
for a completely plane interface can be expressed as

dG S = V SdP S − S SdT S + g d A S + ∑ miSdniS (206)

i

The total Gibbs free energy of the whole system is the sum of the Gibbs free energy of the
a, b and the interfacial phases, dG = dGa + dGb + dGS and is analogous to the Helmholtz
free energy derivation given in Equation (205), and if the pressure, temperature and the
number of moles are taken as constant in the plane interphase region, we may write for
the surface tension
94 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 ∂G S  ∂G 
g = S = (207)
 ∂A  PS ,TS ,n S  ∂A  P,T,ni
i

We can also derive the surface excess entropy from Equations (204) and (206) so that
 ∂G S   ∂F S 
S S = − S  = − S  (208)
 ∂T  PS ,A S ,n S  ∂T  V S ,A S ,n S
i i

and the surface excess pressure can be found similarly from Equations (205)–(207)
 ∂F S 
P S = −  (209)
 ∂V S  A S ,T S ,n S
i

In summary, by the use of Equations (202), (205) and (207), we are able to realize the effect
of variation of interfacial area that separates the various phases on the quantity of total
interaction, as shown schematically in Figures 3.6 a and 3.6 b. The total surface area in
Figure 3.6 b is much larger than the same material in Figure 3.6 a and, of course, the extent
of molecular interaction in Figure 3.6 b is much larger. We should recall that previously
no distinction was made between the systems in equilibrium that have an abundance of
surface area and those that do not.
There is a dispute about the equality of thermodynamic (surface free energy) and
mechanical (surface tension) g terms in some books. Some authors extend the surface
tension notion so that if the interfacial area A is expanded at constant P and T, then g can
be interpreted as (∂U S/∂AS)PS,TS,nSi , but this is incorrect due to the fact that dG ≠ dU. By com-
bining Equations (124) and (207), we may write in strict thermodynamical terms

b b

a
a

a b

Figure 3.6 Schematic representation of the interfacial area that separates the same a and b phases for
varying total interfacial areas: a. The interfacial area is minimal if phase a is a sphere forming a minimum
total interaction energy with phase b. b. When the same volume of phase a has such a shape with a
large interfacial area with phase b, then the total interaction energy is much larger than the case in a.
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 95

 ∂U S   ∂V S   ∂S S 
g = S  + P S  −T S  (210)
 ∂A  PS ,TS ,n S  ∂A  PS ,TS ,n S  ∂A  PS ,TS ,n S
i i i

and if we assume that mechanical surface tension, g is equal to (∂U S/∂AS)PS,TS,nSi this means
that we neglect the terms P(∂V S/∂AS)PS,TS,nSi and T(∂SS/∂AS)PS,TS,nSi . The first one can be neg-
lected because dV S = 0 in the Gibbs convention, and in addition, it is also negligible in real
systems where the volume expansion may take place, because this term has only a very
minor effect in magnitude due to the fact that V S is very small compared with the other
terms. However the second (entropic) term is not negligible because there is a consider-
able entropy increase from the increase of the interfacial area in normal conditions and
consequently the mechanical surface tension interpretation is thermodynamically wrong.
A constant entropy process may only perform in adiabatic conditions and the entropic
term may only be neglected for this case, when the mechanical interpretation would have
been correct.
If we integrate the Helmholtz free energy equation for the interface (Equation (203))
holding constant the intensive properties T, P, mi and g, we have

F S = g A S − P SV S + ∑ miSniS (211)
i

Since V S = 0 in the Gibbs convention, we will have, F S = g A S + ∑ miSniS so that, unless ∑ miSniS
i i
is zero, the Helmholtz free energy is not equal to surface tension in Equation (211). Since
G ≡ F + PV from Equation (128), then we have [GS = F S] according to the Gibbs conven-
tion, indicating that unless ∑m n S S
i i is zero, the Gibbs free energy is not equal to surface
i

tension either. The ∑m n S S

i i term is zero when there is no adsorption on the interface, and
i
consequently, the Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies may be equal to the surface tension
for pure liquids according to the Gibbs convention but are never equal for solutions.
The effects of the variation of temperature on the surface tension and surface excess
internal energy can be predicted from surface thermodynamics. At constant pressure (dP
= 0) with varying temperature, Equation (206) can be written as

(dGS )P = [g dAS − S SdT S + ∑ miSdniS ]P (212)

i

Similar to the derivation of the Maxwell equations (Equations (135)–(138)) by applying

Euler’s reciprocity theorem, for GS = f(T S, AS, nSi ) one obtains

 ∂g   ∂S S 
= −
 ∂T  A S ,n S  (213)
i
 ∂A  TS ,n S
i

When the temperature increases, the molecular interactions weaken, and the surface tension
generally decreases. Since  ∂g  is almost always negative, then the right-hand side of
 ∂T  A S ,n S
i

Equation (213) is positive, so that the entropy increases when the surface area expands at
a constant temperature. We may write from Equation (213)
96 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

∂g 
dS S = − d AS (214)
 ∂T  A S ,n S
i

and recalling VS = 0 in the Gibbs convention, by combining Equations (201) and (214) for
the constant nSi condition, one obtains

 ∂g  S
dU S = g − T S  S   dA (215)
  
∂T A S ,n iS 

By integrating Equation (215) for a surface area expansion from 0 to 1 m2, at a constant
temperature, we obtain
∂g
U S = g − T S S  (216)
 ∂T  A,ni

showing that the excess surface internal energy, U S, is almost always larger than the surface
free energy, g. (U S is more easily related to molecular models.) However, U S is less affected
by temperature changes than is g, and U S is generally assumed to be almost temperature-
independent.
Similar to the derivation of the Gibbs–Duhem equation, it is also possible to show the
dependence of surface tension on the chemical potentials of the components in the inter-
facial region. If we integrate Equation (201) between zero and a finite value at constant A,
T and ni, to allow the internal energy, entropy and mole number to almost from zero to
some finite value, this gives
U S = T SS S + g A S + ∑ miSniS (217)
i

Differentiation of this equation results in a more general expression of dU S,

dU S = T SdS S + S SdT S + g d A S + A Sdg + ∑ miSdniS + ∑ niSdmiS (218)
i i

By combining Equations (201) and (218), we obtain

S SdT S + A Sdg + ∑ niSdmiS = 0 (219)
i

which gives the dependence of surface tension on the chemical potentials of the existing
components as an analogy to the Gibbs–Duhem equation for the hypothetical surface
phase in the Gibbs model system.
When the temperature is constant, it simplifies into

∑ n dmS
i
S
i
(220)
dg = − i
AS
Equation (220) is very important for the adsorption of matter on surfaces (see Section 3.3).
If we want to define the surface excess chemical potential, mSi , in terms of other surface
excess parameters, we may write from Equations (201), (203) and (206)
 ∂U S   ∂G S   ∂F S 
miS =  S  = S  = S (221)
 ∂ni  SS ,V S ,A S ,n S  ∂ni  TS ,PS A S ,n S  ∂ni  TS ,V S ,A S ,n S
j j j
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 97

In equilibrium, the surface chemical potential is equal to the bulk (mSi = mi), and the chem-
ical potential change on addition of any material is independent of the a, b, interface
phases.
In the above section, we outlined the treatment given by Gibbs in 1878 where V S is
assumed to be 0. Later, in 1936, Guggenheim derived an alternative formulation, in which
the interfacial region is thought of as a separate phase, of small but finite thickness and
hence of volume, V S, which leads to similar equations to Gibbs’. In Guggenheim’s treat-
ment the quantities V S, GS, F S, nSi , etc. are then the variables of the interphase of finite thick-
ness, and cannot be called excess functions. The two treatments are equivalent, both models
having advantages and disadvantages, which is used as a matter of convenience. (When the
Guggenheim convention for surfaces was applied, the Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies
were found to be unequal to surface tension even for pure liquids, but the proof of this is
beyond the scope of this book.)
Unfortunately, there are several limitations to the above arguments for the Gibbs con-
vention. First of all, we should keep in mind that Gibbs or Guggenheim’s treatments apply
only to plane fluid interfaces. If the interface has a finite curvature, the problem is consid-
erably more complex as we will see in the capillarity sections (Sections 4.3 and 4.4). Second,
if the surface is a solid, it can withstand an anisotropic stress, and it is a very complex
matter to apply thermodynamics to this case. Third, in the derivation of all the above equa-
tions we have assumed that the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium. However, this is
not always true. The minimization of the excess surface free energy, either in Gibbs or
Helmholtz functions as given in Equations (204) and (207), is not an equilibrium condi-
tion, unless the surface itself can be considered to be a completely closed system; this is not
generally the case, especially for liquid systems containing insoluble monolayers at the
surface. Thus, these monolayers are generally not stable, but they may either be metastable
or not in any equilibrium at all (see Section 5.5). Lastly, for a pure liquid, which is in equi-
librium with its saturated vapor at a plane interface, where ni is constant, the surface tension
at constant pressure and temperature can be found by integrating Equation (207) to give
 ∂G S  ∆G S
g o =  oS  = So (222)
 ∂A  PS ,TS A

where subscript o shows the limitation to a pure single-component system. For multi-
component systems especially for solute–solvent solutions this relation is not applicable, a
point which has been overlooked by several researchers in the field (see Chapters 5 and 6).
For pure liquids, the specific surface excess entropy, SoS, is given as [SoS = −(dg/dT)P,A], where
SoS is the entropy of a unit area of surface liquid less the entropy of the same amount of
bulk liquid (this equation is derived in Section 4.5).

3.3 Thermodynamics of Adsorption

As we have already seen in Section 3.2.4, a pure liquid decreases its surface free energy by
diminishing its surface area to the minimum possible, with molecules leaving the surface
for the interior under the action of the inward attractive force exerted on the surface mol-
ecules. Surface molecules orient themselves so that the functional groups with the largest
98 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

field of force point inwards. However, in the case of solutions of two or more substances,
the surface minimization process is different and more complex, because different mol-
ecules present in a solution have different intensities of attractive force-fields and also have
different molecular volumes and shapes. As a result, the molecules that have the greater
fields of force tend to pass into the interior, and those with the smaller force-fields remain
at the surface, thus causing a concentration difference for any solute between the bulk of
the solution and the surface region. At the same time the surface area will decrease to the
minimum permitted by the external constraints on the system. The surface layer of a solu-
tion, in comparison with the interior, will therefore be more concentrated in the con-
stituents that have smaller attractive force-fields, and thus whose intrinsic surface free
energies are the smallest. This concentration difference of one constituent of a solution at
a surface is known as adsorption. In other words, adsorption is the partitioning of a chem-
ical species between a bulk phase and an interface. The adsorption term is used both for
the amount of molecules (moles or number of molecules, weights, volumes) accumulated
per unit area (1 m2) and for the process of molecular movement to the interface. Desorption
is the reverse of the adsorption process, showing that the molecules are leaving the inter-
face towards the solution. The material in the adsorbed state is called the adsorbate, and
the material which has the potential to be adsorbed is called adsorptive. The substance on
which adsorption takes place is defined as the adsorbent. There are various forms of adsorp-
tion: gas adsorption at a liquid surface from a pure gas or gas mixture (see Section 5.5),
solute adsorption at a liquid surface from the interior of a solution (see Section 5.5), and
gas and liquid adsorption at a solid surface (see Sections 8.3 and 9.2). In the case of gas
adsorption, when a solid is in equilibrium with a gas, the gas is usually more concentrated
in the surface region and is said to be positively adsorbed. However, if a species is less con-
centrated in the interfacial region than in the bulk, it is said to be negatively adsorbed. For
example the surface concentration of some ions is less than in the bulk for some simple
inorganic electrolytes. Adsorption is different from absorption where a species penetrates
and is dissolved throughout a liquid or a solid bulk phase. However, the two processes may
take place simultaneously; for example, ethanol vapor may dissolve in bulk liquid water
and also be positively adsorbed at the water surface.
In molecular energy terms, adsorption occurs when a molecule loses sufficient energy
to the atoms in a surface by exciting them vibrationally or electronically to become effec-
tively bound to the surface. An ensemble of adsorbed molecules is called an adlayer (or
monolayer if only a single molecular layer forms), and the average time of stay of a mol-
ecule upon the surface is called the mean stay time.
If a system consists of more than one component, then the surface tension may vary
with the solution composition. In practice, if the solvent has a larger surface tension than
the solution, then the solute is adsorbed at the surface. This is valid for most aqueous solu-
tions because water has a high surface tension of 72.8 mNm−1. Thus, the water molecules
have stronger attractive force-fields than most of the solutes, and thus water molecules
move inwards more rapidly than solute molecules, leaving the surface more concentrated
in the solute molecules causing the positive adsorption. It is possible to obtain very con-
siderable decreases in surface tension by adsorption of a low surface tension solute in any
high surface tension solvent. In such cases, the adsorption may proceed so far that the
surface layer consists almost entirely of the solute molecules (a monolayer) with the smaller
field of force. However, the reverse is not true, if we add a very high surface tension solute
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 99

to a low-surface-tension solvent; the solute molecules will move to the interior forming
large aggregates (or droplets), and the surface layer will tend to consist mainly of pure
solvent, containing few solute molecules; then the surface tension is raised but barely above
that of the pure solvent. Positive adsorption always leads to a lowering of the solvent surface
tension.
Surfactant molecules in aqueous solutions have a great tendency to adsorb from the solu-
tion, and their concentration in the water–air interface is generally much higher than in
the bulk aqueous solution, considerably decreasing the surface tension of the solution (see
Sections 5.5 and 5.6). In extreme cases, the surface tension of the solution may be reduced
to about 25 mNm−1, which is nearly the surface tension of paraffin hydrocarbons, the
surface layer then consisting almost entirely of long hydrocarbon chains. On the other
hand, when inorganic salts are dissolved in water, negative adsorption usually takes place,
and the surface tension of the solution may be raised by only a few mNm−1.

3.3.1 Gibbs adsorption isotherm

One of the main objectives in surface science is the prediction of the amount of substance
that is adsorbed at an interface. Adsorption and interfacial free energy are related through
the Gibbs Adsorption Law. If we define Gi as the excess moles of the component, i, adsorbed
at the interface per unit area of an interphase,
niS
Gi ≡ (223)
AS
then by combining Equations (220) and (223) we obtain the Gibbs adsorption isotherm
expression at a constant temperature,
dg = − ∑ G i dmiS (224)
i

The excess moles term, Gi of any component is defined as the amount by which the total
quantity of that component in the actual system given in Figures 3.1 a and 3.2 a exceeds
that in the idealized system given in Figures 3.1 b and 3.2 b. For a two-component system,
Equation (224) can be reduced to
−dg = G1 dm1S + G2 dm2S (225)

where the subscript 1 refers to the solvent and 2 to the solute. We must recall that m1S = m1
and mS2 = m2, from the Gibbs phase rule. The terms G1 and G2 in Equation (225) are both
unknown and, as noted earlier, can be defined relative to an arbitrarily chosen Gibbs divid-
ing surface, as a plane of infinitesimal thickness. However, in thermodynamic terms Equa-
tion (225) holds regardless of the location of the Gibbs dividing surface. In theory, any
experimentally measurable property must be independent of the location of the dividing
plane, but we have no better tool to apply the thermodynamic argument for choosing the
location of the Gibbs dividing plane; we may then look for some practical considerations
for the preference. In order to obtain physically meaningful quantities, the most widely
used convention in dealing with solutions is to place the Gibbs dividing plane so that the
surface excess of the solvent is zero, G1 = 0, and then Equation (225) reduces to
100 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 dg 
G 2 = −  (226)
 dm2  T

The activity of a solute in a solution, a2, was given in Equation (169) so that m2 = m*2 + RT S
ln a2, and its total differentiation gives dm2 = dm*2 + RT S d ln a2. Since the standard chemi-
cal potential of component 2 in the solution, m*2, is a constant quantity, then dm*2 = 0 and
we have [dm2 = RT S d ln a2], so that by applying the [d ln a = da/a] rule from mathemat-
ics, Equation (226) becomes
 dg  a2  dg 
G 2 = −  =− (227)
 ( RT d ln a2 )  TS RT S  da2  TS
S

where G2 is the excess moles of the solute adsorbed per unit area at the interphase. Equation
(227) is the Gibbs adsorption isotherm which is one of the most important equations in
surface science. Using this, the calculation of the number of surface excess moles is
possible by measuring the variation of the surface tension of a solution or vice versa. Equa-
tion (227) shows that if the surface tension of a solution decreases as the solute activity
increases (so that the (∆g/∆a2) term becomes negative giving a positive G2), then there is
a positive adsorption (or positive surface molar excess) of the solute at the interphase
region. If the solution is ideal, as j x2 = 1 in Equation (168) [a2 = j x2X2], then Equation (227)
becomes
X 2  dg 
G2 = − (228)
RT S  dX 2  T
where X2 is the mole fraction of the solute. In addition, since a2 = j c2c2, if the solution is
dilute enough, then we assume j c2 = 1 and a2 = c2 giving
c2  dg 
G2 = − (229)
RT S  dc2  T

where c2 is the molar concentration (mol l−1) of the solute. Equations (227)–(229) are
widely used to evaluate the extent of adsorption in dilute solutions from surface tension
measurements. The determination of the slope of the plot of g versus the logarithm of con-
centration (or activity) is the first step to calculate the surface excess of the solute. (The
choice of the concentration units is immaterial for this calculation due to the presence of a
concentration term in both numerator and denominator of the fraction.) In systems such
as liquid–air and liquid1–liquid2, where g is directly measurable, the Gibbs adsorption equa-
tion may be used to determine the surface concentration. In solid–gas systems where the
surface concentration can be measured directly but g cannot, the Gibbs adsorption equa-
tion may be used to calculate the lowering of g which would not otherwise be possible.
The thickness of adsorbed layers depends on the extent of molecular interactions,
but usually films of one molecule thickness, which are called monolayers, form at the
liquid–vapor and liquid–liquid interfaces upon adsorption. In gas adsorption on solids,
several molecular layers, which are called multilayers, form at high pressures, and mono-
layers can only be formed if the gas pressure is sufficiently low. If van der Waals forces are
operative during the adsorption process, it is called physical adsorption or physiosorption
(see Section 8.3.1), whereas if chemical bonds are formed during the adsorption process,
then it is called chemical adsorption or more preferably chemisorption (see Section 8.3.2).
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 101

The adsorption at liquid–vapor and liquid–liquid interfaces is generally physical in nature

and the adsorbed molecules may easily be desorbed from the surface by lowering the bulk
concentration of the adsorbate. For example, when we dilute the aqueous solution of
ethanol with water, the adsorbed ethanol molecules will desorb, and the surface tension of
the solution rises. On the other hand, chemisorbed molecules are much more difficult to
desorb.
If we assume that the surface layer is monomolecular, then G2 can be converted into the
area per molecule of the solute. Alternatively, if we know the molecular areas of the solvent
and the solute from other sources, the relative number of solute and solvent molecules in
the surface monolayer can be calculated. Adsorbed amounts are easily measured, either
directly or from depletion of the liquid (or gas) phase, to determine the unadsorbed mate-
rial concentration, but the total interfacial area, A, must also be known in order to obtain
the G value. Since nearly every surface has a roughness, the evaluation of A is generally dif-
ficult and requires special techniques.
We should note that the evaluation of G2 depends on assigning a particular position to
the dividing surface. This is because the amount of each component in the a or b phases
in the idealized Gibbs system given in Fig. 3.2 b clearly depends on the precise position of
the Gibbs dividing plane in the interphase region. When we assume that the shaded areas
are equal for the solvent, G1 = 0, this means that n1S = 0, and we are taking identical numbers
of moles of solvent in two portions of the solution, one from the surface region and the
other from the bulk, so that there would be no surface excesses, because of [n1(surface) =
n1(bulk)]. This can be shown in Figure 3.1 b such that xg o is located in a place where the
shaded area to the left of xg o is equal to the shaded area to the right of xg o. In these condi-
tions, the surface excess of the adsorbed molecules, G2, is defined as G2 = [n2 (surface) − n2
(bulk)]/AS, and if there is a positive surface excess, this shows that n2 (surface) > n2 (bulk).
We may apply this argument to any thermodynamical parameter such as G or U. In this
case we must locate the Gibbs dividing plane at a place where GS or U S equals zero. As a
numerical illustration we may check the surface of a 50–50% mole methanol–water solu-
tion. If we take a slice of the surface region deep enough to contain some of the bulk solu-
tion and find, let us say, 600 moles of methanol and 200 moles of water for A m2 of the
flat interfacial area, then we can find G2 (methanol) just by comparing with the bulk solu-
tion. Since there are 200 moles of methanol per 200 moles of water in the bulk solution,
then G2 (methanol) can be calculated as (600 − 200)/A = 400/A, as a positive surface excess.
If we try the reverse process, that is if we check the negative surface excess (surface defi-
ciency) of water, then we have to compare the sample concentration with 600 moles of
water per 600 moles of methanol in the bulk, so that G1 (water) can be calculated as (200
− 600)/A = −400/A as a negative surface excess. Surface excess values G1 or G2 are algebraic
quantities depending on the moles, volumes, weights of the materials, and may be positive
or negative depending on the convention chosen for G. It is a matter of choice to locate
the dividing line at any value of x in the range of ∆x. When various different properties
are plotted, we generally obtain different curve profiles so that, when we choose xg o for
equal shaded areas for a property (say for concentration), we will obtain differently (unbal-
anced) divided shaded areas of other properties (such as refractive index etc.) with the
same location of the dividing plane, and this may confuse the surface thermodynamic treat-
ment. To overcome this obvious difficulty, the property defined as having zero surface
excess may be chosen at will, and xg o is located according to this property, which is the
102 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

most amenable to thermodynamic evaluation by the experimental or mathematical fea-

tures of the problem at hand. On the other hand, the convention of assuming G1 = 0 is
mathematically unsymmetrical but it has great convenience in the case of binary dilute
solutions. How this arbitrary assignment affects the magnitude of the calculated G2 is a
matter of great importance especially to any researcher who wishes to apply Equations
(227)–(229) to their experimental data. It is important to understand clearly what con-
ventions are used in the definitions of these quantities in any research paper.
There are some alternative methods for locating the dividing surface: G2 can be experi-
mentally measured at the liquid–vapor interface by using radioactive tracer methods or it
may also be determined using ellipsometry so that the thickness of an adsorbed film is cal-
culated from the ellipticity produced in light reflected from the film covered surface. On
the other hand, the theoretical calculation of G2 is also possible using Monte Carlo and the
molecular dynamics methods.
For the adsorption of gases or volatile materials on liquid surfaces, if the gas or vapor
obeys the ideal gas laws, Equation (227) may be written as
P2  dg 
G2 = − (230)
RT S  dP2  T
where P2 is the gas or vapor partial pressure (see Section 8.3.3).

3.3.2 Surface equation of state

The Gibbs adsorption isotherm shows the dependence of the extent of adsorption of an
adsorbent on its bulk concentration or pressure. However, we also need to know the state
of the adsorbate at the surface. These are interrelated because the extent of material adsorb-
tion on a surface depends on the state of the surface. The behavior of the molecules in the
surface film is expressed by a surface equation of state which relates the spreading pressure,
p, which is the difference between the solvent and solution surface tensions, [p = go − g] to
the surface concentration of the adsorbent. This equation is concerned with the lateral
motions and interactions of the molecules present in an adsorbed film. In general, the
surface equation of state is a two-dimensional analogue of the three-dimensional equation
of state of fluids, and since this is related to monomolecular films, it will be described in
Sections 5.5 and 5.6. It should be remembered that on liquid surfaces, usually monolayers
form, but with adsorption on solid surfaces, usually multilayers form (see Section 8.3).

3.4 Conditions of Equilibrium where Several

Surfaces Intersect
When three different phases make contact with each other, where three surfaces intersect
at a triple point, we obtain three contact angles and three interfacial tension values, as can
be seen in Figure 3.7. We can obtain contact angle equilibria when we place an immisci-
ble drop on a liquid or solid in air or a vapor phase; there are many applications of contact
angle measurement in industry and surface science (see Chapter 9). In these conditions,
the total excess surface internal energy can be written from Equation (201) so that
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 103

gab
Aab

a
b-phase b
qbd
a-phase qda
Abd
gbd
d-phase Ada qab gba

a. Three phases make contact in space at the b. The definitions of angles and surface tensions
triple point at the triple point

Figure 3.7 a. Schematic representation of the conditions of equilibrium where three phases (a, b and
d) intersect at a triple point, where Aab is the contact area between phases (a and b); Abd is the contact
area between phases (b and d) and Ada is the contact area between phases (d and a). b. Similar schematic
representation giving the interfacial tensions and angles between the three phases.

(dU S)S,V,ni = gab dAab

S
+ gbd dAbd
S
+ gda dAda
S
(231)

and the total excess surface free energy can be written from Equation (206) so that
(dGS)P,T,ni = gab dAab
S
+ gbd dAbd
S
+ gda dAda
S
(232)
S S
At equilibrium, (dU )S,V,ni and (dG )P,T,ni must be a minimum, and from this requirement
we can derive a relation for the angles of contact at the triple line:
sin q ab sin q bd sin qda
= = (233)
gab g bd gda

This equation is equivalent to the static force balance where each of the g terms is consid-
ered as the force applied to the vertex. This condition of equilibrium is often called a
Neumann triangle. Equation (233) is the basis of Young’s equation, which is used in the
contact angle determination of liquid drops on flat substrates (see Sections 5.5 and 9.1).

3.5 Relation of Thermodynamic Parameters with

Intermolecular Forces
There is a need to find out the relationship between molecular pair potentials and ther-
modynamic energy functions, because all macroscopic bulk and surface properties arise
from molecular interactions. For example, adsorption occurs when a molecule loses suffi-
cient energy to the atoms in a surface by exciting them vibrationally, electrostatically or
104 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

electronically to become effectively bound to the surface. In general, a wide variety of events
may occur when a molecule impinges upon a surface. It may bounce back with no loss of
energy, or it may suffer a redistribution of momentum and be diffracted by the surface,
again with no loss of energy. Alternatively, it may lose a small amount of energy to the
atoms or molecules in the surface by exciting them by some means, however this energy
loss is not enough to bind that molecule to the surface and it may be inelastically reflected.
Only after it loses sufficient energy may it be accommodated or adsorbed onto the surface.
The magnitude of the energy loss (or the intermolecular interaction) depends upon the
nature of the molecules (or atoms) involved.
It is very desirable to calculate the extent of this interaction in thermodynamical terms
from the pair intermolecular potential values at hand, however it is a very difficult task at
present. In general, quantum mechanics is used to determine the molecular properties from
first principles. The link between thermodynamics and quantum mechanics is provided by
statistical mechanics. When applied to equilibrium conditions, statistical mechanics is called
statistical thermodynamics and is used to deduce the macroscopic properties of matter such
as internal energy, entropy, heat capacity, surface tension, electrical conductivity, viscosity
etc. from the molecular properties of the system, such as molecular volume, geometry, and
intra- and intermolecular forces. The reverse is also true. Because of the very large number
of molecules in a system, there are a huge number of different quantum states that are
compatible with a given thermodynamic state, so that there are a huge number of differ-
ent ways in which we can populate these energy levels and still end up with the same total
internal energy. Canonical ensembles are used to apply statistical thermodynamics to ideal,
non-interacting molecules. A canonical ensemble is a standard hypothetical collection of
an indefinite number of non-interacting systems. The main assumption is that the time-
average of a macroscopic property of a system is equal to the average value of that prop-
erty in the canonical ensemble. As an example, in classical gas kinetic theory, the measured
pressure is the time-average over the impacts of individual molecules on the walls of the
container. In very simple cases, such time-averaging computing can be performed but it is
impossible to do this for many complex systems. The above assumption on the canonical
ensembles allows us to replace the difficult calculation of a time-average by the easier cal-
culation of an average over the microstate systems in the ensemble at a fixed time. In order
to achieve this, we should include the probability that a system in the ensemble has this
property (i.e. energy for many cases) and thus canonical partition functions can be used in
statistical mechanical calculations. The application of statistical thermodynamics is beyond
the scope of this book. However, we should note that when real liquids and non-ideal gases
with intermolecular interactions are considered, the canonical partition function must
contain the potential energy of the interaction, V(r); unfortunately the exact analytical
solution is almost impossible. Moreover, it is a hopeless task to solve the Schrödinger equa-
tion for the entire system of Avogadro’s number (6.02 × 1023) of molecules to obtain the
system quantum energies for only one mole of a material. In addition, there is a signifi-
cant difference in the physical interpretation of intermolecular forces between gaseous
molecules in free space, and those between liquid molecules in a dense fluid medium. Our
quantitative knowledge of two-body intermolecular pair potentials is limited to simple
systems under ideal conditions, so that we measure the interaction between two gas mol-
ecules, which are isolated from all others. In gases at low densities, this is applicable because
there is little probability that three gas molecules will be simultaneously close together, and
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 105

we can assume that the interaction of two gas molecules is unaffected by the nearby pres-
ence of a third molecule. However this approximation is not true for high-density gases,
liquids and solids where the presence of the third molecule will polarize the interaction of
the first two molecules. We have to consider many-body effects, molecular size and orien-
tation effects, and repulsion interactions to find an exact analytical solution; this is almost
impossible. As a result, instead of applying quantum mechanics directly, the use of approx-
imate molecular interaction equations seems feasible at present. The experimental deter-
mination of virial coefficients from P–V–T data and transport properties of real gases, and
the excess properties of liquid mixtures and some spectroscopic techniques such as
molecular-beam scattering yield data for intermolecular pair potential values. During the
treatment of these data, it is generally, assumed that the molecular vibrations are not sub-
stantially affected by intermolecular forces, and also the rotational and vibrational motions
are independent of each other. Then, translational, rotational and intermolecular energies
of molecules are treated classically, and the vibrational and electronic energies are treated
quantum-mechanically. If the configuration integral can be evaluated by this means, then
it is possible to apply the canonical partition function to determine the thermodynamic
properties of the system.

3.5.1 Internal pressure and van der Waals constants

There are several examples where we can relate thermodynamically measurable parame-
ters to the molecular properties. The link between the internal pressure and the van der
Waals constants, a and b is a good example. The internal pressure of a fluid is defined from
pure thermodynamics: if we consider the total differential of the internal energy of a fluid
as a function of its entropy and volume, U = f(S,V)
∂U  ∂U 
dU =  dS +  dV (234)
 ∂S  V  ∂V  S

and, if we divide both sides of Equation (234) by dV, imposing the constraint of constant
temperature, we have
 ∂U  =  ∂U   ∂S  +  ∂U  (235)
 ∂V  T  ∂S  V  ∂V  T  ∂V  S

By combining Equation (235) with Equations (131) and (132), we obtain

 ∂U  = T  ∂S  − P (236)
 ∂V  T  ∂V  T

If we combine Equation (236) with the Maxwell equation, Equation (137), and rearrange,
we have
∂U  ∂P 
P+ = T (237)
 ∂V  T  ∂T  V

Now, the van der Waals equation of state which was derived for real gases (Equation (64))
contains a molecular attraction constant, a. In this equation, the (an2/V2) term is used to
106 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

account for the attractive intermolecular forces. If we rearrange the van der Waals equa-
tion per mole of a gas similar to Equation (237), we have
a RT
P+ = (238)
V2 V −b
where P is the external pressure, V is the molar volume, R is the gas constant, and T is the
absolute temperature. By comparing Equations (237) and (238), it is evident that there are
two more pressure terms in the state equation, in addition to the external pressure P:

Internal pressure (attractive)  ∂U  ≅ a (239)

 ∂V  T V 2

∂P
T  ≅ T
R
Thermal pressure (repulsive) (240)
 ∂T  V V −b
The internal pressure is due to the cohesional forces (see Section 3.4.3) between the mole-
cules that contribute to the internal energy, U, and is equal to zero for ideal gases. The
approximate equality of internal pressure values in liquids is a good criterion for the behav-
ior of ideal liquid solutions obeying Raoult’s law. In ideal liquid solutions, the molecules
of the components are under similar forces in solution as in the pure liquids, and the
approximate equality of internal pressures, especially for non-polar components, is the
reason for their ideal behavior. On the other hand, the repulsive thermal pressure repre-
sents the tendency of a fluid to expand. The (∂P/∂T)V parameter is called an isochore and
can be measured directly, or it is more often computed as the ratio of the coefficient of
thermal expansion, a = 1/V(∂V/∂T)P = (∂ln V/∂T)P, to the coefficient of compressibility,
b = −1/V(∂V/∂P)T = −(∂ln V/∂P)T, so that (∂P/∂T)V = −a/b.

3.5.2 Relation of van der Waals constants with molecular pair potentials

We can write the van der Waals equation in terms of molecular (not molar!) parameters,
(see Equation (77) in Section 2.6.2), where v is the volume occupied per gaseous molecule
v = (Vm/NA) (v is not the volume of the molecule itself), and k is the Boltzmann constant.
The number density of the gas (particles/m3) is inversely proportional to the gas volume,
and for a unit number it is given by r = 1/v. As we know, V = (∂G/∂P)T, from Equation
(133), and we then have the gas molecule volume in terms of the chemical potential of a
molecule,
∂m
v =1 r =   (241)
 ∂P  T

By rearranging Equation (241) and applying the chain rule, we may write for the gas
number density
 ∂P   ∂P   ∂r 
r=  =    (242)
 ∂m  T  ∂r  T  ∂m  T

Then, by rearranging Equation (242) we can obtain the variation of the pressure by the
change in the number density of the gas
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 107

 ∂P   ∂m 
  = r  (243)
 ∂r  T  ∂r  T

and we can calculate the pressure by integration of Equation (243) between 0 and r:
r
 ∂m 
P = ∫ r   dr (244)
0
 ∂r  T

If we can write an equation for the chemical potential of a molecule as a function of pair
potentials, m = f(r), and find the derivative of the chemical potential with the number
density in terms of pair potential energies, we may solve the above integration. Since we
know the m2 = m*2 + kT ln X2 expression per molecule from Equation (165), where X2 is
usually expressed as the mole fraction or volume fraction, we need to relate the chemical
potential of pure gas, m*2, to the molecular pair potentials and also the mole fraction, X2, to
the gas number density, r. As the chemical potential, m2, is the total free energy per mole,
it includes the interaction energy, m*2, as well as enthalpy (kT) and entropy of mixing
(k ln X2) contributions.
Cohesive chemical potential, or cohesive self-energy, mcoh is defined as the free energy of
an individual gas or liquid molecule surrounded by the same molecules. This is not an
intermolecular pair potential term itself, however it may be calculated from pair potentials
by summing this molecule’s interactions with all the surrounding molecules. Since we
know that the intermolecular forces are not to extend over large distances but only inter-
act with molecules in close proximity for gases, then, similar to the derivation of Equations
(19) and (20), the pair potential for a molecule in the gas phase is given as

CW
V (r ) = − (245)
rn

where CW is the van der Waals interaction coefficient (see Section 2.6.2). If n > 3, we
must sum all the pair potentials, V(r), over all the space, by integrating them between
the molecular hard sphere diameter, s, and infinity (for r > s). If the number of gas
molecules in a region of space between r and (r + dr) away is r4pr 2dr, then by integrating
we have
∞ ∞
* = V (r )r 4pr 2 dr = − 4pC r r 2 −n dr = − 4pC W r
mcoh ∫ W ∫
(n − 3)s n −3
= − Kr (246)
s s

where K = 4pCW/(n − 3)s n−3 is a constant. Now, we must relate the gas number density, r,
to the mole fraction, X2. In order to do this, we have to consider the excluded volume of the
gas molecule, B, which is not available for the molecules to move in. Since (v − B) is the
free space where the molecules move and s is the closest distance that a molecule can
approach another, we can write, B = 4ps 3/3. Then, the mole fraction (or effective density)
of the ideal and non-ideal molecules can be calculated
1 r
X2 = = (247)
v − B 1 − Br

By combining Equations (165), (246) and (247), we may write for the cohesive chemical
potential of a gas (or cohesive self-energy of a gas)
108 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 r 
gas
mcoh = − Kr + kT ln  (248)
 1 − Br 

By taking the derivative of the cohesive chemical potential of the gas with its number
density at constant temperature, we have

 ∂mcoh
gas
 kT
  = −K + (249)
 ∂r  T r (1 − Br )

By inserting Equation (249) into Equation (244), we are able to integrate Equation (244)
analytically,
r r
 kT   kTdr 
P = ∫ r − K + dr = ∫ − Krdr + (1 − Br )  (250)
0  r (1 − Br )  0  

giving
kT
P = − 1 2 Kr 2 − ln(1 − Br ) (251)
B
It is possible to expand the [ln (1 − B r)] term mathematically for the (1 > Br) condition
so that
ln(1 − Br) = −Br − 1/2(Br)2 + . . . ≈ −Br(1 + 1/2Br) (252)

since [1 − (1/2Br) ] ≈ 1 is also valid for the (1 > Br) condition, and then
2

Br B
ln(1 − Br ) ≈ − ≈− (253)
(1 − 1 2 Br ) (v − B 2)

By combining Equations (251) and (253) we have

K kT
P=− + (254)
2v 2
(v − B 2)

If we rearrange the van der Waals equation per molecule (Equation (77)) in order to make
comparison with Equation (254), we may write
a kT
P=− + (255)
v 2 (v − b )

It is evident that van der Waals constants can be shown in terms of molecular parameters:
K 2pC W
a= = (256)
2 (n − 3)s n −3

B 2ps 3
b= = (257)
2 3
As expected, the constant a depends on the attractive interactions, and b on the diameter
of molecules, and thus b is the repulsive contribution to the pair potential (see also
Sections 2.6.2 and 2.7).
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 109

3.5.3 Cohesive energy and close-packed molecules in condensed systems

Each molecule is in contact with several other molecules in a liquid or solid, and much of
the behavior of a liquid or a solid depends upon how the shapes of the molecules deter-
mine their packing. Each molecule has a considerable negative potential energy in the
condensed state, in contrast with vapor phase molecules which have negligible potential
energy. Liquid and solid molecules are forced to overcome the attraction interactions,
which are holding them in the condensed state, during vaporization and sublimation. Con-
sequently, it is a good idea to use the experimentally determined macroscopic vaporization
properties of liquids (and sublimation properties of solids when data are available) in order
to link the thermodynamics with the molecular pair potentials.
In Section 2.1, we defined the term cohesion to describe the physical interactions between
the same types of molecules, and the term adhesion between different types of molecules.
The cohesion in a liquid or solid measures how hard it is to pull them apart. The work of
cohesion (see Section 5.6.1), W ci , is the reversible work, per unit area, required to break a
column of a liquid or solid into two parts, creating two new equilibrium surfaces, and sep-
arating them to such a distance that they are no longer interacting with one another. (The-
oretically, this separation distance must be infinity, but in practice a distance of a few
micrometers is sufficient.)
The cohesive energy of condensed matter (especially of a liquid), UV, describes the molar
internal energy of vaporization of the gas phase at zero pressure (i.e. infinite separation of
the molecules). The term −UV is the energy of a liquid relative to its ideal vapor at the same
temperature, assuming that the intramolecular properties are identical in liquid and gas
states, which may not be true in the case of complex organic molecules (the minus sign
shows that energy is required to vaporize liquids). The term consists of two parts: the
energy required to vaporize the liquid to its saturated vapor, ∆UV, plus the energy required
isothermally to expand the saturated vapor to infinite volume,
∞
 dU  dV
−U V = ∆U V + ∫  dV  T
(258)
Vvap

For liquids at ordinary room temperatures (below the boiling point of the liquid) and low
pressures, the second term is neglected:
−U V ≅ ∆U V = ∆H V − P∆V (259)

∆H is the enthaply of vaporization. At low pressures and ordinary temperatures, the vapor
V

in equilibrium with the liquid is assumed to behave ideally and we may write
−U V = ∆U V = ∆H V − RT (260)

As a result, the cohesive energy is the enthalpy of evaporation plus the change in enthalpy
to expand from the vapor pressure to the ideal gas state (which is usually neglected in
liquids at ordinary temperatures and low pressures, see also Section 4.2.1) minus RT. The
cohesive energy concept is used to derive regular solution theory and also the solubility
parameters (see Section 5.3).
∆HV is a measure of the strength of intermolecular cohesive attractions in the liquid
(see Equation (281) in Section 4.2.1). ∆HV values vary between 20 and 50 kJ mol−1 for
110 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

materials that are liquids at room temperature. However, ∆HV does not give the molar
energy of interaction between two liquid molecules, because each molecule in a liquid
interacts with several other molecules, and the addition of all of these interactions sums
to ∆HV so that the molar energy of interaction between two liquid molecules is substan-
tially less than ∆HV.
It is possible to apply the cohesive chemical potential (or cohesive self-energy), mcoh to
the molecular packing in a liquid state (however we cannot apply Equation (248) for mgas coh
liq
to liquids directly because it is derived for a gas state, and in general mcoh >> mgas
coh, as we will
see in Section 3.4.4). If we consider only spherical molecules for simplicity and try to cal-
culate the energy change if we introduce a vapor molecule into its own liquid, we shall con-
sider only the closest packing spherical molecules. It is well known that the intermolecular
forces do not extend over large distances but only interact with molecules in close proxi-
mity (short-range forces), and we need to count the number of neighbor molecules inter-
acting with this individual gas molecule in the liquid in order to calculate mliq coh. If we apply
the close packing conditions, in which each molecule in a condensed state can have up to
12 neighbor molecules in contact with it, six neighbor molecules surround the center mol-
ecule in the same layer, plus three above and three below, as shown in Figure 3.8 a from
the vertical (plan) view, and 3.8 b from the horizontal view. A molecule in the surface may
be in contact with as many as nine, or as few as three others. Spherical molecules in a liquid
approach a close-packed structure but they do not contact completely; they are further
separated to enable molecular motion. Consequently, if a vapor molecule is introduced
into its own liquid medium from the vapor phase, then 12 liquid molecules must first sep-
arate from each other to form the cavity to accommodate the guest molecule. If we define
V(s) as the pair energy of two molecules in contact where r = s, then it is possible to cal-
culate roughly the net free energy change. When 12 molecules are separated to form the
cavity, the six bonds holding the 12 neighbor molecules together are broken and an energy

a. Plan view b. Horizontal view

Close-packed spherical molecules

Figure 3.8 Schematic representation of close-packed spherical molecules with a central molecule having
12 neighbor molecules in contact with it: a. Plan view. b. Horizontal view.
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 111

of −6 V(s) is expended. When the guest molecule is introduced, 12 new bonds are formed
costing +12V(s), thus giving a net energy change of
liq
mcoh ≈ −[6V(s) − 12V(s)] = 6V(s) (261)

which is half the total interaction energy of the guest molecule with its 12 nearest neigh-
bors. Then the molar cohesive energy of a liquid in a constant volume may be expressed
as
coh = NAmcoh ≈ 6NAV(s)
Gliq liq
(262)

where NA is Avogadro’s constant. If we assume that the molecular entropy can be neglected
at constant temperature, then we obtain U liq coh ≈ 6NAV(s) from Equation (124) (see also the
explanations below Equation (211)). In practice, the cohesive energy of a molecule in a
pure liquid or solid is determined experimentally to be somewhere between four and six
times the pair potential energy, the lower value being applicable to complex molecules that
deviate from simple spherical molecules that can condense to close-packed structures.
However, the accurate calculation of mliq coh for a liquid from pair potentials is extremely dif-
ficult because the average number of molecules surrounding any particular molecule is not
known exactly; it may be between 4 and 12. In addition, the density of the neighbor
molecules is not uniform locally; it is rather a function of the distance r, which is known
as the density distribution function, r = f(r) and can only be determined approximately. Cal-
culation of the adhesive free energy, madh between two dissimilar materials will be demon-
strated in Chapters 7 and 10, in a similar manner. However, in many cases, the above
approach is inadequate and the effect of hydrogen bonding, formation of dimers and
trimers, and the presence of hydrophobic and hydrophilic forces may be dominant in deter-
mining thermodynamic properties and our fundamental understanding of these forces is
insufficient. Future progress in surface and phase-equilibrium thermodynamics will be
possible with increased knowledge of intermolecular forces.

3.5.4 Derivation of Trouton’s rule

Nevertheless, there are some good applications of intermolecular pair potentials to macro-
scopic properties; we may estimate Trouton’s rule from pair potentials. Trouton’s rule pro-
vides an indication of the strength of cohesive forces in most liquids. This rule states that
at 1 atm pressure, the enthalpy (or latent heat) of vaporization divided by its boiling point
gives roughly 87 J K−1 mol−1, which corresponds to a cohesive energy, mliq
coh, of about 9–10 kT
per molecule. In general, (∆HV/TB) falls in the range of 75–95 J K−1 mol−1 for most liquids;
the higher values (up to 139 for hydrogen bonding liquids) are due to the cooperative asso-
ciation of liquid molecules arising from mostly hydrogen bonding, while the lower values
are due to weak attraction or dimerization. The physical meaning of Trouton’s rule is
that the entropy of vaporization, ∆SV = ∆HV/T, is approximately the same for all non-
associated liquids when evaporated to the same molar volume in the gas phase.
We know experimentally that vapor molecules will condense when their cohesive energy
with all the other surrounding molecules in the condensed phase exceeds about 9 kT. Since
coh ≈ 6V(s) for close-packed structures, from Equation (261), then if we equalize these
mliq
two quantities, we will find V(s) ≈ (9/6)kT ≈ (3/2)kT, and we may conclude that when the
112 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

pair attraction energy potential of two molecules exceeds (3/2)kT then the attraction
energy is strong enough to condense them into a liquid (or solid) phase. That is why
(3/2)kT is used as a standard reference to gauge the cohesive strength of an attraction
potential. (However we should be aware that (3/2)kT is not the kinetic energy consumed
during condensation, because the kinetic energy of a gas does not disappear when con-
densed into a liquid (or solid), the only change is the restriction of molecular motion in a
narrower region of space around a potential energy minimum, without considering the
very complex rotational and vibrational energies in this argument.)
This idea may be tested by examining the evaporation of liquids. We can try to calcu-
late how strong the intermolecular attraction should be if it will allow vapor (gas) mole-
cules to condense into a liquid at a particular temperature and pressure. Since we know
from the Gibbs phase equation that the chemical potentials for gas and liquid molecules
in equilibrium with each other are equal, we may write
coh + kT ln Xgas = mcoh + kT ln Xliq
mgas liq
(263)

Now, the volume of an ideal gas at standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm) and tempera-
ture (273.15 K) is approximately 22 400 cm3, and the same gas occupies approximately
20 cm3 when condensed; it is obvious that the cohesive energy of the liquid greatly exceeds
coh >> mcoh, so we may neglect, m coh, and rearrange the above
the cohesive energy of the gas, mliq gas gas

equation so that
 X liq   22400  ≈ 7kT
− mcoh
liq
= kT ln  = kT ln (264)
 X gas  20 
From the ideal gas equation, it is determined that the “ln” term changes by only 13% in
the range T = 100–500 K. Since this range includes most boiling temperatures of liquids,
we may write approximately for the cohesive energy of the liquid
−mliq
coh ≈ 7kTB (265)

where TB is the boiling temperature. If we want to use the gas constant, R, instead of k, we
may multiply both sides of the equation by Avogadro’s number,
liq
NA mcoh
− ≈ 7N A k = 7R (266)
TB
This equation shows that the boiling point of any liquid is simply proportional to the
energy needed to evaporate the molecule. As the internal energy of vaporization is given
by
∆UV ≅ −NAmliq
coh ≅ 7RTB (267)

and if we want to calculate the enthalpy of vaporization, by combining Equations (260)

and (267), we obtain Trouton’s rule in a crude manner:
∆H V ∆U V
= + R ≈ 7 R + R = 8 R ≈ 70JK −1 mol −1 (268)
TB TB
This 70 J K−1 mol−1 value is close to the 87 J K−1 mol−1 which is given by the original Trouton
rule. The (∆HV/TB) ratio may be replaced by (∆Hsub/TSB) for solids which can sublime,
where ∆H sub is the enthalpy of sublimation and TSB is the sublimation temperature. (We
 Thermodynamics of Interfaces 113

must be aware of the fact that Trouton’s rule holds only on the earth because of the par-
ticular value of the atmospheric pressure on the earth (1 atm) which determines that one
mole of gas molecules occupies a constant volume, according to the ideal gas law.)

3.5.5 Molecular interactions at the surface

It is important to understand the basic effects of pair potential energies of molecules on

any liquid surface before investigating more complex interactions: in a homogeneous con-
densed liquid consisting of molecules of type A, in equilibrium with its vapor, the pair-
potential energy between two molecules is shown as VAA(r). If we can determine the
number of interacting pair molecules, nAA experimentally, then we can calculate the Gibbs
free energy in the bulk liquid so that
1
GA, bulk = nAAVAA (r ) (269)
2
where 1/2VAA(r) is the energy per molecule deducted from the pair potentials. Now, if we
assume that only nearest-neighbor interactions are operative in this condensed phase, we
need to determine the number of interacting pair molecules, nAA in the shell of these nearest
neighbors. If we simply assume that the separation distance between the surface molecules
is equal to the separation distance between the bulk molecules, and the number of inter-
acting pair molecules in the surface nearest neighbors is only half of nAA, the number of
interacting pair molecules in the bulk nearest neighbors (because of the presence of air
above the liquid surface) then we may write
1
GA, surface = nAAVAA (r ) (270)
4
We may recall that the attractive VAA(r) is negative, so that work must be done to create a
new surface, so there is an increase in free energy when a molecule is taken from the bulk
and placed in the surface, as we have already discussed in Section 3.2.4. Unfortunately the
experimental determination of nAA is extremely difficult and we have to rely on density dis-
tribution functions and statistical mechanics or some other assumptions. It is well known
that the effects of molecular structure and shape are often large for any condensed system,
but since we have no adequate tools for describing such effects in a truly fundamental way,
the best we can do is to estimate these effects by molecular simulation using computers.
As we have already mentioned in Section 3.4.3, the density of the neighbor molecules is
not uniform locally; it is rather a function of the distance r from the guest molecule, r =
f(r). This function is known as the density distribution function which can be approximately
modeled and used in computation (see Section 4.1).

References
1. Pitzer, K.S. and Brewer L. (1961) Thermodynamics (2nd edn). McGraw-Hill, New York.
2. Atkins, P.W. (1998) Physical Chemistry (6th edn). Oxford University Press, Oxford.
3. Levine, I.N. (1990) Physical Chemistry (3rd edn). McGraw-Hill, New York.
114 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

4. Adam, N.K. (1968) The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
5. Lyklema, L. (1991) Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science (vols. I and II). Academic Press,
London.
6. Israelachvili, J. (1991) Intermolecular & Surface Forces (2nd edn). Academic Press, London.
7. Prausnitz, J.M., Lichtenthaler, R.N. and Azevedo E.G. (1999) Molecular Thermodynamics of
Fluid-Phase Equilibria (3rd edn). Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
8. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997) Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
9. Scatchard, G. (1976) Equilibrium in Solutions & Surface and Colloid Chemistry. Harvard Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge.
10. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973) An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
11. Erbil, H.Y. (1997) Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed.). Handbook of Surface
and Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
12. Murrell, J.N. and Jenkins, A.D. (1994) Properties of Liquids and Solutions (2nd edn). Wiley,
Chichester.
13. Hirschfelder, J.O., Curtiss, C.F. and Bird, R.B. (1954) Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids. Wiley,
New York.
 PART II

Liquids
Chapter 4
Pure Liquid Surfaces

4.1 What is a Liquid State?

A liquid is defined as “a medium, which takes the shape of a container without necessar-
ily filling it”. The term fluid is used to describe both gas and liquids phases, and the term
condensed phases refers collectively to solids and liquids. Gases mix in all proportions, but
certain liquids are partially and sometimes completely immiscible. The liquid state is
usually distinguished from the gaseous state by its high density and small
compressibility. From the standpoint of kinetic theory, a liquid may be considered as a con-
tinuation of the gas phase into the region of small volumes and very high molecular attrac-
tions. The cohesive forces in a liquid must be stronger than those in a gas even at
high pressures and strong enough to keep the molecules confined to a definite liquid
volume. The structure of a liquid refers to the spatial arrangement of molecules relative to
one another (static) and the convection motions of the molecules in the liquid (dynamic).
The molecules within a liquid have some freedom of motion, but this motion is consider-
ably restricted, and when compared with gases the mean free path in liquids is much
shorter than in the gas phase. In general, the distance between molecules in a liquid is
so small that it is roughly equal to the molecular diameter, and the effect of intermolecu-
lar forces is correspondingly so large that the properties of liquids depend on the forces
acting between the molecules. A liquid under normal pressures has a density, which is
close to that of a solid; this is true over the whole liquid range from the melting point to
the boiling point. A liquid is usually less dense than a solid at the melting point (but
there are a few exceptions such as water, silicon, germanium, tin etc. due to the loose
structure of their solids). Liquids have a low compressibility because there is not a great deal
of free space between the molecules in a normal liquid, similarly to solids. On the
other hand, a liquid may be distinguished from a solid by referring to the time-response
to an applied force. The response of solids to a force is mainly elastic, at least for low
strain; they return to their original shape following the application then removal of a
force. The response of liquids to a force is mainly inelastic; they are permanently
distorted by the applied force. This classification is useful especially in identifying the
state of some materials having intermediate properties between liquids and solids,
such as synthetic polymers, biological macromolecules and some glasses etc. If they
flow to the shape of the container over time, they will be defined as liquids, otherwise as
solids.
118 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

There is no complete theory for liquid state from first principles. Gases at high temper-
ature and low pressure exhibit the properties of perfect chaos, whereas ideal solid crystals
exhibit the properties of perfect order. Since perfect chaos and order are both simple to
treat mathematically, their theories were advanced first. Liquids have neither the long-range
structural order of solids nor the measurable intermolecular pair potential energies of
gases and they are much harder to deal with theoretically than solids or gases. They exhibit
properties between gases and solids and they have so far defied comprehensive theoretical
treatment.
There are several other reasons that prevent us from deriving a successful theoretical
description of liquids: although cohesive forces are sufficiently strong in liquids to lead to
a condensed state, they are not strong enough to prevent considerable translational energy
of the individual molecules. Consequently, thermal motions introduce a partial disorder
into the liquid structure. This fact prevents evaluation of a partition function to describe
a liquid in statistical mechanics. In order to model a liquid structure, we need to describe
the spread of possible separation distances of molecules from a central molecule using a
probability function, which defines mathematically the chance of finding two molecules
separated by r. The radial distribution function, g(r), is used for this purpose; this shows the
variation in the average density of molecules with distance, r, from a given central mole-
cule. Some knowledge of this function may be obtained from X-ray diffraction data. In
most theoretical treatments, liquids are represented by random close packing of almost
hard spheres. If we assume a liquid is composed of spherical, non-polar molecules having
no long-range order characteristics of crystalline solids, the only ordering that exists is a
short-range order resulting primarily since molecules cannot overlap. Then the probabil-
ity that a volume element dV in a liquid of volume V will contain the center of a particu-
lar specified molecule is (dV/V). For a given pair of molecules, the probability of their
occupying two such volume elements will be (dV/V)2, provided that the distance r between
them is sufficiently large so that their intermolecular pair potential can be neglected.
However, in real liquids, the distance r between the molecular pairs is small, approaching
s, where s is the diameter of the spherical molecule, and as a result, the intermolecular
pair potentials are very effective in determining the positions of molecules. Then the prob-
ability that a given molecular pair will occupy two specified volume elements will be
2
Ppair = g (r )
dV 
(271)
 V 

Equation (271) shows that g(r) is the correction factor applied to the random probability
(dV/V)2 for ideal molecules, if no intermolecular interactions takes place. In a similar
manner, we can calculate the probability of finding a particular molecule in the dV volume
element, at a distance r from the center of a fixed molecule

Psingle = g ( r )
dV 
(272)
 V 

The volume element, dV, can be deduced from the volume of molecules in a spherical shell
of thickness, dr, given as dV = 4pr 2dr for a spherical mathematical model, and the bulk
molecular density = Nm/V, where Nm is the total number of molecules in a given volume
V. To obtain the probability of finding Nm molecules in volume element dV, at a distance
r from the center of a fixed molecule, we may write
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 119

PNm = N m g (r )
dV  N m
= g (r )4pr 2 dr (273)
 V  V

The radial distribution function, g(r), can be determined experimentally from X-ray dif-
fraction patterns. Liquids scatter X-rays so that the scattered X-ray intensity is a function
of angle, which shows broad maximum peaks, in contrast to the sharp maximum peaks
obtained from solids. Then, g(r) can be extracted from these diffuse diffraction patterns.
In Equation (273) there is an enhanced probability due to g(r) > 1 for the first shell around
the specified molecule at r = s, and a minimum probability, g(r) < 1 between the first
and the second shells at r = 1.5s. Other maximum probabilities are seen at r = 2s, r = 3 s,
and so on. Since there is a lack of long-range order in liquids, g(r) approaches 1,
as r approaches infinity. For a liquid that obeys the Lennard–Jones attraction–repulsion
equation (Equation (97) in Section 2.7.3), a maximum value of g(r) = 3 is found for a dis-
tance of r = s. If r < s, then g(r) rapidly goes to zero, as a result of intermolecular Pauli
repulsion.
On the other hand, more explicitly, the radial distribution function can also be shown
as the ratio of local molecular density to the bulk molecular density,
r m,local ( r )
g (r ) = (274)
r m,bulk ( r )
where rm,local(r) is the local molecular density in the thin spherical shell from r to r + dr
around a given spherical molecule, and rm,bulk(r) is the bulk molecular density = Nm/V
where Nm is the total number of molecules in a given volume V.
Although the above analysis has been limited to pure liquids containing spherical mol-
ecules, the same ideas can be applied to liquids having non-spherical molecules or liquid
mixtures. For non-spherical molecules, the radial distribution function depends on the
directional angles q and f from the central molecule as well as on r. However, when we con-
sider non-spherical molecules, not only does the mathematical complexity increase but also
much more detailed information on liquid structure and intermolecular forces is required.
In 1933, Hildebrand related the internal energy of a mole of non-polar liquid to the
radial distribution function and pair potentials
∞
2pN A2
U= ∫ g ( r )V ( r )r
2
dr (275)
V 0

It was later determined that the presence or absence of the attractive term in the
Lennard–Jones potential does not alter the calculated g(r) for spherical liquid molecules,
indicating that the structure of most liquids is determined mainly by the intermolecular
repulsive forces, with attractive forces playing only a relatively minor role. (The main excep-
tions are H-bonding liquids, electrolyte solutions and molten salts.) However, attractive
forces (vectors) are important in determining thermodynamic properties such as internal
energy, molar volume and molar energy of vaporization (see Section 5.3), although the
attractive forces roughly cancel each other on all sides in a non-associated liquid in bulk.
The attractive part of the potential energy is not a vector; it is a scalar quantity and does
not cancel, but it is additive. In contrast, repulsive forces do not cancel each other because
they are operative only when molecules are in contact. Thus, the complexity of repulsive
and attractive forces, the large number of degrees of freedom of liquid molecules, and their
120 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

convection movement make the application of the canonical partition functions of

statistical mechanics very difficult to apply for a liquid to estimate the thermodynamical
parameters from the molecular properties. Because of this, only approximate statisti-
cal–mechanical theories of liquids could be developed using radial distribution functions
instead of canonical functions. (Some older theories, which assume liquids to be similar
to solid crystals, were abandoned due to the poor approximation between these two states.)
The most successful theories of liquids are perturbation theories, which initially calculate
g(r) while the intermolecular attractions are omitted, and then take them into account by
treating them as a perturbation on the results obtained from repulsive forces only. If the
correct intermolecular potentials between the molecules of simple liquids are known, then
the perturbation approach is quite successful for calculating thermodynamic and trans-
port properties of these liquids, as well as the behavior of simple liquid mixtures. (Unfor-
tunately, the accurate intermolecular potentials are not known for most liquids of interest.)
There have been several attempts to calculate the surface tension of fluids by using the
radial distribution function and also a potential function such as that of Lennard–Jones,
these have not been very successful at present. However, with the development of com-
puters and new numerical calculation methods, such attempts may be successful in the
future.
There are two computer methods for estimating g(r): computer simulation approaches
for liquids using molecular dynamics (MD) and Monte Carlo (MC) methods provide valu-
able insights into structure of liquids and allow calculation of some liquid properties. In
the MD method, the history of an initial molecular arrangement is followed by calculat-
ing the trajectories of all the molecules under the influence of pair potentials. Computa-
tions on a system of 100–10 000 molecules (well below the 1025 molecules−1 for a standard
liquid, chosen to allow for restrictions in computation capabilities) are carried out, which
are kept in a theoretical “box” whose volume corresponds to the density of the chosen
liquid. Newton mechanics are applied to predict where each molecule will be after a short
time interval, and the calculation is then repeated for millions of such steps. The molecules
are assigned initial positions, orientations and momenta; the momenta are chosen to be
consistent with some desired temperature. The net force on the molecule arising from all
the other molecules in the system is computed. An intermolecular potential energy func-
tion is used which is taken as the sum of pair-wise interactions, V(r); the computer then
solves the classical-mechanical equation of motion to find new configurations of the mol-
ecules at successive small intervals of time (about 10−15 sec, which is shorter than the average
time between collisions). The MD method provides a “movie” of molecular motions;
typically for a time interval of 10−15 sec and the system is followed for 10−11 sec. Molecular
dynamics calculations allow g(r) to be determined by averaging over successive configura-
tions and they give information on structural details not accessible by experimentation. It
is also possible to calculate the internal energy, U, of the liquid under examination, rela-
tive to that of a corresponding ideal gas having molecules without any intermolecular inter-
actions, by taking the time average over the MD-calculated motions. Molecular dynamics
methods are not restricted to equilibrium conditions and can be used to calculate some
transport properties such as the viscosity of a liquid, or melting or evaporation phase tran-
sitions, and also the solution properties of polymers and proteins.
In the MC method, successive configurations of the system are not found by solving
equations of motion. Instead, one molecule is picked at random and the computer gives
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 121

small random changes in its position and orientation. If the potential energy of the new
configuration is less than that of the original configuration, the new configuration is
accepted. This recipe produces a sequence of configurations such that the probability of a
configuration with potential energy V(r) appearing in the sequence is proportional to the
Boltzmann factor e−V/kT. It is then possible to average over a sequence of typically 105–106
configurations to find g(r) and the thermodynamic properties of the liquid. The MC
method is restricted to equilibrium properties unlike the MD method. The MC method
uses ensemble averages over classical-mechanical microstates to determine thermodynam-
ical properties, unlike the time-averaging MD method.

4.2 Phase Transition of Pure Liquids

We can represent the regions of stability of gases, liquids and solids under various tem-
perature and pressure conditions using a phase diagram showing at which phase each sub-
stance is the most stable. As we know from thermodynamics, the most stable phase of a
pure substance at a particular temperature and pressure is the one with the lowest chem-
ical potential. A phase transition is the spontaneous conversion of one phase into another
phase, which occurs at a characteristic temperature at a given pressure. For example, as
seen in Figure 4.1, under 1 atm external pressure, above 0°C, the chemical potential of

m Vapor

Liquid

Solid

Solid

Liquid

Vapor
SOLID LIQUID VAPOR

Tm Tb T

Figure 4.1 Variation of the chemical potential, m, of a material such as water with the temperature, T,
showing the phase transition between solid, liquid and vapor phases. A phase transition temperature,
such as melting point, Tm and boiling point Tb is a temperature at which the two phases are in equilib-
rium and the two chemical potentials are equal.
122 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

liquid water is lower than that of ice, and thus the stable phase at these conditions is the
liquid water; but below 0°C ice is more stable because its chemical potential is lower than
the liquid water. The phase transition temperature is the temperature at which the two
phases are in equilibrium and the two chemical potentials are equal. Two phases can coexist
in equilibrium only at pressures and temperatures defined by the lines in the phase
diagram, such as the liquid–vapor, solid–liquid and the solid–vapor lines. These lines are
called phase boundaries, as shown in Figure 4.2. The pressure is a function of temperature
along a phase boundary in the phase diagram (or vice versa). The high-temperature end
of the liquid–vapor phase boundary in a phase diagram terminates at the critical point, Tc.
All three phases can coexist in equilibrium only at the triple point, which is the intersec-
tion of the three two-phase boundaries. This is an invariant point, which can be deter-
mined experimentally for most materials with great accuracy.
If a liquid is sealed in an evacuated glass tube, a certain amount will evaporate to form
vapor. This vapor will exert a pressure on the walls of the tube and also on the liquid surface
as any gas does, and provided constant temperature is maintained, an equilibrium will be
established between the liquid and vapor phases. The vapor pressure, which is a charac-
teristic constant at a given temperature for each liquid, is known as the saturated vapor
pressure, Pvap, of the liquid. In this sealed glass tube containing a liquid in equilibrium with
its vapor, a meniscus is present showing the interface between the phases. If the tempera-

Pv
Solid–Liquid

LIQUID

SOLID Liquid–Vapor

VAPOR

Solid–Vapor

T3 Tc T

Figure 4.2 Variation of the vapor pressure, Pv, of a substance with the temperature, T, showing the phase
transition between solid, liquid and vapor phases. Two phases can coexist in equilibrium only at pres-
sures and temperatures defined by the phase boundary lines in the phase diagram, such as liquid–vapor,
solid–liquid and solid–vapor lines. The liquid–vapor phase boundary terminates at the critical point, Tc.
All three phases can coexist in equilibrium only at the triple point, T3, which is the intersection of the
three two-phase boundaries.
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 123

ture is raised, the density of the liquid will decrease and that of the gas increase, due to
evaporation of the liquid molecules, and the saturated vapor pressure increases continu-
ously with temperature until eventually a temperature and pressure is reached at which the
densities of both liquid and vapor phases will be equal. At this point, the meniscus disap-
pears and there is no distinction between the liquid and its vapor; the temperature and
pressure at which this occurs are the critical temperature, Tc, and critical pressure, Pc. No
liquid phase exists above the Tc and the application of pressures higher than the Pc only
makes the vapor much denser than would normally be considered typical for gases, but no
liquid condensation takes place, in contrast to compression below Tc. The term supercrit-
ical fluid is used for this homogeneous, dense phase of materials above their Tc. Supercrit-
ical fluids such as CO2 and Xe are increasingly used in industry such as for the extraction
of coffee caffeine and other materials, and also as a solvent. The critical phenomena are
reversible and when the gas in the sealed tube is cooled below Tc, and if the pressure is suf-
ficiently high, the meniscus reappears.

4.2.1 Liquid–vapor boundary: vapor pressure change by temperature:

Clausius–Clapeyron equation

As stated above, the saturated vapor pressure, Pvap, of a liquid is the pressure at which that
liquid is in equilibrium with its vapor at a given temperature. In a P–T phase diagram, the
liquid–vapor phase boundary gives the vapor pressure change of the liquid as a function
of temperature, as seen in Figures 4.2 and 4.3 a. In thermodynamics, the temperature
dependence of the Gibbs energy in a closed system is expressed in terms of the entropy of
this system by Equation (134). It follows that, by using chemical potential notation

P Ln P

T 1
T
a b

Figure 4.3 a. Experimental vapor pressure, Pv versus temperature T plot for a liquid–vapor interface. b.
plot of ln Pv versus (1/T) to calculate ∆Hvm from the slope of the straight line, as given in Equation (284).
124 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 ∂m 
  = −Sm (276)
 ∂T  P
where Sm is the molar entropy. Since Sm is positive, Equation (276) indicates that the chemi-
cal potential, m, decreases with the increase in temperature. The molar entropy of a vapor
is much larger than its liquid state, [Sm(vap) >> Sm(liq)] because of the larger disorder in
the vapor phase; as a result Equation (276) implies that the slope of m against T is steeper
for vapors (gases) than liquids; consequently the liquids are more stable at temperatures
below their normal boiling points (under 1 atm pressure).
The variation of Gibbs free energy with temperature and pressure in a closed system was
given in Equation (126), and similarly, we can write [dm = −SmdT + VmdP] for each phase.
Since the chemical potentials are equal for two phases at equilibrium, it follows that
−S1mdT + V1mdP = −Sm2 dT + V 2mdP (277)

where the Vm s are the molar volumes. Equation (277) may be rearranged as
 dP  ∆Sm
  = (278)
 dT  m ∆Vm

where ∆Sm = Sm2 − S1m and ∆Vm = V m2 − V 1m. This is the Clapeyron equation, which is appli-
cable to any phase transformation of a pure substance. Since its derivation contains no
assumptions or approximations, it is an exact result for a one-component system. For
the liquid–vapor boundary, the entropy of vaporization at a constant temperature is given
as ∆SVm = ∆HVm/T, by the definition of entropy (Equation (111)). Then Equation (278)
becomes
dP ∆H mV
= (279)
dT T∆V mV
for vaporization of a liquid, where ∆HVm is the molar enthalpy of vaporization, the amount
of heat required to evaporate a mole of liquid at a constant temperature. The term ∆H Vm is
often called the latent heat of vaporization. (This form of the Clapeyron equation can also
be derived from the Carnot cycle.) The term ∆HVm is the difference in the enthalpies of
vapor and liquid respectively; for one mole of a material, ∆H Vm = H vap
m − H m . For an evap-
liq

oration process, ∆H m is always positive, i.e. heat is always taken from the surroundings,
V

while for a condensation process ∆HVm is always negative and equal numerically to the heat
taken in the vaporization. From the relation between the internal energy and the enthalpy
(Equation (104)) we may also write
∆H Vm = ∆U Vm + P(V vap
m − Vm)
liq
(280)

The ∆UVm term is the difference between the internal (intermolecular interaction) energies
of the vapor and the liquid, ∆UVm = U vapintermol − U intermol. The value of P∆Vm is generally sub-
liq

stantially smaller than that of ∆Um. If the vapor pressure is low (well below its critical-
V

intermol ≈ 0 can be assumed, and Equation (280) becomes

point pressure), then Uvap
∆H Vm ≅ ∆U Vm ≅ −U liq
intermol (281)

Therefore ∆HVm is a measure of the strength of intermolecular cohesive attractions in the

liquid. Equation (281) is the basis of the experimental determination of cohesive energies
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 125

of liquids (see Section 3.5.3) and also solubility parameters (see Section 5.2). Values of
∆HVm vary between 20 and 50 kJ mol−1 for materials that are liquids at room temperature.
(Values of ∆HVm are substantially lower than chemical bond formation energies, which are
150–800 kJ mol−1)
The vapor pressure of a liquid, though constant at a given temperature, increases con-
tinuously with increase in temperature, up to the critical temperature, Tc, of the liquid,
because as the temperature increases, a greater proportion of the molecules acquire suffi-
cient energy to escape from the liquid, and consequently a higher pressure is necessary
to establish equilibrium between vapor and liquid. The value of Pvap increases slowly at
the lower temperatures, and then quite rapidly with a steep rise in the P–T curve. Above
Tc, the concept of a saturated vapor pressure, Pvap, is no longer valid. If we rewrite the
Clapeyron equation for vaporizing liquids, from Equation (279), we have
dPvap ∆H mV
= (282)
dT T (V vap
m −Vm )
liq

m >> V m ], so that V m can be neglected. If we assume

Now, at temperatures far from Tc, [V vap liq liq

that the vapor behaves essentially as an ideal gas, V m = RT/Pvap and Equation (282)
vap

becomes
dPvap ∆H mV Pvap
≅ (283)
dT RT 2
This is the Clausius–Clapeyron equation. Actually, ∆HVm is reasonably constant over a short
temperature range only, and if we assume that ∆HVm remains constant over the tempera-
ture range in question, we can integrate Equation (283) so that
∆H Vm  1 
ln Pvap = − + integration constant (284)
R T
When ln Pvap is plotted versus (1/T), we may calculate ∆H Vm from the slope of the straight line
which we can derive from Equation (284), as shown in Figure 4.3 b. In practice, ∆HVm may also
be measured directly using a calorimeter, by condensing a definite weight of vapor and
observing the temperature rise of the calorimeter, or by supplying the liquid with a definite
amount of electrical energy and measuring the weight of liquid vaporized thereby. In general,
∆HV decreases with increasing temperature and becomes zero at the critical temperature.

4.2.2 Liquid–solid boundary

A liquid freezes to give a solid at the freezing phase transition temperature under a speci-
fied pressure, which is usually taken as 1 atm (or conversely a solid melts at the melting
temperature which is equal to the freezing temperature). For this phase transition, the
Clapeyron equation (Equation (279)) becomes
dP ∆H M
= m
(285)
dT T∆V mM
where ∆HMm is the molar heat of melting [∆H m = Hm − Hm ] and ∆V m = V m − V m
M liq solid M liq solid
is the
change in molar volume that occurs on melting. The term ∆Hm is nearly always positive;
M
126 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

∆V Mm is usually positive (but negative for a few cases such as water, Ga, Bi) and always small
so that we cannot neglect V msolid when compared with V mliq. Thus, we can integrate Equation
(285) by just assuming that (∆H M m/∆V m) is a constant. Since ∆H m can be approximated as
M M

being constant experimentally, unless (P–PM) is huge, and ∆V m is also essentially constant,
M

due to the incompressibility of solids and liquids, their ratio also changes little with the
change of pressure and temperature, then we may write
P T
 ∆H M
m dT
∫ dP =  ∆VM
m 
∫ T (286)
PM TM

The integration gives

 ∆H Mm  T 
P − PM =   ln (287)
 ∆V mM   T M 
When T is close to T M, we can approximate the logarithmic term in Equation (287) by
using the approximation in the mathematical series expansion, so that [ln(1 + x) ≅ x] and
thus, ln(T/T M) = ln[1 + (T/T M) − 1] ≅ [(T/T M) − 1] giving
∆H Mm (T − T M )
P ≈ PM + (288)
∆V MmT M
Equation (288) results in a straight line when P is plotted against T, which fits the exper-
imental pressure–temperature data usually obtained during melting of solids or freezing
of liquids.

4.3 Curved Liquid Surfaces: Young–Laplace Equation

Liquid surfaces and interfaces are usually well defined and easier to treat than solid sur-
faces. The determination of the surface and the interfacial tension of pure liquids and solu-
tions is one of the most important aspect of surface science, and this is closely interrelated
with the properties of curved liquid surfaces (see also Chapter 6). The formation of curved
liquid surfaces such as spherical liquid drops in air, or curved liquid meniscuses in thin
capillary glass tubes, is the consequence of the surface area minimization process due to
the existence of liquid surface free energy. There are exceptions: if two phases are in hydro-
static equilibrium, they can be separated by a flat curvature-free interface. However, this
exceptional case is rarely encountered and if a liquid interface is curved, this means that
the pressure is greater on the concave side (the inside of a bubble, for example) than on
the convex, by an amount, ∆P, which depends on the liquid surface tension and on the
magnitude of the curvature (see Figure 4.4a for the formal description of concave and
convex surfaces). Curvature is defined as the amount by which a geometric object deviates
from being flat. The word flat might have different meanings depending on the object
under consideration (for two-dimensional curves it is a straight line, and for three-
dimensional surfaces it is a Euclidean plane). The pressure inside is larger than that outside
for a spherical drop of liquid (or a soap bubble) in air, because an area increase is needed
to displace the three-dimensional curved surface, parallel to itself, as the surface moves
towards the convex side. The pressure difference, ∆P, does the work to increase this area.
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 127

Convex Function

Concave
Side

Convex Side A Ra

Concave Function

Convex
Side
Rb

Concave B
Side Inflection
Point

a b
Curvature in two dimensions

Figure 4.4 a. Formal definition of curvature in two dimensions, for concave and convex curves. b. Def-
inition of curvature in two dimensions, depending on the curve’s osculating circle which is drawn at point
B on the curve, merging as much as possible with the section of the curve around B. The value of radius
of curvature, Rb is sufficient to characterize the shape of the curve around B. The same procedure leads
to Ra at point A. The curvature at A is larger than the curvature at B.

(It should be noted that the pressure is always greater on the concave side of the interface
irrespective of whether or not this is a condensed phase.) The phenomena due to the pres-
ence of curved liquid surfaces are called capillary phenomena, even if no capillaries (tiny
cylindrical tubes) are involved. The Young–Laplace equation is the expression that relates
the pressure difference, ∆P, to the curvature of the surface and the surface tension of the
liquid. It was derived independently by T. Young and P. S. Laplace around 1805 and
relates the surface tension to the curvature of any shape in capillary phenomena. In prac-
tice, the pressure drop across curved liquid surfaces should be known from the experi-
mental determination of the surface tension of liquids by the capillary rise method, detailed
in Section 6.1.

4.3.1 Young–Laplace equation from Newton mechanics

We can derive the simplest form of the Young–Laplace equation for a spherical vapor
bubble in equilibrium with liquid in a one-component system (or a liquid drop in air)
from Newton mechanics. In the absence of any external field such as gravitational, mag-
netic or electrical fields, the bubble will assume a spherical shape, and the force acting
towards the boundary of the bubble (or liquid drop) from the interior of the bubble is
given as
128 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Finterior = AbubblePinterior = 4pR2sphPinterior (289)

where Rsph is the radius of the spherical bubble. The force acting on the boundary of the
bubble from outside must contain an additional surface tension force term, Fg, which tries
to diminish the surface area
Fexterior = AbubblePexterior + Fg = 4pR2sphPexterior + Fg (290)

Since, the work to diminish the radius of the spherical bubble is, dWg = Fg dRsph from
Newton mechanics, and dWg = g dA, from Equation (189), and A = 4pRsph2
, from spherical
geometry, then we have
 dA 
Fg = g   = g (8pRsph ) (291)
 dRsph 
Since, Finterior = Fexterior at equilibrium, then by combining Equations (289)–(291), we obtain,
4pR2sphPinterior = 4pR2sphPexterior + 8pgRsph (292)

By rearrangement of Equation (292), we may write for the pressure difference between the
inside and outside of the spherical bubble (or liquid drop)
 2 
∆P = Pinterior − Pexterior = g   (293)
 Rsph 
This simple form of the Young–Laplace equation shows that if the radius of the sphere
increases, ∆P decreases, and when Rsph→ ∞, ∆P → 0, so that when the curvature vanishes
and transforms into a flat Euclidean plane, there will be no pressure difference, and the
two phases will be in hydrostatic equilibrium as stated above.

4.3.2 Young–Laplace equation from curvature

It is clear that the derivation of the Young–Laplace equation for a spherical shape is just a
special case of a more general pressure difference–shape relationship, and we need to derive
this equation for any shape having a different type of curvature. This is not a simple task
and first of all we should define what is curvature mathematically. In two-dimensional
terms, curvature is the rate of change of the slope of a curve with arc length. We see curves
in plane graphs some of them are concave and some of them are convex. It is usual to define
these concepts by analogy with a circle, so that concave curves are described as “similar to
the curve seen from the interior of a circle”, and convex curves as “similar to the curve seen
from the exterior of a circle”, but these descriptions are only schematic and can be applied
to any curve. In mathematical terms, if the curve lies below each of its tangents, it has a
concave function; and if the curve lies above each of its tangents, it has a convex function,
these definitions also fit the schematic description (see Figure 4.4 a). It often happens that
a graph is concave at certain intervals and convex downwards in others; the transition
points are called inflection points. On the other hand, curvature may also be described by
analogy with a moving car: if we imagine a car moving on a curved path at a specific rate,
we need a parameter to give the rate of change of direction along the path. This may be
given by an inclination angle, ϕ, which will vary by time or path length. Then we may define
the absolute value of the curvature, k, as
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 129

dj
k= (294)
ds

where, s is the arc length. The reciprocal of the curvature is the radius of curvature Ri

1 ds
Ri = = (295)
k dj

Curvature therefore has units of inverse distance (m−1) and is sometimes reported in
diopter units. As the car moves along the path, j varies with the path length, and the more
slowly we are changing direction, the smaller the value of k ; the less curved the path. In
the extreme case, where k = 0, the car travels along a straight line, and Ri = ∞. (This special
case is applicable also to any inflection point in the graph.) The tangent of the inclination
angle, j, is the slope of the change in y due to the change in x, and for any coordinate
point, we may write, tan j = dy/dx, and for the arc length, s, between two points, A and B,
x=A 2

1 +   dx , from analytical geometry. It has been proved that the curvature in

dy
s AB = ∫  dx 
x=B

two-dimensions can be calculated from Equation (294) for any curve written in the form
of a y = f (x) function, where f has continuous first and second derivatives in rectangular
Cartesian coordinates so that

d2 y
dx 2
k= 32 (296)
  dy  2 
1 +  dx  
 

For example, for a circle having its center at the origin, the equation is x2 + y2 = R2. By
applying this circle equation to Equation (296) we can easily calculate the curvature of a
circle, as k = 1/R and thus Ri = R for a circle.
There is another method to quantify the curvature of a two-dimensional curve: it is
dependent on the radius of the curve’s osculating circle (a circle that kisses or closely touches
the curve at a given point), a vector pointing in the direction of the center of the circle. In
Figure 4.4 b, a circle is drawn at point B on the curve, merging as much as possible with
the section of the curve around B by applying the best circular approximation to the curve
path having a radius of Rb. Here Rb is called the radius of curvature and kb = 1/Rb is the cur-
vature of this portion of the curve. The value of Rb is sufficient to characterize the shape
of the curve around B. The same procedure leads to Ra and ka at point A on the same curve.
Since Rb > Ra, then the curvature at A is stronger (ka > kb) than at B. If the mathematical
functions of the curves are known, the coordinates of the centers (of curvature) can be cal-
culated for any curve which is written in the form y = f(x), where f has continuous first
and second derivatives

  dy  2 
1+
dy   dx  
x center = x −     (297)
 dx    d 2 y  
  dx 2  
 
130 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

  dy  2 
 1 +  dx  
y center = y +   (298)
  d y 
2
 
  dx 2  

Then, the radius of curvature, Ri, between the center of curvature and the tangent points
(for example Ra in Figure 4.4 b) can be found from the simple distance formula of analyt-
ical geometry:
Ra = ( xa − xcenter )2 + ( ya − ycenter )2 (299)

However, we are mostly dealing with three-dimensional objects such as bubbles, drops etc.
in the real world. In order to describe the curvature of three-dimensional objects, two radii
of curvature are needed, and things get a bit more complicated. This is because the cur-
vature can appear different when in different directions. Curvatures may be positive or
negative, and here we adopt the convention that a curvature is taken to be positive if the
curve turns in the same direction as the surface’s chosen normal; otherwise it is negative.
In Figure 4.5 we see how to obtain these curvatures on a surface shown by the mnpr layer.

N
A B
Z

B
E
N
F
R1
n
A
Z
p

D C
N¢
N
E F
Z

m
C
H

r
N¢
G R2
D

H G
N¢

Figure 4.5 Definition of curvature in three dimensions. The curvature of mnpr can be expressed by the
two two-dimensional curvatures, k1 = 1/R1 and k2 = 1/R2, where R1 and R2 are the radii of curvatures in
the ABCD and EFGH planes, which are perpendicular to each other and are shown at the right of the
figure. R1 ≠ R2, unless the material has a spherical shape.
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 131

We can define a normal, NN¢, to this surface at point Z and pass a plane ABCD through
the surface containing the normal NN¢ (shown as a gray line). The line of intersection is
curved on this plane and has a two-dimensional curvature, k1 = 1/R1, where R1 is the radius
of the osculating circle tangent to the line at point Z, as we see in the ABCD plane at the
top right of Figure 4.5. The second curvature, k2, can be obtained by passing a second EFGH
plane through the surface, also containing the normal NN¢, but perpendicular to the first
plane. This gives a second line of intersection and a second osculating circle tangent to the
line at point Z, having a radius of R2, as we see in the EFGH plane at the lower right of
Figure 4.5. k2 = 1/R2, and R1 ≠ R2, unless the figure is a sphere.
Now, if we vary the direction of the plane through the NN¢ axis, this curvature will of
course change, and as k varies, it achieves a minimum and a maximum (which are per-
pendicular to each other) known as the principal curvatures, k1 and k2, and the corre-
sponding directions are called principal directions. The principal curvatures measure the
maximum and minimum bending of a surface at each point. However, it has been shown
mathematically that the sum of the curvatures (k1 + k2 = 1/R1 + 1/R2) is independent of
how the first plane is oriented when the second plane is always at right angles to it, and
consequently the direction of the planes is a matter of choice.
In order to describe the curvature of three-dimensional objects in terms of principal
curvatures, there are two methods: mean curvature and Gaussian curvature. The mean
curvature, H, is much more used in surface science and defined as the arithmetic mean of
curvatures

1
H≡ (k 1 + k 2 ) (300)
2
It has the dimension of m−1. (In some surface textbooks, mean curvature is given as H ≡
(k1 + k2), which is wrong in mathematical definition terms.) Let R1 and R2 be the radii cor-
responding to the curvatures the mean curvature H is then given by the multiplicative
inverse of the harmonic mean,

1 1 1  R1 + R2
H= + = (301)
2  R1 R2  2 R1 R2
We can also calculate the mean radius of curvature from analytical geometry: since there
are x-, y- and z-axes in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, without proof,
we may write the mean radius of curvature as

  ∂z  2   ∂2 z   ∂z   ∂z   ∂2 z    ∂z  2   ∂2 z 
1 +     2  − 2      + 1 +     2 
  ∂y    ∂x   ∂x   ∂y   ∂x∂y    ∂x    ∂y 
H= 32 (302)
  ∂z  2  ∂z  2 
21 +   +   
  ∂x   ∂y  
If we apply this formula to the simplest case, for a sphere having its center at the origin
whose equation is x2 + y2 + z2 = R2, then we will find Hsph = ksph = 1/Rsph. The angle between
the normal at point (x, y) and the z-axis is q and can be calculated from
−1 2
 ∂z  2  ∂z  2 
cosq =   +    (303)
 ∂x   ∂y  
132 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

and the area of the interface can be found from

12
  ∂z  2  ∂z  2 
A = ∫ ∫ 1 +   +    dxdy (304)
x y  ∂x   ∂y  
The other curvature term, Gaussian curvature, K, determines whether a surface is locally
convex (when it is positive), or locally saddle (when it is negative), and also the intrisicity
of the curvature. It is defined as
1
K ≡ k 1k 2 = (305)
R1 R2
It has the dimension of m−2 and is positive for spheres, negative for one sheet hyperboloids
and zero for planes. The Gaussian curvature, K, and mean curvature, H, are related to each
other by a quadratic equation [k 2 − 2Hk + K = 0], which has solutions of k 1 = H − H 2 − K
and k 1 = H − H 2 − K . We may write the mean curvature in terms of the Gaussian
curvature
1
H= ( R1 + R2 )K (306)
2
In analytical geometry terms, the Gaussian curvature can be given as
2
 ∂ 2z   ∂ 2z   ∂ 2z 
 2  2 − 
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂x∂y 
K= 2 (307)
  ∂z  2  ∂z  2 
1 +   +   
  ∂x   ∂y  

Now, we can comment on the radii of curvature of some geometrically defined objects.
For a plane, kpl = 0 and Hpl = Kpl = 0. For a sphere, the two radii of curvature that are the
same (R1 = R2 = Rsph), and thus k1 = k2 = ksph = 1/Rsph, give Hsph = ksph = 1/Rsph, and Ksph =
k 2sph = 1/R2sph. However, there are two possible alternatives for a sphere surface in the real
world. For a liquid drop in a gas, the two radii of curvature are positive and so the pres-
sure difference is positive, which implies that the pressure inside the liquid is higher than
outside. The other alternative is a gas bubble in a liquid environment where the two radii
of curvature are negative so that ∆P is negative, and the pressure inside the liquid is lower
than inside the bubble. For a cylinder, there is a single radius of curvature, the curvature
of the base circle – there is no curvature in the other direction, so the other radius is infi-
nite, thus giving k1 = kcyl = 1/Rcyl, k2 = 0 so that Hcyl = (1/2)kcyl = 1/(2Rcyl), and Kcyl = 0. We
can imagine an ellipsoid with two different, finite radii of curvature at the same point
and Equations (300) and (305) apply. For a drop hanging between the ends of two cylin-
ders in a gas, one radius of curvature is negative and the other is positive. The value of ∆P
depends on the specific values of k1 and k2, so that the Gaussian curvature is negative.
Similarly a saddle actually has two radii of curvature of opposite signs – one positive, the
other negative.
From another mathematical point of view, the mean radius of curvature, H, is half of
the derivative of the curved surface area over the volume of a material. We can test it by
simple geometric shapes, such as with a sphere:
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 133

1  dA sph  1  dA sph   dRsph  1  1  1

H sph =  =     = (8pRsph )  2 
= (308)
2  dV sph  2  dRsph   dV sph  2  4pRsph  Rsph
For a cylinder, since k2 = 0, we need only consider the curved area = 2pRL in the same
calculation
1  dA cyl  1  dA cyl   dRcyl  1  1  1
H cyl =  =    = (2pL )  = (309)
2  dV cyl  2  dRcyl   dV cyl  2  2pRcyl L  2 Rcyl
In general, numerical methods are applied to solve the curvatures of complex figures using
computers. However, when the interfaces of objects of revolution are considered, the
three-dimensional curvature equations are then simplified and standard calculus methods
are applied for surface area calculations from the revolution of a two-dimensional half
profile. Examples are the formation of a sessile liquid drop on a substrate and the forma-
tion of a meniscus in a wide capillary tube. We will see the application of such methods in
Chapter 6.
Now we can derive the general version of a Young–Laplace equation which can be
applied to any shape having different types of curvature. For flat interfaces, the surface
excess functions were derived in Section 3.2.5 by applying the Gibbs dividing interface
approach. Thus, we can write the following expression for the total internal energy of
two phases, a and b, separated by a flat interface, through combining Equations (196) and
(201)
dU = T a dS a − P a dV a + ∑ mia dnia + T b dS b − P b dV b + ∑ mib dnib
i i

+ T SdS S − P SdV S + gdA S + ∑ miSdniS (310)

i

In the Gibbs treatment of the dividing interface, we assume that there is no volume for the
interphase, (V S = 0) and the two phases are enclosed in a fixed volume, V = Va + Vb con-
taining a fixed amount of substance (Σni = constant), and the system is in thermal equilib-
rium with its surroundings, Ta = Tb = T S. At equilibrium, the difference in internal energy,
dU = 0, and for a given constant set of values of S and of ni, Equation (310) reduces to,
0 = −PadVa − PbdVb + g dAS (311)

(the rigorous thermodynamic derivation of Equation (311) has been performed elsewhere
but it is outside the scope of this book). Now, if we consider curved instead of flat inter-
faces, then the two curvatures k1 and k2 must also be taken into account for the equilib-
rium condition, so that Equation (311) becomes
0 = −PadVa − PbdVb + g dAS + C1dk1 + C2dk2 (312)

where C1 and C2 are two constants having their units of force multiplied by area to main-
tain the dimensional balance in Equation (312). Mathematically, Equation (312) may also
be written as
0 = −PadVa − PbdVb + gdAS + 1/2(C1 + C2) d(k1 + k2) + 1/2(C1 − C2) d(k1 − k2) (313)

Since the actual effect on Pa and Pb must be independent of the location chosen for
the Gibbs dividing surface, a condition may be predetermined for C1 and C2 and this
may arbitrarily be taken as C1 + C2 = 0. The application of this condition gives a particu-
134 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

lar location of the Gibbs dividing surface and we may then define the interfacial
tension between phases a and b as a result of this location. For the C1 + C2 = 0 condition,
Equation (313) becomes
0 = −PadVa − PbdVb + gdAS + 1/2(C1 − C2)d(k1 − k2) (314)

Now, we may check the results of this approach on some interfaces with defined geomet-
ric shapes. For flat interfaces, k1 = k2 = 0 and only Equation (311) applies so that dVa =
−dVb, dAS = 0 and thus, Pa = Pb, as expected. For a spherical interface such as a liquid drop
in air, since k1 = k2, d(k1 − k2) = 0 and again Equation (311) applies, but dAS ≠ 0 due to
the formation of the curvature. For this case we may rearrange Equation (311) so that,
(Pa − Pb)dV a = g dAS (315)

We cannot apply Euler’s reciprocity rule to Equations (313) and (315) because they are not
homogeneous first-order differential equations. So we need to analyze the curvature
dependence of the pressure in Equation (315): if the interface moves outwards by a dis-
tance dl and phase a is considered to be at the concave side, then dVa = −dVb = ASdl
applies. Geometrically, it has been proved that the increase in the interfacial area can be
given as
dAS = (k1 + k2)ASdl (316)
By combining Equations (315) and (316) one obtains
(Pa − Pb)ASdl = g (k1 + k2)ASdl (317)

By simplifying Equation (317) and combining with Equations (300) and (308), for a
spherical interface we have
 2 
∆Psph = ( P a − P b ) = g (k 1 + k 2 )sph = 2gH = g   (318)
 Rsph 
This is the derivation of the Young–Laplace equation for a spherical interface from
surface thermodynamics. Now, if we consider the general case, where k1 ≠ k2 and d(k1 − k2) ≠
0, for any curved figure, Equation (314) applies for this condition and it has been proved that

∆P = ( P a − P b ) = g (k 1 + k 2 ) −
(C1k 12 + C2k 22 ) (319)
AS
This is the derivation of the general form of the Young–Laplace equation for any curved
interphase, and the pressure difference can be calculated upon measurement of the curva-
tures and predetermination of the C constants. As noted in the thermodynamics of adsorp-
tion in Section 3.3, the Γ1 and Γ2 parameters are the excess moles of the components 1 and
2 adsorbed at the interface per unit area of an interphase, and are defined relative to an
arbitrarily chosen Gibbs dividing surface as a plane of infinitesimal thickness. In order to
obtain physically meaningful quantities for flat interfaces, the most widely used conven-
tion in dealing with binary solutions is to locate the Gibbs dividing plane so that the surface
excess of the solvent is zero, Γ1 = 0, and the Γ2 quantity of the solute in the interface can
be calculated by Equation (226). In analogy, the location of the dividing surface by assum-
ing C1 + C2 = 0 corresponds to similar conditions for curved interphases where the prop-
erties of the bulk phase continue up to the Gibbs dividing surface, and even for a single
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 135

pure substance, there will be a nonzero Γ that can be positive or negative. Nevertheless,
this convention, while mathematically convenient, is not pleasing intuitively, and other
conventions have been offered to locate the dividing surface for curved interphases by
several scientists. There is not however a consensus on this complex matter in surface
science to this today, and the debate continues.

4.3.3 Young–Laplace equation from plane geometry

The radii of curvature of the surface (mnpr) are determined by cutting it with two per-
pendicular planes (see Figure 4.6). Each of the planes contains a portion of the arc, where
it intersects the curved surface; the radii of curvature (the radii of the osculating circles)
are designated R1 and R2 and the arc lengths are designated as x and y, respectively. If
we assume that the curved surface is moved outward by a small amount, dz, to a new
position (m′n′p′r′) with a larger surface area than (mnpr). This moves increases the arc
lengths to (x + dx) and (y + dy) since the corners of the surface continue to lie along the
extension of the new diverging radial lines, as shown in Figure 4.6. This increase in area is
given by
dA = (x + dx)(y + dy) − xy = xdy + ydx + dxdy ≈ xdy + ydx (320)

since it is convenient to neglect second-order differential quantities. The increase in Gibbs

free energy associated with this increase in area at constant pressure and temperature is
given (from Equation (205)) by
dG = g (xdy + ydx) (321)

The work required to increase the surface area must be supplied by a pressure difference,
∆P across the element of surface area. If the ordinary PV work is responsible for this, (dG
= ∆PdV), then we may write
∆PdV = ∆Pxydz = g (xdy + ydx) (322)

From plane geometry, the arc lengths are related to radian angles a1 and a2 so that, x =
R1a1 and (x + dx) = (R1 + dz)a1, and also y = R2a2 and (y + dy) = (R2 + dz)a2, giving
x + dx x dx 1
= simplifying into = (323)
R1 + dz R1 xdz R1
y + dy y dy 1
= simplifying into = (324)
R2 + dz R2 ydz R2
By substituting Equations (323) and (324) into Equation (322) we may write

 1 1 
∆P = g + (325)
 R1 R2 

which is the same as the Young–Laplace equation (Equation (319)) where the C1 and C2
terms are neglected. When equilibrium is reached, ∆P is constant in the liquid, and the
surface of the liquid has the same curvature everywhere, otherwise there would be a flow
of liquid to regions of low pressure.
136 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

n¢
p¢
m¢ (x+
dx) )
dy
(y+
r¢ p
dz
m x
r y

R1

R2

a1

a2

Figure 4.6 Description of three-dimensional curvature using plane geometry concepts. Each of the per-
pendicular planes contains a portion of the arc that intersects the curved surface. The radii of curvature
(the radii of the osculating circles) are designated R1 and R2 and the arc lengths are designated as x and
y, respectively. The radian angles are a1 and a2. If the curved surface is moved outwards by a small
amount dz, the surface area increases by increasing the arc lengths to (x + dx) and (y + dy).

As a general rule, if we want to consider the placement of the Gibbs dividing plane in
the interfacial region, then we should use C1 and C2 constants and apply Equation (319)
instead of Equation (325).

4.4 Capillarity
When a solid capillary tube is inserted into a liquid, the liquid is raised or depressed in the
tube, and the height of the liquid can be determined. A glass capillary is most commonly
used for this purpose because it is transparent and is completely wettable by most liquids.
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 137

(However, other solid materials can also be used as capillary tubes when required.) It has
been observed experimentally that there is an inverse proportionality between the height
of the liquid present in the capillary tube and the radius of the tube (see also Section 6.1).
Capillary rise was found to result from the adhesion interactions between the liquid and
the capillary wall, which are stronger than the cohesion interactions within the liquid. This
is a method used to measure the surface tension of pure liquids. During the measurement,
the capillary tube must be very clean, placed completely vertical and be circular in cross
section with accurately known and uniform radius.
A mechanism of capillary rise has been suggested (but not yet proved experimentally)
for liquids such that a thin film of liquid forms inside the capillary wall during the
first contact of the capillary tube with the liquid, due to the attraction force between
the liquid and solid, giving a new large interfacial area. Then, very quickly, the liquid
rises in the capillary column, because the surface free energy of the liquid must
decrease the total interfacial contact area, but this rise in liquid is restricted by the
opposing hydrostatic (gravity) forces, thus approaching an equilibrium between the
capillary and hydrostatic pressures within the column at a definite height of the liquid.
The attractive forces that raise the liquid in the capillary tube are exerted only along
the edge at which the upper surface of the liquid meets the tube, where the capillary
wall exercises an attraction. This leads to Jurin proportionality where a constant force,
g (surface tension), acting through the capillary perimeter determines the mass of the
liquid to rise,
2prg ∝ (m = pr2hr) (326)

where r is the inner radius of the capillary tube, h is the height of the cylindrical liquid
column, and r is the density of the liquid, so that h ∝ 2g/rr can be experimentally observed
for every liquid. It is not necessary for the tube to be of the same radius throughout. Only
the radius at the upper surface is important and the capillary radius can be wider lower
down. The capillary rise explains the transport of water to the tops of very tall trees, and
many other processes in the nature.
On the other hand, the liquid surface in the capillary tube mostly takes the form of a
concave spherical cap, as seen in Figure 4.7. In other terms, we can attribute the rise of a
liquid in a capillary tube as simply the automatic recording of the pressure difference, ∆P,
across the meniscus of the liquid in the tube, the curvature of the meniscus being deter-
mined by the radius of the tube and the angle of contact, q, between the liquid and the
capillary wall. If the capillary tube is circular in cross section and not too large in radius,
then the meniscus will be completely hemispherical, that is q = 0° and r = R1 = R2 in the
Young–Laplace equation (Equation (325)) giving
2g
∆P = (327)
r
In Figure 4.7, the pressure at the liquid level and at point a just above the meniscus is
atmospheric. The height of the column of liquid, h, will be such that the pressure at point
c in the column is also atmospheric, due to the balanced effects of hydrostatic and capil-
lary pressures in the liquid column. The pressure at point b, just below the meniscus, will
be less than atmospheric by an amount (2g/r). At equilibrium, ∆P is also equal to the hydro-
static pressure drop in the liquid column in the capillary. Thus,
138 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

p
R
j
q q
r
x q q j
r
P
R

y r
a
O
x b q

‘Crown’
h

Figure 4.7 Concave liquid meniscus in a capillary tube during a liquid surface tension measurement:
q is the angle of contact between the liquid and the capillary wall; c is the point at the liquid level, a is
the point just above, and b is just below, the meniscus level and h shows the height of the liquid column.
The crown of the concave meniscus is the liquid between the top and the lower end of the meniscus.
The term ϕ is the inclination angle, where (ϕ = 90° − q) from plane geometry.

2g
∆P = ∆rgh = (328)
r
where ∆r denotes the difference in density between the liquid and gas phase and g is the
acceleration of gravity. By rearrangement, for completely hemispherical menisci we may
write
2g
rh = = a o2 (329)
∆rg
where a2o is defined as the capillary constant for q = 0°. The square root of the capillary con-
stant, ao, has units of length.
The above treatment can be applied to the simplest ideal case, where q = 0° and the liquid
completely wets the capillary wall. However, occasionally a liquid meets the circularly
cylindrical capillary wall at some contact angle, q, between the liquid and the wall, as shown
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 139

in Figure 4.7. The fluidity of the liquid permits the molecules to move about until they rest
at this stable contact angle. Thus, the height to which the liquid will rise in the capillary
tube is determined by the curvature of the meniscus. When q ≠ 0° and if the radius of the
tube is sufficiently small, gravitational distortion of the curvature may be neglected, and
since cos q = r/R in Figure 4.7, the radius of curvature of the meniscus can be given as
R1 = R2 = r/cos q and we can write
2g cos q
rh = = aq2 (330)
∆rg
The curvature of the interface depends on the relative magnitudes of the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the capillary wall and the internal cohesive forces in the liquid.
When the adhesive forces exceed the cohesive forces, q lies in the range 0° ≤ q ≤ 90°; when
the cohesive forces exceed the adhesive forces, 90° ≤ q ≤ 180°. When q > 90°, the cos q term
is negative, resulting in a convex meniscus towards the vapor phase and the liquid level in
the capillary falling below the liquid level in the container (capillary depression). This
occurs with liquid mercury in glass where q ≅ 140° and also with water in capillary tubes
coated internally with paraffin wax. Thus, liquid mercury is used in the evaluation of
the porosity of solid adsorbents in the mercury injection porosimetry technique (see
Section 8.5).
When deriving Equations (329) and (330), we neglected the weight of the liquid in
the crown of the concave meniscus (the liquid between the top and the lower end of the
meniscus), as shown in Figure 4.7. Consequently, surface tensions calculated by these
equations are only approximate. More commonly, one measures the height, h, to the
bottom of the meniscus and adds some correction factors. Jurin added a rough correction
factor of (r/3), to Equation (329) to account for the weight of the meniscus, assuming it
to be spherical:

a 2 = r h + 
r
(331)
 3
and in a more refined approach, Rayleigh treated the above equation in a series extension
for h >> r,
 r r2 r3 
a2 = r  h + − 0.1288 + 0.1312 2 + . . . (332)
 3 h h 

the last two terms provide some rough corrections for deviation of the liquid surface from
sphericity.
When the radius of the capillary tube is appreciable, the meniscus is no longer
spherical and also q > 0°. Then, Equation (329) requires correction in terms of curvatures
and it should give better results than those from the rough corrections given in Equations
(330)–(332) for almost spherical menisci. Exact treatment of the capillary rise due to
the curved meniscus is possible if we can formulate the deviation of the meniscus
from the spherical cap. For this purpose, the hydrostatic pressure equation, ∆P =
∆rgz (Equation (328)), must be valid at each point on the meniscus, where z is the
elevation of that point above the flat liquid surface (see Figure 6.1 in Chapter 6).
Now, if we combine the Young–Laplace equation (Equation (325)) with Equation (328),
we have
140 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 1 1 
∆rgh = g + (333)
 R1 R2 

which is applicable to any capillary rise situation. In Figure 4.7, if we define the radius of
curvature as d at the apex (the lowest point O of the meniscus), then R1 = R2 = d, since the
capillary tube is cylindrical, and point O is on the axis of revolution. For menisci of the
axes of revolution of half profiles, the modification of Equation (329) is simple: in these
conditions, q ≠ 0°, r ≠ d and we must consider the gravitational distortion on the curva-
ture. Then the capillary constant can be written as
2g
dh = = ad2 (334)
∆rg
Since it is a very difficult task to measure d experimentally in a capillary tube, we need a
relation between d and the experimentally accessible radius of the capillary tube, r. This
relation can be derived by considering gravity and surface tension effects by applying
fundamental Newton mechanics; the complete proof is given in Section 6.1. In the case of
a figure of revolution, where R1 = R2 = d, when the elevation of a general point on the
surface is denoted by z, the fundamental equation is given as
2g  1 1 
∆rgz + =g + (335)
d  R1 R2 

Equation (335) is the basis for calculating interfacial and surface tension of pure liquids
from capillary rise, from drop profiles, and the height of a meniscus at a solid wall (see
Sections 6.1–6.4). Unfortunately, this equation cannot be solved analytically and the appli-
cation of numerical methods using computers is required. The inclusion of gravity cor-
rection into the Young–Laplace equation is feasible only for capillary tubes having
appreciable diameters, and for large pendant or hanging liquid drops formed on solids.
The determination of what is large and what is small can be done by simply comparing the
radius of curvature of the meniscus (or the radius of the pendant or hanging drop) with
the square root of the capillary constant, ao (or ad) of the liquid. If it is much smaller (say
more than 10 times) than the square root of the capillary constant, then the influence of
gravitation can be neglected.

4.5 Liquid Surface Tension Variation by Temperature

When the temperature is increased, the kinetic agitation of the molecules and the tendency
to evaporate increases. As a result, the net inward pull may be expected to become less,
thus weakening the molecular interactions, and the surface tension almost invariably
decreases (some fused metals are the exception to this). For most liquids, the decrease
in surface tension as the temperature rises is approximately linear, over long ranges.
The surface tension of liquids varies between 5 and 74 mN m−1 for the 0–100°C tempera-
ture range. Fused salts have surface tensions of about 50–500 mN m−1 and fused metals 500–
1000 mN m−1 (for much higher temperatures than 100°C). At constant pressure and surface
area, the variation of surface tension with temperature is given in Equations (213)–(215)
in Section 3.2.5. The [−T S∂g/∂T A,n
S
i
] part of Equation (216) is often called the latent heat
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 141

of the surface, and it is the amount of heat that has to be added to the surface to maintain
its temperature constant during an isothermal expansion. Since ∂g/∂T A,n S
i
is almost always
negative, the latent heat of the surface is positive, and the total surface (internal) energy,
U S, as given by Equation (216) is generally larger than g. As Kelvin showed, there is absorp-
tion of heat during the extension of most surfaces because molecules must be dragged from
the interior against an inward attractive force to form a unit area of new surface. Their
motion is retarded by this inward attraction as they leave the interior to reach the surface,
so the temperature of the surface layers is lower than that of the interior, unless heat is
supplied from outside. However, the total (internal) energy of the surface, U S is less affected
by temperature changes than is g, and U S is found to be nearly temperature-independent
for most liquids. The total energy is more easily related to molecular models describing
surface. Total energy values vary between 4 × 10−2 and 18 × 10−2 J m−2 for most organic
liquids and water, but it is possible to compare the internal energy values on a per mole
basis. Now, the volume of a single liquid molecule Vi = VM/NA, where VM is the molar
volume and NA is Avogadro’s number. For a spherical molecule, the surface area of the mol-
ecule can be found from simple geometry as, Ai = 4p(3VM/4pNA)2/3, and the total surface
area per mole can be obtained by multiplying the surface area per molecule by Avogadro’s
number as AT = 4pNA(3VM/4pNA)2/3. However, it was found that only about a quarter of
spherical surface molecules are exposed to the interface giving, AS = pNA(3VM/4pNA)2/3 so
this equation reduces to a semi-empirical expression, AS = fN1/3 2/3
A V M where f is a factor near
unity. If we multiply U by the area per mole at the surface, AS, then values of 6 × 103 to
S

12 × 103 J mol−1 are obtained for the internal surface energy, which are close to each other
for a large number of materials, showing the strong dependence of U S on the number of
molecules at the surface.
As we know (∂g/∂T)A,ni = −(∂SS/∂A)T,ni, from Equation (213), the temperature variation
of surface tension can be related to the differential surface excess entropy, and since the
left-hand side of the equation is almost always negative, there is an increase in the inter-
facial entropy with the increase in surface area. For a constant unit area of AS = 1 m2, if we
want to compare the surface excess entropy of a one-component pure liquid, with the
entropy of its bulk liquid, we have to use Equation (219), S S dT S + dg + ∑ G iS dm iS = 0
i
giving [SSspecdT S + dg = 0] when the Gibbs dividing plane is located at a place where G S1 =
0. Then we have [SSspec = −(dg/dT)] where SSspec is the specific surface excess entropy, that is
the entropy of a unit area of surface liquid less the entropy of the same amount of bulk
liquid. Since, (dg/dT) is negative, SSspec is positive, indicating that molecules in the surface
have more freedom of movement or are more disordered than in the bulk.
If we further increase the temperature towards the critical temperature, Tc, the restrain-
ing force on the surface molecules diminishes, and the vapor pressure increases, and when
Tc is reached, the surface tension vanishes altogether (g = 0). There are several empirical
approaches using critical properties and molar volume to predict the surface tension of
pure liquids. By comparing the surfaces on the basis of the number of similarly shaped and
symmetrically packed molecules per unit area, Eötvös derived an equation in 1886,
g (VM)2/3 = k(Tc − T) (336)

where VM is the molar volume of the liquid and k is a constant (VM = MW/rL where MW is
the molecular mass of the compound and rL is the liquid density). The term (VM)2/3 is
142 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

called the molar surface area of the liquid and is a proportionality constant for the number
of similarly shaped and symmetrically packed molecules per unit area. The left side of
Equation (336) is also called the molar surface free energy. By applying simple graphical
procedures to the data obtained by measuring surface tensions at different temperatures,
the constant k has been found for a great number of non-polar and non-hydrogen bonding
liquids, all close to an average value of 2.12. H-bonding liquids in which the molecules are
associated give a lower value for k; 0.7–1.5 for alcohols; 0.9–1.7 for organic acids; and for
water, k is not a constant but varies between 0.9 and 1.2, according to the measurement
temperature range. It has been shown that molar volumes, VM are higher than the calcu-
lated value from the (MW/r) formula, for the associating liquids. However, for the dissoci-
ating chain molecules, k is larger than 2.12 and high values of k up to 7.0 were found, for
example, for tristearin.
Later, Katayama replaced the density of the liquid by the difference in density between
the liquid and saturated vapor in the Eötvös equation:
23
 MW 
g  = k(Tc − T ) (337)
 rL − r V 
which gives a better agreement with the experimental data at high temperatures. In 1893,
Ramsay and Shields proposed that Equation (336) should be corrected as
g (VM)2/3 = k(Tc − T − 6) (338)

because they experimentally determined that the surface tension of most liquids reaches
zero 6 degrees before the critical temperature, Tc. The reason for this behavior is not clear.
Simple expressions were offered for the nearly linear variation of surface tension with
temperature, such as g = g o(1 − bT), where, g o, is a constant for every liquid. Since g ≅ 0 at
Tc, by denoting b = 1/Tc, this linear plot may be expressed as
n
 T
g = g o 1− (339)
 Tc 

for n = 1. The accuracy of Equation (339) is good for some liquids. When n = 1 is assumed,
kTc
by comparing Equations (336) and (339) one obtains g o = , which is approximately
(VM )2 3
correct for many liquids. However, for some non-polar and non-hydrogen bonding liquids
the temperature–surface tension plot is not linear, and the curves are concave upward
showing the power dependence. Van der Waals proposed n = 1.5 for Equation (339),
but most of the surface tension experiments indicated that n = 1.23. Guggenheim
proposed n = 11/9, which was derived from the theory of close-packed non-polar and non-
hydrogen bonding liquids.

4.6 Parachor
In 1923, McLeod assumed n = 6/5 in Equation (339), and by combining with Equation
(337) and eliminating (Tc − T), he found an expression to relate the surface tension to the
density:
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 143

 k 6T 6 
g =  5 c4  ( rL − r V ) = K ( rL − r V )
4 4
(340)
 g o Mw 
where K is a constant which is different for every liquid. This fits very well with the experi-
mental results for the majority of organic liquids over a large range of temperatures. In
1924, Sugden modified McLeod’s equation to derive a new empirical equation to neutral-
ize the effect of temperature:
6 6 14

Ρ =g 14  M W  =  k Tc  (341)
 r L − r V   g o5 
where P is called a parachor. It is well known that the molecular volume of organic com-
pounds, VM, depends on chemical constitution so that specific molecular groups have char-
acteristic sizes and shapes, and probably occupy similar volumes in the liquid state.
However, since the volume of a liquid changes with the variation in temperature, because
the thermal motion of the molecules gradually overcomes the cohesional interactions
between them, the use of the VM term in any molecular theory seems erroneous. Sugden
showed that the parachor parameter, P, does not vary with temperature and is a much better
parameter than VM for a molecular theory. The P value is comparable for different sub-
stances under similar conditions of surface tension. He proposed that the parachor may be
used as a means of determining structure and he dissected the P value into parachors for
different atoms, such as H = 17.1, C = 4.8, O = 20.0, double bond = 23.2, triple bond =
46.6, closed six ring = 6.1 etc.; these atomic or group parachors, when added up, reproduce
experimentally observed parachors very accurately. It was later found that there is a rough
correspondence between atomic parachors and atomic volumes. The weakest argument for
the semi-emprical parachor approach is its dependence on n = 6/5 for all liquids; this cannot
be true for many polar and hydrogen-bonding types.
It should be noted that Eötvös, Ramsay–Shields and Sugden’s parachor equations are
empirical in nature and their theoretical foundations are rather obscure. There have been
several attempts to associate these equations with strict thermodynamical terms, but none
have been successful.

4.7 Liquid Surface Tension Variation by Pressure:

Kelvin Equation
The vapor pressure of a liquid increases with increase in temperature, which can be cal-
culated by applying the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (Equation (283) in Section 4.2.1)
and tables showing vapor pressure–temperature variation are given in many textbooks and
handbooks. These vapor pressures are reported for vapors in thermodynamical equilib-
rium with liquid of the same material with a flat surface. However, as we see in the
Young–Laplace equation, the vapor pressure inside a liquid drop is higher than that of a
planar, flat surface because of the curvature present. Lord Kelvin derived an expression in
1870 showing how the vapor pressure depends on the curvature of the liquid. As we know
from above, for a spherical liquid drop in a gas having a radius of r, the two radii of cur-
vature are positive and the same (R1 = R2 = r) and thus k1 = k2 = ksph = 1/r, giving Hsph =
ksph = 1/r; the pressure inside the liquid drop is higher than outside, and this positive
144 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

pressure difference, ∆P, causes the liquid molecules to evaporate more easily than from a
flat liquid surface.
However, for a gas bubble in a liquid environment where the two radii of curvature are
also the same but negative for the liquid, the resultant ∆P is negative for the liquid; the
vapor pressure inside the gas bubble is lower than for the flat liquid surface and it is easier
for the liquid molecules to evaporate in the bubble, causing vapor condensation within the
gas bubble.
Now, conversely, if we consider a spherical liquid drop in air, having a radius of r, the
vapor pressure of a drop, P cv > Pv, that is Pcv is higher than that of the same liquid with a
flat surface, Pv (the superscript c indicates a curved surface). If dn mol of liquid evaporates
from the drop and condenses onto the bulk flat liquid under isothermal and reversible con-
ditions, the free-energy change of this process can be written by differentiating Equation
(155) as
Pv
dG = dnRT ln (342)
P cv
Since Pcv > Pv, dG is negative and the process is spontaneous. This free-energy change can
also be calculated from the surface free-energy change of the droplet, which results from
the surface area decrease due to the loss of dn mol of the liquid having a molar mass of
MW. This evaporation process produces a volume decrease of −dn(MW/rL) in the liquid
drop. As a result of this volume decrease, a spherical shell from the drop surface whose
volume is = 4pr2dr is lost from the total drop volume. Then we can write
M 
− dn W  = −4pr 2 dr (343)
 rL 

and by rearranging Equation (343), we can calculate the decrease in drop radius as, dr =
(MW/4pr2rL)dn. Now, the decrease in surface free-energy is g times the decrease in the
surface area of the drop that results from the decrease of dr in the droplet radius, so that
dG = gdA = g[4p(r − dr)2 − 4pr2] ≅ −8pgrdr (344)

Inserting dr into Equation (344) gives

2gM W
dG = −8pg r( M W 4pr 2 r L )dn = − dn (345)
rrL

By equating Equations (342) and (345) for the free-energy change, one obtains

Pv 2g M W
dnRT ln =− dn (346)
P cv rrL
and
P cv 2g M W
ln = (347)
Pv rrL RT
Equation (347) is the Kelvin equation for spherical drops. The presence of r in the denom-
inator shows the dependence of the vapor pressure on the drop size. For spherical drops,
the vapor pressure can be calculated by
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 145

2g VM
−
P vc = Pv e RTr (348)

The constant, [2gVM/RT] is 2.024 nm for benzene (g = 0.0282 N/m, VM = 88.9 ×

10−6 m3 mol−1), 2.772 nm for octane (g = 0.0211 N m−1, VM = 162.5 × 10−6 m3 mol−1),
1.058 nm for water (g = 0.072 N m−1, VM = 18 × 10−6 m3 mol−1), and 1.035 for ethanol (g =
0.022 N m−1, VM = 58.4 × 10−6 m3 mol−1) at 25°C. From Equation (348), it can be seen that
curvature has little effect on the vapor pressure until the radius is of the order of 10 nm. In
addition, the above derivation of the Kelvin equation assumes that the surface tension is
unaffected by the curvature, and it is invalid for very small droplets whose radii are smaller
than 10 nm, where the number of molecules will be so small that some variation of surface
tension may take place. The surface tension of a water droplet of radius 1 nm was calculated
to be approximately 55 mN m−1 at 20°C, instead of 72.8 mN m−1 for a plane surface.
The Kelvin equation can be combined with the relative humidity, RH, if water is involved
as the fluid; relative humidity indicates how moist the air is. The amount of water vapor
in the air at any given time is usually less than that required to saturate the air. The rela-
tive humidity is the percentage of saturation humidity, generally calculated in relation to
the saturated vapor density. Relative humidity may be defined as the ratio of the water
vapor density (mass per unit volume) to the saturation water vapor density, usually
expressed in percent. Relative humidity is also approximately equal (exactly equal when
water is assumed as an ideal gas) to the ratio of the actual water vapor pressure to the sat-
uration water vapor pressure, RH = Pv/Pvo. The P ov values corresponding to each tempera-
ture are given in tables which can be found in handbooks. If RH is measured in an
experiment, then Pv can be calculated by using the saturation water vapor pressure tables
and can be inserted into the Kelvin equation.
For drops, which are not spherical, we must consider two radii of curvature, and Equa-
tion (347) becomes
P cv gM W  1 1
ln = + (349)
Pv rL RT  R1 R2 
Equation (349) is the general form of the Kelvin equation. There are some important con-
sequences of liquid surface tension variation by pressure in nature; for example, fogs are
unstable and always disappear: fogs are aerosols of water droplets; some droplets are larger
than others in a fog. As we know P cv > Pv for a liquid drop in a gas, small droplets have a
higher vapor pressure than that of the large droplets from Equation (347) and hence more
liquid evaporates from the surface of small droplets. They will therefore become smaller,
and their vapor pressure will additionally increase, so that evaporation will continue
increasingly rapidly. The evaporated vapor condenses on the large drops, whose vapor pres-
sure will decrease, and they will continue to grow further. In summary, the bigger drops
grow at the expense of the smaller drops. This process is called Ostwald ripening. After
achieving a large radius, these large drops fall to the ground through the effect of gravity,
and finally the fog disappears completely, with wet ground. This shows that the equilib-
rium is unstable in a medium where a number of droplets are present, which are initially
in equilibrium with a surrounding vapor.
If a vapor is cooled rapidly, its vapor pressure will be larger than the saturation vapor
pressure at this cold temperature, so that it becomes super-saturated. Under these condi-
tions, condensation to the liquid state cannot occur spontaneously unless some nucleation
146 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

sites are present which are large enough to continue to grow at the prevailing vapor pres-
sure. If no nucleation sites are present, every newly formed drop will instantly evaporate
again and the super-saturated medium cannot condense.
There is a critical drop radius, rcritical, for equilibrium with the surrounding vapor pres-
sure, because smaller drops have a higher vapor pressure and will spontaneously evapo-
rate, and all drops larger than this size will grow at the expense of smaller (and unstable)
droplets. For a water drop in air and also an air bubble in water, the effect of radius of
curvature on equilibrium vapor pressures is given in Table 4.1. It can be seen that below a
droplet size of 10 nm, there is a considerable vapor pressure increase over the vapor pres-
sure of flat surfaces due to the presence of curvature.
As we stated above, for a gas bubble in a liquid environment where the two radii of cur-
vature are negative, the resultant ∆P is also negative and the pressure inside the gas bubble
is lower than the flat liquid surface. For this case, we again use the Kelvin equation (Equa-
tion (347)) with a minus sign on the right-hand side. At the boiling point of the liquid,
the vapor pressure over the plane surface of the liquid, Pv, equals the external pressure, Pext.
If a bubble were to be formed in these conditions, the pressure inside the vapor bubble,
Pint, would have to be greater than Pext, from the definition, [∆P = Pint − Pext] however, this
is not permitted because ln(P cv/Pv) is negative in Equation (347) for this case. (This is equiv-
alent to Pv = Pext > P cv = Pint). Consequently vapor bubbles cannot exist at the boiling point
so the Kelvin equation explains why we must heat liquids above their normal boiling point
(the process of superheating).
In practice, if air is dissolved previously in the water, it forms very small air bubbles while
the water is heated up to its boiling point. These tiny air bubbles are released from the
liquid phase as the solubility of the air decreases with the increase in the temperature. Those
bubbles form the nuclei into which water can evaporate because it is easier for the liquid
molecules to evaporate into the air bubble due to the negative ∆P, and with the increase
in the bubble size, boiling starts. However, if the water had been previously boiled so that
it no longer contains dissolved air, the next boiling process quickly becomes much more
difficult, and the liquid may pass to a superheated stage where it boils very abruptly causing
bumping, which can sometimes be very dangerous on an industrial scale.
At temperatures well above the normal boiling point (around 200°C for water at atmos-
pheric pressure), the temperature is high enough that the equilibrium vapor pressure, even

Table 4.1 Relative vapor pressures of curved surfaces in equilibrium

at 25°C, for water drops in air and air bubbles in water

Radius P–—cv P–—cv

r (nm) Pv (drop) Pv (bubble)

1000 1.001 0.999

100 1.011 0.989
50 1.021 0.979
10 1.112 0.899
5 1.236 0.809
1 2.880 0.347
0.5 8.298 0.121
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 147

inside a small bubble, is large enough to allow it to continue to grow. In this case the for-
mation of bubbles of pure vapor (not air) occurs. This is called homogenous nucleation, as
we will see later in Section 4.9.
On the other hand, the Kelvin equation has been extensively used in research on gas
adsorption onto porous solids (see Sections 8.4 and 8.5) and capillary condensation.

4.8 Capillary Condensation

Lord Kelvin realized that, instead of completely drying out, moisture is retained within
porous materials such as plants and vegetables or biscuits at temperatures far above the
dew point of the surrounding atmosphere, because of capillary forces. This process was
later termed capillary condensation, which is the condensation of any vapor into capillar-
ies or fine pores of solids, even at pressures below the equilibrium vapor pressure, Pv.
Capillary condensation is said to occur when, in porous solids, multilayer adsorption from
a vapor proceeds to the point at which pore spaces are filled with liquid separated from
the gas phase by menisci. If a vapor or liquid wets a solid completely, that is the contact
angle, q = 0°, then this vapor will immediately condense in the tip of a conical pore, as seen
in Figure 4.8 a. The formation of the liquid in the tip of the cone by condensation con-
tinues until the cone radius, r, reaches a critical value, rc, where the radius of curvature of
the vapor bubble reaches the value given by the Kelvin equation (r = rc). Then, for a spher-
ical vapor bubble, we can write

rc r
q=0

q>0 r > rc

rc
r=
cos q

a b

Figure 4.8 a. For completely wetting materials in a conical pore, the formation of the liquid in the tip
of the cone by condensation continues until the cone radius, r, reaches a critical value, rc (r = rc). b. For
partially wetting materials, where q > 0°, the radius of curvature increases, so that (r > rc) and for a first
approximation, r = rc cos q.
148 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

P cv 2g M W
ln =− (350)
Pv rc rL RT
where rc is the capillary radius inside the pore at the point where the meniscus is in equi-
librium, and since Pv > P cv, due to the negative curvature of the vapor bubble, the vapor
pressure of the liquid inside the pore decreases to Pcv at this point. In practice, many solids
cannot be completely wetted by contacting (or condensing) liquids so that q > 0°, as seen
in Figure 4.8 b. For this case, the radius of curvature increases and for a first approxima-
tion, r = R1 = R2 = rc/cos q is used in Equation (350). If q < 90° the meniscus is concave, Pv
> P cv, and the vapor will condense in the capillary surface first. If q > 90°, P cv > Pv, then the
vapor will condense on the plane surface first at Pv , and a pressure greater than Pv is
required to force the liquid to enter into the capillary. This is the basis of mercury injection
porosimetry (see Section 8.3.4). It is necessary to apply a positive pressure to mercury liquid,
which must be larger than the present positive ∆P, in order to make the mercury enter into
a porous solid. Mercury injection porosimetry is a useful method of determining the pore
size distribution of a solid by measuring the volume of mercury taken up by this solid as
a function of the increase in the pressure. Smaller pores will be entered by successive
increases in the applied pressure, and the method is very successful for comparing differ-
ent samples of the same or similar materials where q does not vary too much.
If a fissure or crack is present in any pore, the pore is no longer assumed to be spheri-
cal, and if rc is chosen as the radius of curvature perpendicular to the fissure direction, then
Equation (349) is used, where R1 = rc and R2 = ∞ for these conditions.
Capillary condensation explains why liquids are strongly absorbed into porous materi-
als. This situation occurs occasionally in nature, such as the wetting of mineral and clay
particles present in the ground by water. In many instances, capillary condensation deter-
mines the strength of adhesion between fine particles and the flow, and other behaviors,
of powders. The capillary force, Fg , arising from capillary condensation of a liquid between
particles may be treated in several ways, the simplest approach being calculation of the cap-
illary force between two contacting spherical particles having identical radius, RS, as seen
in Figure 4.9. If water (or another liquid) completely wets their surfaces (q = 0°), the liquid
will condense into the gap around the contact zone. The meniscus of the liquid is nega-
tively curved and the first radius of curvature is given by R1 = −r. The second radius of cur-
vature is R2 = z by definition. The Young–Laplace pressure in the liquid is negative and
consequently the particles attract each other. In most practical situations, z >> r, so that
Equation (333) can be written as

∆P = g  − +  ≈ −
1 1 g
(351)
 r z r
and the pressure, ∆P, is lower in the liquid than in the outer vapor phase. This attractive
capillary force can be expressed as Fg = ∆P Ac, where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the
liquid between two spherical particles. Therefore, Ac = pz2 can be written, from simple
geometry, but we need to express z in terms of r. If we apply Pythagoras’ theorem of plane
geometry so that (RS + r)2 = R2S + (z + r)2 giving 2 RSr = z2 + 2 zr, and if we assume that
z >> 2r, then we may write 2RSr ≈ z2. Thus, the attractive capillary force due to capillary
condensation between two identical spherical particles can be expressed as
Fg = 2gp RS (352)
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 149

z z

Rs Rs

Figure 4.9 Capillary force calculation between two contacting spherical particles having identical radius
of RS. If a liquid completely wets the surfaces of the particles (q = 0°), then the liquid will condense into
the gap around the contact zone, (−r) is the first radius of curvature, and the second radius of curvature
is R2 = z by definition, where the distance, z, is as shown in the figure.

Equation (352) shows that the capillary force depends mostly only on the size of the par-
ticle and the surface tension of the liquid. However, in reality, the surfaces of most of the
particles are rough and they touch only at some points, having much smaller liquid menisci
between them (and giving much smaller z values), so that the resultant capillary force, Fg ,
is much smaller than the value calculated by Equation (352).

4.9 Nucleation
The production of a new phase such as a liquid from vapor, or a solid from liquid, even
though thermodynamically favorable in terms of the chemical potentials of the bulk
phases, requires a nucleation mechanism. Nucleation is the formation of an embryo or
nucleus of a new phase in another phase. This topic covers a wide range of processes in
industry such as the condensation of a vapor, the precipitation of a solute from a solution
and the crystallization of a liquid; and in nature, rain formation in the clouds and the for-
mation of opals from colloidal silica sediments. The nucleation mechanism helps to over-
come the free energy barriers involved, which prevent the start of new phase formation.
For example, during freezing, all the molecules of a liquid cannot suddenly adopt the posi-
tions required to form the solid, but when nucleation starts, an interface is produced
between solid and liquid by forming tiny clusters with an increase in free energy. Another
example is the formation of liquid droplets in a vapor phase. Tiny molecular clusters form
in the vapor phase which will grow by condensation and transform into droplets. The
nucleation of liquid droplets from a supersaturated vapor depends on the pressure differ-
ence, ∆P, between the actual and saturation vapor pressures and also on the curvature of
150 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the droplet, which is generally spherical in shape. Nucleation processes can be divided into
two subsections, homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleations.

4.9.1 Homogeneous nucleation during a phase transition

The nucleation process is termed homogeneous nucleation when only a single pure com-
ponent or a phase of uniform composition is involved during a phase transition, in the
absence of any external surfaces and particles. Many natural phenomena, such as
cloud formation as water droplets from water vapor or hail formation as ice, involve
homogeneous nucleation (and also heterogeneous nucleation if foreign particles and
surfaces are present) mechanisms. In general, the Kelvin equation (Equation (347)) can be
applied to super-saturation, super-heating and sub-cooling processes that are sometimes
observed in phase transitions. In this section we will focus on the nucleation and growth of
liquid drops from their vapors. Small molecular clusters are always present in any
vapor in the absence of participating foreign surfaces and particles. These clusters consist of
only a few vapor molecules, some of them being dimers, trimers and mostly n-mers.
They are continually forming and disintegrating in a dynamic mechanism. If the vapor
pressure, Pv, is significantly above the equilibrium saturation vapor pressure with the flat
liquid surface, P ov, then there is a natural tendency to form small clusters of molecules. The
(Pv/P ov) ratio is called the super-saturation ratio. If the super-saturation ratio is high
(say more than 4) then large clusters occur more frequently. These clusters then grow by
the condensation of other new molecules. Ostwald ripening occurs in these conditions
and the clusters grow further, sometimes aggregating to form even larger recognizable
droplets. If this process continues, many macroscopic liquid drops form and finally coalesce
to yield large amounts of the liquid phase. However, if the system is just beyond the satura-
tion pressure, this liquid drop growth sequence does not occur, that is, the super-saturation
ratio must be high to realize the above droplet nucleation process. When we consider the pre-
cipitation of solids from a super-saturated solution, the same rule applies so that the solution
concentrations must be much higher than the saturation concentration. Similarly, the tem-
perature of the liquids should be much lower than the crystallization temperature to form
solid crystals from their liquids. For example, very pure, dust-free liquid water can be cooled
down to −48°C before spontaneous freezing occurs (sub-cooling process). Chemists are
familiar with the use of seed crystals to initiate the crystallization in super-cooled solutions.
Dust-free water can be heated considerably above 100°C before it boils.
The nucleation and growth of liquid water drops from water vapor is a very important
process in nature and also in industry. If we assume that the water obeys the ideal gas law,
the difference in the Gibbs energies to form a liquid water drop in its vapor phase by the
phase change process can be written as
Pv
∆G = GL − Gv = − nRT ln (353)
P vo
Since Pv > P ov, the higher the super-saturation ratio, the higher the ∆G value. The number
of moles, n = m/MW where m is the mass of the droplet, MW is the molecular mass (m =
4pr3rL/3), r is the radius of the droplet and rL is the density of the liquid. The value of n
is very small because n represents the number of moles of vapor that condense into a tiny
nucleus (liquid droplet) at the vapor pressure, Pv. Then, we can write
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 151

4pr 3rL P
∆G = − RT ln vo (354)
3M w Pv
In order to find the total free energy difference to form the drop, ∆GT, we also need to con-
sider the surface free energy effects:
4pr 3rL P
∆GT = − RT ln vo + 4pr 2g (355)
3M w Pv
The term ∆GT represents the free-energy barrier that must be overcome to form a liquid
drop. When we check Equation (355) in terms of vapor pressures, if the super-saturation
ratio is negative so that P ov > Pv, then ∆GT is positive, so that any nucleus that is formed by
some clustering vapor molecules will evaporate again and no droplet forms spontaneously.
For the normal case, where the super-saturation ratio is positive so that Pv > P ov, the first
term on the right-hand side of this equation is always negative and varies as r 3, and the
second term varies as r2. Since the second term is always positive, the formation
of droplets from the vapor phase by homogenous nucleation is radius-dependent.
Equation (355) can be most effectively checked for the size of drop radius between 0 and
2.5 nm because of the tiny size of the possible droplets. The numerical results obtained by
applying Equation (355) are plotted in Figure 4.10. In this figure, the plots of ∆GT
versus the drop radius, r, are shown for water at 20°C for different super-saturation ratios

1.5E-18

Pv/Po=1.7
1E-18 Pv/Po=2.0
Pv/Po=2.5
Pv/Po=3.0

5E-19
∆ G T (Joule)

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-5E-19

-1E-18

Radius (nanometers)

Figure 4.10 Variation of the free-energy change, ∆GT versus the drop radius, r, for water at different
super-saturation ratios, ranging from 1.7 to 3.0 at 20°C.
152 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

ranging from 1.7 to 3.0. At the beginning, the ∆GT value increases with increasing r, but as
r increases, the first negative term on the right-hand side of Equation (355) also increases
rapidly because of the domination of the r3 term, imparting a greater negative effect; and
after a maximum value, ∆GT starts to decrease. Consequently, a maximum ∆GT value occurs
at a specific critical radius, rc, depending on the super-saturation ratio (Pv/P ov), as can be
seen in Figure 4.7. At the maximum point, where r = rc, the derivative [d(∆GT)/dr] is equal
to zero. For molar quantities, at r = rc differentiating Equation (355) and equating to zero
results in
P cv 2gM W
ln = (356)
P ov rc rL RT
Equation (356) is identical to the Kelvin equation (Equation (347)) for saturation vapor
pressures (Pv ⇒ P ov) at r = rc. The P cv parameter is the critical vapor pressure, which corre-
sponds to the vapor pressure when the drop radius, r equals rc, which is also the radius of
curvature for a spherical drop having the critical size. We should note that Equation (356)
is valid when two phases coexist in equilibrium.
According to the above analysis, droplets having a radius of rc will re-evaporate for pres-
sures below P cv, and only after the vapor pressure exceeds P cv, although all sizes of droplet
would exist; the large ones are preferred, and then the droplets having a radius of rc will
start growing indefinitely by vapor condensation. In these conditions, only after most of
these droplets exceed this critical radius, rc, is it possible for a new phase to grow sponta-
neously. On the other hand, droplets with a smaller radius require a greater degree of super-
saturation to exist in this metastable equilibrium, as can be seen in Figure 4.7, which shows
that rc becomes smaller with the increase in super-saturation ratio.
It would be a mistake to apply Equation (356) to r = 0 because, if we assume that it is
possible, this means that an infinite super-saturation condition would occur and would
make the presence of a new phase impossible. As we stated above, Equation (356) is valid
for the coexistence of two phases, so we cannot apply it to r = 0. If r > 0, but becomes
extremely small, the size of the cluster may approach the dimensions of individual mole-
cules, but of course there is a limit to applying the Kelvin equation to these extremely small
clusters because of spherical shape distortions. It is usually accepted that the Kelvin equa-
tion can be applied down to a radius of curvature that corresponds to about seven times
the molecular diameter, but this figure was found to be much larger for water, having a
critical radius of 0.8 nm and containing about 90 molecules inside. This is due to its
complex cluster formation mechanism, containing more molecules than any of the organic
liquids, this arising from its high hydrogen bond formation properties.
Equation (356) may be applied to the equilibrium solubility of a solid in a liquid. In this
case the ratio (Pcv/Pov) is replaced by the ratio (aci /aoi), where aoi is the activity of the dissolved
solute in equilibrium with a flat surface, and aci is the corresponding quantity for a spher-
ical surface. Then we may write
aic 2gM W
ln = (357)
aio rc rL RT
However, the calculation of the solid surface tension from Equation (357) does not give
quantitatively consistent results. This may be due to the non-uniformity of solid particles
as a sphere; rather they are irregularly shaped and polydisperse. In addition, the effect of
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 153

the presence of sharp points or protuberances on the solid particles has a much larger effect
on the solid solubility than expected. Also, the linear dependence of the solubility of solid
particles on their radius is not clear.

4.9.2 Rate of homogeneous nucleation

The essential problem in nucleation studies is to estimate the rate of formation of nuclei
having the critical size. When r = rc, the maximum free-energy barrier that must be over-
come to form a liquid drop can be found by combining Equations (355) and (356)
8pr c2g 4pr c2g
(∆GT )max = − + 4pr c2g = (358)
3 3
Equation (358) shows that the maximum free-energy barrier that must be overcome to
form a liquid drop is equal to one-third of the surface energy of formation, as Gibbs stated.
When this equation is applied for crystal formation, the numerical factor of 3 changes
because of the non-spherical shape of crystals. If we substitute the critical drop radius, rc,
from Equation (356) into Equation (358), we obtain
16pg 3 M W
2
( ∆GT )max = 2
(359)
 Pc 
3r R T  ln vo 
2 2 2
 Pv 
L

The rate of nuclei formation under particle-free, surface-free conditions is called the rate
of homogeneous nucleation, J. In order to express the rate of homogeneous nucleation for
nuclei of size, rc, first we must consider the thermal fluctuations of the molecules to deter-
mine the number of molecules initially located in the embryonic nuclei, which can be
found using Boltzmann statistics. Second, we must consider the gas phase collision fre-
quency, f, which is the number of vapor molecules colliding with unit surface area per
second, which determines the growth of the nuclei by adding the mass of arriving mole-
cules to the nuclei. If a steady-state condition is assumed, such that the average number of
nuclei consisting of 2, 3, . . . , N molecules does not change with time, then mathematical
treatment of the subject is possible. The rate of homogeneous nucleation, J, for nuclei
having a radius of rc, is then given by
( ∆GT )max
−
J = fe RT (360)

By combining with the maximum free energy barrier,(∆GT)max, given in Equation (359),
we obtain rate, J, as
 
 3 2 
16pg M W
J = f exp −  (361)
 2 3 3 Pv  
c 2

 3rL R T  ln o  
  Pv  

For ideal gases, the gas phase collision frequency, f, which represents the number of
molecules striking a unit area of surface per unit time can be expressed as
154 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

P vc N A
f = (362)
2pM W RT
Other derivations of the f factor are also possible, but these are outside the scope of this
book. Equation (361) shows that the rate of nuclei formation, J, increases with increasing
vapor pressure. When J versus (P cv/P ov) is plotted it is seen that when the super-saturation
ratio (P cv/P vo) is increased above 4, then J increases very sharply for water. The value of J is
also very dependent on g, which is the interfacial tension between the new and parent
phases. For liquid drops formed in their own vapor, this is the surface tension of the liquid
itself, since the surface tension of their vapor is neglected. Quantitative fits with Equation
(361) and experimental expansion chamber results, where the density of the nuclei are
measured by light scattering, are not good. Equation (361) predicts nucleation rates that
are too low at low temperatures, and overly high rates for high temperatures; some em-
pirical correction factors have to be added to obtain a good fit.
Equation (361) is a sample equation for the rate of formation of droplets in their vapor,
and similar equations can be derived for the rate of crystal formation by freezing their
liquids, or precipitate formation from supersaturated solutions, although diffusion con-
trolled cluster formation kinetics in liquids, lattice strain and anisotropic growth in crys-
tals must be considered whenever necessary.

4.9.3 Heterogeneous nucleation during a phase transition

If some solid particles and substrate surfaces are present in a phase transition, then
heterogeneous nucleation takes place, where the maximum free energy barrier (∆GT)max is
lowered by energetically more favorable cluster formation on the solid surface. There are
several examples of this phenomenon: water vapor condenses on a dust particle to form a
liquid water drop whenever possible, and artificial clouds are seeded by silver iodide par-
ticles to start rain. The formation of air bubbles when pouring beer or water into a glass
is another example. Air bubbles nucleate at the glass surface while pouring, then grow in
size, rise in the liquid and leave the liquid at the surface. Capillary condensation, described
in Section 4.8, is also an important example of heterogeneous nucleation.
Most systems in everyday life are not perfectly clean, and dusts, particulates or several
substrates provide a template for initial growth of a new phase. If the value of the interfa-
cial tension between the new condensing phase and the particle (or the substrate) surface
is low, then this property considerably decreases the energy requirement of nuclei forma-
tion (∆GT)max so that heterogeneous nucleation occurs as an easier and preferable path for
phase transformations. In addition, phase transformations take place at or very close to the
equilibrium temperature.
When heterogeneous nucleation occurs, usually a drop with a contact angle less
than 90° forms on a substrate. This liquid drop is generally treated as a spherical cap
on the substrate. Since the contact angle between the condensing liquid and the substrate
is a measure of the interfacial tension between them, by both considering the liquid–solid
and liquid–vapor interfacial tensions (see Section 9.1), the reduction in the free-energy
barrier (∆GT)max for heterogeneous nucleation, for a flat, ideal (hysteresis-free) system can
be given as
 Pure Liquid Surfaces 155

 (2 + cos q ) (1 − cos q )2 
[( ∆GT )max ]heterogeneous = [( ∆GT )max ]homogeneous  4
 (363)
 

When q = 0° this means that the liquid completely wets the solid, [(∆GT)max]heterogeneous equals
zero, and spontaneous heterogeneous nucleation occurs with no super-saturation at
the equilibrium temperature. When q = 90° then [(∆GT)max]heterogeneous is half the
homogeneous value, and when q = 180° both homo- and heterogeneous nucleation energy
barriers are equal.

References
1. Adam, N.K. (1968) The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
2. Hirschfelder, J.O., Curtiss, C.F. and Bird, R.B. (1954) Molecular Theory of Gases and Liquids.
Wiley, New York.
3. Prausnitz, J.M., Lichtenthaler, R.N. and Azevedo E.G. (1999) Molecular Thermodynamics of
Fluid-Phase Equilibria (3rd edn). Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
4. Scatchard, G. (1976) Equilibrium in Solutions & Surface and Colloid Chemistry. Harvard Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge.
5. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997) Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
6. Erbil, H.Y. (1997) Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed.). Handbook of Surface
and Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
7. Lyklema, L. (1991) Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science (Vols. I and II). Academic Press,
London.
8. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973) An Introduction to Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
9. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997) Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
10. Murrell, J.N. and Jenkins, A.D. (1994) Properties of Liquids and Solutions (2nd edn). Wiley,
Chichester.
11. Butt, H.J., Graf, K., Kappl, M. (2003) Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
12. Abraham, F.F. (1974) Homogeneous Nucleation Theory. Academic Press, New York.
Chapter 5
Liquid Solution Surfaces

In Chapter 4, we dealt with the thermodynamic, physical and chemical properties of pure
liquids. However, in most instances solutions of liquids are used in chemistry and biology
instead of pure liquids. In Chapter 5, we will examine the surfaces of mainly non-
electrolyte (ion-free) liquid solutions where a solid, liquid or gas solute is dissolved in a
liquid solvent. A solution is a one-phase homogeneous mixture with more than one com-
ponent. For a two-component solution, which is the subject of many practical applications,
the major component of the solution is called the solvent and the dissolved minor com-
ponent is called the solute. Liquid solutions are important in the chemical industry because
every chemical reaction involves at least one reactant and one product, mostly forming a
single phase, a solution. In addition, the understanding of liquid solutions is useful in sep-
aration and purification of substances.
The presence of a solute in a solution affects the entropy of the solution by introducing
a degree of disorder that is not present in the pure solvent, so that many physical pro-
perties of the solution become different from that of its pure solvent. Furthermore,
solute–solvent molecular interactions affect the total internal energy of the solution. The
change in the vapor pressure or the surface tension of a solution from those of its pure
solvent are examples of these solute effects. The concentration of the solute in the surface
layer is usually different (or very rarely the same) from that in the bulk solution, and the
determination of this concentration difference is very important in surface science.
The investigation of solution and surface film properties of two- or three-component
liquid solutions is the subject of this chapter. In one extreme, the components in the liquid
solution are completely miscible giving a one-phase solution, and in the other extreme, the
components are almost completely immiscible, and an insoluble monomolecular film of
one component forms on the surface of the other giving a two-phase solution. Between
these two extremes, different kinds of films form on the solution surfaces depending on
the extent of molecular interactions between the components. The theoretical approaches
and experimental techniques that are applied to these solution types will be described in
Chapters 5 and 6 respectively.

5.1 Equilibrium in Solutions

Initially we will start with completely miscible liquid solutions. A liquid solution may be
in equilibrium or may be approaching equilibrium or in a non-equilibrium condition; the
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 157

transport properties are only important for the last case. A system is in equilibrium if no
further spontaneous changes take place in constant surroundings, and if the same state can
be approached from different directions. When equilibrium occurs, the Gibbs phase equa-
tion, mai = mbi = . . . = mpi (Equation (175), given in Section 3.1.3 applies. When the temper-
ature is constant, one method of determining the difference in chemical potential of a
substance, i, in two liquid solutions is to measure the vapor pressure of each solution, that
is, the partial pressure of the substance in a vapor that is in equilibrium with the solution.
This utilizes the fact that at equilibrium the chemical potential is the same in the liquid as
in the gas phase, given by the Gibbs phase rule, and we can determine the difference in the
chemical potential of that substance in the two gas phases as detailed in Section 3.1.2. These
relations hold for either solvent or solute in solutions of any concentration. For simplic-
ity, the vapor is treated as an ideal gas and the vapor volume of the solute is neglected rel-
ative to that of solvent, and, similar to Equation (163), the difference in chemical potential
in the gas phase may be written as
Pi
mi = mi* + RT ln (364)
Pi*
where superscript * denotes the quantities related to pure substances, Pi is the vapor pres-
sure of the solution and P*i is the vapor pressure of pure i. F. Raoult measured the vapor
pressures of the pure solvents and corresponding solutions by changing the concentrations
of the solutes and found that only ideal liquid solutions obey Equation (164), named as
Raoult’s law, Xi = (Pi/P*i ), where Xi is the mole fraction of the solvent. Equation (364) can
then be rearranged into mi = m*i + RT ln Xi for ideal solutions. The molecular interpretation
of Raoult’s law is that the less volatile solute molecules present at the solution surface layer
partially block the evaporation of the solvent molecules, thereby reducing the vapor pres-
sure of the solvent.
Ideal liquid solutions are different from ideal gas mixtures where we assume that there
is no intermolecular interaction. In a liquid, the molecules are close together and an
assumption of negligible intermolecular interaction is not rational. Instead, in an ideal
solution, we assume that intermolecular interactions between molecules are present, but
the molecular properties of the solvent and the solute are so similar to one another that
molecules of one component can replace molecules of the other component in the solu-
tion, without changing the total energy of intermolecular interaction and the spatial
structure of the solution. The requirement of this assumption is that the solute molecules
must be essentially of the same size and shape as the solvent molecules; and the inter-
molecular interaction energies should be essentially the same for solute–solute,
solvent–solvent and solute–solvent pairs of molecules. Since it is nearly impossible to find
any solute and solvent molecules having the above requirements, there is no absolutely
ideal solution and Raoult’s law is only approximately valid. Even for the best solute–solvent
pairs chosen as examples of ideal solutions, there is a slight departure from ideal behavior.
Benzene–toluene, cyclohexane–cyclopentane and ethyl chloride–ethyl bromide are good
examples of roughly ideal solutions. The approximate equality of the internal pressure
values in liquids, (∂U/∂V)T, given by Equation (239), which indicates the attractive
interactions between molecules, is a good criterion to be used in choosing ideal liquid
solutions. When nonpolar liquid solutions are considered, a difference in internal pressure
produces a positive deviation from Raoult’s law for both components, decreasing the
158 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

solubility of the solute in the solvent, and very large differences in internal pressures are
necessary for the incomplete miscibility of two nonpolar liquid components. However,
when a polar and nonpolar liquid solution are considered, they show strong positive devi-
ations from Raoult’s law, with accompanying decreases of solute solubilities irrespective of
their internal pressure values; most immiscible liquids giving two separate phases belong
to this class for this reason.
Apart from intermolecular interactions due to chemical dissimilarities, the presence of
a solute in a solution changes the entropy of the solution by introducing a degree of dis-
order that is not present in the pure solvent, so that the physical properties of the solution
(other than lowering the vapor pressure of the solvent) are also different from those of the
pure solvent. The presence of a nonvolatile solute raises the boiling point of the solution,
lowers the freezing point and gives rise to an osmotic pressure. These effects are collec-
tively termed colligative properties, depending on the number of solute molecules (parti-
cles) present in the solution and not their chemical identity. These subjects are well
documented in many standard physical chemistry textbooks and are beyond the scope
of this book, but must be kept in mind when examining the surface properties of such
solutions.
In thermodynamic terms, although there is no perfectly ideal solution, some liquid solu-
tions roughly obey Raoult’s law, over a wide range of concentrations; but most of the solu-
tions deviate from the law and only obey it when the solution is very dilute. Thus, Raoult’s
law is a limited law in nature and is only strictly valid at the limit of zero concentration.
Consequently, the properties of real liquid solutions should be discussed in terms of depar-
tures from ideal solution properties. In principle, the deviations from ideal-solution behav-
ior are due to differing solute–solute, solvent–solvent and solute–solvent intermolecular
interaction pair energies, and also to their differing sizes and shapes. For real liquid solu-
tions that show strong deviations from Raoult’s law, we use activitity parameters instead
of mole fractions, as given in Equations (166)–(168). Activities may be related to the meas-
urable molar fractions of the solutions by the use of activity coefficients, j Xi, as a constant
for a given concentration, temperature and pressure, j Xi = ai/Xi, as expressed in Equation
(168). The j Xi parameter varies strongly when the solution concentration changes, and
weakly when temperature and pressure change. We can usually neglect the effect of pres-
sure on j Xi, unless the pressure is very high.

5.2 Mixing and Excess Thermodynamic Functions

5.2.1 Mixing of ideal gas and liquid solutions

When two ideal gases are mixed at a constant pressure, provided that no chemical reaction
occurs, there is a difference between the free energy of the gases before and after the mixing.
Before mixing, there are nA moles of gas A at pressure P and nB moles of gas B, also at pres-
sure P. The total Gibbs free energy is
Gbefore = nA(mAo + RT ln P) + nB(mBo + RT ln P) (365)

After mixing, the total pressure is still P, but there will be (nA + nB) molecules. The partial
pressure of gas A can be given from Dalton’s law as
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 159

 nA 
pA = P = X AP (366)
 n A + nB 

and a similar equation applies for gas B. After mixing, the total Gibbs free energy can be
written as
Gafter = nA(mAo + RT ln pA) + nB(mBo + RT ln pB) (367)

Then the free energy change due to the mixing process is

∆Gmix = Gafter − Gbefore = RT n A ln A  + nB ln B  

p p
(368)
  P  P 

which can be simplified by combining with Equation (366), (n = nA + nB)

∆Gmix = nRT ( X A ln X A + X B ln X B ) = nRT ∑ X i ln X i (369)

i

Since the pressure is constant during mixing, (∂∆Gmix/∂P)T = 0, so that there is no volume
change of mixing, ∆Vmix = 0, as calculated from Equation (133), which can also be expected
from an ideal gas. Since Xi is always positive, ln Xi is always negative, and it follows that
∆Gmix is always negative and gives a minimum point for Xi = 0.5. We can also calculate the
entropy of mixing by using Equation (134) so that

 ∂∆Gmix 
∆Smix = −   = −nR ∑ Xi ln Xi = −nR( X A ln X A + XB ln XB ) (370)
 ∂T  P i

Since ln Xi is always negative, it follows that ∆Smix is always positive and gives a maximum
point for Xi = 0.5. Then, by combining Equations (369) and (370), one obtains
∆Gmix = −T∆Smix (371)

giving ∆Hmix = 0 for a constant temperature, for an ideal gas mixture from Equation (125),
which can also be expected from the assumptions of an ideal gas provided that no
chemical reaction occurs. The mixing of real gases can be determined relative to ideal gas
behavior.
For an ideal solution, we use m*i instead of mio, which was used for gases. When the mixing
of non-electrolyte liquids is considered, the ideal system is defined as one whose thermo-
dynamic mixing parameters obey the same equations (Equations (368)–(371)), similar to
an ideal gas, and ∆Hmix = 0 also.

5.2.2 Excess thermodynamic functions

When non-ideal liquid solutions are considered, we use excess thermodynamic functions,
which are defined as the differences between the actual thermodynamic mixing parame-
ters and the corresponding values for an ideal mixture. For constant temperature, pressure
and molar fractions, excess Gibbs free energy is given as
G E = Gactual − Gideal = ( ∆Gmix )actual − nRT ∑ X i ln X i (372)
i

and the excess entropy is given as

160 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

S E = Sactual − Sideal = ( ∆Smix )actual + nR ∑ X i ln X i (373)

i

and also HE = Hactual − Hideal = (∆Hmix)actual and V E = Vactual − Videal = (∆Vmix)actual equations
are valid. Thermodynamic relations between these excess functions are exactly the same as
those between the total functions. Partial molar excess functions are defined analogously
to those used for partial molar thermodynamic properties. Excess thermodynamic func-
tions may be positive or negative depending on the conditions, and may also be nearly zero
for liquid solutions that contain components very similar in molecular structure. When GE
is positive for a solution, it is said to have a positive deviation from Raoult’s law. When HE
is negative, this shows there is an attraction between the mixing molecules of the two com-
pounds, and an enthalpy must be supplied to separate them. When hydrogen bonds are
present between the mixing molecules, HE and SE are negative. According to Equation (373)
(∆Smix)actual will be positive because mixing increases the disorder, but SE may be negative
because, due to hydrogen bonding, there is more order in the actual mixture than for an
ideal system.
Excess thermodynamic functions show the deviations from ideal solution behavior and
there is of course a relation between GE and the activity coefficients. Similar to Equation
(369), if we write the actual Gibbs free energy of mixing (∆Gmix)actual in terms of activities,
we have

( ∆Gmix )actual = nRT ∑ Xi ln ai (374)

i

By combining Equations (372) and (374) we obtain

G E = nRT ∑ X i ln ai − nRT ∑ X i ln X i (375)

i i

Since the activity coefficient, ϕXi, is given in terms of molar fraction as ϕXi = ai/Xi in Equa-
tion (168), then by inserting this expression in Equation (375), the total excess Gibbs free
energy for the constant temperature, pressure and mole number of other constituents can
be written as

(GE )T,P,n J
= nRT ∑ X i ln ϕ iX (376)
i

and for the chemical potential which is the partial molar Gibbs free energy, we may write
(mEi )T,P,nJ = RT ln ϕXi (377)

In practice, determination of the activity coefficients of a solvent in a solution is easy, if

the solute is nonvolatile. The vapor pressure of the solution and the pure solvent are meas-
ured and aA = Pi/P*i (Equation (166) applies). However, if the solute is volatile, then the
partial pressure of both the solute and the solvent should be determined.
Determination of the activity coefficients of the non-volatile solute in a solution is dif-
ficult. If electrolytes (ions) are present, the activities can be obtained from experimental
electromotive force (EMF) measurements. However, for non-electrolyte and non-volatile
solutes an indirect method is applied to find initially the activity of the solvent over a range
of solute concentrations, and then the Gibbs–Duhem equation is integrated to find the
solute activity. If the solution is saturated, then it is easy to calculate the activity coefficient
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 161

of the solute because the chemical potential of the solute is equal to that of the solid, which
can be found in thermodynamic tables. Colligative properties also lead to the calculation
of solute activity; these directly measure the activity of the solvent and then the
Gibbs–Duhem equation is used to calculate the solute activity.

5.3 Regular Solutions and Solubility Parameter Approach

One of the most important problems in the chemical industry is the prediction of
which solutes dissolve in which solvents. Following the development of the polymer
industry in the 1930s, solvent selection for the newly developed polymers was a necessity
in order to find the best applications; a reliable method was required to replace the
countless trial and error situations in the laboratory. The problem was attacked using
various theoretical and empirical approaches but has not been solved rigorously to date;
however several semi-empirical methods are presently in use. Hildebrand was the first to
point out the importance of internal pressure, (∂U/∂V)T, as given in Equation (239), of
fluids for solubility predictions. As given above, internal pressure is due to cohesional attrac-
tive forces (see Section 3.5.1) between the molecules which contribute to internal energy,
U, and which is zero for ideal gases. The approximate equality of internal pressure values
in non-electrolyte liquids is a good criterion for their behavior as ideal liquid solutions
obeying Raoult’s Law. If the internal pressure values of two materials are too dissimilar
from each other, this shows that the intermolecular forces within them are alike and they
will not dissolve in each other. By rearranging Equation (237), the internal energy may be
expressed as
 ∂U   ∂P 
  = T  − P (378)
 ∂V  T  ∂T  V
The (∂P/∂T)V parameter is called an isochore and can be measured directly from a P–T
plot at a particular constant volume, or it is more often computed from the expression,
1 ∂V
(∂P/∂T)V = − , where a is the coefficient of thermal expansion, a =   , and b is the
a
b V  ∂T  P
1 ∂V
coefficient of compressibility, b = −   of the fluids; these a and b parameters
V  ∂P  T
can easily be determined using simple experiments.

5.3.1 Cohesive energy density

In liquids, strong attractive forces exist between neighboring molecules, and as a result each
molecule has a considerable negative potential energy in contrast to the vapor phase mole-
cules, which have negligible potential energy. Liquid (and some solid) molecules are forced
to overcome attraction interactions between them during vaporization (and sublimation),
which are holding them in the condensed state. Consequently, it is a good idea to use the
experimentally determined macroscopic vaporization properties of liquids (and sublima-
tion properties of some solids when data are available) in order to estimate the physical
162 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

intermolecular interaction energies within them. The term cohesion describes the physical
interactions between the same types of molecule and adhesion between different types of
molecule, as given in Sections 2.1 and 3.5.3. The cohesive energy of a liquid, U V, gives the
molar internal energy of vaporization to the gas phase at zero pressure (i.e. infinite sepa-
ration of the molecules). In other terms, −U V is the molar internal energy of vaporization
of a liquid relative to its ideal vapor at the same temperature (the minus sign shows that
energy is required to vaporize liquids). For liquids at room temperature (generally well
below their boiling point) and atmospheric pressure, it can be safely assumed that (from
Equation (259)) −U V ≅ ∆U V = ∆H V − P∆V, where ∆H V is the molar enthalpy of vapor-
ization. If the vapor in equilibrium with the liquid behaves ideally then, P∆V = RT so
that −U V = ∆U V = ∆H V − RT (Equation (260)) is valid. The molar enthalpy of vaporiza-
tion ∆H V can easily be determined calorimetrically at any desired temperature. Values of
∆H V vary between 20 and 50 kJ mol−1 for most liquids at room temperature, and thus are
a measure of the strength of intermolecular cohesive attractions in the liquid.
van Laar proposed in 1906 that a simple theory of mixtures and solutions could be con-
structed if we neglect the excess mixing entropy, S Emix and excess volume of mixing, V Emix
for special cases. He assumed a) the volume change during mixing, (∆Vmix) at constant
pressure is zero, so that the excess volume, V Emix = 0, and b) the molecules of mixtures are
randomly distributed in both position and orientation, and the entropy of mixing corre-
sponds to an ideal solution (that is the excess entropy, S Emix = 0). Since, at constant pres-
sure, GEmix = U Emix + PV Emix − TSEmix, it follows from van Laar’s simplifying assumptions that
G Emix = U Emix. Later, in the 1920s, Hildebrand found that the experimentally determined solu-
tion properties of iodine in various nonpolar organic solvents fitted van Laar’s simplifying
assumptions, and he defined such nonpolar solutions as regular solutions where orienting
and chemical effects are absent. Hildebrand had chosen iodine as a model solute in organic
solvents because this gives violet solutions when dissolved physically in a solvent, whereas
it gives red or brown solutions when it forms chemical complexes within a solution, so the
violet solutions could be discriminated by naked eye and examined for the physical mixing
rules. In addition, the concentration of iodine could be determined easily and accurately
by titration, which was a popular reliable method in the 1920s. Hildebrand and co-workers
determined the solubility of iodine in a great variety of organic solvents and reported the
solubility variations in molar fractions with temperature. Hildebrand later generalized the
definition of regular solutions having SEmix = 0 and V Emix = 0, “a regular solution is one involv-
ing no entropy change when a small amount of one of its components is transferred to it from
an ideal solution of the same composition, the total volume remaining unchanged”. Regular
solutions have molecules randomly mixed by thermal agitation, regardless of their size dif-
ferences. This model may also be applied to certain very unsymmetrical liquid–liquid solu-
tions in which the molar volume of one component can be as much as six times that of
the other.
Hildebrand also relied on van Laar’s expressions using the equations derived by van der
Waals in 1890 for the a and b constants in the van der Waals equation of state for binary
fluid mixtures, when the interactions of three kinds of molecular pairs, 1–1, 2–2 and 1–2
are present:
a = X11
2
a11 + 2X11X22a12 + X222a22 (379)

b = X11b11 + X22b22 (380)

 Liquid Solution Surfaces 163

where the X terms are the mole fractions. Equation (380) gives the generally accepted
volume additivity rule in thermodynamics. As we see in Section 3.4.1, the internal pres-
sure can be related to the van der Waals constant a, so that (∂U/∂V)T ≅ a/V 2 (Equation
(239)), and its integration at a constant temperature gives, U = −a/V. The total internal
energy of mixing, which is the change in the internal energy before and after mixing, can
be written as
a a a
∆U mix = U mix
after
− U mix
before
= U mix
after
− ( X 11U 11 + X 22U 22 ) = − + X 11 11 + X 22 22 (381)
V V11 V 22

mix = −a/V, and Ui = −ai/Vi expressions are used in the above derivation. If there
where the U after
is no volume change during mixing, the term, ∆Vmix = 0; then by taking V = b, V11 = b11,
V22 = b22, and by inserting into Equation (381) and combining with Equations (379) and
(380), we may write

∆U mix = −
( X 112a 11 + 2 X 11X 22a 12 + X 222a 22 ) + X a 11 a
+ X 22 22 (382)
( X 11b11 + X 22b22 )
11
b11 b22
which can be simplified into
( X11 X22 ) (a11b222 − 2a12b11b22 + a22b112 )
∆U mix = − (383)
( X11b11 + X22b22 )b11b22
since ∆Vmix = 0, and then ∆Umix = ∆Hmix. van Laar further simplified Equation (383) by com-
bining this with Berthelot’s well-known geometric mean equation for fluids [a12 = (a11a22)1/2],
which was derived for binary mixtures to apply to the van der Waals constant, a, giving
2
 X11 X 22b11b22   a11 a 
∆U mix = ∆H mix = −  − 22  (384)
 X11b11 + X 22b22   b11 b22 
The bi parameter represents the space occupied by the molecules in the densely packed
fluids, and not very suitable for liquids; then van Laar and Lorentz modified Equation (384)
by substituting the actual molar volumes, v for the b terms, in 1925:
2
 X11 X 22 v11v 22   a11 a 
∆U mix = ∆H mix = −  − 22  (385)
 X11v11 + X 22 v 22   v11 v 22 
Hildebrand showed that Equation (385) gives a good fit with some regular solutions but
is not adequate when the liquids are appreciably expanded over their close-packed volumes,
where ∆Vmix ≠ 0; and volume changes during mixing contribute to ∆Hmix considerably. Later
Hildebrand defined the cohesive energy density parameter, ced, for one mole of a material,
by using energy of vaporization parameters

U V ∆U V ∆H V − RT
ced ≡ − ≅ ≅ (386)
V V V
where V is the molar volume of the material. In Equation (386), the cohesive energy density
is approximately equal to the internal pressure of the material. Since the molar enthalpy
of vaporization ∆HV can easily be determined experimentally at any desired temperature,
the ced value can be calculated from Equation (386). However, at higher vapor pressures,
P∆V ≠ RT, and real gas corrections should be applied, whereas the error is less than 10%
164 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

in most cases. If no calorimetric measurements are made to determine the ∆HV parame-
ter, then it may be calculated from the variation of vapor pressure with temperature using
the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (given as Equation (283) in Section 4.2.1). Hildebrand
also proposed an empirical equation in terms of the boiling point, Tb, to calculate the
unknown ∆H V parameter at 25°C:
∆H V = −12.340 + 99.2Tb + 0.084T b2 (387)

by using the Kelvin scale of boiling points; ∆Hvap is obtained in J mol−1 units. Later, in 1931,
Scatchard developed Hildebrand’s cohesive energy density approach for binary solutions.
He assumed three points: a) the mutual interaction energy between two molecules depends
only on the distance and on their relative orientation, b) the molecular distribution is
random and c) ∆Vmix = 0. With these assumptions and inserting the ced parameter for each
of the components, so that U Vi = −cedivi, Scatchard proposed that the cohesive internal
energy of a mole of liquid mixture can be written as

V
U mix =−
( ced11 v112X 112 − 2 ced12 v11 v 22X 11X 22 + ced 22 v 222X 222 ) (388)
( X 11 v11 + X 22 v 22 )
Since the total volume of a binary solution is
V = n11v11 + n22v22 (389)

where v11 and v22 are the individual volumes per molecule, and then the volume fraction is

V11 n11v11 X11v11

f11 = = = (390)
V11 + V22 n11v11 + n22 v 22 X11v11 + X 22 v 22

Inserting the volume fraction term, fi, in Equation (388) gives

U Vmix = −(X11v11 + X22v22)(ced11f11
2
− 2ced12f11f22 + ced22f22
2
) (391)

Then, similarly to Equation (381), the total cohesive internal energy of mixing, which
is the change of the cohesive internal energy before and after the mixing, can be
written as
∆U Vmix = U mix
after
− U before
mix = U mix − (X11U11 + X22U22)
V
(392)

∆U is also the excess energy of mixing and by combining Equations (391) and (392),
V
mix
Scatchard obtained
∆U Vmix = (X11v11 + X22v22)(ced11 − 2ced12 + ced22)f11f22 (393)

Scatchard also assumed the geometric mean rule for the cohesive energy density between
the 1–2 molecules, similar to Berthelot and van Laar, in analogy with the result of London’s
dispersion force treatments for nonpolar molecules
(ced)12 = [(ced)11(ced)22]1/2 (394)

By combining Equations (393) and (394), Scatchard obtained

= ( X11v11 + X 22 v 22 ) ( ced11 − ced22 ) f11f22
2
∆U mix
V
(395)
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 165

5.3.2 Solubility parameter approach

Later Hildebrand defined the solubility parameter, d, as the square root of the cohesive
energy density, ced, after Scatchard derived Equation (395)
12 12
 ∆U V   ∆H V − RT 
d ≡ (ced )
12
=  =  (396)
 V   V 
where di = (∆UVi /vi)1/2 for all of the components. The unit of d was (cal cm−3)1/2 formerly,
and now, in SI units (MJ m−3 = MPa = megapascal)1/2, and it should be noted that the
numerical values are different so that (MPa)1/2 are 2.0455 times larger than (cal cm−3)1/2. In
addition, since ∆Vmix = 0, for regular solutions, then ∆Umix = ∆Hmix and Equation (395) can
be written as
∆U Vmix = ∆H Vmix = (X11v11 + X22v22)(d11 − d22)2f11f22 (397)

Equation (397) is identical to the van Laar–Lorentz equation (Equation (385)) if we assume
that ai = vi∆U Vi in this equation. On the other hand, if we use mole numbers instead
of mole fractions (see Equation (390)), then Equation (397) can also be written as
∆U Vmix = (n11v11 + n22v22)(d11 − d22)2f11f22 (398)

The partial molar internal energy of transferring a mole of component 2 from its pure
liquid to the solution can be written as

 ∂∆U mix
V

 = v 22 (d 11 − d 22 ) f11
2 2
 (399)
 n22  n11
Since (dU)V = (dG + TdS)V for constant volume conditions, we may write

 ∂∆U mix
V
  ∂∆Gmix
V
  ∂∆Smix
V

 = v 22 (d 11 − d 22 ) f11
2 2
  =  +T (400)
 n22  n11  n22  n11  n22  n11
The Gibbs free energy of mixing is (∂∆GVmix/n22)n11 = RT ln a22, and if we assume that
the entropy transfer for such a process for regular solutions is given by (∂∆SVmix/n22)n11 =
−R ln X22, then Equation (400) becomes
a22
= v 22 (d 11 − d 22 ) f112
2
R T ln a22 − R T ln X 22 = R T ln (401)
X 22
Since, a22/X22 = ϕ22
X
, then by combining Equations (377) and (401) we obtain the excess
chemical potential of the component, 2, for a regular solution
(mE22)T,P,n11 = RT ln j 22
X
= v22(d1 − d2)2f11
2
(402)

Similarly, for component 1, Equation (402) can be written as

E
(m11)T,P,n22 = RT ln j 11
X
= v11(d1 − d2)2f 22
2
(403)

Equations (402) and (403) were found to be applicable to many binary regular solutions
containing nonpolar components. However, because of the various simplifying assump-
tions made in the course of their derivation, a complete quantitative agreement cannot be
achieved. These equations always predict ji ≥ 1, that is a regular solution can exhibit only
166 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

positive deviations from ideality, which is not true experimentally. This is the direct
consequence of the geometric-mean assumption. We know that assumptions of regular
random mixing (SE = 0) and no volume change (V E = 0) are also not correct even for simple
mixtures, but due to a cancellation of errors, these assumptions frequently do not seriously
affect calculations of GE. The solubility parameters d1 and d2 are functions of temperature
but the difference (d1 − d2) is often almost independent of temperature.
The solubility parameter approach is a thermodynamically consistent theory and it has
some links with other theories such as the van der Waals internal pressure concept, the
Lennard–Jones pair potentials between molecules, and entropy of mixing concepts of the
lattice theories. The solubility parameter concept has found wide use in industry for non-
polar solvents (i.e. solvent selection for polymer solutions and extraction processes) as well
as in academic endeavor (thermodynamics of solutions), but it is unsuccessful for solu-
tions where polar and especially hydrogen-bonding interactions are operating.

5.3.3 Three-component solubility parameters

According to the solubility parameter approach, liquids having similar solubility parame-
ters will be miscible, and polymers can be dissolved in solvents whose solubility parame-
ters are not too different from their own. The lack of complete success in the chemical
industry with this approach raises questions about the validity of the solubility parameter
approach because deviation from the regular solutions is unexpectedly large for polar and
hydrogen-bonding solvents, and solubility parameter equations cannot be used effectively.
Later, in 1967, C. Hansen applied a multicomponent solubility parameter approach in
order to solve this important solvent selection problem in the paint industry, and he pro-
gressively developed his approach up to the 1990s.
Hansen proposed that all types of bonds holding liquid molecules are broken during
vaporization, and he divided the cohesive energy, ∆U V into three parts:
∆U V = ∆U Vd + ∆U Vp + ∆U Vh (404)
where, ∆U Vd are the cohesion contributions from nonpolar (mainly London dispersion)
interactions; ∆U Vp, the cohesion contributions from polar (permanent dipole–permanent
dipole, mainly Keesom orientation) interactions and ∆U Vh are the cohesion contributions
from hydrogen-bonding interactions. Dividing Equation (404) by the molar volume of the
solvent, V, gives
∆U V ∆U dV ∆U pV ∆U hV
= + + (405)
V V V V
and introduction of the three-component solubility parameters is then possible by
combining Equations (396) and (405),
d 2 = d d2 + d 2p + d 2h (406)

where, dd, dp, dh are dispersion, polar and H-bonding solubility parameters respectively. In
order to evaluate the nonpolar dispersion contribution, dd, the homomorph concept was
used, which was formerly invented by Brown. The homomorph of a polar molecule is a
nonpolar molecule having very nearly the same size and shape as the polar molecule. In
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 167

order to find the molecular properties of a homomorph, the experimentally determined

vaporization enthalpy of a polar liquid is divided into two parts: one corresponds to the
vaporization enthalpy of the nonpolar homomorph, which is assigned to the polar mole-
cule at the same reduced temperature, so that the other polar part can then be deduced.
The molar volumes of the polar molecule and the homomorph molecule were assumed to
be equal for this comparison. The molar volumes of hydrocarbons were calculated accord-
ing to their type, such as linear straight-chain, cyclic, aromatic etc., and the variation of
internal vaporization energy is plotted against the molar volume. When, a polar molecule
was investigated, dd of this polar molecule was found using the ∆U V data of its corre-
sponding homomorph. In an alternative method, Keller evaluated dd using the
Lorentz–Lorenz refractive index, nD (D for sodium light) function. The ratio
nD2 − 1
y= (407)
nD2 + 2
is used as an indication. If y ≤ 0.28 then the linear relationship [dd = 62.6y] is used
in (MPa)1/2 units. If y > 0.28, then the linearity vanishes and a polynomial expression of
dd = −4.58 + 108y − 119y2 + 45y3 is used.
The polar contribution, dp, was calculated using a slight modification of Böttcher’s equa-
tion in terms of measurable dipole moment, m, refractive index, nD, molar volume, V and
relative permittivity, e.
12108  e − 1  2
d p2 =
V 2  2e + nD2 
(nD + 2)m 2 (408)

For many solvents the above physical data are not available and Beerbower developed a
much simpler and somewhat reliable equation for such cases:
37.4 m
dp = (409)
V
Alcohols, glycols, carboxylic acids, amines and other hydrophilic compounds have high
hydrogen-bonding parameters. In the earlier times of the three-parameter solubility
parameter approach, the hydrogen-bonding contribution, dh, was calculated by subtract-
ing the ∆UVd and ∆U Vp data from the total energy of vaporization and then applying Equa-
tions (405) and (406). In the absence of any reliable latent heat and dipole moment data,
some empirical group contribution methods can be applied. Hansen formerly calculated
d h for alcohols directly from d h = (20 900 NOH/V)1/2 in (MPa)1/2 units, where NOH is the
number of alcohol groups in the molecule, V is the molar volume and the numerical value
of 20 900 arises from the fact that the average hydrogen-bond energy of the —OH . . . O—
bond is 20 900 cal mol−1. Crowley applied the effect of hydrogen bonding on the shift for-
mation of the infra-red spectrum to calculate d h. Bagley calculated the d h parameter from
the residual solubility parameter which was evaluated from internal pressure–molar
volume and molar vaporization energy data. However, all these approaches did not con-
sider the property that hydrogen bonding is an unsymmetrical interaction, involving a
donor and an acceptor with different roles, rather than two equivalent mutually H-bonding
species. This unsymmetrical property may be qualitatively estimated by multiplying the
hydrogen-bond accepting capacity with the hydrogen-bond donating capacity. This may
be shown to calculate the enthalpy of hydrogen bonding as
168 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

∆Hh = f1f2(A1 − A2)(D1 − D2) (410)

where A is the H-bond acceptor capability and D is the H-bond donor capability. It is
apparent that the maximum interaction occurs when A1 = D2 = 0, or A2 = D1 = 0. On
the other hand, hydrogen bonding was also thought of as a quasi-chemical bond rather
than a physical interaction between molecules. For example, alcohols may be considered
as linear polymer complexes in non-hydrogen-bonding solvents. If chemical H-bonding
forces are strong then dispersion and polar forces may be neglected but careful study has
shown that, for accurate work, both physical and chemical forces must be taken into
account. Thus, the determination of dh is not very reliable in all the above methods and
forms the weakest part of the solubility parameter theory. Some other semi-empirical
approaches were also proposed, but any theory of solutions with a sufficient number of
adjustable parameters can never be considered to be adequate unless supported by inde-
pendent physicochemical experimental data. The need for so many parameters is due to
our inadequate understanding of intermolecular forces. Since real liquid mixtures are much
more complicated than the oversimplified solution models, we must not take any theory
too seriously.
Three-component solubility parameters are used in coatings industries to select suitable
solvents for polymers and other ingredients. Since ∆U V cannot be measured for most of
the solids, it is not possible to determine d values for non-volatile solutes such as polymers
directly, as is done for liquids. As a practical solution to this important industrial problem,
it is assumed that a solute d value has exactly the same value as a solvent d value, when the
solute dissolves very well, such that they can mix in all proportions without enthalpy or
volume change, and without specific chemical interaction. Polymers are assumed to dis-
solve in solvents whose dd, dp, dh solubility parameters are not too different from their own.
In practice, the usual procedure is that the polymer is dissolved in a limited number of sol-
vents chosen specifically for this purpose at a given concentration, usually 10% by weight.
The solvents are selected to maximize the information regarding all types of interaction.
Then the solubility data of the solute are plotted in a three-dimensional system of dd, dp,
dh. After defining a region of spherical volume in this three-dimensional solubility plot for
the solute under consideration, one can proceed to use it in solving practical problems (see
Reference 8, Chapter 10, written by C. Hansen in the CRC Handbook of Surface and Colloid
Chemistry).
It is clear that a match in solubility parameters leads to zero enthalpy of mixing, and
the entropy change should cause complete dissolution. Solvents with smaller molecular
volumes promote lower heats of mixing, so that materials having smaller molecules will
be thermodynamically better solvents than those with larger molecules. Entropy change is
beneficial to mixing: the higher the excess entropy, the higher the dissolution. Higher tem-
peratures will also contribute to a greater degree of dissolution when multiplied with the
entropy change, giving negative free energy of mixing. For polymer chains, it is obvious
that the entropy changes associated within a solvent will be smaller than the entropy of
liquid–liquid solutions, since the monomer units of the polymer macromolecule are
already bound into the configuration of the macromolecule. Thus it is difficult to achieve
complete polymer–polymer miscibility in any medium. In spite of these facts, polymer
compatibility and polymer interfacial tensions may also be examined, somewhat roughly,
by using the three-component solubility parameter approach.
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 169

Beerbower related dd, dp, dh solubility parameters to the surface tension of organic
solvents:
g = 0.0715V 1/3[d d2 + 0.632(d P2 + d 2h)] (411)
−31/2 −2
when ds are inserted in cal cm units, then surface tension can be found in ergs cm units.
It is interesting to note that the constant 0.07152 can also be derived from the number of
nearest neighbors lost in the surface formation, assuming that the liquid molecules on
average occupy the corners of a regular octahedron in the bulk liquid. When Equation (411)
is applied to many organic liquids, the computer fit gives a constant of 0.07147; the
similarity of these values is remarkable. However, this approach is not very successful for
hydrogen-bonding liquids, and also cannot be applied to predict polymer surface tensions.

5.4 Solutions Containing Surface-active Solutes

Some solutes, which are called surface-active solutes have special chemical groups in their
structure, and their solutions have unusual properties. Surface activity is the ability to alter
(generally reduce) the surface tension of the solvent when the surface-active solute is dis-
solved in small concentrations. For example, the surface tension of pure water, which is
72.8 mN m−1 at room temperature, can be reduced down to 22 mN m−1 by the addition of
a surface-active solute at concentrations of less than 0.1%. However, when nonaqueous
solutions are considered, this effect is much smaller. Surface-active agents are also termed
tensides, soaps, detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers and dispersants, but the term surfac-
tant is the most generally accepted. (The term soap indicates the alkali metal salts of long-
chain fatty acids.) Surfactants have the property of adsorbing onto the surfaces (or
interfaces when two immiscible phases are present) of the solution. They usually reduce
the interfacial free energy of the solution but, very rarely, there are occasions when they
can increase the interfacial free energy. A surfactant is therefore a substance that signifi-
cantly decreases the amount of work required to expand these solution interfaces.
Surfactants have a characteristic molecular structure consisting of a chemical group that
has very little attraction for the solvent (solvent-repellent), known as a lyophobic group,
together with a group that has a strong attraction for the solvent (solvent-loving), called
a lyophilic group. This is known as an amphipathic structure (combines both natures).
When a molecule with an amphipathic structure is dissolved in a solvent, the lyophobic
group, with little affinity for the solvent, may change the structure of the bulk solvent,
increasing the free energy of the system. When this occurs, the system responds in some
way in order to minimize the contact area between the solvent-repellent lyophobic group
and the solvent. In the case of a surfactant dissolved in aqueous medium in air, the lyopho-
bic (in water medium, it is called hydrophobic, water-repellent, tail) group breaks the
hydrogen bonds between the water molecules and distorts the pre-structure of the pure
water. As a result of this distortion, some of the surfactant molecules are expelled to the
surface of the solution, with their hydrophobic, water-repellent groups oriented towards
the air so as to minimize contact with the water molecules. On the other hand, the
presence of the lyophilic (in water medium it is called a hydrophilic, water-loving, head)
group prevents the surfactant from being expelled completely from the water solvent as
a separate phase, since that would require dehydration of the hydrophilic groups. Then
170 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the surface of the water becomes covered with a monolayer of the surfactant molecules
with their hydrophobic groups oriented predominantly towards the air, and the hydrophilic
groups oriented predominantly towards the water. Since air molecules are essentially non-
polar in nature, as are the hydrophobic groups, this decrease in the dissimilarity of the two
phases contacting each other at the surface results in a decrease in the surface tension of
the aqueous solution. This situation is energetically more favorable. Consequently,
the amphipathic structure of the surfactant causes an increase in its concentration at the
water–air surface over its concentration in the bulk solution, and reduces the surface
tension of the water.
Most of the surfactants used as detergents, emulsifiers or wetting agents have hydrophilic
and lipophilic (oil-loving, hydrophobic) groups in different proportions. The properties of
these groups determine the behavior of the surfactant. Every surfactant occupies a place
on a scale of hydrophile–lipophile balance (HLB), and this balance determines whether the
surfactant is water- or oil-soluble (see Section 5.4.3). A long-chain hydrocarbon tail is a
lipophile, is completely insoluble in water and will not spread on a water surface, but floats
as a compact liquid lens. If a hydrogen-bonding, hydrophilic head group such as hydroxyl
(—OH) or amino (—NH2) is covalently attached to this hydrophobic group in the mole-
cule, its water solubility increases although the new molecule is still practically insoluble,
but it spreads spontaneously on the water surface and if the surface area is sufficiently large,
a monomolecular layer forms. These monolayers are generally insoluble films. If the surface
area is not large enough to form a monolayer, then surfactant multilayers form on the water
surface.
If the hydrogen-bonding group is ionic, such as carboxylate (—COOH), sulfate
(—OSO3), sulfonate (—SO3−), or ammonium ions (R4N+), the corresponding surfactants
are much more soluble in water but are still positively adsorbed at the water–air (or
water–oil interfaces). These surfactants reduce the surface tension of the water because of
their positive adsorption at the interface; this was quantitatively shown by the Gibbs
adsorption isotherm equation (Equations (224)–(227)). When the interfacial region con-
tains excess adsorbed solute that is thicker than the monolayer, then this is called a soluble
interfacial film or soluble multilayer film, to distinguish it from the insoluble monolayers.
For surfactants having the same hydrophilic groups, when the length of the hydrocarbon
(lipophile) group decreases, the degree of hydrophilicity further increases. When fewer than
six carbon atoms are present in the hydrocarbon part of the surfactant, it hardly differs
from an ordinary strong electrolyte, comprising a small anion and a small cation. Then,
water molecules surround these small ions in order to dissolve them, and thermodynam-
ically it is more favorable for these surfactant molecules to be dissolved in the bulk water,
rather than locating at the interfacial region. This leads to negative adsorption. Thus the
sign of the adsorption depends on the HLB balance of the surfactants. It should be noted
that achieving equilibrium during surfactant monolayer formation at the interface is not
an instantaneous process, but is governed by the rate of diffusion of the surfactant through
the solution to the surface. It might take several seconds for a surfactant solution to attain
its equilibrium surface tension, especially if the solution is dilute and the solute molecules
are large and unsymmetrical.
Surfactants are very important in the chemical industry, appearing in such diverse prod-
ucts as detergents, emulsion polymer-based adhesives, surface coatings, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, motor oils, drilling muds used in petroleum prospecting, ore flotation agents,
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 171

and more recently also in the electronics and computer industries, such as for printing,
micro-electronics, magnetic recording, and also in supercritical carbon dioxide, biotech-
nology, nanotechnology and viral research. The use of surfactants is important when the
phase boundary area is so large relative to the volume of the system that a substantial frac-
tion of the total mass of the system is present at the boundaries, such as dispersions of
solids in liquids, in emulsions, foams etc. Surfactants also play a major role when the phe-
nomena occurring at phase boundaries are so unusual relative to the expected bulk phase
interactions that the entire behavior of the system is determined by interfacial processes,
such as heterogeneous catalysis, detergency, flotation, and corrosion etc.

5.4.1 Effect of hydrophilic and hydrophobic group types

The lyophobic and lyophilic structural groups of the surfactant molecule are chosen
according to the nature of the solvent and the conditions of use. The hydrocarbon part of
the molecule is responsible for its solubility in oil, while the polar carboxyl (—COOH) or
hydroxyl (—OH) groups, which have sufficient affinity to water, are responsible for the
solubility of the surfactant in water. The hydrophobic tail (lyophobic) group is usually a
long-chain hydrocarbon [CH3(CH2)n—] or fluorocarbon [CF3(CF2)n—], and less often a
halogenated or oxygenated hydrocarbon or siloxane —[OSi(CH3)2]n— chain of proper
length when the surfactant is used in water. Only fluorocarbon or siloxane chains may be
used as the hydrophobic group when the surfactant is to be dissolved in a less hydrogen-
bonding solvent such as polypropylene glycol. Materials such as short-chain fatty acids and
alcohols are soluble in both oil and water.
Hydrophobic tail groups are generally long-chain hydrocarbon residues [CH3
(CH2)n—] including such different structures as:
1 Straight-chain, long alkyl groups (C8–C20)
2 Branched-chain, long alkyl groups (C8–C20)
3 Long-chain (C8–C16) alkylbenzene residues
4 Alkylnaphthalene residues (C3 and greater-length alkyl groups)
5 High-molecular-weight propylene oxide polymers (polyoxypropylene glycol derivatives)
6 Long-chain perfluoroalkyl groups
7 Polysiloxane groups, H—[OSi(CH3)2]n—OH
8 Rosin and lignin derivatives
When the length of the hydrophobic tail group increases in a surfactant dissolved in water,
it decreases the solubility of the surfactant in water, generally causes closer packing of the
surfactant molecules at the interface, increases the tendency of the surfactant to form
micelles in water, increases the melting point of the surfactant, and, if it has ionic groups,
increases the precipitation sensitivity by the counterions such as Ca2+ or Mg2+ present in
the water. However, when the length of the hydrophobic group increases in a surfactant
dissolved in an organic nonpolar liquid, conversely it increases the solubility of the sur-
factant in this solvent.
The introduction of branching or unsaturation into the hydrophobic tail group increases
the solubility of the surfactant in water or in organic solvents (compared to the straight-
chain, saturated isomer), decreases the melting point of the surfactant, causes looser
172 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

packing of the surfactant molecules at the interface (the cis isomer is particularly loosely
packed, the trans isomer is packed almost as closely as the saturated isomer) and may
increase thermal instability and cause oxidation and color formation in unsaturated com-
pounds. The presence of an aromatic nucleus in the hydrophobic group may increase the
adsorption of the surfactant onto polar surfaces and cause looser packing of the surfactant
molecules at the interface. Cycloaliphatic nuclei, such as those in rosin derivatives, are even
more loosely packed. The presence of aromatics in the structure decreases the biodegrad-
ability of the surfactant. When polyoxypropylene units are present, they increase the
hydrophobicity of the surfactant, its adsorption onto polar surfaces, and its solubility in
organic solvents. The presence of the perfluoroalkyl or polysiloxane groups results in the
largest reductions in the surface tension of water solutions. Perfluoroalkyl surfaces are both
water- and hydrocarbon-repellent.
The hydrophilic head part of the most effective water-soluble surfactants is often an ionic
group. Ions have a strong affinity for water owing to their electrostatic attraction to the
water dipoles, and are capable of pulling fairly long hydrocarbon chains into solution with
them. For example, palmitic acid, which is virtually non-ionized, is insoluble in water,
whereas sodium palmitate, which is almost completely ionized, is soluble. It is possible to
use non-ionic hydrophilic groups in surfactants, which also exhibit a strong affinity for
water. For example, a poly (ethylene oxide) chain shows a strong affinity for water. As the
temperature and use conditions (e.g. presence of electrolyte or organic additives) vary,
modifications in the structure of the lyophobic and lyophilic groups may become neces-
sary to maintain the surface activity at a suitable level.

5.4.2 Types of surfactant

Conventional surfactants are classified as anionic, cationic, non-ionic or amphoteric, accord-

ing to the charge carried by the surface-active part of the molecule:

Anionic surfactants

Sodium stearate, sodium oleate, sodium dodecylsulphate and sodium dodecyl benzene
sulphonate are examples of anionic surfactants. The surface-active (head) portion of the
molecule has a negative charge, such as a sulfonate, sulfate, or carboxylate group. For
example, in the surfactants sodium dodecylsulphate [C12H25OSO3−Na+], [RC6H4SO3−Na+]
(alkylbenzene sulfonate), sodium dodecanoate [C11H23COO−Na+] or sodium perfluorooc-
tanate [C8F17COO−Na+], the sodium atom (or other alkali metal if present) dissociates
to give a sodium cation in water at neutral pH and room temperature, and the remaining
surfactant becomes anionic. Anionic surfactants are cheap and the most widely used
types. Because of their low cost, wide pH tolerance and lower precipitation properties
when the hardness ions Ca2+ and Mg2+ are present, branched-chain alkylbenzene
sulfonates were largely used until the 1960s. However, because of the environmental
pollution they create in rivers and lakes, their production was considerably decreased
and the production of biodegradable linear chain alkylbenzene sulfonates began for the
same applications.
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 173

Cationic surfactants

Hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide [C16H33N+(CH3)3Br−] and dodecyl trimethyl

ammonium chloride [C12H25N+(CH3)3Cl−] are examples of cationic surfactants. The
surface-active portion (head) bears a positive charge localized at the nitrogen atom, for
example, RN+(CH3)3Cl− (quaternary ammonium chloride) or RN+H3Cl− (salt of a long-
chain amine). If the surface is to be made hydrophobic (water-repellent) with the use of a
surfactant, then the best type of surfactant to use is cationic. This is because a cationic sur-
factant will adsorb onto the water surface with its positively charged hydrophilic group ori-
ented toward the negatively charged surface (due to the electrostatic attraction), and its
hydrophobic group oriented away from the surface, making the surface water-repellent.
On the other hand, if the surface is to be made hydrophilic (water-wettable), then cationic
surfactants should be avoided. Cationic surfactants are expensive, but their germicidal
action makes them useful for many industrial applications. Cationic surfactants are incom-
patible with anionic surfactants, and since anionic surfactants are generally used in the
manufacture of emulsion polymers, the use of cationic surfactants is mostly avoided in the
latex industry.

Nonionic surfactants

These surfactants do not contain charged groups. Polyethylene oxides, alkyl glucosides, sor-
bitan esters, polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters are examples of nonionic surfactants. For
example, polyoxyethylenated alcohols [R(OC2H4)nOH] such as dodecyl hexaoxylene glycol
monoether [C12H25(OC2H4)6OH] belong to this class. Some aromatic derivatives such as
polyoxyethylenated alkylphenol [RC6H4(OC2H4)nOH], and some monoglycerides of long-
chain fatty acids [RCOOCH2CHOHCH2OH] are also examples of nonionic surfactants.
When nonionic ethylene oxide is block copolymerized with hydrophobic polypropylene
oxide, H—[OCH2CH2]n—[OCH(CH3)CH2]m—OH surfactant is obtained and its proper-
ties vary according to the chain lengths of the blocks. Polyethylene oxide is the hydrophilic
part of this surfactant. When polyethylene oxide is combined with fatty-acid esters of glyc-
erol or sorbitol, the resulting surfactant is used in the food industry, generally as a wetting
agent in dehydrated milk and eggs, flour, cocoa etc. All polyethylene oxide-containing sur-
factants become insoluble in water at higher temperatures, as the extent of hydrogen
bonding of water to the ether oxygen in polyethylene oxide is decreased by the supply of
heat, and polyethylene oxide portions become hydrophobic in these circumstances.
An advantage of the nonionic surfactants is that both of their hydrophilic head and
hydrophobic tail group lengths can be varied when required. Nonionics adsorb onto sur-
faces with either the hydrophilic or the hydrophobic group oriented towards the surface,
depending upon the nature of the solvent. If polar groups in the solvent are capable of H-
bonding with the hydrophilic group of the surfactant, then the surfactant will probably be
adsorbed onto the surface with its hydrophilic head group oriented towards the surface,
making the surface more hydrophobic. However, if such polar or H-bonding groups are
absent in the solvent, then the surfactant will probably be oriented with its hydrophobic
tail group towards the surface, making it more hydrophilic. Nonionic surfactants are widely
used as detergents in laundry applications.
174 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Amphoteric (or zwitterionic) surfactants

Both positive and negative charges are present in the amphoteric surfactant molecule,
and the net charge is zero. For example, long-chain amino acids [RN+H2CH2COO−],
sulfobetaine [RN+(CH3)2CH2CH2SO3−] and dodecyl dimethyl propane sultaine
[C12H25N+(CH3)2(CH3)2SO3−] are amphoteric. Amphoteric surfactants may behave as either
anionic or cationic in water depending on the pH of the medium. Since they carry both
positive and negative charges, they can adsorb onto both negatively charged and positively
charged surfaces without changing the charge of the surface significantly. Amphoteric sur-
factants are expensive and are only used for special tasks on charged surfaces.
As described above, the conventional surfactants have only one hydrophilic head group
and only one hydrophobic tail group. However, there are special polymeric surfactants
having more than one hydrophilic and hydrophobic group which have been used exten-
sively in the chemical industry over the past decade. If two conventional surfactants are
connected by a spacer chemical group, then a dimeric surfactant is obtained. There are two
main types of these, as shown in Figure 5.1: Gemini surfactants are formed if two conven-
tional surfactants are connected by a spacer group which is close to the hydrophilic head
group, and Bolaform surfactants are formed if two conventional surfactants are connected
by a spacer group close to the middle or the end of the hydrophobic tail group. By the same
procedure, trimeric or tetrameric surfactants can be synthesized having superior surface-
active properties to those of the conventional surfactants. Polymeric surfactants contain a
large number of monomeric units having amphipathic structure, as shown in Figure 5.1,
and sometimes behave much more effectively than conventional surfactants. Finally some
diblock copolymers are used as surfactants; these have long hydrophilic —AAAA— and
hydrophobic —BBBB— blocks connected in the middle of the copolymer. By applying
suitable polymerization procedures it is possible to adjust the length of each block. In addi-
tion, it is also possible to use more than two types of polymeric block giving triblock or
tetrablock copolymers.

Hydrophilic
Head

Gemini Bolaform
Hydrophobic Surfactant Surfactant
Tail

Polymeric Surfactant Diblock Copolymer Surfactant

Figure 5.1 Types of monomeric and polymeric surfactants.

 Liquid Solution Surfaces 175

5.4.3 HLB method

If an oil is finely dispersed in water or the water is finely dispersed in an oil by the use of
a surfactant, then the dispersion is called an emulsion. The size of the liquid droplets in an
emulsion is generally larger than 50 nm. If the droplets are 10–50 nm in diameter, giving a
transparent emulsion, it is called a microemulsion. Conventional emulsions (or macroemul-
sions) are unstable thermodynamically and separate into oil-rich and water-rich bulk
phases rapidly if the surfactants are ineffective. Emulsions are very important in the chem-
ical, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, and the selection of a suitable surfactant for
an emulsification process should be carried out on the basis of sound scientific principles.
Correlations between the chemical structure of surfactants and their emulsifying power are
complicated, because any emulsifier selection method must be applied to both oil-in-water
(O/W) and water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion processes. Nevertheless, there are several general
guidelines that can be helpful in the selection of a surfactant as an emulsifying agent. It
must have a tendency to migrate to the interface, rather than to remain dissolved in either
one of the bulk phases. It must therefore have a balance of lyophilic and lyophobic groups
so that it will distort the structure of both bulk phases to some extent, although not nec-
essarily equally. Griffin introduced in 1949 a useful rating scheme to be used for this
purpose, known as the HLB (hydrophile–lipophile balance) method. In this method, a
number between 0 and 40 indicates the emulsification behavior in the arbitrary one-
dimensional scale of surfactant behavior and relates it to the balance between the
hydrophilic and lipophilic (hydrophobic) portions of the molecule. In this scale, the least
hydrophilic materials have low HLB numbers, and increasing HLB corresponds to increas-
ingly hydrophilic character, so the surfactants with a low HLB number generally act as W/O
emulsifiers and those with high HLB numbers are O/W emulsifiers, and also act as solu-
bilizers in water. In general a value of 3–6 is the recommended range for W/O emulsifica-
tion; 8–18 is recommended for O/W emulsification. The phase inversion temperature (PIT)
is the temperature at which, upon heating, an oil–water–emulsifier mixture changes from
an O/W to a W/O emulsion. It has been shown that there is a linear dependence between
the HLB number and the phase inversion temperature.
In water, the surfactant solubility behavior can be shown in more detail as: no dis-
persibility (HLB: 1–4); poor dispersibilty (HLB: 3–6, such surfactants may be applied as
W/O emulsifiers); unstable milky dispersion after vigorous agitation (HLB: 6–8, these may
be applied as wetting agents); stable milky dispersion (HLB: 8–10); from translucent to
clear (HLB: 10–13, these may be applied as O/W emulsifiers up to HLB 15); clear solution
(HLB: 14–18, these may be applied as detergents for HLB 13–15 and solubilizer for HLB
15–18).
The assignment of the HLB number for a new surfactant is generally based on the emul-
sification experience in the laboratory, rather than on the structural considerations.
(However various methods have been proposed to calculate the HLB number from the
structure of the surfactant molecule; these have not been very successful.) A similar range
of HLB numbers has been assigned to various substances that are frequently emulsified,
such as hydrocarbons, plant oils, lanolin, paraffin wax, xylene, chlorinated solvents etc.
Then, an emulsifying agent (or preferably a combination of emulsifying agents) is selected
whose HLB number is approximately the same as that of the ingredients to be emulsified.
It has become apparent that, although the HLB method is useful as a rough guide to emul-
176 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

sifier selection, it has serious limitations. For example, paraffinic mineral oil has an HLB
value of 11 for emulsification as the dispersed phase in an O/W emulsion, and a value of
4 as the continuous phase in a W/O emulsion. Since the HLB number depends on the par-
ticular type of phase, it cannot be used additively.
In summary, the HLB method is only an empirical approach which has made it possi-
ble to organize a great deal of rather messy information on emulsion preparation, in order
to choose candidate surfactants in trial and error laboratory work for suitable emulsion
selection. There are other surfactant selection methods such as the phase inversion tem-
perature (PIT) and the hydrophilic–lipophilic deviation (HLD) methods used for the same
purpose in the emulsion industry, but these are outside the scope of this book.

5.5 Gibbs Surface Layers of Soluble Materials on

Liquid Solutions
5.5.1 Gibbs monolayers: thermodynamics of adsorption

When a soluble organic or inorganic material, a surfactant, polymer or biomaterial solute,

vapor, liquid or solid, is mixed in a liquid solvent, depending on the molecular interactions
between the solute and the solvent, the solute may be dissolved completely in the solvent
giving a one-phase solution, or dissolve partially in the solvent giving a two-phase solu-
tion. If the solute molecules enrich at the surface in a one-phase liquid solution, they form
a surface layer, and if this layer is monomolecular, then it is called a Gibbs monolayer, and
the surface tension of the solution differs from that of the pure solvent. A monolayer is
defined as a monomolecular layer of the solute having a thickness of only one molecule,
where the gravitational effects are negligible. The resultant surface tension of the solution
varies with the composition and, if the quantity of solute is appreciably small, the surface
excess may be calculated by applying the Gibbs adsorption isotherm equation (Equations
(224)–(230)) at constant temperature, provided that the surface and bulk of the system are
in equilibrium.
On the other hand, if the solute is partially or completely immiscible with the sub-
phase solvent, the solute molecules form a layer on the surface of the sub-phase (or in
the interface between the two immiscible phases) which is different from the Gibbs mono-
layer, and if the layer is monomolecular, it is called a Langmuir insoluble monolayer (see
Section 5.6).
The solute and solvent molecules present in any solution have different intensities of
attractive force fields, and also have different molecular volumes and shapes. A concentra-
tion difference between the surface region and the bulk solution occurs because the mol-
ecules that have the greater fields of force tend to pass into the interior, and those with the
smaller force fields remain at the surface. The Gibbs surface layer of a solution is more con-
centrated in the constituents that have smaller attractive force fields, and thus whose intrin-
sic surface free energy is smaller than the interior. As we stated in Section 3.3, this
concentration difference of one constituent of a solution at the surface is termed adsorp-
tion. In qualitative terms, if the solution has a smaller surface tension than its pure solvent,
the solute is concentrated in the surface layer indicating a positive adsorption according to
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 177

Gibbs’ equation. The adsorption process involves the transport of molecules from the bulk
solution to the interface, where they form a specially oriented monomolecular layer accord-
ing to the nature of the two phases. When a Gibbs monolayer forms, it does not necessar-
ily mean that the molecules are touching each other in this monolayer. Instead, if the
anchoring from the sub-phase molecules is weak, the molecules may move freely in the
two-dimensional interfacial area. Thus, the physically measurable monolayer area is some-
times much larger than the close-packed area where all the molecules touch each other.
When any monolayer is fairly well populated with adsorbed molecules, it exerts a lateral
spreading (film) pressure, p, which is equal to the depression of the surface tension (see
Section 5.5.2).
For aqueous dilute solutions of many organic solutes, the adsorption equilibrium is
attained quickly, and the results of changing the concentration of the system can very often
be predicted by the Gibbs adsorption isotherm equations given in Section 3.3.1 (Equations
(224)–(230)), depending on the availability of experimental surface tension and concen-
tration data for the solution. In reality, the liquid surface is sharply defined, but thermal
agitation of the molecules renders it indefinite to a thickness of one or two molecular diam-
eters, and all the properties of the interfacial phase change gradually in this transition
region until we reach the bulk phase. The Gibbs adsorption approach does not describe
this gradual change; it only compares the actual system with a physically impossible system
in which two phases touch each other without any transitional layer. Gibbs’ method is con-
sistent mathematically and very useful in understanding surface chemistry processes. The
only problem arises in locating the Gibbs dividing plane in order to quantify the adsorbed
surface excess. Nevertheless, some methods have been developed to eliminate the require-
ment to choose the location of the Gibbs dividing plane by introducing the relative adsorp-
tion concept given below:
For a two-component system, the total number of moles of component (1) can be
written (from Equation (194) in section 3.2.5) as
n1 = na1 + n1b + nS1 (412)

and since c a1 = na1 /Va, and c1b = n1b/Vb, from the definition of the concentration, the number
of moles of component (1) in the interphase region can be given as
nS1 = n1 − (ca1 Va + c1bVb) (413)

From the Gibbs convention where V S = 0 is assumed, we know that V = V a + V b, where V

is the total volume of the system (or solution). If we substitute [Va = V − V b] into Equa-
tion (413), we have
nS1 = n1 − ca1 V + V b(ca1 − c1b) (414)

and similarly
nS2 = n2 − ca2 V + V b(ca2 − c2b) (415)

In the above equations, n1, n2, V, ca1 , c 1b, ca2 and c b2 are all experimentally measurable quan-
tities, but we cannot calculate nS1 and nS2 if we do not know the value of V b, which depends
on the location of the Gibbs dividing plane. In order to eliminate this V b term, we multi-
ply both sides of Equation (414) by [(ca2 − c2b)/(ca1 − c1b)] giving
178 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 (c2a − c2b )   (c2a − c2b )   (c2a − c2b ) 

n1S  a b  = n1  a b  − c1aV  a b  + V b (c2a − c2b ) (416)
 (c1 − c1 )   (c1 − c1 )   (c1 − c1 ) 
and if we subtract Equation (416) from Equation (415), then we obtain

n2S − n1S
(c2a − c2b ) = n − c aV − (n − c aV )  (c2a − c2b ) 
 a b  (417)
(c1a − c1b ) 2 2 1 1
 (c1 − c1 ) 
Equation (417) is important in practice because, the right side of the equation does not
depend on the location of the Gibbs dividing plane and can be calculated from the exper-
imental data. If there are more than two components in a system, then Equation (417) can
be written as

niS − n1S
(cia − cib ) = n − c aV − (n − c aV )  (cia − cib ) 
 a b  (418)
(c1a − c1b ) i i 1 1
 (c1 − c1 ) 
for the ith component. We have defined the surface excess in the adsorption process as, Gi ≡
nSi /AS, by Equation (223) in Section 3.3. In order to insert the surface excess terms in the above
equation, we divide both sides of Equation (418) with the constant surface area, AS, giving

G i − G1
(cia − cib ) = ni − c a V −  n1 − c1aV   (cia − cib ) 
 
(c1a − c1b ) AS i AS  AS   (c1a − c1b ) 
(419)

Then, a new term called relative adsorption is defined so that

G i(1) ≡ G i − G 1
(cia − cib ) (420)
(c1a − c1b )
By combining Equations (419) and (420) we obtain
 n1 − c1aV   (ci − ci ) 
a b
ni a V
G i(1) = − c −     (421)
A S  A S   (c1a − c1b ) 
i
AS
where G (1)
i is the relative adsorption of component i with respect to component (1) and
this can be experimentally determined by using Equation (421). For dilute solutions, com-
ponent (1) is generally taken to be the solvent, and when the usual Gibbs convention is
applied by choosing the location of the Gibbs dividing plane arbitrarily to a place where
G1 = 0 for the solvent (1), then we have G (1)
i ≡ Gi, from Equation (420). When binary solu-
tions are considered, containing a solute (2) in solvent (1), we can write for the solute
surface excess from Equation (421)
 n1 − c1aV   (c2 − c2 ) 
a b
n2 a V
Γ2(1) = − c −     (422)
A S  A S   (c1a − c1b ) 
2
AS
where G (1)
2 is the difference between the amount of solute contained in a given volume (or
mass) containing unit area of surface, and a similar volume (or mass) in the interior. It
must be noted that G (1)2 = 0 for a pure solute (2), since a layer of similar thickness in the
interior would consist of almost pure (2), and then the surface layer could not contain
more of this component.
For a solution having an interface with air or its vapor under ambient conditions, we
usually take the gas phase as b, and then [c1b = c2b = 0]; because of the negligible concen-
trations of the solute and the solvent in the gas phase under 1 atm pressure, we then have
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 179

n2 V  n − c aV   c a  n n ca
G 2(1) = − c2a S −  1 S1   2a  = 2S − 1S 2a (423)
A S
A  A   c1  A A c1
The concentration profile of a solute (2) dissolved in solvent (1) is shown in Figure 5.2. In
this figure, the Gibbs dividing plane is located at a place where G1 = 0 according to the con-
vention. The dividing line is drawn so that the two areas, shaded by the horizontal lines,
are equal to each other, on each side of the solvent curve. Thus the surface excess of the
solvent is zero. The surface excess of the solute, G (1)
2 , is shown by the difference in the dark
shaded areas inside the solute curve. It is seen that the dark shaded area of the solute on
the right-hand side of the Gibbs dividing plane is larger than the area on the left, and the
difference between these dark shaded areas gives the surface excess of the solute, G (1) 2
(it is positive in this case). It should be noted that the unit of G (j)i is mol m−2 in the SI
system, and can be converted to the number of molecules per unit area, G (j) i(molecule), (mole-
cule nm−2) by multiplying G (j) i by Avogadro’s number, N A; and if we need the average surface
area available for one molecule (nm2 molecule−1), we must take the reciprocal of this result.
We must note that this is not the cross-sectional area per molecule, and if we want to cal-
culate this, we need to know the area of the close-packed, monomolecular layer where all
the molecules are in contact with each other. The experimental determination of this area
is possible by using a film balance (Langmuir trough), as we will see in Section 5.6.2.
For a two-phase, ternary solution, where a solute is distributed within two immiscible
liquids, Equation (421) can also be used to calculate the surface excesses of solute (3), as
G (1)3 and G (2)
3 are the relative adsorptions of solute (3) with respect to solvents (1) and (2)
(see also Section 5.6).

Gibbs Dividing Plane

1 Solvent

Cb
b-phase

(Liquid phase)

a-PHASE
2 Solute
(Vapor Phase)

Ca

0
Distance, Xg

Figure 5.2 Concentration profile of a solute (2) dissolved in solvent (1) with the interfacial distance:
a is a vapor phase and b is a liquid phase.
180 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

When the surface tension and concentration data are available for a solution, the most
common method is to plot the surface tension against the logarithm of the solute
activity and to obtain [dg/d ln a2] graphically. Nevertheless, very precise experimental
results are needed to calculate the surface excess accurately from such a plot. The
Gibbs equations give the area per molecule if g is determined over a range of solution
concentrations. We may compare the surface excess results found from Equations
(422)–(423) with the results found from Equations (227)–(229), after we plot [dg/d ln c2]
or [dg/d ln a2], and obtain their slopes, but we must remember that we located the
Gibbs dividing plane arbitrarily at a place where G1 = 0 for the solvent (1), in the Gibbs
convention while we were deriving Equations (227)–(230), and this is equivalent to
G (1)i ≡ Gi in Equation (420).

5.5.2 Spreading pressure

When surfactant is added within a loose circle of thread floating on the water surface, it
stretches the thread to a well-defined circular shape by pushing from inside. This shows
the presence of a lateral pressure from the surfactant monolayer to the clean water surface.
This lateral pressure of a monolayer to a barrier floating on the same sub-phase can be
measured in a PLAWM (Pockels, Langmuir, Adam, Wilson and McBain) trough, which is
shown in Figure 5.3 b. Since most surfactants are partially soluble in water, we need to use
a flexible membrane, which is fixed to the barrier to separate the surfactant solution and
pure water departments; otherwise the dissolved surfactant molecules will pass into the
pure water department beneath the barrier. The force on this movable and friction-free
barrier can be measured using any suitable physical method, and it shows the lateral pres-
sure along the length of the barrier. If the solute is practically insoluble in water, then a
Langmuir trough (or film balance) is used instead of the PLAWM trough, as shown in
Figure 5.3 a (see Section 5.6.2 on the experimental determination of spreading pressure in
monolayers).
When positive adsorption takes place at the solution surface, it lowers the surface tension
of the pure solvent, go, and the surface tension of the solution, g, can be determined exper-
imentally. If the solution is dilute, then g can also be calculated from the Gibbs adsorption
equation (Equation 224). The spreading pressure (or surface pressure), p, is defined as the
decrease in the surface tension with the presence of an adsorbed monolayer
p = go − g (424)

(p was also given in Section 3.3.2). The spreading pressure, p, can be regarded as a two-
dimensional lateral pressure exerted by the adsorbed molecules in the plane of the surface.
It is easy to understand the reason for the presence of this lateral pressure, if we consider
the contractile forces exerted on the barrier from the solvent and the solution sides. Since
the molecules in the pure solvent are attracted downwards (towards the bulk solvent) more
strongly than the solute molecules, then the go of the solvent is higher than the g of the
solution; consequently it is as if the monolayer is exerting a lateral force on the barrier from
the solution side, along the length of the barrier (force per unit length, N m−1) to the pure
solvent side. This may also be shown by a simple units analysis, so that the units of surface
tension (N m−1), are the two-dimensional analogue of the bulk pressure units in three
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 181

Wilhelmy plate Flexible Wilhelmy plate

membrane
movable
barrier
Monolayer Monolayer

Solution
Sub-phase Solvent

a. Langmuir trough
(Film Balance) b. PLAWM trough

Figure 5.3 Film balances: a. Langmuir trough having a movable barrier and a Wilhelmy tensiometer to
measure the spreading pressure, p, for water insoluble monolayers. b. PLAWM (Pockels, Langmuir, Adam,
Wilson and McBain) trough used for partially water-soluble monolayers, where a flexible membrane,
which is fixed to the barrier, separates the surfactant solution and pure water departments to prevent the
passage of dissolved surfactant molecules into the pure water department beneath the barrier.

dimensions (N m−2). In fact, surface tension may be regarded as a two-dimensional nega-

tive pressure. In theory, it is possible to convert a two-dimensional pressure, p, into a three-
dimensional pressure, P, by simply dividing it by the thickness of the monolayer (P =
p/hmonolayer). We may test this with standard experimental values: p = 5–15 mN m−1 and
hmonolayer = 1 nm, giving P = 0.5–1.5 × 107 Pa ≅ 50–150 atm, showing the large magnitude of
the spreading pressure in three-dimensional terms.
On the other hand, the magnitude of p depends on both the amount of solute adsorbed
and the area over which it is distributed. Thus, we must control both the quantity of the
solute added onto the sub-phase and the exact area over which the monolayer spreads. The
monolayer area control can be accomplished by compressing the monolayer of a practi-
cally nonvolatile solute by using frictionless movable barriers made of low-energy, inert
materials such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (the use of both single and double
barriers is also possible, firstly to sweep the sub-phase surface to clean the insoluble im-
purities). We can measure both go and g in the same experiment to determine p. In general,
the Wilhelmy plate method is used to measure the surface tension of solutions in film
balances, but any suitable surface tension measurement method may also be used for this
purpose (see Chapter 6). During the barrier compression process, we simultaneously
record the decrease in surface area, AS and the increase in p, which are somewhat inversely
proportional to each other. Nevertheless, we must remember that the molecules present in
a monolayer may freely move in the two-dimensional interfacial area, if their interaction
with the sub-phase molecules is weak. As a result, the initially measured monolayer area
in a film balance experiment is sometimes much larger than their close-packed area, where
all the molecules are touching each other. From another point of view, p can also be defined
as the pressure required to confine the monolayer to a given area.
The Helmholtz surface free-energy change due to the formation of a monolayer is the
difference between the Helmholtz free energy of the pure solvent surface and that of the
solution surface (F monolayer = F S − F oS). The Helmholtz free energy at the surface was defined
182 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

by Equation (211) in Section 3.2.5. We assume the Gibbs dividing plane approach, where
the volume of the interface, V S = 0, to give

F S = gA S + ∑ miSniS (425)
i

from Equation (211). When two insoluble components are present in a binary solution,
say water, W, and oil, O, where O represents all the water insoluble materials, the excess
Helmholtz free energy at the interface may be expressed from Equation (425) as
F S = gAS + mOS nOS + mW
S S
nW (426)

If the Gibbs convention is also adopted so that the Gibbs dividing plane is located such
S
that the surface excess of the water sub-phase is zero (nW = 0), we may then write
F S = gAS + mOS nOS (427)

Equation (427) shows that when no monolayer is present over the water surface (n OS = 0),
there is only pure water and we may write, F oS = goAS. Then, the Helmholtz surface free
energy due to the presence of a monolayer may be given as
F monolayer = FS − F oS = gAS + mOS nOS − goAS = mOS nOS + AS(g − go) (428)

When Equation (428) is combined with Equation (424) we have

F monolayer = mOS nOS − pAS (429)
monolayer
In a film balance experiment, the rate of change of F with the surface area for a closed
system, where nOS = 0 can be found as
∂F monolayer
= −p (430)
∂A S

5.5.3 Gaseous monolayers: two-dimensional perfect gas

It should be clear that monolayer molecules may either merely rest on the surface without
appreciably penetrating it or be almost wholly immersed in the top surface molecules of
the underlying material. Adsorption on solids belongs to the second type where localized
monolayers are formed (see Section 8.4).
For the first type, the Gibbs monolayers are often described as two-dimensional gaseous
(or gas-like) monolayers formed on the surface of dilute solutions, having a low surface
excess, and the surface pressure, p, is regarded as the two-dimensional osmotic pressure of
this solution. When a two-dimensional gaseous monolayer is present on a dilute solution,
the surface tension decreases linearly with the increase in concentration of the added sur-
factant, at constant temperature
g = go − mc (431)

where m is a constant depending on the solvent and the solute type. The derivative, (∂g/∂c)T
= −m can be found from the slope of a g versus c plot. We can rearrange Equation (431)
so that
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 183

mc = go − g = p (432)

If we combine the (∂g/∂c)T = −m expression and Equation (432) with the Gibbs adsorp-
tion isotherm (Equation (229)), we have
mc2 p
G2 = = (433)
RT RT
where R is the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature. Equation (433) relates p to
the surface excess [p = G2RT] and it can be called a surface equation of state (see the similar
derivation of Equation (433) for gas adsorption on a solid surface in Section 8.3.5). This
equation is a two-dimensional analogue of the three-dimensional gas law:
p = RTf(G) (434)

However, there are conceptual differences between the surface equation of state and the
adsorption isotherm, so that the surface equation of state is only concerned with the lateral
motions of the monolayer molecules and their lateral cohesive and adhesive interactions
with the solvent molecules present in the monolayer, whereas an adsorption isotherm is
also concerned with the interactions normal to the surface, between the monolayer mole-
cules (as adsorbate) and solvent molecules (as adsorbent).
S
Since the surface excess is the inverse of the area available per mole of solute, Amole , in
the monolayer, [G = 1/A mole], then from Equation (433) we have
S

pASmole = RT (435)

If we divide both sides of Equation (435) by Avogadro’s number we have

S
pAmolecule = kT (436)
S
where Amolecule is the area available per solute molecule in the monolayer and k is the
Boltzmann constant (R = kNA). However, we must distinguish the term, Amolecule S
, from
molecule
the term, s 2 , which is the cross-sectional area of the solute molecule related to its
geometric size.
The derivation of Equations (435) and (436) from dilute solutions is only approximate.
It is also possible to thermodynamically derive more fundamental types of these equations
by using the activity concept, but initially we need to define non-localized, ideal and non-
ideal monolayers. If all the solute molecules are mobile in a monolayer, this is called a
non-localized monolayer. We may consider three types of molecules in non-localized mono-
layers: ideal point molecules having no mass and volume where no lateral interactions are
present between these point molecules; non-ideal molecules having their mass and volume
but no lateral interactions taking place between them, as above; and non-ideal molecules
having their mass and volume, and in addition appreciable lateral interactions taking place
between them.

Ideal monolayers

For ideal point molecules, the surface equation of state is as given in Equation (435) and
can also be written as
184 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

pAS = nS2RT (437)

where AS is the measured area of the monolayer [AS = nSi ASmole], and nS2 is the number of
excess moles contained in it. Since nS2 = N S2/NA, where N S2 is the number of adsorbed mol-
ecules (2) contained in the monolayer, and NA is Avogadro’s number. Then the above equa-
tion can be written as
pAS = N 2SkT (438)

where k is the Boltzmann constant. (This equation can also be derived directly from sta-
tistical thermodynamics.) The rate of spreading pressure change by the number of mole-
cules can be found from Equation (438) as

kT
dp = dN 2S (439)
AS
When the Gibbs adsorption approach is applied to any monolayer in which the Gibbs
dividing plane is located, where nS1 = 0 for the solvent excess, then we have, from Equation
(225)
−[dg]T = G2dm2 (440)

By combining Equation (440) with [dp = −dg], from Equation (424), this results in
[dp]T = G2dm2 (441)

Since [dm2 = RTd ln a2] is also valid thermodynamically, then we have

[dp]T = Γ2RTd ln a2 (442)

Now, since the surface excess, [Gi ≡ N /A NA] by definition from Equation (223), then Equa-
S
i
S

tion (442) becomes

N 2S N SkT
[dp ]T = S
RTd ln a2 = 2 S d ln a2 (443)
A NA A

When Equations (439) and (443) are combined we obtain

N 2SkT kT
d ln a2 = S dN 2S (444)
AS A
After simplification, we have

dN 2S
d ln a2 = (445)
N 2S
Integration of Equation (445) gives
a2 = KN 2S (446)

where K is the integration constant. Equation (446) is the basic equation of a non-local-
ized and ideal two-dimensional monolayer. If pressures instead of activities are used in the
above derivation [dm2 = RTd ln P2], then we have
P2 = KN 2S (447)
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 185

for the gas monolayers on a liquid sub-phase, which is analogous to Henry’s law in
two-dimensions and indicates that for the adsorption from a perfect gas the
amount adsorbed is directly proportional to the gas pressure. It should be noted that
Equations (446) and (447) are valid for ideal and non-localized monolayers where
no lateral attractions are present, and can be applied approximately for only very dilute
monolayers.

Non-ideal, monolayers without molecular interaction

For non-ideal molecules, the size of the molecules takes part in the derivation of the equa-
tion of state expressions. This case is valid for a more concentrated, non-ideal and non-
localized monolayer where the lateral molecular interactions are also absent. In the above
derivation for ideal, non-localized monolayers, the fluid molecules were assumed to be
point molecules, which could move freely in the actual area, AS, which is the product of
solute mole number and area available, per mole of solute AS = n2SASmole. Since [nS2 = N 2S/NA]
we have
N 2S S NS
AS = Amole = 2 ( N A Amolecule
S
) = N 2S Amolecule
S
(448)
NA NA
S
where Amolecule is the area available per solute molecule in the monolayer. However, for non-
ideal monolayers, the fluid molecules cannot approach more closely to each other than the
sum of their hard sphere radii will permit. Volmer modified Equation (438) in 1925 for
non-ideal monolayers so that
p(AS − N2SAmolecule
SO
) = N 2SkT (449)

where ASO molecule = A2/N2 is the co-area of the molecule where A2 is the incompressible solute
S S S

area and the (A − N2 Amolecule) term is the free area where the solute molecules present in
S S SO

the two-dimensional non-ideal and non-localized monolayer can move freely. The
SO
Amolecule term gives the area that any molecule occupies when all the molecules are in contact
with each other in a two-dimensional gaseous monolayer. For two different molecules
touching each other, having their hard sphere radii as ra and rb, there is an area of [p(ra +
rb)2] around the center of each molecule from which the centers of all other molecules are
excluded. This excluded area is common for these two molecules, and therefore the
excluded area per molecule is only half of this, [ASO molecule = p(ra + rb) /2]. If there is only one
2

type of molecule, then this analysis gives A molecule = 2pr i . We must realize that, ASO
SO 2
molecule ≠
s molecule
2 , where s molecule
2 shows the cross-sectional area of the solute molecule. However
for rigid spherical molecules, ASO molecule = 2s 2
molecule
is valid from simple geometrical
considerations.
If Equations (448) and (449) are combined and divided by (N S2), then we have
p(ASmolecule − Amolecule
SO
) = kT (450)
S
and when spreading pressure, p, is differentiated with respect to Amolecule we have
kT
dp = − S
dAmolecule (451)
( Amolecule
S
− Amolecule
SO
)2
186 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Since the [dp]T = G2dm2, [dm2 = RTd ln a2] and [G2 ≡ N2S/ASNA] expressions are also valid,
then by combining these equations with Equation (451) we have
S
Amolecule
d ln a2 = − S
dAmolecule (452)
( Amolecule
S
− Amolecule
SO
)2
After integration, Equation (452) yields
 AS 
ln a 2 = −  ln ( A molecule
S
− A molecule
SO
) − A S molecule + integral constant
( molecule − A molecule) 
SO
(453)

If pressures instead of activities are used for the gas monolayers in the above derivation,
from the [dm2 = RT d ln P2] expression, we have
 AS 
ln P2 = −  ln ( A molecule
S
− A molecule
SO
) − A S molecule  + integral constant (454)
 ( molecule − A SO
molecule) 
which can be further transformed into surface coverage, [q = ASO S
molecule/Amolecule] terms, which
are occasionally used for adsorption on solid surfaces (see Section 8.4).

Non-ideal monolayers with molecular interaction

This case is valid when non-ideal and non-localized monolayers are formed on concen-
trated solutions. Lateral molecular interactions are present in such monolayers. The equa-
tion of state takes the form of the two-dimensional van der Waals equation
 a( N 2S )  S
2

+  ( A − N 2 Amolecule ) = N 2 kT
S SO S
 p (455)
 ( AS )2 
where a is the two-dimensional van der Waals constant which shows the magnitude of the
lateral interactions in the monolayer. The behavior represented by Equation (455) has been
observed experimentally on both liquid and solid surfaces.

5.5.4 Adsorption on a water surface

Water is especially suitable to be used as the high density, sub-phase solvent, because
it is partially and sometimes practically immiscible with most organic chemicals,
surfactants, synthetic polymers and biological macromolecules. The phrase practically
immiscible is used in the above sentence because there are no completely immiscible
materials in theory, and all chemicals are miscible within each other always from
large quantities down to a very small (parts per billion) extent, and this small miscibility
must be neglected to assume complete immiscibility. Another important factor towards
water being selected as the sub-phase solvent is its high surface tension: for pure water,
it is equal to 72.8 mN m−1, which is much higher than most organic liquids (except liquid
metals) at room temperature, so that it allows other liquids to spread on the water sub-
phase as a monolayer (we will see the reasons for this mechanism in the spreading section
given below).
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 187

Direct experimental verification of the Gibbs adsorption equation in aqueous solutions

is difficult, because physical separation of the monomolecular layer at the water surface is
required to compare the concentration differences between the surface layer and the bulk
solution. Several attempts have been made on this subject from 1910 to the present day,
and although an exact fit has never been obtained, the results show a good agreement with
the theory. McBain and co-workers used a suitable microtome to cut off a thin layer of
approximately 50–100 µm from the surface of phenol, p-toluidine etc. solutions and veri-
fied the Gibbs equation within experimental error in 1932. Later, isotopically labeled solute
molecules were employed for this purpose. Beta-emitter molecules, such as 3H, 14C and 35S
have also been used and the radioactivity close to the surface measured. Since electrons
only travel a short distance, the recorded radioactivity comes from the interface or very
near the interface.
Typical plots of the variation of the surface tension with the logarithmic concentration
difference of a surfactant, a saturated hydrocarbon alcohol and an inorganic salt in an
aqueous solution are shown in Figure 5.4. Surfactant molecules find a lower free-energy
environment at the interface of an aqueous solution than they have in the bulk solution
and prefer to concentrate at the surface. The adsorption isotherm of most surfactants shows
a sharp decrease initially with the increase in the solute concentration until a plateau
appears, due to the formation of micelles following the critical micelle concentration (CMC),
where all the solution surface is covered with surfactant molecules. Any further addition
of surfactant does not decrease the surface tension of the solution because it is directly
consumed in the micelle formation process (see also Section 5.7). Saturated hydrocarbon
alcohols also show a decrease in surface tension with increases in their aqueous solution
concentration because they do not like to stay in the bulk solution and prefer to enrich on

80
Inorganic Salt

60
g (mN/m)

Saturated Hydrocarbon
Alcohol

Surfactant

40

20
1 10 100 1000
Ln c (m Mole)

Figure 5.4 Variation of surface tension with the logarithm of the concentration difference of a typical
surfactant, saturated hydrocarbon alcohol and an inorganic salt in an aqueous solution.
188 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the surface. However, there is not a CMC point for these alcohols, and after they completely
cover the water sub-phase surface, any more alcohol addition results in a two-phase solu-
tion, and the surface tension of the upper organic phase becomes equal to the surface
tension of the alcohol itself. On the other hand, a hydrophilic inorganic salt, which gives
ions in aqueous solution, prefers to stay in the bulk solution rather than to concentrate
at the solution surface and negative adsorption occurs. The extent of this negative adsorp-
tion shows the decrease in the concentration of this salt in the surface layer rather than
in the bulk solution. The presence of very minor amounts of high surface free-energy
ions at the solution surface increases the surface tension of the solution over that of the
pure water surface. Inorganic salts increase the surface tension almost linearly with rising
concentration. The more strongly hydrated ions cause a greater increase in surface tension
and the order for the monovalent cations is Li+ > Na+ > K+, and for monovalent anions,
Cl− > Br− > I−. (When non-aqueous sub-phases such as alcohols, are used instead of water,
the presence of salts in the solution also increases the surface tension of these solutions.)
The adsorbed films of soluble substances on the water sub-phase are mostly of the
gaseous monolayer (or gas-like) type, where their lateral interactions are weak so that
the molecules in the surface film move somewhat independently on the surface, sharing
the translatory motions of the underlying water molecules (see Section 5.6 for the descrip-
tion of gaseous, liquid and condensed monolayers at the surface). Traube showed in 1891
that the solute concentration is directly proportional to the depression of the surface
tension for very dilute “gaseous” surface solutions (p = Kc2), after he examined the surface
behavior of many dilute organic compounds in aqueous solutions. He also showed that
during the adsorption of hydrocarbon derivatives on the water surface, the longer-chain
paraffins were more frequently adsorbed than the shorter, and unsaturated hydrocarbons
are more strongly adsorbed than the saturated ones.
We should be careful that the gaseous type of adsorption does not necessarily mean the
adsorption of only gas or vapor on the water surface; many liquids give gaseous monolayers
when adsorbed on an aqueous solution surface. In principle, the term gaseous describes the
behavior and mobility of the adsorbed molecules in the monolayer. On the other hand,
organic vapors are also adsorbed on the water surface, and they cause a decrease in the
surface tension. When hydrocarbon vapors are adsorbed, they decrease the surface tension
a few mN m−1, also giving gaseous surface films. For some hydrocarbons, the decrease in the
surface tension is approximately proportional to the partial pressure of the hydrocarbon
vapor over the sub-phase surface. Traube’s rule also holds for the gas-phase adsorption case
where shorter-chain paraffin vapors are adsorbed less than the longer-chain variety.

5.5.5 Adsorption on surfaces other than water

In the 1930s many workers investigated the adsorption of vapors on liquid mercury
surfaces, which reduced the surface tension of mercury considerably from 488 mN m−1.
However, it is a very difficult task to prepare pure fresh liquid mercury surfaces for such
experiments, and there is great confusion in the data reported. On the other hand, many
papers were published on the adsorption of solutes over organic solvent sub-phases. In
general, the decrease in surface tension of the organic solvent with the increase in solution
concentration was less than the results obtained for water sub-phases.
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 189

5.5.6 Molecular orientation at the interface

The intermolecular forces described in Sections 2.2–2.7 are operative across interfaces of
two immiscible liquids. When molecules are not spherically symmetrical, the molecular ori-
entation at interfaces should also be considered. The molecules at an interface should be ori-
ented so as to provide the most gradual transition possible from one phase to the other. That
is, the molecules will be oriented so that their mutual interaction energy will be a maximum.
For example, between a liquid n-alkanol such as an octyl alcohol–water interface, the polar
end of the organic molecule (the hydroxyl group of octyl alcohol) is oriented towards the
water and the hydrocarbon chains extended into the alcohol. Langmuir showed that when
p – surface area measurements were done in a film balance, the length of the hydrocarbon
chains in saturated fatty acids and alcohols made no difference, provided there were more
than 14 carbons in the molecules. He varied the length from 14 to 34 carbons, and hardly
any change was found in the close-packed areas of the molecules, showing that the mole-
cules are oriented steeply to the surface in all of the films. The head groups of —OH and
—COOH attached to alcohols and acids have different roles in short and long chains. In
shorter-chain compounds, such as ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, these groups confer solu-
bility on the whole molecule in water, whereas in longer-chain groups they cannot pull the
whole molecule into the water due to the resistance of the long hydrocarbon chains to
immersion; instead they spread on the water sub-phase as a monomolecular film, as a film
of the head group of the molecule in the water, the rest refusing to be dragged in. The lateral
adhesion between these long-chain organic solute molecules also affects spreading. They
assist in keeping the molecules out of the water by causing them to pack side by side forming
an insoluble film on the sub-phase surface. The effect of compression on such films will be
examined in Section 5.6.3. The orientation of water molecules at an interface is the subject
of some uncertainty; several unsuccessful attempts have been made to show whether the
water dipoles have a special orientation at the interface.
Various methods of statistical mechanics are applied to the calculation of surface ori-
entation of asymmetric molecules, by introducing an angular dependence to the inter-
molecular potential function. The Boltzmann distribution can also be used to estimate the
orientational distribution of molecules. The pair potential V(r) may be written as V(r, q) if
it depends on the mutual orientation of two anisotropic molecules, and then we can write
for the angular distribution of two molecules at a fixed distance, r, apart
X (q1 )  V (r , q 2 ) − V (r , q1 ) 
= exp −  (456)
X (q 2 )  kT
This type of interaction aligns the molecules mutually, such as placing the solvent mole-
cules around a dissolved solute molecule in a solution.

5.5.7 Marangoni effect

It is clear that the molecules present in a monolayer interact with the molecules of the
underlying liquid phase and cannot be assumed merely to consist of molecules moving
freely in two dimensions. Such interactions result in molecular motions energized by
surface tension gradients; this is called the Marangoni effect. In a glass of wine, ethyl alcohol
190 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

evaporates more rapidly than water from the meniscus of the wine solution due to its high
vapor pressure (and low boiling point), and this leads to a rise in surface tension locally at
the wine surface. This evaporation induces a surface flow (Marangoni flow) which is
accompanied by a bulk upwards flow from inside the solution due to the hydrodynamic
instability, and the accumulating liquid returns in the form of drops (or tears) inside the
glass.

5.6 Langmuir Surface Layers of Insoluble Materials on Liquids

When a small amount of non-volatile and practically insoluble material is placed on a
liquid sub-phase (generally on clean water), it usually forms a Langmuir insoluble mono-
layer (or duplex film) on the surface of the sub-phase (or between two immiscible phases
separated with a recognizable meniscus), if its molecules attract the water molecules more
than they attract each other. This means that the cohesion energy between these molecules
is less than their adhesion energy with the water molecules. If the film is thicker than a
monolayer, then we have a duplex film, so that the two interfaces (liquid–film or film–air)
are independent of each other and possess their individual surface tensions. Partially
immiscible (slightly soluble) materials also form Langmuir monolayers like the practically
insoluble materials. Many water-insoluble solid materials can also be spread on the water
subphase, by pouring their solution in a highly volatile organic solvent onto the im-
miscible water surface (chloroform or hexane is commonly used). Such monolayers are
called spread monolayers. In principle, the same thermodynamic rules (Gibbs adsorption
approach) apply for all the types of insoluble monolayers, but determination of the solute
concentration in the solution is neither a matter of interest for this case, nor a convenient
quantity to measure experimentally. Instead, the more important matter is the direct deter-
mination of interfacial tension and spreading behavior.
There are several examples of the spreading of a monolayer of an insoluble or slightly
soluble liquid at a liquid–air interface. Historically, Benjamin Franklin, in 1774, observed
that one teaspoon (2 ml) of olive oil sufficed to calm a half-acre surface of a pond on a
windy day, giving an oil film on the water surface. It was not until over a hundred years
later that Lord Rayleigh suspected that the maximum extension of an oil film on water rep-
resents a layer one molecule thick. It was later calculated that olive oil spread on water as
a film of one molecule thick (approximately 25 Å) due to the attraction of water for the
polar groups orienting the olive oil molecules with polar group down and hydrocarbon
“tail” up, creating a low energy surface. Since 25 Å is the length of the hydrocarbon chains
present in olive oil as a monomolecular layer, this phenomenon was the first conclusive
proof of atomic and molecular theory. Nevertheless, olive oil is a mixture of several organic
materials, and it is instructive to repeat this calculation with a pure substance such as
palmitic acid, with sixteen carbons in the molecule (C15H31COOH) having a molecular
mass of MW = 256.42 × 10−3 kg mol−1, and a density of r = 853 kg m−3, giving a molar volume
of VM = 3.0061 × 10−4 m3 mol−1. Therefore a single palmitic acid molecule has a volume of
Vmolecule = 0.499 nm3 molecule−1 = 499 (Å)3molecule−1, which is found by dividing the VM
value by Avogadro’s number. Its cross-sectional area was measured experimentally as,
Amolecule = 20.5 (Å)2 molecule−1, so that its length measured perpendicular to the surface
must be l = 24.34 Å, if the density in the film is the same as in the bulk liquid. The
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 191

diameter of the cross-sectional area can be found as f = 5.11 Å, showing that palmitic acid
is 4.76 times as long as it is thick. These calculations are of course only approximate, and
for a more detailed investigation we need to consider the effect of additional —CH2—
groups. It has been determined experimentally that most saturated carboxylic acids of
whatever length, having carbon atoms between 14 and 34, showed almost the same mo-
lecular close-packed area of, Amolecule = 20.5 (Å)2 molecule−1, indicating that the additional
—CH2— groups only add to the height of the vertically positioned acid molecule. The
molar volume of a —CH2— group is approximately, VM = 1.78 × 10−5 m3 mol−1, and its
molecular volume is roughly, Vmolecule = 29.5 (Å)3 molecule−1, and by dividing this value by
the cross-sectional molecular area we have a vertical length of, l = 1.44 Å per —CH2—
group. However, X-ray investigations have shown that the carbon atoms are arranged not
in a straight line, but in a zig-zag conformation, as expected from the stereochemistry, and
the lines joining successive carbon atoms are inclined at the tetrahedral angle of 109° 28′.
The distance between two carbon atoms in the chain was measured at approximately 1.54
Å, giving a height of 1.26 Å of one carbon atom above another along the vertical axis due
to the zig-zag conformation. The resultant height difference (between 1.44 and 1.26 Å) is
probably due to the density differences in the film and the bulk liquid. In general, the
hydrocarbon chain of the substance used for monolayer studies has to be long enough to
be able to form an insoluble monolayer. A rule of thumb is that there should be more than
12 hydrocarbons or groups in the chain ((CH2)n, n > 12). If the chain is shorter, though
still insoluble in water, the amphiphile on the water surface tends to form micelles. These
micelles are water-soluble, which prevents the build-up of a monolayer at the interface (see
Section 5.7). If the length of the hydrocarbon chain is too long the amphiphile tends to
crystallize on the water surface and consequently does not form a monolayer. It is difficult
to state an optimal length for the hydrocarbon chain because its film-forming ability also
depends on the polar head group of the amphiphile.
We owe our ability to characterize monolayers on an air–water interface to a German
woman scientist named Agnes Pockels. She developed a rudimentary surface balance in her
kitchen sink, which she used to determine (water) surface contamination as a function of
area of the surface for different oils. She sent her experimental findings to Lord Rayleigh
in England, who encouraged her to publish her results in Nature in 1891. Irving Langmuir,
who was the first Nobel laureate in surface science, was the first to perform systematic
studies on floating monolayers on water in the late 1910s and early 1920s. The term Lang-
muir film is normally reserved for a floating monolayer. Later, the formation of insoluble
monolayers on a liquid became an important branch of surface science. These mono- or
multi-layers are very important in nature and also in the chemical industry, especially when
water is chosen as the high-density, sub-phase solvent. In biology, the membranes present
in cells of living organisms bear a close resemblance in structure to insoluble monolayers.
Lipids and proteins form monolayers to construct cell membranes. The lipid components
include phospholipids, sterols, glycerides of long-chain fatty acids and others that are
known to form stable insoluble monolayers over a water surface, which has been well
documented in physical chemistry. Thus the investigation of these monolayers helps in
understanding the behavior of cell membranes. The cell membrane is also a highly selec-
tive barrier whose permeability characteristics are intimately involved in cell metabolism.
Apart from holding the cell together, it also controls the diffusion of nutrients that are
taken in and wastes excreted. However, simple diffusion equations derived from basic
192 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

physics are inadequate to explain the transport rates at which all nutrients, wastes, salts
and other chemical substances pass across the cell membrane, so it seems that monolayer
chemical structure is the most important parameter in deriving an experimentally
acceptable diffusion model in biology. There are other examples of monolayers in biology.
One example is mitochondria, which are present in both plants and animals in order to
oxidize foodstuffs to produce usable energy. Mitochondria contain extensive internal
membrane systems. Another example is the billions of tiny membranes which are located
in sub-cellular units in green plants to collect and utilize the energy of visible light for
photosynthesis.
In the chemical industry, the presence of Langmuir monolayers is also very important.
Emulsions and foams are liquid or gas dispersions formed in other liquids, and are stabi-
lized by interfacial films, which consist of mono- or multi-layers. The reduction of evap-
oration losses of stored water and other liquids is also an important area where monolayers
can be successfully applied. On solid surfaces, some technological areas such as adsorption,
ore flotation, lubrication, friction and catalysis can be explored by applying mono- and
multi-layer techniques, although the processes on solids are much more complicated than
on liquid surfaces. The transfer of insoluble mono- or multi-layers onto other solid sub-
strates is also possible using a controlled dipping process, such as the Langmuir–Blodgett
(LB) method, which is important in the electronics and nanotechnology industries
(see Section 5.9). Recently, such transferred monolayers have become the source of high
expectations as being useful components in many practical and commercial applica-
tions such as sensors, detectors, displays and electronic circuit components. The possibi-
lity of synthesizing organic molecules with the desired structure and functionality, in
conjunction with a sophisticated thin-film deposition technology, such as LB, enables
the production of electrically, optically and biologically active components on a
nanometer scale.
Monomolecular solute layers show ordered phases similar to three-dimensional systems.
When Langmuir monolayers form, it does not necessarily mean that the molecules touch
each other in the monolayer. Instead, if the anchoring from the sub-phase molecules is
light, the molecules move freely in a two-dimensional interfacial area. Thus, the physically
measurable monolayer area is sometimes much larger than the close-packed area where all
the molecules touch each other. This is in analogy with the free translational motion of a
gas molecule in a definite volume. When the surface area of a Langmuir monolayer is
decreased by means of suitable barriers, initially there is very little change in the surface
tension of the underlying liquid, but after the monolayer is confined to an area corre-
sponding to their per-molecule close-packed area, the surface tension changes very rapidly
due to the full coverage of the top molecules. This shows that the top molecules are float-
ing or moving freely at the interphase until they actually touch each other. Such mono-
layers are called gaseous monolayers (gas-like) which occupy a much greater surface area
per molecule and are very compressible laterally. Condensed monolayers (solid-like) are at
the opposite extreme, and this describes monolayers which occupy only small surface areas
per molecule and are very incompressible laterally because of the closely packed molecules
(see Section 5.6.3). Condensed monolayers are similar to condensed fluid molecules in a
limited volume, in three dimensions. Expanded liquid monolayers are intermediate between
condensed and gaseous monolayers. The molecules are not packed closely in the expanded
monolayers. The increase in temperature and decrease in the chain length of the
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 193

g1

g2 q1
1
q2

g 12
2

Figure 5.5 Vectorial equilibrium of the lens of liquid (1) on the surface of a sub-phase liquid (2). In
equilibrium, (1) and (2) must be mutually saturated in each other and hence the surface and interfacial
tensions will not necessarily be those of pure liquids.

monolayer molecules both reduce the cohesion between chains and tend to give expanded
monolayers (see Section 5.6.4).
Insoluble monolayers may also exist at water–air as well as water–oil interfaces. In
general, a monolayer of the same material tends to be more expanded at the water–oil inter-
face than at the water–air interface, and usually it is recognized that a condensed mono-
layer forms at the water–air interface whereas it sometimes becomes gaseous at the
water–oil interface. In summary, investigation of the basic principles of monolayer forma-
tion is a requisite in surface physical chemistry. We will start by defining the spreading
concept in section 5.6.1, then explaining the experimental methods in section 5.6.2.

5.6.1 Spreading of one liquid on another

When we place a drop of appreciably non-volatile low density liquid (1) on the surface of
a high density sub-phase liquid (2) which is practically immiscible with liquid (1), there
are three possibilities:
1 Liquid (1) forms a non-spreading liquid lens with a defined edge on the sub-phase liquid
(2), as shown in Figure 5.5, leaving the rest of the surface clean. The shape of the lens is
constrained by the force of gravity.
2 Liquid (1) spreads as a monolayer on the surface of the sub-phase liquid (2), if space on
the surface permits. The thickness of the monolayer is so small that gravitational effects
are negligible.
194 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

3 If there is not enough space for all of the liquid (1) to spread fully, it spreads
as a polylayer or a relatively thick film on the surface of the sub-phase liquid (2),
where the corresponding liquid surface tensions, g1 and g2 retain their bulk values
and the interfacial tension of the mutually saturated solutions, g12, can be measured
experimentally.
In some instances, lens, monolayer and thick liquid film formation occurs simultane-
ously, depending on the strength of molecular interactions between these two immiscible
materials and the availability of free surface. The surplus material (1) may remain as a lens
in equilibrium with the monolayer. In general, a monomolecular film and some local small
drops containing the excess material are seen when a pure substance is used to form the
insoluble phase over water. However, much thicker films are formed for complex organic
mixtures such as kerosene on water.
It is possible to perform a physical analysis to predict either liquid lens or thick film for-
mation, and the strength of adhesion between the two phases. In order to assess the adhe-
sion strength, initially we need to formulate the work of cohesion and adhesion. In Section
2.1, we defined the term cohesion to describe the physical interactions between the same
types of molecule, so that it is a measure of how hard it is to pull a liquid (and solid) apart.
In Section 3.5.3, we defined, the work of cohesion, W ic, as the reversible work, per unit area,
required to break a column of a liquid (or solid) into two parts, creating two new equilib-
rium surfaces, and separating them to infinite distance. (In practice, a distance of a few
micrometers is sufficient.) The work of cohesion required to separate liquid layers into
two parts having unit area can obviously be expressed from the definition of surface
tension as
W ci = 2gi (457)

At constant pressure and temperature conditions, W oc = −∆GoS for pure liquids, where the
minus sign arises from the thermodynamical inverse directions of the required work
outside the system and the surface free energy of the liquid within the system.
The term adhesion is used if the interaction occurs between different types of molecule,
a
and the work of adhesion, W 12 is defined as the reversible work, per unit area, required to
separate a column of two different liquids at the interface (or to separate a liquid from an
underlying liquid), creating two new equilibrium surfaces of two pure materials, and sep-
a
arating them to infinite distance. However, the derivation of W 12 is different from that of
c
W i because of the presence of equilibrium interfacial tension of the mutually saturated
solutions, g12. Since two new surfaces (1) and (2) are formed, and the interfacial area (12)
disappears during the separation process of two different liquids, then the work of adhe-
sion can be formulated as given by Dupre
Wa = g1 + g2 − g12 (458)

Now, in order to set criteria for the requirements of spreading of a liquid on another sub-
phase liquid, we need to formulate the vectorial equilibrium of the lens of liquid (1) on
the surface of a sub-phase liquid (2), from Figure 5.5. In equilibrium, (1) and (2) must be
mutually saturated in each other, and hence the surface and interfacial tensions will not
necessarily be those of pure liquids. By applying the vectorial summation rule, we can write
at hydrostatic equilibrium
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 195

g2 = g1 cos q1 + g12 cos q2 (459)

where q1 and q2 are the contact angles of the phase (1) lens with the air and phase
(2). Angle q1 is not necessarily equal to q2, depending on the molecular interactions
between (1) and (2) so mostly, q1 > q2. This is the general equation of a floating lens
under another liquid in air. If the surface of (2) remains planar beneath the drop,
then Equation (459) turns into Young’s equation for solid surfaces, which we will see in
Section 9.1.
When q1 + q2 = 0, this implies the complete spreading of the lens of liquid (1) over (2),
and there are two possibilities. First, the spreading liquid, if not restrained, may expand to
a film of molecular thickness. If so, this film will not completely cover the underlying liquid,
and there will be a boundary (and a triple point) between (1), (2) and the air at the edge
of the monolayer. Second, the spreading liquid (1) may be restricted by the walls of the
vessel so that it forms a thick layer on the sub-phase. In this case, the three-phase bound-
ary (the triple point) at the edge vanishes and the contact angle is non-existent, and some-
times this may end with two immiscible bulk phases with a recognizable meniscus between
them. This is a two-phase solution made from two components. In practice, this is a time-
dependent process so that first mutually dissolved solutions form in each other; later an
equilibrium is reached between these mutually dissolved solutions, and then two phases
appear with a meniscus between them. If the liquid viscosities are small, the formation of
these two phases does not depend on the history of mixing; for example, we can obtain
two immiscible phases having the same properties (in most cases), by placing one liquid
carefully on another, or by mixing them mechanically and leaving the phases to separate
for a suitable period.
In order to analyze the spreading process, Harkins introduced the concept of S,
the spreading coefficient in 1919. He realized that spreading occurs if the surface tension
of the underlying liquid surpasses the sum of the tensions of the interface and the
top liquid. When the converse condition occurs, the drop assumes and retains a lens
i
shape. Harkins defined the initial spreading coefficient, S1/2 , for a liquid (1) on another
liquid (2),
i
S 1/2 = g2 − (g1 + g12) = g2 − g1 − g12 (460)

and for the usual case of an oil (O) spreading on water (W), Equation (460) becomes
i
SO/W = gW − (gO + gOW) = gW − gO − gOW (461)
i
By combining Equations (457), (458) and (460), the initial spreading coefficient, S may 1/2
be related to the work of adhesion, cohesion and the Gibbs free energy of spreading per
unit area:
i
S1/2 = W 12
a − W c = ∆G c − ∆Ga
2 2 12
(462)

and for the oil on water case, by combining Equations (461) and (462), we obtain
i
SO/W = WOW − WO = ∆GOS − ∆GOW
S
(463)

In summary, an oil spreads spontaneously on water when Si ≥ 0, and it forms a lens when
Si < 0. Spreading occurs when a liquid of low surface tension is placed on one of high
surface tension.
196 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

In thermodynamic terms, the spreading coefficient, Si, gives the free energy change for
the spreading of liquid film (1) over liquid (2), varying with the creation and vanishing of
the new areas. It is given as

 dG 
S1i /2 = − (464)
 dA1  T,P

It is possible to prove that Equation (464) is valid. The total differential of the Gibbs free
energy given below for (1), (2) and (12) shows the small change in the surface free energy
at constant temperature and pressure due to the spreading of liquid (1) over liquid (2),

 ∂G   ∂G   ∂G 
(dG )T,P =   dA2 +  S  dA1 +  S  dA12
S S S
(465)
 ∂A2S  T,P  ∂A1  T,P  ∂A12  T,P
Since the area of liquid (1) increases at the expense of the area of liquid (2) to form a new
interfacial area of (12), we may write
dA1S = dA12
S
= −dAS2 (466)

By combining Equations (465) and (466), we have

 dG   ∂G   ∂G   ∂G 
= − S + S + S  (467)
 dA1S  T,P  ∂A2  T,P  ∂A1  T,P  ∂A12  T,P
Since, gi = (∂G/∂AiS)T,P, by the definition of surface tension, then we have from Equations
(464) and (467)

 dG 
= − g 2 + g 1 + g 12 = − S1i /2 (468)
 dA1S  T,P

Equation (468) is equivalent to Harkins’s equation (Equation (460)). However, we must

also consider the effect of the mutual saturation of the liquids on the equilibrium spread-
ing coefficient, Se1/2. After the initial contact of oil and water molecules [or liquids (1) and
(2)], they will become mutually saturated within each other after a while, so that gW will
change to gW(O) and gO to gO(W). At equilibrium, Equations (460) and (461) turn into
Se1/2 = g2(1) − g1(2) − g12 = gw(O) − gO(W) − gOW (469)

where Se1/2 is the corresponding equilibrium (or final) spreading coefficient. For the case of
benzene on water, it has been determined experimentally that SB/W i
= 72.8 − (28.9 + 35.0)
−1
= 8.9 mN m , and benzene must spread on pure water, whereas after the mutual satura-
tion takes place, SeB/W = 62.2 − (28.8 + 35.0) = −1.6 mN m−1, and benzene must form a lens
on a benzene-contaminated water surface. Thus, when benzene is added to a pure water
surface, a rapid initial spreading of benzene occurs over the water surface, and then as
mutual saturation takes place, the benzene retracts to a lens in equilibrium with an
adsorbed monolayer. All the n-alkanes below nonane spread spontaneously on water, but
nonane and upwards are non-spreading liquids at 20°C. Therefore, the critical Si value for
the spreading of alkanes on water lies between the surface tensions of octane and nonane,
which are 21.8 and 22.9 mN m−1, respectively. It appears that this critical Si value is a prop-
erty of the water sub-phase alone. When unsaturated hydrocarbons are used in the spread-
ing experiments, high critical Si values are obtained for water, and Zisman suggested in
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 197

1967 that only dispersion forces contribute to liquid–liquid adhesion for n-alkanes, whereas
both dispersion and other (polar, donor–acceptor) forces contribute to liquid–liquid adhe-
sion for unsaturated hydrocarbons, and thus change the critical Si values.

5.6.2 Experimental determination of spreading pressure in monolayers:

Langmuir balance

Historically, Irving Langmuir was, in 1917, the first to apply film balances to examine the
behavior of monolayers. He used a large tray, where a float separates the monolayer
film from the clean solvent surface, as shown schematically in Figure 5.3 a. The direct meas-
urement of the horizontal force on this floating barrier was carried out using a torque
balance to give the film pressure, p, directly. Langmuir used a two-barrier trough, a rigid
but adjustable barrier on one side and a floating barrier on the other. He realized that it is
possible to sweep a film off the surface quite cleanly by moving the sliding barrier, which
is in contact with the surface, to give a fresh surface of clean water, which would form
behind the barrier as it was moving along. Later, several researchers made improvements
on Langmuir’s first floating barrier and then it became known as a PLAWM (Pockels,
Langmuir, Adam, Wilson and McBain) trough, where a flexible membrane separates the
solution and pure water departments to prevent any leakage of the monolayer beneath the
barrier; otherwise the partially dissolved solute molecules would pass into the pure water
department.
When the solute is practically insoluble in the water sub-phase, an insoluble monolayer
forms and a film balance (or Langmuir trough) are used instead of a PLAWM trough as
shown in Figure 5.3 a. In this trough, there is no need to separate the compartments with
a flexible membrane because practically all the solute molecules are located on the surface.
For monolayer formation, an amphiphile solute is initially dissolved in a water-insoluble
and highly volatile spreading solvent (mostly chloroform or n-hexane, and rarely
cylohexane or benzene are used for this purpose) in 0.1–2.0 mg ml−1 concentrations, and is
placed on the water sub-phase surface with a micro-syringe; then the organic solution
spreads rapidly to cover the available area. As the solvent evaporates, a monolayer is formed.
The solution is allowed to drop from the micro-syringe held a few millimeters away from
the subphase surface, and many workers prefer to distribute the drops over the surface to
be covered. The injection of the spreading organic solution beneath the surface of the sub-
phase is not recommended due to the risk of contamination from the needle.
The trough holding the sub-phase is usually made of PTFE polymer to prevent any
leakage of the subphase over the edges. PTFE is the most inert material available and very
suitable to be used for Langmuir troughs because it is resistant to all strong acids and is
extremely hydrophobic. It does not contaminate the subphase with surfactants or mineral
ions. In addition, the cleaning of PTFE trays is also very simple; it is generally wiped with
a surfactant-free tissue soaked in chloroform and rinsed with detergent and pure water to
remove materials not soluble in chloroform, such as proteins. The major disadvantage of
PTFE is its lack of dimensional stability. Other plastic materials such as polymethyl-
methacrylate, nylon, polyethylene and polypropylene have also been used as trough mate-
rial, although they are not as successful as PTFE. In some film balances, the trough is
thermostatted by circulating water in channels placed underneath the trough, in order to
198 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

experiment under constant temperature conditions. The trough edges are important in
preventing film leakage and subphase spills. The depth of the sub-phase confining chamber
in the trough top is generally 4 mm to minimize the sub-phase volume, which improves
temperature control and reduces consumption of ultra-pure water. The trough can be filled
exactly level to the rim, which prevents any errors in area calculation arising from menis-
cus curvature. (In practice, it is usually overfilled initially and then the surface is cleaned
by removal of the top contaminated layer using an aspirator pump.) The purity and the
protection of the subphase solvent are of utmost importance because impurities in the ppm
range can cause serious errors if they enrich at the surface. An overflow channel is also
machined into the trough periphery, which allows controlled overfilling and prevents
minor spillages down the side of the trough.
The surface area of the trough can be varied by sweeping movable barriers over the sub-
phase surface in the trough. The movable barriers rest across the edges of the trough. They
are made of PTFE, which ensures a good seal between the trough and barrier, and prevents
leakages from the monolayer. They have a square or rectangular cross-section, and their
edges are carefully machined flat. It is customary to sweep the liquid surfaces with the bar-
riers two or three times immediately before spreading the monolayer film under study, to
remove any insoluble greasy material. The barrier and its drive mechanism have been
designed to have minimum inertia and friction in order to achieve low friction and slip-
free positioning and good dynamic properties. The surface pressure, p, and the mean
surface area, AS, are continuously monitored during the compression. The surface pressure
is generally measured by the Wilhelmy plate method (see Section 6.4). In this method a
paper or platinium Wilhelmy plate is suspended across the air–water interface, and the
force on the plate is measured with a micro-balance, to be used as a surface pressure sensor.
The force on the plate can be converted to units of surface tension or surface pressure
(mN m−1) by using the measured dimensions of the plate and calibrating the micro-balance
with a known weight. When paper Wilhelmy plates are used, the contact angle of water to
plate is then guaranteed to be 0°. When, non-absorbent materials like platinum plates are
used they need to be flame-cleaned before every measurement. The cleaning of the trough,
barriers and other parts, which come into contact with the subphase solvent is very impor-
tant and the avoidance of air-borne contamination is also necessary. In a normally clean
laboratory, an exposed water surface will almost certainly have accumulated a layer of
grease within an hour, and thus it is recommended that the film balance experiments be
carried out within 10 min after cleaning the water surface with aspiration in open labora-
tory conditions. This period may be much longer in dust-free clean rooms, depending on
the conditions. However, if a film has already been spread, the deposition of contamina-
tion is greatly impeded, since this monolayer is no longer so attractive to the contaminant
molecules in comparison with the water surface. There are other ways to control the area
of the monolayer and to measure the surface pressure, but the constructions above are the
most commonly used.
Incomplete spreading sometimes occurs due to poor selection of spreading conditions.
This can be detected by simple visual observation using suitable lamps to illuminate the
surface, such as dark-field illumination. The best test for completeness of spreading is the
reproducibility of the experimental results. When we are satisfied with the homogeneous
monolayer formation, we can start to examine its properties. When the available area for
the monolayer is large, the distance between adjacent solute molecules in the monolayer is
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 199

also large, and their intermolecular interactions are weak giving a gaseous monolayer. Under
these conditions, the monolayer has little effect on the surface tension of subphase water.
When the barriers reduce the available surface area of the monolayer in a film balance (see
Figure 5.3 a and b), the molecules start to exert a repulsive effect on each other.

5.6.3 Expanded and condensed Langmuir monolayers

The surface pressure, p, is measured as a function of the area of the water surface available
to each molecule at constant temperature, and the resulting plot is known as a surface pres-
sure–area isotherm. The barriers compress the surface area of the film preferably at a con-
stant rate. Depending on the film material being studied, repeated compressions and
expansions are necessary to achieve reproducible results.
A number of distinct regions are immediately apparent on examining the isotherm.
When the monolayer is compressed, it can pass through several different phases, which are
identified as discontinuities in the isotherm, as shown in Figure 5.6. The phase behaviour
of the monolayer is mainly determined by the physical and chemical properties of the
amphiphile, the subphase temperature and the subphase composition. Various monolayer
states exist depending on the length of the hydrocarbon chain and the magnitude of cohe-

p C

L-Con

L
L-Exp
(L-Exp + G)

Aso AsH s
A molecule

S-Condensed L-Expanded G-Gaseous

(Solid-like) (Liquid-like) (Gas-like)

Figure 5.6 Surface pressure–area isotherm where a number of distinct regions are present: (G) is the
gaseous state and can undergo a phase transition to the liquid-expanded state (L-Exp.) on compression.
The gaseous and liquid-expanded regions simultaneously exist in the large intermediate region, (L-
Exp.+G). Upon further compression, the (L-Exp.) phase undergoes a transition to initially the liquid-like
state (L) and then to the liquid-condensed state (L-Con.), and at even higher compressions the monolayer
finally reaches the solid-like state (S). The monolayer will collapse into three-dimensional structures, in
the region termed the collapsed state (C), if it is further compressed after reaching the (S) state.
200 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

sive and repulsive forces existing between head groups. A simple terminology to classify
different monolayer phases of fatty acids was proposed by W.D. Harkins in 1952. At large,
the monolayers exist in the gaseous state (G) and can, on compression, undergo a phase
transition to the liquid-expanded state (L-Exp.), as shown in Figure 5.6. However, there is
a large region where gaseous and liquid-expanded regions simultaneously exist (L-Exp.+G).
Upon further compression, the (L-Exp.) phase undergoes a transition to initially the liquid-
like state (L) and then the liquid-condensed state (L-Con.), and at even higher densities the
monolayer finally reaches the solid-like state (S). If the monolayer is further compressed
after reaching the (S) state, then it will collapse into three-dimensional structures, the
collapsed-state (C). The collapse is generally seen as a rapid decrease in the surface
pressure or as a horizontal break in the isotherm.
During the gaseous state (G), very little increase will be observed in the surface pressure,
p, as the molecules are randomly distributed on the sub-phase surface with no ordering,
and are behaving as would be expected of a two-dimensional gas phase. Further reduction
of the surface leads to increases in p, as the intermolecular spacing in the monolayer enters
the range of the liquid-expanded state (L-Exp.), where intermolecular interactions are
operative. The molecules may be touching each other but there is no lateral order, and the
hydrophobic chains may lie flat on the subphase. The head-groups are highly hydrated.
The hydrophobic tails, which were oriented randomly near the surface of the subphase
begin to be lifted away by a further decrease in the surface area. An increase in the chain
length of solute molecules increases the attraction between them and helps them to con-
dense. On the other hand, if an ionizable amphiphile is used as solute, then the ionization
of the head groups induces repulsive forces tending to oppose phase transitions. When the
surface area of the monolayer film is further reduced, the rate of increase of surface pres-
sure is even greater and a nearly vertical linear relationship of p–AS characterizes the highly
ordered and closely packed liquid condensed state (L-Con.). In this phase, the solute mol-
ecules are almost standing upright with the hydrophobic tail group nearly perpendicular
to the subphase. The monolayer film is relatively stiff at this stage but there is still some
water present between the head-groups (small hydration). Both (L-Exp.) and (L-Con.)
phases are just two of several liquid crystal phases in which a monolayer can exist. For the
condensed (non-penetrating) insoluble monolayers, where the molecules rest on the inter-
face, the surface pressure, p, is not dependent on the interactions with the underlying
liquid. In the liquid condensed state (L-Con.) of the isotherm, the head-groups are hydrated
with water molecules and closely packed; then it is possible to obtain quantitative infor-
mation on their hydrated dimensions and shapes. The hypothetical molecular area, for the
hydrated state, AHS , can be obtained by extrapolating the slope of this (L-Con.) phase to zero
pressure, as shown in Figure 5.6.
If we further compress the surface area, the head-groups become dehydrated and
the p–AS isotherm is also linear with a steeper slope. The close-packed and dehydrated
molecular area, ASo, can be obtained by extrapolating the slope of this (S) phase to zero
pressure. However, in reality, it is not possible to obtain both ASo and AHS values simultane-
ously for many p–AS isotherms, because the upper part of the isotherm curve is frequently
not so linear. The reason is that the phase transition between S and (L-Con.) is usually not
sharp, but smooth. In these circumstances, only one of these molecular areas can be deter-
mined. If we further compress the area very slowly, the surface pressure increase will stop;
at a specific surface pressure value, the collapse of the monolayer (C) occurs, and p
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 201

eventually falls sharply. The monolayer irreversibly loses its mono-molecular form at the
collapse pressure. At this point, the forces exerted by barriers upon the monolayer are too
strong for confinement in two dimensions, and then molecules are ejected from the mono-
layer plane to form layers which are piled on top of one another resulting in disordered
multilayers. Some striations can be seen on the subphase surface, which are the areas of
collapse.

5.6.4 Monolayers between two immiscible liquids for

three-component solutions

What happens if a third solute is dissolved in one of the two immiscible liquids, stirred
mechanically with the other liquid, and then the two phases allowed to separate? The
answer is that if the third solute is soluble in both solvents, it distributes between them
according to the Nernst distribution law, due to the equality of the chemical potentials in
each phase at equilibrium. The concentration of this solute at the interface is different (gen-
erally larger) than that of its bulk concentrations in both solutions. For example, acetic
acid or butyric acid forms a gaseous-type monolayer between practically immiscible
benzene and water phases. We may use Equation (421) in Section 5.5 to calculate the
surface excesses of the solute (acetic or butyric acid) as G (benzene)
acid and G (water)
acid , the relative
adsorption of the solute with respect to the solvents (benzene) and (water). It has been
shown that when the same solution concentrations are applied, acetic acid is more closely
packed between the water and benzene interface than between water and air, but the lateral
adhesion between acetic acid molecules was found to be nearly the same. The reason for
this behavior is the stronger attraction between benzene and the methyl groups in the acetic
acid, resulting in the close packing of more acetic acid molecules in the interfacial region
for a given surface pressure. In general, the lateral attractions are smaller at the water–air
interface than the water–immiscible liquids, for most solutes. However during experimen-
tation with monolayers, one should be careful to avoid the interfacial reactions occurring
in a three-component, two-phase solution, which will confuse the experimental findings,
especially for varying sub-phase pH ranges.
On the other hand, if the third solute is not soluble in the sub-phase solvent and if we
dissolve the third solute in a solvent and pour it over a high-density sub-phase liquid which
is immiscible with the first solvent, then depending on the density differences and molec-
ular interactions, two behaviors can be seen after the evaporation of the upper solvent layer.
Either the solute molecules form an insoluble monolayer on the sub-phase solvent where
we can use all the insoluble monolayer equations, or the solute material sinks down inside
the subphase solvent if the density of the solute is appreciably higher than the subphase
density.

5.7 Micelles and Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC)

An amphiphilic molecule (a surfactant) can arrange itself at the surface of the water such
that the polar part (head group) interacts with the water, and the hydrocarbon part (tail
group) is held above the surface, as shown in Figure 5.3. This kind of organization of sur-
202 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

factant molecules can be described as a head-to-head/tail-to-tail type. If there is an im-

miscible liquid over the water sub-phase surface, the surfactant molecules take the same
positions, because the upper liquid phase is also non-polar, similar to air, in order to be
immiscible with the water. As we know from the previous chapters, the surfactant mole-
cules prefer to enrich on the sub-phase surface, and their presence lowers the surface
tension of the solution. Meanwhile, few surfactant molecules are also dissolved in the bulk
sub-phase simultaneously. Nevertheless, after all the available surface area is covered with
these surfactant molecules, the addition of any more surfactant onto the sub-phase surface
will force these molecules to enter into the bulk water phase. Then they associate to give a
new molecular arrangement in the water phase in order to minimize their surface free
energy, so that each hydrophilic head-group and hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail-group of
the surfactant can interact with its favored environment. This association process is
thermodynamically driven and is spontaneous similar to the formation of the Langmuir
monolayers. As a result, aggregates called micelles (or associated colloids) are formed in
the bulk water sub-phase, where the hydrophobic portions are oriented within the cluster,
and the hydrophilic portions are exposed to the water phase. These surfactant molecules
are also organized as head-to-head/tail-to-tail type in these micelles. The interactions
among the surfactant molecules are usually physical in nature, rather than by covalent
bonding. The greater potential energy of water molecules in the vicinity of a hydrocarbon
chain results in the withdrawal of the hydrocarbon from the surrounding water molecules,
and this process reduces the total free energy. The withdrawn tail groups are forced
to aggregate with each other. In general, spherical micelles form to achieve the lowest
interfacial area, as shown in Figure 5.7 a in cross section, and 5.7 b in three dimensions.
In water, each spherical micelle consists typically of 30–100 surfactant molecules, having
an oily (hydrocarbon) phase inside. The typical outer diameters of spherical micelles are
around 3–6 nm. However, other types of geometric shapes can also be formed by the asso-
ciation of surfactant molecules, such as cylindrical (rod-like) micelles as shown in Figure
5.7 c, or bilayers (Figure 5.10 a), vesicles and liposomes (Figure 5.10 b), and inverted
micelles (Figure 5.10 c) (see also Section 5.8 for the reasons for taking these different micelle
shapes).

a. Spherical b. Spherical c. Cylindrical

Micelle Micelle (Rod-like)
(Cross Section) (Three Dimensions) Micelle
(Three Dimensions)

Figure 5.7 Schematic representation of spherical and cylindrical micelles.

 Liquid Solution Surfaces 203

The proportion of surfactant molecules present on the solution surface or as micelles

within the bulk phase depends on the concentration of the added surfactant. As the surface
becomes crowded with surfactant, more molecules will arrange into micelles. At some con-
centration, the surface becomes completely loaded with surfactant molecules and any
further additions must arrange only as micelles. Thus, no further decrease in surface
tension takes place after this concentration. This critical concentration is called the critical
micelle concentration (CMC). The CMC may be determined experimentally by the meas-
urement of surface tension of the solution. A plot of surface tension versus concentration
of surfactant added, c (or preferably a g – ln c plot) is used to find the CMC, as shown in
Figure 5.8. The location of the CMC is found as the point at which two lines intersect; the
baseline of minimal surface tension and the slope where surface tension shows a linear
decline. For CMC determination, the solution surface tension may be measured
by ring or Wilhelmy plate methods (see Section 6.4). There are two ways to perform a
CMC measurement either by adding a concentrated solution of surfactants to an initially
surfactant-free solution, or by diluting a concentrated surfactant solution with pure
solvent. Generally the first method is used and the surface tension of the subphase is ini-
tially measured prior to any surfactant addition. Next, a predetermined amount of surfac-
tant solution is added to bring the system closer to the CMC value. Then the solution is
mechanically stirred, and after a stabilization period, the values of surface tension of the
solution will be measured. (In general, several measurements are made in order to gain
experience and to determine the CMC precisely for a specific surfactant in a solution.) The
CMCs of most commercial surfactants are reported in tables in order to optimize their

CMC

Surface Tension

Conductivity
Physical Property

Turbidity

Osmotic Pressure

Molar Conductivity

Surfactant Concentration

Figure 5.8 CMC determination from a plot of a solution physical property such as surface tension, con-
ductivity, turbidity, osmotic pressure, molar conductivity etc. versus concentration of surfactant added, c
(preferably, a property – ln c plot can be used).
204 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

detergency power to a specific application, and also to minimize waste to restrict environ-
mental pollution.
The CMC is also well defined experimentally by a number of other physical properties
besides the variation of the surface tension. The variation of solution properties such
as osmotic pressure, electrical conductance, molar conductivity, refractive index, intensity
of scattered light, turbidity and the capacity to solubilize hydrocarbons with the
increase of surfactant concentration will change sharply at the CMC as shown in Figure
5.8. The variation in these properties with the formation of micelles can be explained as
follows. When surfactant molecules associate in solution to form micelles, the concentra-
tion of osmotic units loses its proportionality to the total solute concentration. The inten-
sity of scattered light increases sharply at the CMC because the micelles scatter more light
than the medium. The turbidity increases with micelle formation, because the solution
is transparent at low surfactant concentrations, but it turns opaque after the CMC.
Hydrophobic substances are poorly dissolved in aqueous solutions at concentrations below
the CMC, but they start to be highly dissolved in the centers of the newly formed micelles,
after the CMC.
Micelles are not static: they are dynamic structures, so that the surfactant molecules leave
the micelle and go into the solution while other surfactant molecules enter the micelle from
the solution. The timescale for this dynamic rearrangement depends mostly on the length
of the hydrocarbon chain: the longer the chain the longer the residence time in the micelle
(but the dependence is not linear). Micelles are also continuously moving in the
solution; their mobility rates are dependent on the type of surfactant and the temperature
of the solution. Micelles in solutions can be examined by light scattering, small-angle X-
ray scattering (SAXS), and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) analytical techniques. It
has been found that micelle interiors behave like bulk liquids, as determined by nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR).
The effect of cooling on surfactant solutions is important because, after cooling down
to a specific temperature, known as the Kraft temperature, the surfactant molecules present
in the micelle precipitate as hydrated crystals. Below the Kraft temperature, the solubility
of the surfactant in water is so low that the solution contains no micelles. The solution
temperature has little influence on the micelle structure, and when the micelles are made
of surfactants having ionic head-groups, the increase in temperature generally increases
the surfactant solubility slightly, so micelles lose some of their surfactant molecules to the
water. However, when micelles are made of non-ionic surfactants, an opposite tempera-
ture effect is seen. The non-ionic surfactants become less soluble at elevated temperatures
due to breakage of the hydrogen bonds with the water molecules. As the temperature is
raised, a point is reached, which is called the cloud point, at which large aggregates precip-
itate out into a separate phase. Experiments to determine the cloud point temperatures for
non-ionic surfactants usually give less sharp plots than the experiments to determine the
Kraft temperature.
Both ionic and non-ionic surfactants associate to form micelles. However, there are
several property differences between the micelles formed. The CMC value depends on the
length of the hydrophobic groups for both types, but it also depends on the state of charge
for ionic surfactants and on the length of the hydrophilic part for non-ionic surfactants.
The core of a micelle is assumed to be filled with liquid hydrocarbon, and the maximum
size of the micelle radius is equal to the length of the fully extended hydrocarbon tail. In
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 205

any tail length calculation, we need the projections of the covalent bond lengths along the
direction of the hydrocarbon chain, and thus we need to know the zig-zag angle, which is
109.5° for many saturated hydrocarbon chains. The tail chain itself occupies a certain
volume called the tail volume, Vt, and the tail chains may either overlap in the micelle center
or part from each other upon penetration of water molecules to a degree (the inner core
of the micelle is assumed to be water-free). However, in some cases some surfactant mol-
ecules protrude from the surface of the core further than others, allowing crowding at the
center of the micelle.
In micelles made of ionic surfactants, variation of the nature of the ionic group is not
significant; only the state of charge is important. There is a shell around the hydrocarbon
core consisting of ionic heads, and the counter-ions in the solution are located around these
ionic heads in a region called the Stern layer. Free water molecules and water of hydration
are also present in this region. Both the ionic head-group area and the bound counter-ion
volume are affected by dissolved electrolytes in the solution. Extension of the ion atmos-
phere in the medium decreases as the electrolyte content of the solution increases. Ionic
micelles will migrate in an electric field in the solution, and the ion atmosphere of the
micelle is dragged along with it. Conductivity measurements show the presence of micel-
lar mobility.
The CMC value of non-ionic surfactants is much lower than for surfactants having ionic
head-groups, being of the order of 10−4 mol l−1. They form micelles at concentrations about
one-hundredth that of anionic surfactants possessing comparable hydrophobic groups.
This shows that non-ionic surfactants form micelles easily at low solute concentrations,
and low CMC values correspond to high micellar unit weights. The ether oxygens present
in polyethylene oxide chains are heavily hydrated, and these are tangled into coils to an
extent which their chain length and hydration allow. When the length of the polyethylene
oxide chain is increased to give a more hydrophilic surfactant, their CMC increases too
(while the concentrations are expressed as weight per volume). This is expected because,
with the increase of its hydrophilicity, a surfactant will prefer to be dissolved in the water
phase rather than forming aggregates. (However, when the concentrations are expressed in
molar units, several non-ionic surfactants show a downward trend due to the long chain
and high molecular mass per molecule.) If we examine the solution behavior of non-ionic
surfactants by reducing the length of their hydrophilic groups, we see a similar trend as we
reduce the ionic repulsion of the head-groups in ionic surfactants, thus showing that hydra-
tion and electrostatic effects are parallel.
The shapes and structures of micelles are dependent on the molecular architecture of
the surfactant they are made of. The shapes of micelles can be explained through packing
considerations based on simple geometrical features of the surfactant, as shown in Figure
5.9. Such geometric arguments can also be successful in predicting changes in the micelle
structure when the pH, charge, ionic strength, temperature and hydrocarbon tail length
are varied. There are three effective geometric parameters of a surfactant:

1 The optimal head-group area, Ah, depending mainly on the hydrophilic, steric and ionic
repulsions between adjacent head-groups trying to enlarge the head-group area; also, to
a lesser extent, depending on the opposite hydrophobic attraction of hydrocarbon tail
groups trying to shrink the head-group area. The value of Ah is usually much greater
than the cross-sectional area of the present head-group. It depends on both surfactant
206 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

and electrolyte concentrations for ionic surfactants, whereas non-ionic surfactants are
relatively insensitive to external conditions.
2 The tail volume, Vt, which is the volume of hydrocarbon liquid per hydrocarbon
molecule. It is assumed that there is an incompressible hydrocarbon liquid in the core
of the micelle due to the presence of hydrocarbon tail molecules. If we cut a uniform
conic volume per surfactant from a spherical micelle, as shown in Figure 5.9, we can find
the value of Vt, from simple geometry. However, if the micelle is not spherical, Vt does
not represent a uniform cone; instead it shows the form of a truncated cone to produce
a cylindrical micelle, vesicle or liposome; a cylinder to form a bilayer micelle, or an inverted
cone to form an inverted micelle.
3 The height of the cone, Lc, is slightly less than the radius of the micelle and depends on
the effective chain length of the hydrocarbon tail. On the other hand, the radius of the
micelle is assumed to be less than the length of the fully extended hydrocarbon
tail. We need projections of the covalent bond lengths along the direction of the
chain for maximum tail length calculations, and thus we need to know the zig-zag angle.
In general, Lc is defined as a semi-empirical parameter, of the same order as the
maximum extended chain length of the hydrocarbon molecule. Several semi-empirical
equations have been derived to calculate Lc from the number of ethylene units in a
hydrocarbon chain.

Cone Spherical Micelle

Spherical
Micelle
Truncated Cylindrical
Cone Micelle

Cylindrical
Wedge Micelle

Head-group Cylinder Planar Bilayer

Area, Ah
Cone Height,
Lc
Truncated Vesicle or
Cone Liposome

Inverted
Truncated Inverted
Cone Micelle
Tail Volume, Vt

Figure 5.9 Dependence of the shape and structure of micelles on the molecular architecture of the basic
surfactant units. The packing possibilities, based on simple geometrical features of the surfactants, build
the final shape of the micelles.
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 207

If we have the estimated values of Ah, Vt and Lc, then it is possible to define a surfactant
packing parameter
Vt
lp = (470)
Lc Ah
Equation (470) can be used to predict the shape of the formed micelles. The surfactant
packing parameter, lp, relates the molecular geometry of the surfactant to the preferred
curvature of the micelle formed. By geometry, we can calculate that spherical micelles can
be formed if lp < 0.33. The increase in the lp value decreases the curvature of the micelles.
We may test this with simple geometric shapes. For a cone, Equation (470) gives lp =
LcAh/3(LcAh) = 0.33; for a wedge having a square or rectangular base, we have lp =
LcAh/2(LcAh) = 0.5; for a cylinder, lp = LcAh/(LcAh) = 1.0, and for a truncated cone lp > 0.33.
In practice, we mostly encounter spherical micelles. All the surfactants having single chains
with large head-groups form spherical micelles. Most ionic surfactants also form spheri-
cal micelles at low salt concentrations, because the electrostatic repulsion in these condi-
tions leads to large head-group areas, but if the salt concentration in the solution increases,
the value of Ah decreases, and correspondingly lp increases to give micelles having differ-
ent geometrical shapes. Cylindrical micelles, shown in Figure 5.7 c, are formed when the
surfactant has a packing parameter of lp ≈ 0.50, to give a truncated cone or a wedge per
surfactant (see Figure 5.9 for these shapes). Once formed, the cylindrical micelles can grow
to varying lengths by adding more surfactant molecules and thus they are generally poly-
disperse. Surfactants having single chains with small head-groups form cylindrical micelles.
Many ionic surfactants form cylindrical micelles at high salt concentrations.
Micelles are used in many applications. Their largest industrial use is in emulsion poly-
merization, as detailed in Section 5.9 below. On the other hand, micelles made of ionic
surfactants can trap hydrocarbon wastes in polluted water, since these hydrocarbon mol-
ecules prefer to be in the hydrocarbon interior of the micelle in an aqueous environment.
In addition, ionic wastes dissolved in water adsorb onto the polar heads of these micelles.
The resulting waste-filled micelles may be removed by simple ultrafiltration. As an example
of another application, micelles can affect the rate of several chemical reactions and are
used in micellar catalysis, similar to enzyme catalysis, in biochemistry. The rate of the
chemical reaction increases with increasing micelle concentration, eventually leveling off.
Nevertheless, micellar catalysts are less specific than enzymes.

5.8 Bilayers, Vesicles, Liposomes, Biological Cell Membranes

and Inverted Micelles
5.8.1 Bilayers and vesicles

Bilayers and vesicles are non-spherical micelles. If the head-group and tail cross-sectional
areas of a surfactant are nearly equal, giving an exactly cylindrical shape, and thus packing
parameter lp = 1.0, then a perfect planar bilayer micelle is formed, having a tail-to-tail con-
figuration as shown in Figure 5.10 a. If the surfactant concentration in the solution is high,
a lamellar phase forms, consisting of stacks of roughly parallel planar bilayers. If the packing
parameter is not exactly equal to 1.0 but lp ≈ 0.50–1.0, then bilayer micelles are again
208 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

b. Vesicle or c. Inverted
a. Bilayer Liposome Micelle
(Three-Dimensions) (Cross-Section) (Three-Dimensions)

Figure 5.10 Schematic representation of bilayers, vesicles and inverted micelles.

formed, but this time they are not perfectly planar; the bilayer micelle has a curvature, the
extent of which depends on the packing parameter. Bilayer micelles are generally 3–10 nm
in thickness. Bilayer micelles are used in the design of supported membrane biosensors for
medical and pharmaceutical applications.
Vesicles are a different kind of bilayer micelle. They are spherical or ellipsoidal micellar
structures formed by enclosing a volume of the aqueous solution in a bilayer micelle, as
seen in Figure 5.10 b. If the head–tail shape of a surfactant is a truncated cone, and thus
the packing parameter is lp > 0.33 but less than 1.0, then there is an appreciable curvature
on the micellar structure and a vesicle is formed from surfactants having a tail-to-tail con-
figuration. The association of both synthetic and natural surfactants may create vesicles.
Both double-tail and single-tail surfactants such as single-chain fatty acids can be used for
their formation. When bilayer micelles are fragmented in water by any means, the parts
wrap themselves into closed vesicles encapsulating some aqueous solution within during
the process. Ultrasonic agitation is the most widely used technique to convert a large bilayer
micelle into single-compartment vesicles of a small size. Vesicle diameters may range from
100 nm to 10 mm depending on the conditions of preparation. Electrostatic interactions
between the ionic head-groups and the van de Waals interactions between the adjacent
layers contribute to vesicle curvature and stability. Vesicles may contain more than one
enclosed compartment with concentric bilayer surfaces enclosing smaller vesicles in larger
aqueous compartments. Synthetic vesicles find use in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, agro-
chemical etc. industries and are a subject of great research interest in controlled release and
delivery fields.

5.8.2 Liposomes

When natural phospholipids are the surfactant, the formed vesicles are termed liposomes.
They are made of fragmented phospholipid bilayers in aqueous solution, and closed lipo-
some structures encapsulate some aqueous solution within. Lipids are natural surfactants
having two hydrocarbon tails per molecule and they behave similarly to synthetic surfac-
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 209

tants. The alkyl groups in lipid molecules are usually in the C16–C24 size range and may be
either saturated or unsaturated. Their double alkyl tails are too bulky to fit in a spherical
micelle. The most important lipids in biology are the phospholipids having various polar
head substituents, such as ethanolamine, glycerol etc. Typical examples are phosphatidyl
ethanolamine and phosphatidyl choline. Similarly to synthetic surfactants, a phospholipid
molecule consists of a polar, hydrophilic head that is connected to two hydrophobic, hydro-
carbon tails. The phospholipid molecules can self-assemble in aqueous solution at appro-
priate concentrations to form bilayers. The thickness of the phospholipid bilayer can have
a profound effect on its permeability. These phospholipid bilayers give closed liposome
structures when fragmented. Liposomes shrink and swell osmotically as additives change
the activity of water in the surrounding aqueous phase. Phospholipid molecules can flip-
flop from one surface to another in the bilayer, determined experimentally by the use of
isotopic labels. The presence of embedded proteins in the bilayer facilitates the flip-flop of
the phospholipid. Liposomes carry many cargo molecules from one part to another in a
living structure. Hydrophobic cargo molecules are carried inside the hydrophobic part of
the bilayer, whereas the hydrophilic molecules are carried in the aqueous part of the inte-
rior. Some molecules are wholly or partly embedded in the bilayer structure, and some
other molecules can be chemically bound to the exterior, or sometimes the interior, of the
liposome surface. Liposomes are used in pharmaceuticals, medical technology and genetic
engineering. Some drugs can be encapsulated in liposomes and can be delivered much
more efficiently and specifically to the affected organs. This will diminish the side effects
of these drugs because of the reduction in toxicity to the disease-free parts of the body.

5.8.3 Biological cell membranes

In general, synthetic surfactant micelles resemble many biological structures and are used
as model systems to mimic living cell membranes and enzymes. For example, phospho-
lipid bilayers form the membranes of biological cells and separate the interior of the living
cell from the rest of the environment. Thus phospholipid bilayers are of fundamental
importance in biology. The cell membrane consists of a number of functional units, which
include many different protein molecules embedded in the membrane. The function of
phospholipid bilayers is to avoid the diffusion of some ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl− etc.) and
some polar, hydrogen-bonding molecules (nucleotides, sugars etc.) from one compartment
to another. Since the interior of the bilayer membrane is hydrophobic, they do this task
well. However, there is also a need for diffusion of nutrients and for some specific ions to
be transported into the cell. These functions are performed by channel protein macromol-
ecules. Proteins such as hemoglobin, serum albumin, gliadin, glycoproteins, lipoproteins
and synthetic polypeptide polymers themselves contain complex hydrophobic and
hydrophilic components, structured as helices, and provide pathways for these life-
sustaining ions and polar molecules to move across the cell membrane. The inner surfaces
of these channel protein helices are hydrophilic, and allow the transfer of some selected
ions and polar molecules from one side of the bilayer to the other. (However, these path-
ways remain closed until an appropriate internal or external stimulus forces them open.)
It has been determined that proteins are crystallized in two dimensions within phospolipid
monolayers in film balance experiments. In order to understand the lipid–protein interac-
210 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

tions, mixed monolayers of phospholipids with helical polypeptides have been studied via
rheological and electrical measurements of these monolayers in a film balance. It was sug-
gested that the location of the protein macromolecule in a phospholipid bilayer and its
biological activity are very important for the functioning of a living cell. Proteins spread
at the water–air interface and provide important enzymatic recognition, and cell mem-
brane behavior. Nevertheless, phospholipid bilayers are mechanically weak, flexible and
deformable, so that nature builds an outer cell wall over some cells to resist external forces,
in addition to the phospholipid bilayer membrane.

5.8.4 Inverted micelles

We have previously focused on aqueous solution micelles, where hydrophilic parts are ori-
ented to the water phase and hydrocarbon parts associated within the micelle. However, in
a non-aqueous medium, surfactant molecules cluster with their polar heads together in the
micellar core, and their hydrocarbon tails in the organic medium. Thus, the orientation of
the surfactant is reversed and the associated cluster is known as inverted micelles (or reversed
micelles). Water is stabilized in the core of these inverted micelles. Most inverted micelles
are spherical, as shown in Figure 5.10 c. However, not all surfactants can form inverted
micelles, and there are only a few surfactants, which are more oil soluble, that can be used
for this purpose. Surfactants with very small head-groups, for example, cholesterol tend to
form inverted micelles. This is in conjunction with the shape of an inverted truncated cone,
shown in Figure 5.9, so that the head-groups are collected in the core of the micelle while
the hydrophobic tails form the outer region. The size of the inverted micelles is much
smaller than the micelles formed in aqueous medium. Approximately 10 surfactant mole-
cules may give an inverted micelle, whereas a minimum of 30–50 surfactant molecules are
required for the latter. The determination of the CMC for inverted micelles is not easy since
the CMC point is blurred when these small micelles are present. Inverted liposomes are
also formed in solvents such as cyclohexane, toluene and benzene.
Alternatively, inverted micelles can also be formed in water-free medium. If no water is
present in a two-component system, the difference between the solubility parameters of
the hydrocarbon tail of the surfactant and the organic solvent contributes to inverted
micelle formation. A large negative enthalpy change is the driving force to form sponta-
neous inverted micellization, in contrast with aqueous systems.

5.9 Use of Micelles in Emulsion Polymerization

Emulsion polymerization is used in the chemical industry to produce a milky fluid called
latex which is used as the synthetic rubber raw material in paints, surface coatings, adhe-
sives, paper, textile and leather treatment chemicals and in the manufacture of various
other products. In-situ formed micelles are used in order to perform an emulsion poly-
merization process, carried out in an aqueous medium. There are four basic ingredients
required for emulsion polymerization. They are (a) the monomer, a polymerizable organic
material, (b) the water dispersion medium, (c) the emulsifier (surfactant) and (d) the ini-
tiator. When correct amounts of the ingredients are mixed together properly in a suitable
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 211

container, using a mechanical stirrer, and within a certain temperature range, an emulsion
of monomer droplets is initially formed in the continuous dispersion medium, which then
gives a polymeric emulsion at the end of the process.
Organic monomers commonly used in the emulsion polymerization industry are
styrene, acrylonitrile, butadiene, vinyl acetate, acrylic and methacrylic acids, and especially
their organic esters, such as butyl and ethyl acrylates and methacrylates. It is quite common
to produce copolymers using more than one monomeric substance. Most of these
monomers are only slightly soluble in water. The surfactant (emulsifying agent) has a mul-
tiple role in emulsion polymerization. First of all, the emulsifier must form the micelles,
which will solubilize the monomer; the initiation and early propagation of the polymer
particles occurs inside these micelles, as shown in Figure 5.11. The surfactant must also
stabilize the relatively immiscible monomer droplets which are initially formed in the water
phase, and also the produced polymer particles as they grow and in the final product.
Anionic surfactants, having long-chain carboxylates and alkylbenzene sulfonates, are gen-
erally used in conjunction with ethoxylate based non-ionic emulsifiers. One special advan-
tage of non-ionics is that they are insensitive over a wide range to the pH of the aqueous
solution. The added anionic and non-ionic surfactant molecules form micelles with a
roughly spherical shape and consisting of 50–100 surfactant molecules clumped together.
An average micelle will have a diameter of approximately 4–5 nm. At the surfactant
concentrations normally employed in emulsion polymerization, the solution will contain

Inactivated
Micelle Monomer-swollen
Micelle

Monomer-swollen
Monomer Drop
Polymer Latex Particle

Figure 5.11 Schematic representation of the drops and aggregates present in the water phase in the
emulsion polymerization of water-insoluble (approximately) monomers.
212 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

approximately 1018 micelles per milliliter. Mechanical agitation breaks the immiscible
hydrophobic monomer phase into droplets formed in water and these droplets are held in
suspension by applying both the agitation action and the surfactant stabilization. The
hydrophobic portions of the surfactant molecules are adsorbed onto these monomer
droplets, which are about 1 mm in diameter. (This means that an average droplet is
about 200–250 times as large as an average micelle in the same medium, as shown in Figure
5.11.) The hydrophilic portion of the emulsifier molecules on these monomer droplets
remains in the water phase. After the in-situ micelle formation is established, a water-
soluble initiator (usually a persulphate) is added while the system is mechanically
stirred. The initiator causes the monomer molecules to polymerize by breaking down into
charged radicals at a specific temperature (50–70°C for ammonium and potassium per-
sulphates). These initiator radicals in turn react with the monomer molecules to form new
monomeric radicals. These newly formed monomeric radicals combine with the monomer
molecules present in the solution to start the addition polymerization process. The
hydrophobic region of the micelles attracts the organic monomer molecules and the major-
ity of the monomer molecules dissolved in the water phase are located within the micelles.
As more monomer molecules dissolve in water, they continue to diffuse into the micellar
cores. Most of the polymerization is initiated within the micelles so that a micelle acts as
a meeting place for the oil-soluble monomer and the water-soluble initiator. Approximately
1013 free radicals per milliliter per second may be produced from a typical persulphate ini-
tiator at 50°C, and within a very short time, these radicals will meet the monomer-swollen
micelles in which the polymerization of a single macromolecule then starts. The next step
of polymerization is propagation which is the growing of the polymeric chains by the
addition of monomeric units present in the micelle. The polymer chains grow in micelles
until the process is terminated by reaction with another radical. Thus a polymer chain is
either propagating or terminating in micelles at any time; therefore statistically half the
micelles contain growing chains under stationary state conditions. As polymerization
proceeds, the micelles grow in size through the addition of monomer from the aqueous
solution phase via the monomer droplets. As the monomer molecules in the micelles
combine with one another to build polymer chains, more will migrate (or diffuse) from
the monomer drop through the water to the micelles, as shown in Figure 5.11. After initi-
ation, polymerization inside the micelles proceeds very rapidly and the micelles grow from
a tiny group of emulsifier and monomer molecules to larger groups of polymer molecules,
held in emulsion by the action of the emulsifier molecules located on the exterior surface
of the particle. The active micelles have now grown much larger than the original micelles,
depending on the particular polymerization system, 2–15% conversion. They are no
longer considered to be micelles but monomer-swollen polymer latex particles, as shown in
Figure 5.11.
The behavior of the surfactant molecules in an emulsion polymerization is complex. The
adsorption of the surfactant on the rapidly and continually growing surface of the
monomer-swollen latex particles reduces their concentration in the aqueous phase, and
also upsets the balance in equilibrium between the dissolved surfactant and the surfactant
present in the inactivated micelles (those in which polymerization is not occurring), as
shown in Figure 5.11. The point is quickly reached at which the surfactant concentration
in the solution falls below its critical micelle concentration, CMC. When this occurs, the
inactive micelles become unstable and disintegrate to restore the balance. In time all of the
micelles disappear and the monomer droplets shrink in size. After a conversion of 10–20%
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 213

of monomer to polymer has been reached, no micelles are left and essentially all of the
surfactant molecules in the system have been adsorbed by the polymer particles. It is
significant that at this point the surface tension of the aqueous phase increases, because
surfactant-free water has a high surface tension of 72.8 mN m−1. The monomer droplets are
no longer stable from now on and will coalesce if the mechanical agitation is stopped. Later,
the monomeric droplets gradually decrease in quantity as polymerization proceeds, and
the size of the polymeric particles increases. Finally monomeric droplets disappear com-
pletely at 50–80% conversion and the polymer particles contain all of the unreacted
monomer, and essentially all of the surfactant molecules are also attached onto the surface
of these polymer particles. After this stage no fresh latex particles can be formed since
initiation of the polymerization reaction can take place only in a monomer-swollen
micelle. The number of latex particles is thus fixed at this point (approximately 1015 par-
ticles ml−1) and further polymerization occurs only inside these latex particles. Then, the
monomer in the monomer-swollen latex particles is gradually used up and the polymer-
ization rate will gradually decrease. Polymerization will cease completely when all the
monomer in the particles is consumed, at nearly 100% conversion. The final polymer par-
ticles have diameters of the order of 50–200 nm and are intermediate in size between the
initial micelles and monomer droplets.
There are several reasons for using emulsion polymerization extensively in the chemi-
cal industry. In this process, both the rate of polymerization and the average molecular
weight of the polymer depend on the surfactant concentration, via the concentration of
the micelles formed, and the production of a high-molecular-weight polymer at a high rate
of polymerization is possible. The molecular weight and degree of polymerization can
easily be controlled in emulsion polymerization, so that a product having specific and
reproducible properties can be obtained. This is important in the chemical industry
because there is an inverse relationship between the polymerization rate and the polymer
molecular weight in other polymerization processes (bulk, solution, suspension polymer-
ization), so that large increases in molecular weight can only be produced by decreasing
the polymerization rate by lowering the initiator concentration or lowering the reaction
temperature. Thus, emulsion polymerization is a unique process that affords a means of
increasing the polymer molecular weight without decreasing the polymerization rate. In
addition, emulsion polymerization offers several other advantages such as the possibility
of interrupting the polymerization at any stage for the addition of other materials needed
to modify the properties of the finished polymer; better temperature control during poly-
merization due to more rapid heat transfer in the low viscosity emulsion; better control
of the range and distribution of particle size; the versatility of carrying out many copoly-
merizations, which are difficult to control in bulk or any other polymerization method;
and the tendency to restrict the coalescence of polymer particles due to the presence of the
adsorbed surfactant, which acts as a protective colloid and thereby prevents the formation
of sticky and rubbery products.

5.10 Coating Mono- and Multilayers on Solid Substrates:

Langmuir–Blodgett Method
A Langmuir film balance can also be used to build up highly organized multilayers of sur-
factant films on solid substrates. This is accomplished by successively dipping a substrate
214 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

vertically up and down through the monolayer formed on the subphase, while simultane-
ously keeping the surface pressure constant using a computer-controlled feedback system
between the Wilhelmy electrobalance measuring the surface pressure, and the mechanical
barrier moving mechanism. As a result, the floating monolayer is adsorbed onto the solid
substrate. In this way, high-quality and ordered multilayer structures of several (sometimes
hundreds of) layers can be produced on solid substrates with high dielectric strengths.
Historically, Irving Langmuir was the first to report the transfer of a fatty acid mono-
layer from a water surface onto a solid support, in 1920. However, his assistant Katherine
Blodgett gave the first detailed description of sequential monolayer transfer several years
later, in 1934. These built-up mono- and multilayer assemblies are therefore commonly
called Langmuir–Blodgett or simply LB coatings. After the pioneering work done by Lang-
muir and Blodgett, it took almost half a century before scientists all around the world
started to realize the opportunities presented by this unique technique. The first interna-
tional conference on LB films was held in 1979, and since then the use of the LB technique
has been increasing widely among scientists working in different fields of research. The
applications of LB films extend from electronic devices where these thin organic films are
used as insulators, to solar energy production systems, and also to biomembrane research
in biology.
In practice, an organic thin film can be deposited on a solid substrate by various other
techniques such as vapor deposition, sputtering, electrodeposition, molecular beam
epitaxy, adsorption from solution, solvent casting, etc. Nevertheless, the LB technique is
one of the most promising methods for preparing such thin films as it enables (a) the
precise control of the monolayer thickness, (b) homogeneous deposition of the monolayer
over large areas and (c) the possibility to make multilayer structures with varying layer
composition. The parameters that affect the properties of an LB film are the type and
nature of the solid substrate, the spread monolayer, the subphase composition and applied
temperature, the surface pressure and the vertical dipping or withdrawal speed during film
deposition, and the time the solid substrate is stored in air or in the subphase between dep-
osition cycles. The surfactants that are used in the LB technique should have been carefully
selected to have balanced hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Metallic salts of these film
materials can also be formed on the substrates by previously introducing metallic ions into
the water subphase.

5.10.1 Monolayer film transfer to solids

There are several possibilities for coating monolayers onto solids depending on the
hydrophilic or hydrophobic nature of the substrate, the type of surfactant and the sub-
phase (which is water in most LB experiments), the initial location of the substrate (inside
or outside the subphase) and the direction of the dipper (downstroke or upstroke). Most
of the possible LB coating procedures are outlined schematically in Figures 5.12–5.17. In
Langmuir’s original experiment, a very clean hydrophilic substrate is dipped into the water
before the monolayer film is spread. Next, the monolayer material is dissolved in a suitable
volatile and non-reactive solvent (such as chloroform, toluene, cyclohexane, n-hexane,
petroleum ether) in concentrations that fit 0.1–1.0 kg m−2 of solvent on the trough surface
and spread over the water subphase. After complete evaporation of the volatile solvent, the
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 215

barriers are operated to compress the monolayer. Next, the water-wettable, hydrophilic
substrate is slowly withdrawn upwards across the water surface and the monolayer is
transferred onto it while a constant surface pressure is maintained on the monolayer. This
deposition procedure is shown schematically in Figure 5.12 a. The monolayer can be trans-
ferred quantitatively onto a water-wettable substrate when sufficient lateral pressure is
applied on the monolayer, within which the molecules are close to each other. As can be
seen in Figure 5.12 a, the hydrophilic head-groups (filled dots) attach to the hydrophilic
solid and the meniscus is curved upwards, in the same direction as the motion of the sub-
strate. This is important, because the rule for deposition to take place is that the meniscus
must curve in the same direction as the motion of the substrate. This means that no
deposition will take place if a hydrophilic substrate such as SiO2, Al2O3, MgO or a hydro-
philic polymer is immersed into a monolayer-coated water phases, as can be seen in Figure
5.12 b. This is because the meniscus is curved upwards due to the capillary forces arising
from the strong interaction of water molecules with the hydrophilic solid. After an LB
monolayer is coated onto a hydrophilic substrate such as silicon, with a high surface energy
of about 50 mN m−1, this then renders it as a hydrophobic surface with a relatively low
surface energy, in the range of 20–30 mN m−1. However, a very uniform LB coating is dif-
ficult to obtain and many defects may also be present, such as pinholes and island regions
due to the collapsed forms on the coated LB monolayer.
Instead of a hydrophilic solid, if we immerse a hydrophobic substrate, such as some pure
metals, Au, Ag, Ge, or some plastics, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, silanized SiO2
etc. into a monolayer-coated water subphase, as shown schematically in Figure 5.13 a, then
the LB coating process is different. Since both meniscus curve and substrate movement are
in the same direction (downwards) during this process, a monolayer can be quantitatively

Substrate Direction Substrate Direction

Three-phase Meniscus Direction

contact Meniscus Direction
line

Water
subphase
Water subphase

a. Upstroke LB transfer on b. No LB transfer on a hydrophilic

a hydrophilic substrate substrate during downstroke

Figure 5.12 Langmuir–Blodgett monolayer transfer onto a hydrophilic substrate: a. Upstroke. b.

Downstroke.
216 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Substrate Direction Substrate Direction

Meniscus
Direction
Meniscus
Direction

Water
subphase
Water subphase

a. Downstroke LB transfer b. No LB transfer on a hydrophobic

on a hydrophobic substrate substrate during upstroke

Figure 5.13 Langmuir–Blodgett monolayer transfer onto a hydrophobic substrate: a. Downstroke. b.

Upstroke.

transferred onto the substrate where hydrophobic tail-groups (lines) attach onto the
hydrophobic solid. In this case, the meniscus is downwards because the capillary forces due
to the water–hydrophobic surface interactions are weak. The cohesion forces between water
molecules are stronger than the adhesion forces between the water and the hydrophobic
substrate, and water drops have a contact angle of greater than 90° on such non-wettable
and flat hydrophobic surfaces. On the other hand, no LB deposition will take place if a
hydrophobic substrate is previously located in the water subphase and withdrawn upwards
after the water surface is coated with a monolayer, as shown in Figure 5.13 b, since the
meniscus and substrate directions are reversed.
In the practice of LB coating, the monolayer should be continuously compressed as it is
transferred onto the substrate, to maintain the original coating uniformity. The barrier
compression must be carried out very sensitively to avoid the film collapsing on the sub-
phase, and the whole system should be vibration free during this process. The LB deposi-
tion is generally carried out in the solid, (S) or liquid-condensed state (L-Con.) phases of
insoluble films on the subphase, as shown in Figure 5.6 and explained in Section 5.6.3. In
the S or L-Con. phases, the surface pressure should be high enough to ensure sufficient
cohesion in the monolayer, e.g. the attraction between the molecules in the monolayer must
be sufficiently high so that the monolayer does not fall apart during transfer onto the solid
substrate. This also ensures the build up of the homogeneous multilayers. The surface
pressure value that gives the best coating results depends on the nature of the monolayer
and is usually established empirically; generally a surface pressure of 20–40 mN m−1 is
applied. However, surfactants can seldom be successfully deposited when p is lower than
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 217

5 mN m−1, or at surface pressures above 40 mN m−1, where the rigidity and collapse of the
film often creates problems. When monolayers are deposited onto the substrate at low
surface pressure p = 5–10 mN m−1, the amount of unwanted water lifted with the LB film
is increased. In general, it is often observed that the substrate is visibly wet immediately
after the transfer. The incorporation of water from the subphase into the coated organic
LB film is an important problem with the LB method. It generally gives a pick-up of water
between 5 and 10% of the total weight of the coated LB film. This water layer may be
removed by drainage or evaporation in the open air or in an oven. However, in some
instances monolayers may appear dry depending on the surfactant and substrate types. In
usual LB practice, wet immersion of the coated substrate is preferred, but sometimes drying
of the coated substrate is required after forming every single monolayer.

5.10.2 Multilayer film transfer to solids

Different kinds of LB multilayer can be produced by successive deposition of monolayers

on the same substrate. For this purpose, the dipper must move up and down many times
through the monolayer formed on the subphase in a Langmuir trough, while the surface
pressure is kept constant throughout, by applying a controlled barrier compression. There
are generally three types of built-up multilayer films, named X, Y and Z-types. The most
common is the Y-type multilayer, which is produced when the monolayer deposits onto
the solid substrate in successive upstroke and downstroke movements of the dipper holding
the substrate. The Y-type multilayers can be formed on both hydrophilic (as seen in Figure
5.14) and hydrophobic (as seen in Figure 5.15) substrates, and the monolayers have both

Y-Type LB film deposition on a hydrophilic substrate

(up and down) Tail–to–tail
Head–to–head

Tail–to–tail

a. First upstroke b. Second downstroke c. After the third

LB transfer on LB transfer on upstroke LB
a hydrophilic a hydrophilic transfer on
substrate substrate a hydrophilic
substrate

Figure 5.14 Y-type Langmuir–Blodgett film deposition onto a hydrophilic substrate: a. First upstroke. b.
Second downstroke. c. After the third upstroke.
218 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

tail-to-tail and head-to-head configurations of the contained surfactant molecules, but no

head-to-tail or tail-to-head configurations.
In Figure 5.14 a, we see that a monolayer is coated on a hydrophilic substrate by with-
drawal from the subphase in the vertical direction in the first process, and this monolayer-
coated hydrophilic substrate is immersed downwards into the same monolayer on the water
phase in the second process, as shown in Figure 5.14 b. Since both the meniscus curve and
the substrate movement are in the same direction, a second LB coating is then possible,
but only in the tail-to-tail form, where the alkyl chains are oriented towards the substrate
due to the strong interactions between the hydrophobic tail-groups at the outermost
surface of the monolayer-coated substrate, and the tail-groups of the surfactant molecules.
If we continue this process by withdrawing the bilayer-coated substrate upstroke, a third
monolayer can also be coated, as shown in Figure 5.14 c, but this time giving a head-to-
head pattern, due to the strong interactions between the hydrophilic head-groups on the
outermost substrate surface, and the hydrophilic head-groups of the monolayer surfactants
which exclude the tail-groups so that these hydrocarbon chains are exposed to the air. In
summary, a monolayer is deposited on both sides of the substrate on each traverse of the
monolayer–air interface. We may continue this process until the desired thickness of mul-
tilayer LB film is achieved, having successive tail-to-tail and head-to-head patterns.
In general, the quality of a multilayer LB film, that is, the ordering perpendicular to the
substrate surface, depends on the quality of the first monolayer transfer. The subphase also
plays a very important role in determining the quality of the deposited film. Ultrapure
water is generally used because of its exceptionally high surface tension value. The tem-
perature and pH of the subphase also affects the quality of the LB film, and in most papers
researchers have used a water of pH = 7, at room temperature. The adhesion of the first
LB layer to the underlying substrate is particularly important, and this may also be called
heterogeneous crystal growth, since the first monomolecular layer is transferred onto the
surface of a different material. However, the deposition will be homogeneous to transfer
onto the existing first monolayer, for subsequent monolayers.
In Figure 5.15 a, we see the reverse process, so that initially a monolayer is coated on a
hydrophobic substrate by immersing into the subphase downwards, where the hydrophilic
head-groups are now on the uppermost surface of the substrate. If we withdraw this mono-
layer-coated substrate from the subphase in a second upstroke process, as shown in Figure
5.15 b, a second monolayer is coated onto the first coated LB film giving a head-to-head
pattern, due to the strong interactions between the hydrophilic head-groups, which exclude
the hydrophobic tail-groups of the surfactant molecules in the monolayer. Similarly to the
above process, if we continue by immersing the bilayer-coated substrate on the downstroke,
a third monolayer can be coated, as shown in Figure 5.15 c, giving a tail-to-tail pattern due
to the strong interactions between the hydrophobic tail-groups present on the outermost
surface, which excludes the head-groups. By repeating these transfer cycles, we can achieve
the desired thickness of multilayer LB film, having successive head-to-head and tail-to-tail
patterns. For fatty acid salts such as calcium stearate deposited onto metallic substrates
such as an aluminum plate, there is an ion exchange between the fatty acid salt and the
thin aluminum oxide layer forming a new layer of aluminum stearate. The strong chemi-
cal bond anchors the polar head of the first LB monolayer to the metallic substrate surface,
and in most cases, this monolayer remains on the surface if any mechanical force is applied.
However, the outer layers in a multilayer LB film can be wiped off with a tissue (or by any
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 219

Y-Type LB film deposition on a hydrophobic substrate

(down and up)
Head–to–head Tail–to–tail

Head–to–head

a. First downstroke b. Second upstroke c. After the third

LB transfer on LB transfer on downstroke LB
a hydrophobic a hydrophobic transfer on
substrate substrate a hydrophobic
substrate

Figure 5.15 Y-type Langmuir–Blodgett film deposition onto a hydrophobic substrate: a. First downstroke.
b. Second upstroke. c. After the third downstroke.

other mechanical means) to remove all the long-chain fatty acid layers, because they are
only held by relatively weak van der Waals forces.
In Figure 5.16, we see schematically X-type LB multilayer deposition on a hydrophobic
substrate by only dipping it downwards into the monolayer coated subphase. Only a
head-to-tail configuration can be obtained by this process, as seen in Figure 5.16 c. If we
compare Figures 5.15 a and 5.16 a, we can see no differences and the question arises: how
can we apply a second downstroke immersion such as that in Figure 5.16 b? The answer
lies in a Langmuir trough containing two wells, where the LB monolayer coated substrate
in Figure 5.16 a is not removed from its initial well but is removed from the second well,
which is free of any monolayer. This can be accomplished by mechanically passing the
coated substrate under the same subphase from one well to the other, in this special trough.
Then, this initially hydrophobic substrate now having hydrophilic head-groups on its
outermost surface can again be immersed into the monolayer floating first well, to coat a
second monolayer in a head-to-tail configuration. We can continue this process until we
obtain the desired thickness of multilayer LB film, having successive head-to-tail patterns.
This X-type deposition can also be modified with changes in the dipping conditions and
solutions used; for example, we can change the pH of the subphase if desired.
The Z-type LB multilayer deposition on a hydrophilic substrate is shown schematically in
Figure 5.17. We can only withdraw the substrate upwards from the monolayer-coated sub-
phase. Only a tail-to-head configuration can be obtained using this process, as seen in Figure
5.17 c. Again we need a two-well Langmuir trough to apply this process, where we immerse
the monolayer-coated substrate from a monolayer-free water surface and withdraw it from
the neighboring monolayer-coated well. Aromatic-based molecules containing short and
220 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

X-Type LB film deposition on a hydrophobic substrate

(only downstroke)
Head–to–tail

Head–to–tail

a. First downstroke b. Second downstroke c. After the third

LB transfer on LB transfer on downstroke LB
a hydrophobic a hydrophobic transfer on
substrate substrate a hydrophobic
substrate

Figure 5.16 X-type Langmuir–Blodgett film deposition onto a hydrophobic substrate: a. First downstroke.
b. Second downstroke. c. After the third downstroke.

Z-Type LB film deposition on a hydrophilic substrate

(only upstroke)

Tail–to–head Tail–to–head

a. First upstroke b. Second upstroke c. After the third

LB transfer on LB transfer on upstroke LB
a hydrophilic a hydrophilic transfer on
substrate substrate a hydrophilic
substrate

Figure 5.17 Z-type Langmuir–Blodgett film deposition on a hydrophilic substrate: a. First upstroke. b.
Second upstroke. c. After the third upstroke.
 Liquid Solution Surfaces 221

sometimes no hydrocarbon chains, such as phthalocyanines and fullerenes give Z-type LB

coatings; they are different from conventional fatty-acid-based LB films.
It is also possible to coat LB multilayers containing more than one type of monomole-
cular layer. So-called alternating layers may be produced, which consist of two different
kinds of surfactant, by using highly sophisticated instrumentation. In such an instrument
there is a trough with two separate compartments both possessing a well and a floating
monolayer of a different surfactant. These monolayers can then be deposited on one solid
substrate in an alternating mode.

5.10.3 Properties of LB films

The quantity and the quality of the deposited monolayer on a solid substrate is measured
by a so-called transfer ratio or deposition ratio, t,
AL
t= (471)
AS
where AL is the area decrease in the monolayer, and AS is the coated area of the solid sub-
strate during a deposition stroke. For an ideal transfer, t is equal to 1. This suggests that
the LB film bridges over the surface roughness of the substrate at the moment of deposi-
tion. However, some monolayers may also be deposited on grooved surfaces. Transfer ratios
appreciably outside the range 0.95–1.05 show that coating homogeneity is not good. If the
monolayer is not coherent and the surface pressure is low, the transfer ratio is less than
one. If the chain–chain attractions are strong and the monolayer is continuous, the film is
transferred like a carpet to the substrate. However if the monolayer is extremely rigid it is
very difficult to transfer by the LB method, such as Cu2+-stearate monolayers. Coating
homogeneity cannot be inspected easily using the naked eye because of the coloring of
most LB films. The thickness of LB films can be of the order of the wavelength of visible
light (420–700 nm) and LB coatings may appear colored or dark due to the constructive
and destructive interference of light waves, which are reflected from the film–air and
film–substrate surfaces.
After deposition of an LB film on a substrate, the characterization of mono- and
multilayers can be carried out using various methods, such as ellipsometry, electron and
Brewster angle microscopy, FTIR, fluorescence spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray
reflectometry, XPS etc. The thickness of the LB multilayers can be measured by ellipsom-
etry: the behavior of light reflected by an interface allows determination of the thickness
of the present inhomogeneous region via its index of refraction and its absorption coeffi-
cient. A monochromatic light source (e.g. a laser) sends a beam to the LB-coated multi-
layer and the reflected beam will be elliptically polarized, the angle of polarization is then
determined. This leads to computation of the thickness of the LB film. The reproducibil-
ity of LB films can be monitored by measuring a suitable physical characteristic of the
organic film, such as film thickness and optical density as a function of time. The quartz
crystal microbalance (QCM) technique, which is sensitive to nanogram weight increases on
a quartz substrate, by checking the frequency shift, is also used to determine actual trans-
fer ratios in the LB method. Alternatively, an LB multilayer-coated substrate can be sand-
wiched between two metal electrodes and the capacitance measured as a function of the
222 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

number of dipping cycles. The capacitance varies with the reciprocal of the thickness.
Unfortunately, many results for LB deposition are not reproducible because of the factors
that cannot be held constant during the coating process.
LB coatings may be modified, for example, when an LB-coated substrate is soaked in a
suitable solvent such as acetone, alcohol or benzene, and the multilayer is skeletonized due
to the dissolving out of the free fatty acid, reducing its actual thickness slightly, but decreas-
ing the refractive index appreciably. This property is used to control the refractive index to
produce antireflection coatings for glass. The holes in these skeletonized films can also be
filled with other materials in vapor or liquid form.
An alternative way to deposit the monolayer is by the Langmuir–Schaeffer (LS) tech-
nique. This technique differs from the vertical technique described above only in the sense
that the solid substrate is lowered in a nearly horizontally position, until it is in contact
with the monolayer on the water surface. After the substrate has made contact with the
monolayer, the rest of the monolayer is cleaned away and the substrate plate is lifted up
with a monolayer which is coated on only one side of the substrate. This method is useful
for the transfer of highly rigid monolayers. On the other hand, Sagiv and Netzer, in 1983,
invented a method of preparing chemically bound multilayers, which is based on the suc-
cessive adsorption and reaction of suitable organic molecules. Initially these molecules
adsorb onto the substrate to form a monolayer as for the normal LB technique. Then, the
head-group reacts with the topmost groups on the coating to give a permanent chemical
attachment, and each subsequent layer is chemically attached to the previous monolayer.
This is a promising method to create versatile structures in nanotechnology.

References
1. Adam, N.K. (1968) The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
2. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973) An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3. Lyklema, L. (1991) Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science (vols. I and II). Academic Press,
London.
4. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997) Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
5. Scatchard, G. (1976) Equilibrium in Solutions & Surface and Colloid Chemistry. Harvard Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge.
6. Erbil, H.Y. (1997) Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed.). Handbook of Surface
and Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
7. Erbil, H.Y. (2000) Vinyl Acetate Emulsion Polymerization and Copolymerization with Acrylic
Monomers. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
8. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997) Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
9. Butt, H.J., Graf, K. and Kappl, M. (2003) Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.
10. Murrell, J.N. and Jenkins, A.D. (1994) Properties of Liquids and Solutions (2nd edn). Wiley,
Chichester.
11. Petty, M.C. (1996) Langmuir–Blodgett Films. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
12. George, J. (1992) Preparation of Thin Films. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Chapter 6
Experimental Determination of
Surface Tension at Pure Liquid and
Solution Surfaces/Interfaces

It is difficult to classify liquid surface tension measurement methods because there are
static, dynamic, rapid, slow, old and new methods. It is best to describe these methods in
separate sections with their relation to surface tension theory (especially with the
Young–Laplace equation given in Section 4.3), and to discuss their use in special condi-
tions. Equipment based on the ring and Wilhelmy plate detachment methods is commonly
used in most modern laboratories working in the surface science field, since these can easily
be applied to surface tension measurement of pure liquids and also solutions at the
liquid–air surface, and to the interfacial tension between two immiscible liquids at the
interface. Capillary rise, drop volume and maximum bubble pressure are also conventional
surface tension measurement methods, and several sophisticated instruments have been
developed for their application. The optical drop shape determination and video image
digitization method compares the optically determined contour of a pendant or sessile drop
image with the theoretical contour, which can be predicted by the Young–Laplace equa-
tion. When both profiles fit each other by applying a numerical method using computers,
then surface tension can be obtained from the classical Young–Laplace equation. On the
other hand, dynamic methods such as the oscillating jet and capillary wave methods are
applied to systems that are not in equilibrium with the intention to study the changes in
surface tension and relaxation effects on a very small time scale.
When compared with the other methods, the capillary rise method is the ultimate stan-
dard method in terms of the degree of theoretical exactitude, and, although it is the oldest
method, it still gives the most precise liquid surface tension results if carefully applied, and
when the time of measurement is allowed to be sufficiently long. However, with the
improvement in computer-controlled electronic equipment, other methods now also have
a very high precision. Some of the surface tension results are summarized in Table 6.1, and
the interfacial tension between pure liquids in Table 6.2.

6.1 Liquid Surface Tension from the Capillary Rise Method

As discussed in Section 4.4, when a solid capillary tube is inserted into a liquid, the liquid
is generally raised (or rarely depressed) in this tube. In the capillary rise method, the height
of a liquid column in a capillary tube above the level of the reference liquid contained in
a large dish is measured. The container must be sufficiently large so that the reference liquid
224 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Table 6.1 Surface tension values at the liquid–air (vapor) interface

(Values compiled from standard references especially from David R.
Lide (ed.) (2003) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (83rd ed.)
CRC Press, Boca Raton; Jasper, J. J. (1972) J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data,
1, 841; Korosi, G. and Kovats, E. J. (1981) Chem. Eng. Data, 26, 323

Surface tension Temperature

Liquid (mN m−1) (°C)

n-Hexane 18.40 20
Cyclohexane 25.50 20
n-Heptane 20.14 20
n-Octane 21.00 20
n-Nonane 22.85 20
n-Decane 23.83 20
Dodecane 25.44 20
Benzene 28.88 20
Toluene 28.52 20
n-Propylbenzene 28.98 20
Bromobenzene 35.75 25
Nitrobenzene 41.71 40
Aniline 42.67 20
Dimethyl aniline 36.56 20
Chloroform 27.14 25
Carbon tetrachloride 26.90 25
Diiodomethane 50.80 20
Perfluoropentane 9.89 20
Perfluoroheptane 13.19 20
Perfluoromethycyclohexane 15.75 20
Ethyl ether 17.01 25
Butyl acetate 25.09 20
Ethyl acetate 23.39 25
Acetic acid 27.10 25
Propionic acid 26.69 20
Butyric acid 26.51 20
Methanol 22.51 25
Ethanol 21.82 25
n-Propanol 23.58 25
Iso-Propanol 21.22 25
n-Butanol 24.93 20
Sec-Butanol 22.54 20
n-Pentanol 25.36 25
n-Hexanol 25.81 25
Cyclohexanol 32.92 25
n-Octanol 27.10 25
Ethylene glycol 47.99 25
Diethylene glycol 30.90 20
Glycerine 63.40 20
Water 72.80 20
Formamide 57.02 25
Dimethyl sulfoxide 43.54 20
Polydimethylsiloxane 20.47 20
(Mw = 3900)
Carbon disulfide 32.32 20
Mercury 486.50 20
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 225

Table 6.2 Interfacial tension values at the liquid1–liquid2 interface

(Values compiled from Davies, J. T. and Rideal, E. K. (1963) Interfacial
Phenomena (2nd ed.). Academic Press, New York; Donahue, D. J. and
Bartell, F. E. (1952) J. Phys. Chem., 56, 480; Girifalco, L. A. and Good,
R. J. (1957) J. Phys. Chem., 61, 904; Ivosevic, N, Zutic, V, and Tomaic,
J. (1999) Langmuir 15, 7063

Interfacial tension Temperature

Liquid2 (mN m−1) (°C)

Liquid1: Water
n-Hexane 51.0 20
Cyclohexane 51.0 20
n-Heptane 50.2 20
n-Octane 50.8 20
n-Decane 51.2 20
Hexadecane 53.3 20
Benzene 35.0 20
Toluene 36.1 25
n-Propylbenzene 39.1 25
n-Butylbenzene 40.6 25
Bromobenzene 38.1 25
Nitrobenzene 26.0 20
Aniline 5.85 20
Chloroform 28.0 25
Carbon tetrachloride 45.0 20
n-Butanol 1.8 20
Iso-Butanol 2.1 20
n-Pentanol 4.4 25
n-Hexanol 6.8 25
Cyclohexanol 4.0 20
n-Octanol 8.5 20
Ethyl acetate 6.8 20
Heptanoic acid 7.0 20
Ethyl ether 10.7 20
Carbon disulfide 48.0 20
Methylene iodide 45.9 20
Liquid1: Diethylene glycol
n-Heptane 10.6 20
n-Decane 11.6 20
Liquid1: Mercury
Water 426 20
Ethanol 389 20
n-Hexane 378 20
n-Heptane 379 20
n-Octane 375 20
n-Decane 372 20
Hexadecane 365 20
Benzene 363 20
Toluene 359 20
226 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

has a well-defined horizontal surface. A glass capillary is most commonly used for this
purpose because it is completely wettable by most liquids as a result of the high surface
free energy of glass and, in addition, it is transparent so that the height of the rising liquid
can easily be determined. In physical terms, the capillary rise of a liquid in the tube is a
consequence of the adhesion interactions between the liquid and the capillary wall, which
are stronger than the cohesion interactions within the liquid. The rise in the liquid is
restricted by the opposing hydrostatic (gravity) forces, approaching equilibrium between
the capillary and hydrostatic pressures within the column at a definite height of the liquid.
Thus, the upward flow of liquid continues until the hydrostatic pressure just balances the
Young–Laplace pressure difference, ∆P. The attractive forces between the wall of the cap-
illary tube and the liquid are exerted only along the edge at which the upper surface of the
liquid meets the tube, so that only the radius at the upper surface is important and the
capillary radius can be wider or narrower lower down.
It has been observed experimentally that there is an inverse proportionality between the
height of the liquid present in the capillary tube and the tube radius. As given in Equation
(326), the height of the rising liquid, h, is directly proportional to the surface tension of
the liquid, g, but inversely proportional to the radius of the capillary tube, r, and also to
the density of the liquid, r. So we can write, h ∝ 2g/rr. On the other hand, the liquid surface
in the capillary tube usually takes the form of a concave spherical cap, as shown in Figure
4.7. Indeed, the rise of a liquid in a capillary tube is simply the automatic recording of the
Young–Laplace pressure difference, ∆P, across the meniscus of the liquid in the tube. The
general Young–Laplace equation [∆P = g (1/R1 + 1/R2)] (Equation (325)), which is given in
Section 4.3.3, relates the pressure difference to the liquid surface tension and the mean
radius of curvature. For the simplest ideal case, if the capillary tube is circular in cross
section and not too large in radius (r < 0.1 mm), where the contact angle of the liquid on
the capillary wall, q = 0°, so that the liquid completely wets the capillary wall, then the
meniscus will be completely hemispherical. For this case, r = R1 = R2 from simple geome-
try, as shown in Figure 4.7, and the Young–Laplace equation gives ∆P = 2g/r = ∆rgh (Equa-
tions (327) and (328)) where ∆r denotes the difference in density between the liquid and
gas (or vapor) phase, and g is the acceleration of gravity. Then, the capillary constant (or
specific cohesion constant), a2o, is defined for q = 0° conditions, as the product of the capil-
lary radius and the liquid height [a2o = rh = 2g/∆rg] (Equation (329)) with the units of area
(m2).
Nevertheless, Equation (329) cannot be used for some cases where the liquid meets the
circularly cylindrical capillary wall at a stable contact angle, q, between the liquid and the
wall, even for capillary tubes having a small radius, as shown in Figure 4.7. The value of
the contact angle depends on the relative magnitudes of the adhesive forces between the
liquid and the capillary wall and the internal cohesive forces in the liquid. When the adhe-
sive forces exceed the cohesive forces, q lies in the range 0° ≤ q ≤ 90°; and when the cohe-
sive forces exceed the adhesive forces 90° ≤ q ≤ 180°. When q > 90°, the (cos q) term is
negative, resulting in a convex meniscus towards the vapor phase, and the liquid level in
the capillary falls below the liquid level in the container (capillary depression occurs for
liquid mercury in a glass capillary). In practice, during a capillary rise experiment, q nor-
mally lies in the range 0° ≤ q ≤ 40°, and the curvature of the meniscus determines the height
to which the liquid will rise in the capillary tube. If the radius of the tube is sufficiently
small but q ≠ 0°, then we obtain the expression, R1 = R2 = r/cos q, from the mathematical
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 227

relation of cos q = r/R, as shown in Figure 4.7, and by neglecting the gravitational distor-
tion on the curvature. Then, the capillary constant with a finite contact angle, aq2, can be
given as [aq2 = rh = (2g cos q)/(∆rg)] (Equation (330)) for this case.
In order to determine the capillary height, we need to measure the distance between the
bottom of the meniscus (the lowest point in the concave meniscus) and the plane level of
liquid in a large container that is in communication with the capillary tube. However, by
doing so, we neglect the weight of the liquid in the crown of the concave meniscus (the
liquid between the topmost and the lowest ends of the meniscus), as given in Figure 4.7.
But the weight of this small quantity of liquid also contributes to the hydrostatic pressure,
which is in equilibrium with the capillary pressure, ∆P. Thus, several correction factors
have been suggested to be included in the capillary constant equation, such as [a2o = r(h +
r/3)] (Equation (331)), and for the case of h >> r, Equation (332) is applied.
If the radius of the capillary tube is particularly large, or when the capillary rise method
is used to measure the interfacial tension between two liquids (see Section 6.6), the contact
angle is larger than zero, q > 0°, and the meniscus is no longer spherical. Then, Equation
(329) must be corrected to allow exact treatment of the capillary rise due to the curved
meniscus. In Figure 6.1, we see an interfacial meniscus (curve), which divides two fluids of
unequal density. This curve is concave upwards and point A is on this curve at a level (z)
above the minimum level point, O. The pressure on the concave side of point O is P1, and
P2 is that on the convex side, ∆PO = P1 − P2 at point O. The density on the upper side
(concave side) of point O is r1, and r2 is the density on the lower side (convex side) of
point O. If we assume that both media are continuous, the hydrostatic pressure at point A
can be calculated as PA1 = P1 − zgr1 and PA2 = P2 − zgr2, due to the fact that hydrostatic
pressure decreases under gravity with elevation. Then the pressure difference at point A
across the curved surface would be

PA

z
r1
Concave Side

P1

r2
Convex Side 0
P2

Figure 6.1 Interfacial meniscus, which divides two fluids of unequal density. Point A is on the concave
upwards curve at a level (z) above the minimum point, O. P1 is the pressure on the concave side of point
O, and P2 that on the convex side; r1 is the density on the upper side (concave side) of point O and r2
is the density on the lower side (convex side) of point O.
228 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

∆PA = PA1 − PA2 = P1 − P2 + zg(r2 − r1) (472)

The ∆PA term can also be calculated by using the Young–Laplace equation (Equation (325)
in Section 4.3.3) at the point A. If we combine Equations (472) and (325), then we have
 1 1
g + = ∆PO + zg∆r (473)
 R1 R2 

where (∆PO = P1 − P2) at point O. Equation (473) is called the fundamental capillarity
equation, and is the general equation of a curved surface, such as a meniscus, under
surface tension and gravity effects, and is the basis of calculating interfacial and surface
tension of pure liquids from many different measurement methods such as capillary rise,
drop profile (Section 6.2), maximum bubble pressure (Section 6.3), and the height of a
meniscus at a solid wall (Section 6.4). If the surface tension of a liquid is measured at the
liquid–air interface, since r2 >> r1, then the density of the air, r1, may often be neglected
without any serious loss of accuracy; however if the interfacial tension between two im-
miscible liquids is measured at a liquid1–liquid2 interface, then both densities must be used
in Equation (473).
As we see in Section 4.3.2, for any curve that is written in the form of a y = f(x) func-
tion, where f has continuous first and second derivatives in rectangular Cartesian coordi-
nates, the curvature in two-dimensions can be calculated from Equation (296), so that

d2 y
1 dx 2
= (474)
R1   dy  2 3 2
1 +  dx  
 
By definition of three-dimensional curvature, the other radius of curvature, R2, must be in
the plane perpendicular to that of the plane of R1. We can write from three-dimensional
geometry, as shown in Figure 4.7, that
x
cosq = (475)
R2
and R2 can be given as
1 cos q sin ϕ
= = (476)
R2 x x
where the inclination angle, j, of the y = f(x) function is (j = 90° − q), from plane geom-
etry, as shown in Figure 4.7. Since, tan j = (dy/dx) for the y = f(x) function, by definition
in the x–z coordinate system, we have
 dy 
1  dx 
= 12 (477)
R2   dy  2 
x 1 + 
  dx  

If we combine Equations (474) and (477) with the Young–Laplace equation (Equation
(325) in Section 4.3.3), we obtain
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 229

 d2 y 
  dy  
 dx 2
 dx  
∆rgy = g  + 12  (478)
2 32
   dy     dy  2  
 1 +  dx   x 1 +  
    dx   
Equation (478) is the exact analytical geometry expression of capillary rise in a cylindrical
tube having a circular cross section, which considers the deviation of the meniscus
from sphericity, so that the curvature corresponds to (∆P = ∆rgy) at each point on the
meniscus, where y is the elevation of that point above the flat liquid level (y = z + h). Unfor-
tunately, this relation cannot be solved analytically. Numerous approximate solutions
have been offered, such as application of the Bashforth and Adams tables in 1883 (see Equa-
tion (476)); derivation of Equation (332) by Lord Rayleigh in 1915; a polynomial fit by
Lane in 1973 (see Equation (482)) and other numerical methods using computers in
modern times.
In the case of revolution of half profiles around the axis, the radii of curvature are
equal to each other, R1 = R2, at the apex (at point O in Figures 4.7 and 6.1), because the
capillary tube is cylindrical and the point O is on the axis of revolution. Thus, we need to
define a new curvature term for this case. If we denote d as the radius of curvature of a curve
of revolution around the vertical axis at the apex O, then by definition, we may
write (R1 = R2 = d) where r ≠ d and q ≠ 0°. Then, the ∆PO term at point O can be expressed
as ∆PO = 2g/d. By combining this equation with Equation (473), we have the [g(1/R1 + 1/R2)
= 2g/d + gz∆r] expression which was given as Equation (335) in Section 4.4, where z is
the elevation of any point on the meniscus (z = y − h). This equation is general and can
be applied to any capillary rise situation where the gravitational distortion on the curvature
must be considered. The new capillary constant can be written as [ad2 = dh = 2g/∆rg] for
this case, as given in Equation (334). However, it is a very difficult experimental task
to measure the d parameter in a capillary tube, and we need a mathematical relation
between d and the experimentally accessible radius of the capillary tube, r. In order to find
a relation between d and r, we need to convert Equation (335) into another mathematical
form. For this process, initially a dimensionless term, b, which is called the Bond number, is
defined as
∆rgd 2 2d 2
b= = 2 (479)
g ad

Now, if we multiply both sides of Equation (335) by d, then by rearrangement we have

1 1 gz∆rd
+ = 2+ (480)
( R1 d ) ( R2 d ) g
If we combine Equations (479) and (480), and replace R2 by its equivalent (x/sin ϕ) from
Equation (476), then we have
1 sin ϕ z
+ = 2+b (481)
( R1 d ) ( x d ) d

Equation (481) is known as the Basforth–Adams equation. Small Bond numbers indicate a
high liquid surface tension. The b parameter is positive for a meniscus in a capillary tube,
230 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

for a sessile drop on a solid and for a bubble under a plate in a liquid, and it is negative
for a pendant drop or a clinging bubble attached onto a solid substrate in a liquid, due to
the density differences between the immiscible phases (see also Section 9.1). Equation (481)
is a differential equation that can be solved numerically by setting one of the b or j param-
eters. Using a numerical integration procedure applied manually in a time-consuming
process, Bashforth and Adams solved Equation (481) for a large number of values of b
between 0.125 and 100 and, in 1883, reported numerous tables compiling values of (x/d)
and (z/d) for (0 < j < 180°). After 90 years, Lane found two accurate polynomial fits to
numerical solutions of Equation (481), depending on the size of capillary radius. For the
case where 2 ≥ r/a,
 2 3 4
r 
5
3327.9  + 65.263  − 473.926  + 663.569  
r r r
d   a  a  a  a
=1+  10 −4 (482)
r   r
6
 r
7
 r
8

− 300.032  + 75.1929  − 7.3163  
 a a a 

and for the case where r/a ≥ 2,

r r
32
  r  a  a  
2
= exp −1.41222  + 0.66161 + 0.14681  + 0.37136    (483)
d  a   a r r 
These polynomials must be used in an iterative manner, so that we should calculate the
initial approximate value of the capillary constant from the measured height and radius of
the capillary (a12 = rh). Then this value is inserted in terms of (r/a)1 or (a/r)1 in Equations
(482) (or (483)) to calculate the (d/r)1 or (r/d)1 terms to find d1. Now since the [ad2 = dh]
expression is exact in these circumstances, we need to calculate [(ad2)1 = d1h] by using the
recently found d1 value. Afterwards, (ad2)1 is used in the (r/a)2 or (a/r)2 terms of Equations
(482) or (483) to re-calculate the (d/r)2 or (r/d)2 terms. This iteration procedure is repeated
until the value of dn is constant and gives a constant (ad2)n value. Then, the exact value of
the surface tension of the liquid can be found from the expression,

g =
(ad2 )n ∆rg (484)
2
The capillary rise method for determining liquid surface tension has the advantages
of being well known, widely used and well understood; however, the cleaning of the
glass capillaries, determination of capillary radius and the measurements of liquid
height are a little more tedious than in some other methods. This method is mainly
used to measure the surface tension of pure liquids, although solutions may also be meas-
ured, with a lesser accuracy due to the formation of appreciable contact angles. Since it is
very rare to observe the complete wetting of the glass wall during an interfacial tension
measurement between two immiscible liquids, the capillary rise method is of little value
for this purpose.
The capillary rise method is a static method, which measures the tension of practically
stationary surfaces that have been formed and equilibrated for an appreciable amount of
time. The use of a cathetometer and suitable illumination of the menisci is required
during the measurement. The capillary tubes must be very clean, be placed as accurately
vertical, and be circular in cross section with an accurately known and uniform radius. The
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 231

uniformity in the radius is essential practically because of the movement of the meniscus
up and down in the tube (otherwise we cannot be sure of the measured tube perimeter).
Thin-walled glass tubes are preferred because their interior diameters are more uniform
than thick-walled tubes along the length of the tube. Long ago, the weight of the mercury
that fills a capillary tube was used to calculate the radius of a capillary from simple cylin-
der geometry; at present capillary diameters are measured by optical microscopy. The
contact angle between the liquid and the glass must be zero for a precise measurement.
This can be achieved for water and most of the organic liquids if the interior of the thin
(i.e. r < 0.1 mm) glass capillary is properly cleaned. We should note that the presence of a
contact angle of q = 2.5° introduces only 0.1% error in g measurement.
While determining the liquid height, it is better to measure with a falling (or receding)
meniscus, so that the liquid level is initially raised above its equilibrium value by a slight
suction above the capillary tube, and then left to equilibrate. On the other hand, two-armed
capillary tubes, connected with a cross tube above the liquid level, are also used to ensure
that the pressure in both arms of the glass apparatus is the same. An interesting modifica-
tion of the capillary rise method is to measure the pressure, ∆P, that is required to force
the meniscus down until it is on the same level as the plane surface of liquid outside the
capillary tube. This method is useful to compare the surface tension of water and its dilute
solutions.
On the other hand, if a liquid of known capillary constant (or known surface tension
and density) is used in a capillary tube, it is possible to calculate the radius of this tube
by measuring the height of this liquid in the capillary and applying the appropriate
expression selected from Equations (329)–(332). Later, the same capillary can be used to
measure the surface tension of other unknown liquids. However, care must be taken
because surface tensions of liquids may be changed depending on the conditions.
For example, ultra-pure water has a capillary constant of ao2 = 1.488 × 10−6 m2 at room
temperature, but if our water sample is not very pure or if we allow an ultra-pure water
sample to age in open laboratory conditions for one or more hours, then the capillary
constant may easily decrease down to ao2 = 1.35 × 10−6 m2 or more. The same purity
requirements also apply for all organic liquids, and extra care must be taken; for example,
several distillations must be done for even laboratory-grade organic solvents before meas-
urement of the surface tension, or their ultra-pure grades must be used instead. Glass cap-
illary tubes are not suitable for concentrated alkaline solutions due to the possibility of
chemical reactions, and in general, surface tension measurements on basic solutions give
incorrectly low values.

6.2 Drop Volume and Drop Shape Methods, Video-image

Digitization Techniques
6.2.1 Drop volume or drop weight method

This is one of the oldest detachment methods for measuring liquid surface tension. It was
first reported by Tate in 1864 and formerly called the stalagmometer method. In this
method, a stream of drops of a liquid falls slowly from the tip of a thin glass tube having
a radius of approximately 2–3 mm. The liquid stream is nipped off into drops having crit-
232 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

ical sizes by surface tension. In theory, a single drop enlarges to a size where the gravity
and capillarity forces are in equilibrium, and then falls down at this critical size, as shown
in Figure 6.2 a. Thus, the volume (or weight) of a single drop surrounded by air (or vapor)
must be found in order to calculate the surface tension. The simple force balance expres-
sion at the point of detachment is given below:
Wdrop = mdropg = Vrg = 2prg (485)

where mdrop is the mass of the drop, V is the volume of the drop and r is the interior radius
of the tube tip for non-wetting liquids (however r is the external radius for wetting liquids
such as water on glass, and in some instances the outer part of the tip is coated with melted
paraffin wax to prevent adhesion of the liquid, and then the interior radius of the tube can
again be used in calculations). The tip of the small glass tube must be ground smooth at
the end and must be free from any nicks. Thin metal tubes are also used on occasion. The
measurement of surface tension with the drop weight technique is very simple but, unfor-
tunately, sensitive to vibration on the other side. Vibration of the apparatus can cause pre-
mature separation of the drop from the end of the tube before it reaches the critical size.
In practice, it is impossible to apply Equation (485) directly because the whole of the
drop never falls from the tip. A thin cylindrical liquid neck develops while the drop is being
detached from the thin tube during falling, so that only a portion of the drop falls, and
some portion of the streaming liquid remains attached to the tip. Consequently, drops
having weights less than the ideal value, Wdrop, will be obtained, and this process causes
large deviations in Equation (485). Therefore a correction parameter is added to Equation
(485)
actual
W drop = 2prg f (486)

Liquid

a. Pendant Liquid Drop in Air b. Sessile Air Bubble in a Liquid

Figure 6.2 Liquid surface tension determination by the drop shape method: a. A pendant drop is formed
by suspending the liquid from the tip of a thin tube. b. A sessile air (or vapor) bubble is formed in a liquid
by injecting the gas from the tip of a needle connected to a syringe.
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 233

where f is a correction factor which is related to dimensionless (r/a) or (r/V1/3) ratios. The
value of term, f, can be determined by using liquids whose g values are known from cap-
illary rise or other precise methods. Approximate correction factors for many liquids are
widely available in the literature. Since the weight of a single drop is too low to be deter-
mined precisely, a practical solution is to count the number of falling drops (approximately
20–30 drops for each experiment), while collecting them in a container, and to then deter-
mine their total weight and divide this value by the number of drops to obtain the average
weight of a single drop. Another alternative is to use a volumetric syringe with a motor-
driven plunger to obtain an accurate volume for a single drop as shown in Figure 6.2 a.
Modern video digitization techniques can determine individual drop volumes to ±0.1 ×
10−3 ml.
The drop weight method eliminates prolonged aging of the liquid surface because a fresh
drop forms during the measurement. Usually slow formation of drops is required during
experimentation, otherwise the weight of a single drop will be too large. For volatile liquids,
a closed system (chambers) is used to restrict the rapid evaporation of the liquid. This
method is also suitable to be used for viscous liquids and for solutions. When carefully
applied, it is also used as a dynamic method to measure the time-dependent surface
tension, since it involves the creation of a new surface by time.
In practice, we need not calculate r and f for every capillary; we may simply use a liquid
whose surface tension is known, and then the surface tension of an unknown liquid can
be found from the expression
W1 g 1
= (487)
W2 g 2
where W1 and W2 are the weights of the single drops. However, the volume of the cylin-
drical liquid neck following every drop is dependent on the nature of the liquid and its
interaction with the glass tube, so that neck volumes for different liquids are not equal to
each other, and thus, this approach is only approximate.
The drop weight method is preferably used to measure the interfacial tension between
two immiscible liquids. For this case, we need to determine the volume or weight of a liquid
drop surrounded by a second liquid, as it becomes detached from a tip of known radius.
In practice, usually drops of a liquid with a higher density are formed through a thin glass
tube, in another immiscible liquid, and the volume of the first liquid is measured after the
two phases are separated. The reverse process may also be applied so that drops of the
liquid with the lower density are formed through an inverted thin glass tube in an immis-
cible liquid with a higher density, and the upper phase is separated and weighted for this
case. The interfacial tension can be calculated from
V∆rg
g 12 = (488)
2prf
where ∆r is the density difference between the two liquids. The drop weight method has
proved convenient for measuring time-dependent interfacial tensions. Although this
method is only approximate, it occasionally gives very reproducible results for the surface
and interfacial tension of pure components, as well as liquid mixtures and surfactant solu-
tions after the f factor is satisfactorily determined. This is because the results of this method
are essentially independent of the contact angle of the dropping tip.
234 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

6.2.2 Drop shape method and video-image digitization techniques

When a liquid is suspended from the tip of a thin tube to form a pendant drop without
detachment, as shown in Figure 6.2 a, its shape is the result of a balance between the cap-
illary and gravitational forces, and the surface tension of the liquid (or interfacial tension
between two immiscible liquids) can be calculated from the shape of this suspended drop.
Without gravitational effects, small liquid drops (or sessile air, vapor bubbles formed in a
liquid, as shown in Figure 6.2 b) will tend to be spherical with a minimum surface area. If
the densities of two immiscible liquids are equal, a drop of the first liquid in the second
one will also be spherical. If the gravity effect is appreciable, especially for large drops, then
Equations (335), (473), (478) and (481) can be applied to calculate the surface tension due
to deviations from the spherical shape. Pendant liquid drops in air (or air bubbles formed
in a liquid) are photographed, or their video images are grabbed, to measure the dimen-
sions of their profiles. Then, computer-image digitization techniques are applied to define
their profiles in two-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, and to calculate their volumes.
The surface or interfacial tension at the liquid interface can be related to the drop shape
through the following equation, obtained from Equation (479):
∆rgd 2
g = (489)
b
where b is the shape factor (Bond number). Modern computational methods using itera-
tive approximations allow solution of the Young–Laplace equation for b. This involves
computer matching of the entire drop profile to a best-fitting theoretical curve. In general,
the better curve fits are obtained with fewer very accurate points on a drop profile, rather
than a number of less reliable points. The digital representation of the profile of a sessile
drop is necessarily limited in accuracy by the pixel resolution of the captured image. The
axisymmetric drop shape analysis is then applied. (Non-axisymmetry is rarely examined
for indications of drop shape distortions, and this is essential in the simultaneous deter-
mination of g and contact angle, as we will see in Section 9.1.) The development of
computer-image digitization techniques represents a significant improvement, in both ease
and accuracy, over traditional methods, and has diminished the importance of the various
approximations to the drop shape that have been suggested empirically in the past.
During the drop profile determination, the dimensions of the drop must be measured with
a high precision, and there must be no external vibration. The radius of the tip, r, should be
small enough so that (r/a) < 0.05, to obtain precise results. During interfacial tension meas-
urement a hanging drop is formed through a needle within an immiscible liquid, and its
profile is determined. The drop shape methods for measuring surface and interfacial tensions
are absolute and dynamic, do not depend on the contact angle between the liquid and the
needle, require only small volumes of liquid, are readily amenable to temperature control,
and can be used to study viscous liquids, molten materials and also aging effects.

6.3 Maximum Bubble Pressure Method

In this method, the surface tension of a liquid is determined from the value of the
maximum pressure needed to push a bubble out of a capillary into a liquid, against the
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 235

Young–Laplace pressure difference, ∆P. If a vertical tube of internal radius, r, is inserted

into a liquid, and an inert gas (usually air) is pressed from the top of the tube, a bubble
is blown at the end of the tube, having the form of a sphere segment initially, as seen in
Figure 6.3. If the pressure in the bubble increases, the bubble grows and the radius of
curvature diminishes. After a while, it becomes fully hemispherical, as can be seen in the
middle shapes of Figure 6.3 a (for wetting liquids) and Figure 6.3 b (for non-wetting
liquids), so that the radius of the bubble is equal to the radius of the capillary tube. The
Young–Laplace equation gives the pressure inside the bubble as a maximum at this
point. When the bubble is allowed to enlarge further, a larger radius is obtained
corresponding to a smaller pressure, and the bubble becomes unstable and can easily be
detached from the capillary tube, or alternatively, air rushes in and bursts the bubble. It
seems that, if we can measure the maximum pressure when a hemispherical bubble is
formed, then we can calculate the liquid surface tension. However, this is not true because
we must consider the hydrostatic pressure due to the capillary tube inserted into the liquid.
Thus, the maximum pressure measured in this process is the sum of the hydrostatic, Phyd,
and capillary, Pcapil, pressures. When a hemispherical bubble is formed, the pressure balance
is given as

hG

hL Liquid

a. Wetting b.Non-wetting
Liquid Bubble Liquid

Figure 6.3 Liquid surface tension determination by the maximum bubble pressure method. The
maximum pressure, Pmax, needed to push a bubble out of a capillary into a liquid is determined just prior
to the detachment of the bubble; hL is the distance below the surface of the liquid to the tip of the tube.
The value of Pmax is usually found by measuring the height of a water column, hG. a. If the tube is com-
pletely wetted by the liquid, then the radius, r, is its internal radius. b. If the liquid is non-wetting towards
the tube, then the radius, r, is its external radius. The bubble becomes fully hemispherical, as can be seen
in the middle shapes of a and b.
236 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

2g
Pmax = Phyd + Pcapil = ghL ∆r + (490)
r
where hL is the distance below the surface of the liquid to the tip of the tube. If the tube is
wetted by the liquid, then the radius, r, is its internal radius, since the liquid covers the
lower edge of the tube completely. The surface tension value can be calculated by deter-
mining the Pmax value that is attained just prior to the detachment of the bubble. Pmax is
usually found by measuring the height of a water column, hG, attached to the measuring
tube as can be seen in Figure 6.3. In an improved version of this method, double capillary
tubes of different radii are used, with a precise differential pressure transducer to sense the
pressure difference between them.
If the radius of the capillary is large, so that (r/a) > 0.05, then the Basforth–Adams equa-
tion (Equation (481)) or the Lane equations (Equations (482) and (483)) can also be used
in the surface tension calculation from the maximum bubble pressure method. This
method can also be used to determine the surface tension of molten metals. It has been a
popular method in the past, but now it is not very common in surface laboratories because
of its poor precision.

6.4 Ring, Wilhelmy Plate Detachment and the Height of a

Meniscus on a Vertical Plane Methods
The detachment of a ring or a plate (a Wilhelmy plate) from the surface of a liquid or solu-
tion is a static surface tension measurement method, which gives the detachment force of
a film of the liquid and its extension from the liquid surface. These methods are less accu-
rate than the capillary rise method, but they are normally employed in most surface labo-
ratories because of their ease and rapidity.

6.4.1 du Noüy ring method

This is one of the oldest surface tension measurement methods, first applied in 1878,
and later, in 1919, the French scientist du Noüy improved the method by adding a torsion
balance. A circular ring (a loop of metal wire), which is usually made of platinum
metal or a platinum/iridium alloy, of radius 2–3 cm, is suspended from a balance and is
immersed into a liquid surface horizontally. The radius of the wire ranges from 1/30 to
1/60 of that of the ring. The ring is then raised slowly to the liquid–air interface, and the
maximum force is measured precisely at the moment of detachment, by the balance. Since
metals are high-surface-energy materials, the adhesion of a liquid to a metal ring is greater
than the cohesion within the liquid. In addition, the contact angle between the liquid and
the ring is generally zero due to complete wetting. Thus, when a ring is detached from the
surface of a liquid, the force to be overcome is that of cohesion rather than adhesion. From
the definition of surface tension, the force balance at the moment of detachment can be
given as
Fmax f r = 2(2prmean )g = 2p (rext + rint )g (491)
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 237

where Fmax is the maximum upward pull applied to the ring of mean radius, rmean, rmean =
(rext + rint)/2, as shown in Figure 6.4, and fr is the correction factor for the small but sig-
nificant volume of the liquid that remains on the ring after detachment, and also for the
discrepancy between rmean and the actual radius of the meniscus in the plane of rupture.
The term Fmax corresponds to the maximum weight of the meniscus over the liquid surface
that can be supported by the ring. The perimeter of the ring is multiplied by 2 because of
the presence of two surfaces, created on both sides of the ring. The fr factor is a function
of the mean radius, thickness of the ring and also of meniscus volume, and varies
between 0.75 and 1.05 numerically, according to the size and the shape of the ring, and the
difference in the fluid density. The f values can be calculated by using the following approx-
imate equation:

12
 9.075 × 10 −4 F 1.679rwire 
f = 0.725 +  − + 0.04534 (492)
 p 3 ∆rgr 3 r 

Equation (492) can be applied in the range [7.5 ≥ ∆rgr3/F ≥ 0.045]. In many modern com-
puterized systems, the interfacial tension reading does not require separate calculation of
f, since its calculation is incorporated within the software. A ring probe is hung on an elec-
tronic balance and, after zeroing the force by subtracting the weight of the ring probe, is
brought into contact with the liquid surface (or interface) to be tested. When the ring hits
the surface, a slight positive force is recorded due to the adhesive force between the ring
and the surface. Then the ring is submerged below the liquid surface and subsequently
raised slowly upwards. When lifted through the surface, the measured force starts to
increase. While the ring moves upwards, it raises a stretched meniscus of the liquid with
it, as shown in Figure 6.4. This meniscus does not have a simple geometrical shape and
will become unstable and eventually detach from the ring and return to its original posi-
tion. During the upward movement, the force keeps increasing until a maximum is reached.
It then begins to diminish prior to the actual tearing event. Calculation of surface (or inter-
facial tension) by this technique is based on the measurement of this maximum force and
not the force at the point of detachment. The depth of immersion of the ring and the level
to which it is raised when it experiences the maximum pull are irrelevant to this technique.
The contact angle must be zero in this process, otherwise results for g will be low; never-
theless, a zero contact angle is occasionally obtained in practice, because contact angles are
always receding angles, which are less than advancing angles, as the ring is initially wetted
by the liquid phase (see also Section 9.1).
The system must be vibration-free during the measurement. The ring must be exactly
plane and accurately parallel to the surface of the liquid; the presence of a tilt angle of 2.1°
introduces an error of 1.6%. If the ring is deformed, it causes major errors. The platinum
ring is soft and subject to inadvertent deformation during handling and cleaning. Platinum
rings can easily be cleaned by flaming them gently to remove surface contaminants such
as grease before every use. Evaporation of the liquid level during measurement should be
minimized to obtain better results. The ring method is not suitable for viscous liquids or
for some solutions that slowly attain the equilibrium of surface tension.
It is possible to perform interfacial tension measurements between two immiscible
liquids by the ring method, just like surface tension measurements, by ensuring that the
bulk of the ring probe is submerged in the light phase prior to beginning the experiment.
238 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

To balance

2rext

Metal
Ring

2rint

Liquid

Figure 6.4 Liquid surface tension determination by the Du Noüy ring method: A maximum upward pull
is applied to the ring having a mean radius, rmean, [rmean = (rext + rint)/2], where rext is the external radius,
and rint is the internal radius.

The ring is then immersed into the heavy phase, which is under the interface, and lifted
up slowly and a stretched meniscus of the heavy liquid forms inside the light liquid. Using
the maximum force measured just before the point of detachment, we can calculate the
interfacial tension. Poor wetting of the ring by the denser fluid makes the measurement of
interfacial tension impossible to carry out. If perfect wetting is not achieved, and the
contact angle is above zero in interfacial tension measurements, then additional correction
of the instrument reading is needed. For this reason, hydrophobic polytetrafluoroethylene
and polyethylene rings are used instead of platinum, in order to diminish the contact angle
formed during water–organic liquid interfacial tension measurements.

6.4.2 Wilhelmy plate method

In this widely used method, a thin plate, which is suspended from a balance, is vertically
and partially immersed into a liquid whose surface tension is to be determined. A menis-
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 239

cus forms around the perimeter of the suspended plate. If the contact angle between the
liquid and the plate is zero, the liquid surface is oriented nearly vertically upwards, as shown
in Figure 6.5. Then the surface tension of the liquid present in the meniscus exerts a down-
ward force, which is equal to the weight of the meniscus formed on the perimeter of this
thin plate. If the weight of the plate probe is zeroed in the instrument before the liquid
surface is raised to the contact position, then the imbalance that occurs on contact is due
to the weight of the formed meniscus. Wilhelmy, in 1863, was the first to apply this simple
and absolute surface tension method, by using a lever balance. The thin plates are then
called Wilhelmy plates and are usually made of roughened platinum, platinum/iridium
alloy, glass, mica, steel or plastic. Disposable filter or chromatography papers can also be
used as Wilhelmy plates, especially in monolayer studies, which always give zero contact
angle with the liquid.
There are two modifications to the Wilhelmy plate method. In the first modification, the
cup carrying the liquid is mobile and is lowered until the previously immersed plate
becomes detached from the liquid surface, and the maximum vertical pull, Fmax on the
balance is noted, similarly to the ring method. Then the capillary force, for the zero contact
angle, can be given as
Fcapil = Fmax − W = Pg = 2(w + d)g (493)

Balance

d
Wilhelmy Plate
d

w
l

h
q

Liquid

Figure 6.5 Liquid surface tension determination by the Wilhelmy plate method. A rectangular plate of
length, l, width, w, and thickness, d, of material having a density of rS, is immersed to a depth of h in a
liquid of density rL; q is the contact angle forming between the liquid and the plate.
240 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

where W is the weight of the plate probe and [2(w + d)] is the perimeter, P, of the plate.
(Modern instruments use plates with standard dimensions, so that measurement of plate
size and weight is not required.) The term Fcapil corresponds to the weight of the meniscus
that is formed around the perimeter of the Wilhelmy plate. If a finite contact angle, q, forms
between the liquid and the plate, as shown in Figure 6.5, then the surface tension can be
calculated from
Fcapil
g = (494)
2(w + d ) cos q
Equation (494) shows that we are carrying out a single measurement which involves two
parameters, g and q. If the surface tension of the liquid, g, is independently known, then we
can calculate the contact angle on the Wilhelmy plate, or that of any coated material, such
as a polymer (see also Sections 6.4.3 and 9.1). On the other hand, we need to know the value
of q in order to determine g precisely, and this can be achieved easily if we maintain a zero
contact angle with the liquid by choosing a suitable plate material. Equation (494) can also
be applied to a fiber or wire instead of the Wilhelmy plate, in the form of [Fcapil = Pg cos q].
In the second modification of the Wilhelmy plate method, which is usually applied
to monolayer studies in Langmuir troughs (film balances), it is not desirable to detach
the plate completely; instead the force necessary to keep the plate at constant depth of
immersion is determined as the surface tension is changed due to the presence
of solutes forming the monolayer film. In this case, the forces acting on the plate consist
of the gravity and surface tension effects downwards, and the buoyancy effect due to dis-
placed water upwards, and correction due to the buoyancy of the subphase is required. For
a rectangular plate of dimensions l, w, and d, of material with a density of rS, immersed to
a depth of h in a liquid of density rL, the net downward force is given by the following
equation:
Fnet = rSglwd + 2g (w + d) cos q − rL ghwd (495)

where g is the gravitational constant. (The density of the air phase is neglected in Equa-
tion (495).) The term Fnet is determined by measuring the changes in the mass of the plate
probe, which is directly coupled to a sensitive electrobalance. In general, the force due to
the weight of the Wilhelmy plate probe is zeroed in the electrobalance before making any
measurements, and thereby eliminating the first term in Equation (495).
In this second modification there are two alternatives:
1 The change in Fnet is measured when the stationary plate is kept at a constant depth of
immersion, h. Since the presence of the solutes in a monolayer film decreases the initial
surface tension of the subphase, then Fnet varies correspondingly. As the plate is always
kept at a constant immersion level, then the buoyancy term can also be eliminated from
Equation (495), giving
Fnet = 2g(w + d) cos q (496)
In addition, if the contact angle is zero, by combining Equations (424) and (496), one
obtains the surface (spreading) pressure as
o
Fnet − Fnet
p =go −g = (497)
2(w + d )
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 241

As the surface is brought into contact with the probe, modern computerized equipment
will notice this event by detecting the change in force. It will register the height at which
this occurs as the zero depth of immersion. The plate will then be wetted to a set depth to
insure that there is indeed complete wetting of the plate (zero contact angle). When the
plate is later returned to zero depth of immersion, the force it registers can be used to cal-
culate the surface tension. Maintaining a constant liquid level is important for this modi-
fication, especially for volatile solvents. This method is also suitable for studying prolonged
aging of the surface, when the plate is kept at a constant height, and an electronic balance
gives continuous readings.
The use of the Wilhelmy plate in a fixed position is preferred in monolayer studies
because it minimizes the transfer of the monolayer onto the plate. When a freshly cleaned
Wilhelmy plate is immersed in the clean liquid surface at the beginning of the experiment,
it may be completely wetted; however if the monolayer-forming surfactant solutes are also
present, they start to deposit on the plate during its upward movement through the liquid
surface. The extent of this deposition depends on the nature of the monolayer, as well as
the plate itself, and it may increase the contact angle considerably after deposition. Thus,
keeping the plate in a fixed position during the measurement reduces the transfer of mono-
layer film onto it. Alternatively, a pair of identical Wilhelmy plates are attached to two arms
of a balance in some film balance experiments conducted in a Langmuir trough; one plate
contacts with the clean subphase surface and the other plate contacts with the monolayer-
covered surface on the barrier compressed side. Since the surface tensions are different on
each side of the barrier, then the weight of the meniscus formed by the plate immersed in
the clean surface is heavier than the other, because of the higher surface tension of the clean
surface. If the contact angles are nearly equal on both of these Wilhelmy plates, then the
difference between these two meniscus weights measures the difference in the surface
tension for these surfaces (thus giving p directly).
2 For the second alternative, the net force, Fnet, is kept constant in the instrument while
changing the immersion depth, h, by the movement of the container. The immersion depth
may be measured from the level displacement or by a goniometer. For this modification,
we have from Equations (424) and (495)
rL gwd(ho − h)
p =go −g = (498)
2(w + d )
and if the thickness of the Wilhelmy plate so thin as to be negligible compared with the
width, w, then Equation (498) simplifies to
1
p =go −g = rL gd(ho − h) (499)
2
Adsorption of organic compounds from the laboratory environment can be a major
source of experimental error when measuring surface tension using the Wilhelmy plate
method. Thus, care should be taken in keeping the plates free from organic contaminants
during experimentation, and platinum plates can be washed with an organic solvent and
water and then flamed before the experiment to remove any wax or greasy contaminants
present.
For two immiscible liquids, the Wilhelmy plate may be wetted by either phase. The cal-
culations for this technique are based on the geometry of a fully wetted plate in contact
242 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

with, but not submerged in, the heavy phase. The maintenance of a constant contact angle
is a problem during interfacial tension measurements, and for such systems, the plate
should be hydrophobic. Polymer, especially PTFE, plates may be preferable to use, instead
of glass or platinum plates, to measure interfacial tension between water and hydro-
carbons. Self-assembling of organic amines or similar compounds on the surface of the
platinum plate could also be a solution to this problem.

6.4.3 Height of a meniscus on a vertical plane method

When a wetting liquid is in contact with a vertical and flat solid plane, the liquid menis-
cus climbs on the surface, as shown in Figure 6.6. The height of this meniscus can be accu-

j
R1

h
j

q
g

rV

j
rL
j
q
y=0
∆P=0
x

Figure 6.6 Liquid surface tension determination by the height of a meniscus on a vertical plane method:
y is the coordinate on the vertical axis and R1 is the two-dimensional radius of curvature in the plane of
this figure. When y = 0, the pressure difference, ∆P = 0, and y = h at the triple-point where liquid–solid–air
intersect; j is the inclination angle of the y = f(x) function and (j = 90° − q) at point h. The slope of the
y = f(x) curve can be given as (dy/dx) = −tan j. rL is the density of the liquid and rV is the density of the
vapor.
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 243

rately measured by a cathetometer and, in theory, we may calculate both the surface tension
of the liquid and the contact angle simultaneously from this height. This process is a special
case of the formation of three-dimensional curvature, where one of the radii of curvature
in the Young–Laplace equation (Equation (325)) becomes infinite since the support is
planar and hence the 1/R2 term disappears; and as ∆P is equal to (∆rgy), then we obtain
g
∆rgy = (500)
R1
where y is the coordinate on the vertical axis. In Figure 6.6, we see the cross-sectional view
of this climbing menicus, where R1 is the two-dimensional radius of curvature in the plane
of this figure and y = h at the triple-point where liquid–solid–air intersect. When, y = 0,
the pressure difference, ∆P = 0 as well. The angle, j, is the inclination angle of the y = f(x)
function and it is made by extension of the normal with the y-axis and also the angle
between the tangent and the x-axis, as shown in Figure 6.6. It is clear that (j = 90° − q) at
point h. The slope of the y = f(x) curve can be given as (dy/dx) = −tan j. Then, the radius
of curvature, R1, can be calculated from Equation (474), giving
 d  sin j  
 dx  − cos j  
=  
1
R1   sin j  2 3 2 (501)
1 +   
  cos j  

After differentiation and simplification, Equation (501) becomes

1 dj d sin j
= − cos j =− (502)
R1 dx dx
Equation (502) is mathematically equivalent to
1 d cosj
=− (503)
R1 dy
If we combine Equations (500) and (503) we have
∆rg d cos j
=− (504)
g ydy
Equation (504) can be integrated between j and y
ϕ y
∆rg
− ∫ d cosj =
g ∫0
ydy (505)
0

j = 0 when y = 0, showing that the tangent is horizontal at this point, and the integration
of Equation (505) gives
∆rg 2
cosj = 1 − y (506)
2g
since (j = 90° − q) at point y = h, and (cos j = sin q) from trigonometry, we can write
2
∆rg 2
h = 1−  
h
sinq = 1 − (507)
2g  a
244 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

where a2 is the capillary constant given by Equation (329). Equation (507) shows that if
we know the surface tension and the density of the liquid, then we can calculate the contact
angle of the liquid with the vertical plate.
The height of a meniscus on a vertical plane wall method can be combined with the first
modification of the Wilhelmy plate method, where the previously immersed plate becomes
detached from the liquid surface and the maximum vertical pull, Fmax on the balance is
measured. If we square and rearrange Equation (494) so that
2
 Fcapil 
cos 2 q =   (508)
 2(w + d )g 
since [sin2 q + cos2 q = 1] in trigonometry, then we have from Equations (507) and (508)
2 2
 ∆rgh2   Fcapil 
1 − 2g  +  2(w + d )g  = 1 (509)
   
By rearrangement and simplification of Equation (509) we have
∆rgh2 2
Fcapil
g = + (510)
4 ∆rgh (w + d )
2 2
4
If we combine Equations (494) and (510) we obtain
2∆rgh2 (w + d )Fcapil
cosq = (511)
( ∆r )2 g 2 h4 (w + d )2 + Fcapil
2

Equations (510) and (511) can be used successfully to calculate both surface tension and
the contact angle in a Wilhelmy plate experiment, if one of these parameters is known.

6.5 Dynamic Surface Tension Measurement Methods

Dynamic surface tension determinations are important for understanding and controlling
interfacial processes in multi-phase and multi-component systems. The surface tension of
a freshly created surface that is far away from equilibrium can be determined by dynamic
methods. Many operations in the chemical industry such as detergency, froth flotation,
foam generation etc. involve liquid–fluid interfaces, for which the composition is constantly
refreshed and does not reach equilibrium. The maximum bubble and growing drop pressure
technique and spinning drop method are very useful in studying the dynamic interfacial
tensions at short intervals. There is also an oscillating jet dynamic surface tension meas-
urement method, which has been applied successfully to surfactant solutions. In this
method, the unstable oscillations developed in a liquid jet emerging from a noncircular
orifice are measured; however it is not suitable to study pure liquid–air interfaces due to
rapid equilibration in tenths of a second. Since there are very few publications using this
method and no commercial apparatus available, we will not discuss it any further.

6.5.1 Dynamic maximum bubble pressure method

Commercial equipment using the dynamic maximum bubble (or drop) pressure method
have been widely used in surface research in recent years. In this method, a gas bubble (or
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 245

a liquid drop) is formed and released from a capillary tube by using a micro-pump to care-
fully control its growth rate. A precise pressure transducer continuously measures the pres-
sure inside this bubble (or drop) as it forms and detaches from the end of a capillary. The
geometry of the bubble can also be monitored during growth and at the detachment point
using a video camera. This ability to simultaneously monitor both pressure and size and
shape of bubbles (or drops) as they form allows dynamic interfacial tensions to be evalu-
ated over a range of growth rates, from highly non-equilibrium growth (very rapid bubble
growth), to near equilibrium growth (very slow bubble growth).

6.5.2 Spinning drop tensiometer method

This method uses centripetal acceleration to control the shape of a liquid in another liquid.
If a liquid drop (1) is suspended in an immiscible denser liquid (2) in a horizontal
transparent tube which can be spun about its longitudinal axis, this drop will go to the
center forming a drop astride the axis of revolution, as shown in Figure 6.7. The drop (1)
elongates from a spherical shape to a prolate ellipsoid upon increasing the speed of

Video camera

PC

Liquid 2
r
1
Ellipsoid

Motor Owen

Cylinder

Sample 1
r0

Figure 6.7 Liquid surface tension determination by the spinning drop tensiometer method. A liquid
drop (1) is suspended in an immiscible denser liquid (2) in a horizontal transparent tube which can be
spun about its longitudinal axis, and the drop (1) elongates from a spherical shape to a prolate ellipsoid
with increasing speed of revolution. Later, the drop becomes approximately cylindrical, at very high rota-
tional velocities. A camera with a frame grabber captures the images of the drop inside the transparent
tube.
246 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

revolution. During centripetal acceleration, the gravitational acceleration has little effect
on the shape of the drop. Next, the drop becomes approximately cylindrical at high rota-
tional velocities, because centripetal force increasingly overcomes the surface tension
forces. Images of the drop inside the transparent tube can be captured using a camera with
a frame grabber (there should be no vibrations at high velocities). If we consider the poten-
tial energy of a volume element in the cylinder at distance, r, from the axis of revolution
w 2r 2 ∆r
E Pv = (512)
2
where w (rads) is the rotational velocity of the spinning horizontal tube and ∆r the density
difference between the drop and the surrounding liquid. Since the volume of the cylinder
of length, l is [V = pro2l] then the total potential energy of the cylinder can be calculated as
V
 w 2r 2 ∆r 
r o
1
E P = ∫ E Pv dV = l ∫   2prdr = pw ∆rlro
2 4
(513)
0 0
 2  4
The interfacial free energy between this cylindrical liquid (1) drop and the contacting
immiscible liquid (2) along the surface area can be given from thermodynamics as [∆G =
∆Ag12 = 2prolg12]. Then the total energy of the cylinder on revolution can be expressed as
1 w 2 ∆rVro2 2Vg
E T = pw 2 ∆rlro4 + 2prolg 12 = + (514)
4 4 ro
Since dET/dro = 0 at equilibrium, then differentiation of Equation (514) and equating it
to zero gives
1
g 12 = ro3 ∆rw 2 (515)
4
Equation (515) is known as Vonnegut’s equation and it is valid on the assumption that
the drop is in equilibrium and its length is larger than four times its diameter (l > 4ro). The
spinning drop tensiometer method is widely used for measuring liquid–liquid interfacial
tension, and is especially successful for examination of ultra-low interfacial tensions down
to 10−6 mN m−1. In addition, it can also be used to measure interfacial tensions of high vis-
cosity liquids when precise temperature control is maintained.
The spinning drop tensiometer method is particularly suitable for measuring the inter-
facial tension of melted polymers and is generally used in polymer compatibility, blend
and composites research. In this case, a spinning polymer drop (smaller density) is rotated
inside another immiscible polymer (higher density). Measurement of drop diameter versus
time allows the determination of relaxational and extensional properties of polymeric
systems.

6.6 Methods Applicable to Interfaces Between Two Liquids

In theory, every surface tension measurement method can be used to determine the inter-
facial tension between two liquids. However, the accuracy of these methods is reduced when
applied to liquid–liquid interfaces, or when one or both of the liquids is viscous. In prac-
tice, the maximum bubble pressure and pendant drop methods are the most suitable, giving
consistent and reliable values for interfacial tensions, although there is sometimes the
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 247

question of whether the liquid wets the inner or the outer radius of a dropping tip. (For
such systems, a tapered tip is of value where the drop is actually suspended from a very
sharp edge into the heavy immiscible liquid.)
On the other hand, although they are occasionally used, the du Noüy ring, Wilhelmy
plate and capillary rise methods are not very suitable for determining interfacial tension
because stable contact angles cannot be obtained for liquid–liquid interfaces because of the
metastable menisci formed. In both ring and Wilhelmy plate methods the accuracy is
reduced because of difficulties in calibrating the weight of the ring immersed in the less
dense liquid. Nevertheless, the Wilhelmy plate method is more reliable than the ring
method in interfacial tension determination. The drop volume technique may also be used
if equilibrium is achieved rapidly (within a few seconds). Capillary rise may be success-
fully used if the contact angle between the dense liquid and the glass can be determined
precisely; otherwise, the capillary rise method should be avoided.
It is important to allow liquid–liquid interfaces to achieve equilibrium before making
an interfacial tension measurement. Thus, it is always difficult to measure the interfacial
tension of viscous liquids because they are slow in reaching equilibrium. In addition,
viscous liquids prevent injection of a liquid sample of the required volume into the instru-
ment. The Wilhelmy plate (at a constant depth, without detachment) and sessile drop
methods are generally preferred for viscous liquids, after equilibrating the samples for
several hours before measurement.
When the value of the interfacial tension is significantly less than 1 mN m−1, then we con-
sider the measurement of ultra-low interfacial tension, which is common in liquid–liquid
emulsification processes when effective surfactant solutions are used. The dynamic spin-
ning drop tensiometer method is especially suitable for this purpose. Ultra-low interfacial
tension measurement is important in the chemical industry because the cleaning of solid
surfaces of dirt, grease, and oil; the formulation of stable emulsions; the recovery of petro-
leum, and other applications often rely on lowering the interfacial tension between immis-
cible liquids to ultra-low values by the use of surfactants.

6.7 Microtensiometry
Microtensiometry is the study of interfacial tension of very small particles in finely dis-
persed systems. Nanotechnology, biology, pharmaceutical processing and criminology are
fields in which materials of interest are in quantities too small to apply conventional surface
tension measurement methods. In addition, the interfacial tension of microscopic droplets
may differ significantly from that of macroscopic drops of the same surfactant solutions.
This is due to dissimilar partitioning of surfactants into two immiscible liquids for
microscopic droplets having an enlarged interfacial area on a small length scale. There are
two microtensiometry methods to apply: micropipette tensiometry and atomic force
microscopy (AFM) tensiometry.

6.7.1 Micropipette tensiometry

The micropipette technique was developed in the 1990s to measure interfacial tensions of
micrometer-sized droplets such as vesicles. This method is dependent on the pressure
248 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

differentials across curved interfaces. The droplet is first captured on the tip of the glass
micropipette and then sucked into the pipette. The interfacial tension is calculated from
the minimum suction pressure at which the droplet extends a hemispherical protrusion
into the pipette. (The dimensions of the pipette’s internal diameter must be smaller than
the diameter of the droplet.) A large pressure difference is required to draw the droplet
into the pipette when the droplet wets or adheres to the pipette surfaces. The measured
minimum pressure is inserted into the Young–Laplace equation to calculate the interfacial
tension. Another more sophisticated technique is the two-pipette method, where the sepa-
ration force between the pipettes is measured, and the interfacial tension is calculated from
the force–drop deformation relation.

6.7.2 Atomic force microscopy tensiometry

AFM can directly yield images of nanometer-sized particles and can measure the interac-
tions between substrates and colloidal particles. It is a scanning probe technique based on
measuring interaction forces between a cantilever tip and a specimen. Force measurement
can be done by measuring the deflection of the cantilever, which has a known spring
constant. The cantilever deflection is detected by reflection of a laser beam. A piezoelectric
specimen stage controls vertical movement of the specimen very precisely under
the cantilever tip, for force measurements and interaction forces as small as 1 pN
(10−12 N), measured between the probe tip and the specimen. When a probe tip is inserted
into a microscopic liquid drop and detaches from the drop, it is possible to measure the
capillarity forces exerted on the tip by the liquid. Then, the surface tension of the liquid
can be calculated from the force–distance curves obtained, and the corresponding
equations are similar to those for classical macro-detachment (ring or Wilhelmy plate)
methods. Fabrication of probe tips with a known geometry, such as spherical or cylindri-
cal, is important for this method. Carbon nanotubes are already being successfully used as
AFM tips for this purpose.

6.8 Measurements on Molten Metals

Measurement of the surface tension of liquid metals is difficult due to the relatively high
temperatures involved, and also their ease of reactivity with many gases and solids. For
example, the presence of oxygen gas reduces the surface tension of many metals, even when
present in ppm concentrations. Thus, measurements on liquid metals are carried out in an
inert gas environment to avoid chemical reactions. A freshly formed surface is almost a
necessity. The maximum bubble pressure, pendant drop, drop weight and sessile drop
methods are the preferred methods; the ring, Wilhelmy plate and capillary rise methods
cannot be used for this purpose due to the formation of very high contact angles between
the molten metal and the substrate, arising from the very high cohesion of liquid metal
molecules. The surface tension of molten metals is very high and varies from 400 to
4000 mN m−1. In general, metals with high boiling points, above 2000°C, have high surface
tensions of more than 1000 mN m−1.
 Experimental Determination of Surface Tension 249

6.9 Surface Tension of Surfactant Solutions

In order to measure the surface tension of solutions containing surfactants, the maximum
bubble pressure, pendant drop and Wilhelmy plate (immersed at a constant depth)
methods are suitable; capillary rise, ring, mobile Wilhelmy plate, sessile drop and drop
weight methods are not very suitable. These methods are not recommended because sur-
factants preferably adsorb onto the solid surfaces of capillaries, substrates, rings, or plates
used during the measurement. In a liquid–liquid system, if an interfacially active surfac-
tant is present, the freshly created interface is not generally in equilibrium with the two
immiscible liquids it separates. This interface will achieve its equilibrium state after the
redistribution of solute molecules in both phases. Only then can dynamic methods be
applied to measure the interfacial tension of these freshly created interfaces.

References
1. Adam, N.K. (1968). The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
2. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973). An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
4. Davies, J.T. and Rideal, E.K. (1963). Interfacial Phenomena (2nd edn). Academic Press, New York.
5. Erbil, H.Y. (1997). Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed.). Handbook of Surface and
Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
6. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
7. Butt, H.J., Graf, K. and Kappl, M. (2003). Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.
8. Rusanov, A.I. and Prokhorov, V.A. (1996). Interfacial Tensiometry. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
9. Joos, P. (1999). Dynamic Surface Phenomena. VSP, Zeist.
Chapter 7
Potential Energy of Interaction Between
Particles and Surfaces

In this chapter, we will examine the physical interactions between particles and surfaces,
whose sizes are much larger than molecules. In true solutions, the diameter of a solute mol-
ecule varies between 0.1 and 10.0 nm (usually less than 1 nm), which is comparable to the
size of solvent molecules. On the other hand, colloids and other micro-particles are col-
lectively termed macrobodies, and are insoluble and only dispersed in continuous medium.
In these dispersions, the particle size varies between 1 and 1000 nm in diameter, which is
very much larger than the solvent molecules. These particles may also associate, in some
cases, to form an aggregate, which is even larger than the single microparticle. Macro-
bodies interact with other macrobodies, solvent molecules and also the surfaces of con-
tainers. The interactions between particles and surfaces are somewhat different from those
between molecules, and they are the main cause of the properties and behavior of the col-
lective dispersion system. Investigation of the potential energy of interactions between par-
ticles and surfaces is very important in practice, because colloidal and particulate science
is related to a large industrial field consisting of chemical, food, cosmetic and pharmaceu-
tical industries. Such interactions are also operative in nature, such as the behavior of pro-
teins in living systems, etc., as well as in recently emerging nanotechnology applications,
so they are the subject of investigation by various scientific disciplines including chemistry,
physics, biology and engineering.

7.1 Similarities and Differences Between Intermolecular and

Interparticle Forces
As described in Chapter 2, the intermolecular potential energy is defined as the difference
between the total energy of interacting molecules and the sum of their separate molecular
energies. There are two main types of forces between molecules: short range and long range.
These forces together determine the bulk properties of gases, liquids and solids. Short-range
intermolecular forces are the forces between molecules in close proximity to each other;
these forces operate over very short distances of the order of interatomic separations
(0.1–1.0 nm) and usually correspond to or are very similar to molecular contact. On the
other hand, long-range intermolecular forces are mainly van der Waals forces, and their
action is more effective between larger molecules within a distance of 100 nm.
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 251

In principle, the source of the attraction between macrobodies such as colloids, micro-
particles and surfaces must be the same as between molecules. The fundamental forces, i.e.
Coulombic, van der Waals, repulsive, solvation, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic and
hydrophilic forces, are operative between both molecules and particles. Nevertheless, these
forces can manifest themselves in quite different ways and lead to qualitatively new fea-
tures when acting between large particles or extended surfaces. Apart from various differ-
ences, certain semi-quantitative relations describing molecular forces, known as combining
rules, are applicable to all systems (i.e. to the interactions of molecules, particles, and sur-
faces) independent of the type of interaction force involved, as will be shown in Sections
7.2 and 7.6. According to the combining rules, when only two components (1 and 2) are
present in a system, the associated state of like molecules and particles (1–1) and (2–2) is
energetically and thermodynamically preferred over the dispersed state (1–2). However,
this is not true for charged particles, where the Coulomb interactions maintain the dis-
persed state as energetically preferred to the associated state. In addition, hydrogen-
bonding interactions do not readily fall into the given behavior format and must be
considered separately and cautiously.
So far, we have summarized the similarities between intermolecular and interparticle
interactions. However, there are contrasts. As we know from Chapter 2, the molecular
properties of pure gases, liquids and solids are determined mainly by short-range forces.
This is due to the fact that long-range forces decay very rapidly with increasing separation
distance. For example, the van der Waals interaction pair potential, V(r), decreases
with the inverse sixth power of the distance between molecules, r−6, so that the van der
Waals pair energy of two neighboring molecules is at least 64 times stronger than that
between next neighbors, and thus it is effective only for the first contacting molecules.
Nevertheless, on the contrary, the Coulomb interactions in a vacuum are effectively
long-ranged such that the energy decays slowly as 1/r; but this is not stable for other
media, and when a solvent such as water, with a high dielectric constant, is present
the strength of the Coulomb interaction is very much reduced. In summary, long-range
interactions play only a minor role in the total intermolecular interactions. However,
when interactions between macroscopic particles and surfaces, instead of molecules, are
considered, only long-range interactions (especially van der Waals interactions) are oper-
ative. As we will see in Section 7.3 the strength of these interactions depends on the geom-
etry and size of macrobodies, and interactions decay much more slowly with the separation
distance.
As detailed in Chapter 2, van der Waals interactions consist mainly of three types
of long-range interactions, namely Keesom (dipole–dipole angle-averaged orientation,
Section 2.4.3), Debye (dipole-induced dipolar, angle-averaged, Section 2.5.7), and
London dispersion interactions (Section 2.6.1). However, only orientation-independent
London dispersion interactions are important for particle–particle or particle–
surface attractions, because Keesom and Debye interactions cancel unless the particle
itself has a permanent dipole moment, which can occur only very rarely. Thus, it is
important to analyze the London dispersion interactions between macrobodies.
Estimation of the value of dispersion attractions has been attempted by two different
approaches: one based on an extended molecular model by Hamaker (see
Sections 7.3.1–7.3.5) and one based on a model of condensed media by Lifshitz (see
Section 7.3.7).
252 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

7.2 Combining Rules for Molecular, Particle and

Surface Interactions
It is possible to express any molecular interaction semi-quantitatively, independent of
the type of interaction involved. All particle–particle, particle–surface, surface–surface
and sometimes even complex multi-component interactions obey the combining rules of
molecular interactions, except hydrogen-bonding interactions.
When two molecules are located at a given separation, their molecular interaction is pro-
portional to the product of their most effective molecular property. For example, if mole-
cule (1) has some effective molecular property such as dispersion forces, then we have
l1 ∝ a1, and similarly l2 ∝ a2 for molecule (2), where l denotes the molecular property
and a the polarizability of these molecules. Then the binding potential energy between
molecules (1) and (2) in contact may be expressed as
V12 = −l1l2 = Ka1a2 (516)

where K is a constant. Similarly, the binding potential energy between molecules (1) and
(1) can be expressed as [V11 = −l12], and the binding potential energy between molecules
(2) and (2) as [V22 = −l 22]. If the type of interaction is different, for example for charged
molecules, then we may use (l1 ∝ q21) and (l2 ∝ q22), or if the molecules are polar, we may
use (l1 ∝ m21) and (l2 ∝ m22), or (l1 ∝ m1) and (l2 ∝ m2), depending on the presence of
induction interactions; but Equation (516) remains the same (other than the term on
the right-hand side), and the only exception is the reversal of the negative sign for the
purely Coulombic charge–charge interactions.
Now, if we assume that a liquid consists of a mixture of molecules (1) and (2) in equal
numbers, and there are only six molecules to surround a single molecule to form a two-
dimensional cluster, then there are two possibilities for molecular placement, as shown in
Figure 7.1. In the randomly dispersed state, which is shown in Figure 7.1 a, a single (1)
molecule will have both molecules (1) and (2) in contact as nearest neighbors so that, on
average, three (1) plus three (2) molecules will surround the central (1) molecule, as can also
be calculated from probability. This is the same for the two-dimensional cluster where mol-
ecule (2) is located at the center. However, in the associated state, which is shown in Figure
7.1 b, a single (1) molecule will be surrounded by only six molecules of (1) in contact with
it to form a two-dimensional cluster; and a single (2) molecule will have only six molecules
of (2) in contact as nearest neighbors. Then, let us estimate which state is preferable, from
the difference in the interaction potential energy, ∆V. If we count the bonds present between
the molecules, there are three (1–1), three (2–2) and 18 (1–2) bonds present in the two small
clusters in the dispersed state, as shown in Figure 7.1 a. Then we may write
VDisp = (−3l21 − 3l22 − 18l1l2) = −3(l21 + l22 + 6l1l2) (517)

On the other hand, there are 12 (1–1) and 12 (2–2) bonds present in the two small clus-
ters in the associated state, as shown in Figure 7.1 b. Then we have
VAssoc = (−12l12 − 12l22) = −12(l12 + l22) (518)

The change in the interaction potential energy, ∆V, on going from the dispersed to asso-
ciated state can be calculated as
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 253

∆V = VAssoc − VDis = −12(l12 + l22) + 3(l21 + l22 + 6l1l2) (519)

which can be simplified into

∆V = (−9l21 − 9l22 + 18l1l2) = −9(l1 − l2)2 (520)

The number 9 in Equation (520) is in conjunction with the replacement of 18 (1–2) bonds
to nine (1–1) and nine (2–2) bonds, on going from the dispersed to associated state, as
shown in Figure 7.1. If we apply this procedure for the molecular close-packing conditions
in three dimensions, where 12 nearest neighbor molecules surround a central molecule, as
shown in Figure 3.8, we would find ∆V = −22(l1 − l2)2, where 44 (1–2) bonds are broken,
and 22 (1–1) and 22 (2–2) bonds are formed upon association. Therefore, we may write
for any kind of cluster formation between two types of molecules, which are present in
equal numbers, irrespective of their sizes and how many molecules are involved
∆V = −n(l1 − l2)2 (521)

where n is the number of like bonds (i.e., 1–1 and 2–2) that are formed in the association
process. Since (l1 − l2)2 must always be positive in Equation (521), then ∆V < 0, that is
VAssoc < VDis. From this analysis, it is clear that the associated state of like molecules or par-
ticles is energetically preferable to the dispersed state. Consequently, we may conclude that,
in a binary liquid mixture, the attraction between like molecules is more efficient and they
tend to associate. However, we have not considered the effect of solvent molecules in this
analysis, and if a solvent is present as a third component (3), its presence will affect the
behavior of solute molecules, as shown in Section 7.6. On the other hand, Equation (521)
can also be written as

2 2 2 2
2 1 1
1 2 1

2 2 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2 2 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 1 2
1 ∆V 1
2 1 1

2 2
2 2 1 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 2 2 1
2 1 2 2 2
1 1 2
1
2 1 2 2
1

a. Dispersed State b. Associated State

Figure 7.1 Schematic representation of molecular clusters in two dimensions, where six molecules sur-
round a central single molecule: a. The randomly dispersed state, in which three (1) plus three (2) mol-
ecules surround the central (1) molecule on average, and similarly, three (1) plus three (2) molecules
surround the central (2) molecule. b. The associated state, in which a single (1) molecule will be sur-
rounded by only six molecules of (1) in contact with it, and similarly a single (2) molecule will be sur-
rounded by only six molecules of (2).
254 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

∆V = −n(l1 − l2 ) = −n( −V11 − −V22 )

2 2
(522)

which can be converted into

∆V = −n(l21 − 2l1l2 + l22 ) = n(V11 + 2 V11V22 + V22 ) (523)
The (−nV11) and (−nV22) terms are proportional to their respective molar cohesive ener-
gies, ∆U11
V
and ∆U V22, as given in Sections 3.5.3 and 5.3.1, which are the molar internal energy
of vaporization to the gas phase at zero pressure (i.e. infinite separation of the molecules).
Thus, by using Equation (522), the change in the interaction potential energy, ∆V can also
be written as
∆V ∝ −( ∆U 11V − ∆U 22V )
2
(524)

which is the semi-quantitative derivation of Hildebrand’s solubility parameter equation

(Equation (398)) given in Section 5.3.2. If the molecular interaction potential energies, V11
and V22 (and thus their respective cohesive energies, ∆U V11 and ∆U V22,) are largely different
from each other, then the value of ∆V will be large from Equations (522) and (524). This
is the basis of the immiscibility property of two liquids such as water and hydrocarbons
within each other, having a large ∆V. Since ∆V is defined as ∆V = VAssoc − VDis, in Equation
(519), thus for a large negative value of ∆V, molecular association and the accompanying
phase separation is preferred. If however, V11 and V22 (and thus ∆U11 V
and ∆U V22) are similar
to each other, then the difference in interaction potential energy, ∆V, will be small, and
molecular dispersion and the accompanying good dissolution of the two components
within each other are preferred. This is the basis of the like dissolves like rule. In addition,
since ∆V is proportional to the number of like bonds, n, then high-molecular-mass organic
materials, polymers and large particles with large n values will give large ∆V and will be
more easily phase separated in a solvent or in another polymer medium than will small
molecules. In practice, this behavioral prediction was found to be valid for the majority of
the liquid solutions that were examined experimentally.
However, when hydrogen bonds are present in any interaction, Equations (521)–(524)
cannot be used because, for this case, the binding potential energy between molecules (1) and
(2) cannot be expressed as in Equation (516). Since the hydrogen-bonding interactions are
asymmetrical, [V12 ≠ −l1l2] is valid. As an example, no H-bonding interactions are present
between acetone molecules, but they form H-bonds with the OH groups of water molecules
via their C¨O groups, and we cannot predict acetone–water miscibility by using Equations
(521)–(524), depending on the individual properties of acetone and water. An unexpected
new interaction (H-bonding) occurs when acetone and water molecules are mixed, so that
we can predict only false ∆V values if we use Equations (521)–(524) for this purpose. In prac-
tice, acetone is miscible with water due to its H-bonding interactions, so the mixture prefers
the dispersion state, (VAssoc > VDis) giving ∆V > 0 from Equation (519).

7.3 van der Waals Interactions Between Macroscopic Bodies

As we saw in Chapter 2, van der Waals forces consist only of long-range forces; the inter-
action pair potential, V(r), decreases with the inverse sixth power of the distance between
molecules, r-6; and the corresponding interaction force, F(r), decreases as r−7. When
particle–particle or particle–surface attractions are considered, polar Keesom and Debye
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 255

terms cancel, unless the particle itself has a permanent dipole, which is rarely encountered.
Thus, only orientation-independent London dispersion interactions can be used to derive
expressions between macroscopic bodies, by using Hamaker’s microscopic approach.

7.3.1 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between a molecule and

a slab surface

H.C. Hamaker, in 1937, was the first to treat London dispersion interactions between
macroscopic objects. He started with the most basic case, to determine the interaction of
a single molecule with a planar solid surface. He considered a molecular pair potential and
its relation with the molecules present within the solid surface, to derive the total interac-
tion potential by summing the attractive interaction energies between all pairs of mole-
cules, ignoring multibody perturbations. In this way, he built up the whole from the parts.
Thus, Hamaker’s method is called the microscopic approach.
As given in Equation (78) in Section 2.6.1, the dispersion pair interaction potential
between hard sphere molecules (for r > s, where s is the diameter of the molecule) is
expressed as [Vd(r) = −Cd/r6], and the dispersion interaction coefficient, Cd, is given as
[Cd = 3a 2I/4(4πeo)2] (Equation (79)), where a is the polarizability, I is the first ionization
potential of the molecule, and eo is the vacuum permittivity. Hamaker assumed that the
interaction between a molecule and a nearby planar surface of a solid is purely attractive.
Initially, he calculated the volume of the ring containing the interacting molecules in the
solid, as shown in Figure 7.2. This is a usual procedure in physics such that the radius of

dRRing

r
RRing
Molecule
x Solid
Slab
D

dx

Figure 7.2 Interactions between a molecule and a solid slab surface. D is the distance between the mol-
ecule and the surface of the plane solid; RRing is the radius of the ring; x is the distance of the ring to the
side of the solid; r is the distance between the molecule and the ring, which is equal to the hypotenuse
of the right-angled triangle formed.
256 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the ring, RRing and the distance of the ring to the side of the solid, x, may be extended to
infinity during the integration process to cover all the molecules in the solid slab. The
volume of the circular ring can be given as [V = 2pRRingdRRingdx], from geometry. If the
term, r, denotes the number density of the molecules (molecule/m3), then the total number
of molecules in the ring will be = r2pRRingdRRingdx. The additivity principle of pair poten-
tials is assumed to sum the interactions of all the molecules present in the solid body with
this single molecule, and if we approximate this summation process with an integral, then
the net interaction energy for a molecule of the same material, at a distance D away from
the surface of the plane solid will therefore be
x =∞ R R =∞
2RRing dRRing
V ( D ) = ∫∫ [Vd (r )]r 2pRRing dRRing dx = −pCd r ∫ ∫ dx (525)
x = D R R =0
r6

If we apply Pythagoras’s theorem of plane geometry to the right-angled triangle in Figure

7.2, we have [r2 = (D + x)2 + RRing
2
], and inserting this expression into Equation (525) we
obtain
x =∞ R R =∞
2RRing dRRing
V ( D ) = −pCd r ∫ ∫ (D + x ) dx (526)
[ ]
2 3
x = D R R =0 + RRing
2

Since [2RRingdRRing = d(RRing

2
)], we have
x =∞ R R =∞
d( RRing
2
)
V ( D ) = −pCd r ∫ ∫ (D + x ) dx
[ ]
2 3
x = D R R =0 + RRing
2

∞

x =∞  x =∞
 
 1  pCd r 1
= −pCd r ∫ −  dx = − ∫  4 
dx (527)
[ ] 2 x=D  (D + x ) 
2
x = D  2 ( D + x ) + RRing
2

2
0
After integrating the last term in Equation (527), we obtain
∞
pCd r  1  pCd r
V (D) = − −  =− (528)
2  3( D + x )3 0 6D3
As a result of this analysis, the interaction potential energy of a molecule and a macro-
scopic surface decreases proportional to D−3, instead of D−6 for a molecule–molecule inter-
action; so the decrease is less steep for the former case than the latter. In order to perform
this integration and simplification, Hamaker used various assumptions:

1 Multibody interactions are ignored and the interactions are only pair-wise.
2 The intervening medium is a vacuum.
3 The molecule and the solid body are not distorted by the attractive forces.
4 Interactions due to the Coulomb forces and permanent dipoles are neglected.
5 All the dispersion force attractions are due to a single dominant frequency.
6 The interactions of molecular electron clouds are instantaneous.
7 The solid body is assumed to have uniform density right to the interface.

The corresponding dispersion force, F(D), between a molecule and a solid-plane surface
can be calculated from Equation (16) in Section 2.2, by differentiating the V(D) with D as
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 257

∂V ( D ) pC r
F (D) = − = − d4 (529)
∂D 2D
Force, F(D) can also be derived in a similar way by integrating all the pair forces resolved
along the x-axis. Force, F(D) is usually applied in the force measurement experiments given
in Section 7.4, whereas the total interaction energy, V(D) is applied to the free-energy
calculations. In thermodynamic terms, V(D) is the work done in bringing the single
molecule by attractive forces from infinity to a distance D from the solid slab, at constant
temperature, and this work is equal to the Gibbs free energy, due to the dispersion inter-
actions present,
pC d r ra 2 I
∆G d = V ( D ) = − 3
=− (530)
6D 128 D 3pe o2

7.3.2 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between a spherical

particle and a slab surface

By applying a similar procedure to that given above, we can now calculate the interaction
potential energy between a large spherical particle having a radius of RSph and a vertical
solid slab having a flat surface, as shown in Figure 7.3. The volume of the thin circular slice
in the sphere is πRSlice
2
dx. We can relate RSlice with the radius of the sphere, RSph, by using
the chord theorem of plane geometry. As shown in Figure 7.4, we can only draw a right-
angled triangle ABC in a semi-circle. If we apply Pythagoras’s theorem to all such triangles

dRSlice dRRing

Sphere RSph RSlice RRing

D
(2RSph–x) x

Solid
Slab

dx
dxSlab

Figure 7.3 Interactions between a spherical particle and a solid slab surface: D is the distance between
the particle and the surface of the plane solid; RSph is the radius of the spherical particle; RRing is the radius
of the ring; RSlice is the radius of the slice in the spherical particle. Other terms are self-descriptive and
2
[RSlice = x(2RSph − x)] from the chord theorem.
258 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

R h

x
A C
O D

Chord Theorem
in a Circle

Figure 7.4 Right-angled triangle, ABC, captive in a semi-circle. The drawing is used in the proof of the
chord theorem of plane geometry, resulting in the expression [h2 = x(2R − x)], which will be used in
Hamaker constant calculations.

in Figure 7.4, we have [(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2] giving (AC)2 = [(AD)2 + (BD)2] + [(BD)2 +
(CD)2], and after simplification and rearrangement of the terms given in Figure 7.4, we
have [(2R)2 = (2R − x)2 + 2h2 + x2] giving [h2 = x(2R − x)], which corresponds to [RSlice2
=
x(2RSph − x)] in Figure 7.3. Then, the total volume of the thin circular slice in the sphere
particle can be found from [V = pRSlice
2
dx = p(2RSph − x)x dx], and the total number of mol-
ecules in this slice becomes = pr(2RSph − x)x dx. It is obvious that all the molecules in this
sphere are at a distance of (D + x) from the plane surface. Since we can use Equation (528)
to calculate the dispersion interaction potential of a single molecule with the plane surface,
we can then find the total sphere–surface dispersion interaction potential by multiplying
the number of molecules within the spherical particle with Equation (528), so that
pCd r
3[
V (D) = ∫ − pr(2RSph − x )xdx ] (531)
6( D + x )
simplifying, we have
x = 2 RSph

V (D) = −
p 2Cd r 2 (2RSph − x )x dx
6 ∫ ( D + x )3
(532)
x =0

Equation (532) shows the net dispersion interaction energy for a sphere at a distance D
away from the surface of the plane solid, if the additivity principle is assumed. There are
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 259

two possibilities. When RSph >> D, only small values of x (for the x ≈ D case) can contribute
to the integral so that Equation (532) becomes
x =∞
p 2Cd r 2 2RSph x p 2Cd r 2 RSph
V (D) = − ∫ (D + x ) 3
dx = − (533)
6 x =0
6D

Equation (533) shows that the dispersion interaction potential energy is directly propor-
tional to the radius of sphere, and it does not decay as 1/r6, but as 1/D, which is much
slower with the separation distance. On the other hand, if (D >> RSph), then we can replace
(D + x) by D in Equation (532), we then have
x = 2 RSph

V (D) = −
p 2Cd r 2 (2RSph − x )x dx = − 2p 2Cd r 2 RSph
3

6 ∫ D3 9D3
(534)
x =0

We can also derive Equation (534) via another route. Since the total number of molecules
in a sphere is = 4pRSph
3
r/3, then by multiplying the interaction potential energy of one mol-
ecule, given by Equation (528), with the total number of molecules present in the sphere,
we can obtain the same expression as Equation (534):
pCd r  4pRSph
3
r 2p 2Cd r 2 RSph
3
V (D) = − 3   =− (535)
6D  3  9D 3

The (Cdr2) term for the same type of molecule–surface and the (C12d r1r2) term for differ-
ent types of molecule–surface are the material-related constants for an interaction.
Hamaker collected these material constants in Hamaker interaction constants, (A11), (A22)
and (A12) so that
Aii = p 2Cdiir2i (536)

for the interactions containing the same type of materials and

A12 = p 2C12d r1r2 (537)

for the interactions containing two different types of materials. We should remember that,
for two dissimilar molecules, the London dispersion interaction coefficient Cd, was given
in Equation (80) in Section 2.6.1, as Cd = −3a1a2/2(4pe0)2(I1I2/I1 + I2), and should be used
when necessary in Equation (537).
The Hamaker constants are usually inserted in expressions for the potential energy of
interaction between particles and surfaces. For a spherical particle–planar slab surface
interaction of the same material, for the (RSph >> D) case, if we combine Equations (533)
and (536), we have
A11RSph
V ( D )Sphere−Surface = − (538)
6D
and for the (D >> RSph) case, by combining Equations (534) and (536)
3
2 A11RSph
V ( D )Sphere−Surface = − (539)
9D3
The A11s will be replaced by A12s in Equations (538) and (539), if two different kinds of
interacting materials are present.
260 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

7.3.3 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between spherical particles

In most colloids, spherical or nearly spherical colloidal particles are present and interact
with each other. Then it is important to calculate the sphere–sphere interaction potentials.
For the most general case, where two spheres made of different materials with different
radii are interacting as seen in Figure 7.5, it has been calculated that, with the same
procedure as that given above
 2R1R2 2R1R2 
 2( R1 + R2 )D + D 2 + 4 R1R2 + 2( R1 + R2 ) D + D 2 
A  
V ( D )Sphere−Sphere = − 12   (540)
6 + ln  2( 1 2)
R + R D + D 2
 
  4 R R + 2( R + R )D + D 2  
 1 2 1 2 
However, if we use the separation distance, x, between the centers of these spheres [x = D
+ (R1 + R2)], instead of the separation distance of their surfaces, D, as shown in Figure 7.5,
then Equation (540) can be written as

 2R1R2 2R1R2 
 x 2 − ( R + R )2 + x 2 − ( R − R )2 
A
V ( D )Sphere−Sphere = − 12  
1 2 1 2
(541)
6  x 2 − ( R1 + R2 )
2

+ ln 2 
x − ( R1 − R2 )
2
 
For two spheres having the same radii (R1 = R2), Equation (540) simplifies to
 2R 2 2R 2 
 + 2
A  4 RD + D 2
4 R + 4 RD + D 2 
V ( D )Sphere−Sphere = −   (542)
6  4 RD + D 2  
+ ln  2 2 
  4 R + 4 RD + D  

Sphere-1

R2
R1

Sphere-2

Figure 7.5 Interactions between two spherical particles having different radii, R1 and R2. D is the
distance between the particles, and x is the distance between the centers of particles.
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 261

The (RSph >> D) case is important for force measurement experiments between spherical
particles. If there are two large spheres of different radii R1 and R2, and made of different
materials, having a small distance D between their surfaces, as shown in Figure 7.5, we can
simplify Equation (540) to give
A12  R1R2 
V ( D )Sphere--Sphere ≅ − (543)
6 D  R1 + R2 
If there are two spheres of equal radius, RSph, then the interaction potential can be calcu-
lated as half the value of the sphere–surface interaction potential given by Equation (538)
A12 RSph
V ( D )Sphere--Sphere ≅ − (544)
12D
We may also obtain Equation (544) by inserting (R1 = R2) into Equation (543) for two
spheres having the same radius. On the other hand, for the rarely encountered (D >> RSph)
case, for two spheres having the same radius (R1 = R2), which are far apart, it was
calculated that
6
16 A12 RSph
V ( D )Sphere--Sphere = − 6
(545)
9D

7.3.4 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between parallel slab surfaces

If two parallel planar surfaces of materials (1) and (2) are at a distance D apart, as shown
in Figure 7.6, we can calculate their total dispersion interaction energy potential in a similar
procedure to that given above. By using Equation (528), which gives the interaction poten-
tial energy of a molecule and a macroscopic surface, the total interaction potential energy
between two infinitely extended solid slabs (1) and (2) can be calculated by integrating the
pair value over all the molecules in the solid slab (1)
∞ ∞ ∞
pCd12 r2 r1 pCd12 r2 r1dzdydx
V (D) = − ∫∫∫ ( D + x ) 3
dVV = − ∫ ∫ ∫ (D + x ) 3 (546)
6 6 0 −∞ −∞

where VV is the volume of the slab. The integral is infinite because we assume that the solid
slabs are infinitely large. Since we need to calculate the dependence of the interaction
potential on the separation distance between two slabs, we need to divide the total poten-
tial by the area, which is given by the y and z coordinates parallel to the gap:
∞
V (D)
∞
pC 12 r r1dx pCd12 r1r2  1 
V ( D )unit −area = =− d 2 ∫ ( D + x )3 = − 6 − 2  (547)
ASlab--Slab 6 0  2( D + x ) 0
giving,
pCd12 r1r2
V ( D )unit −area = − (548)
12D 2
Equation (548) can also be re-derived if we consider the unit area of a thin sheet of
molecules having a thickness of dx and x away from the surface of a second slab (1), and
similar to the derivation of Equation (528), we can write for the same kind of interacting
materials
262 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

x =∞
pCd r 2 dx pC r 2
V ( D )unit −area = − ∫ 3
=− d 2 (549)
6 x=D
x 12D

In practice, Equation (549) can be used when D is very small compared with the lateral
dimensions of the slab. When Equations (536) and (549) are combined, we have

A11
V ( D )Surface−Surface = − (550)
12pD 2

The term A12 can be used instead of A11 in Equation (550) if the surfaces of two slabs of
different materials interact with each other. If the slabs are not very thick, having a thick-
ness of Λ1 and Λ2, then the dispersion interaction potential can be given as

 1 − 1 

A12  D
2
( D + Λ1 + Λ 2 )2 
V ( D )Surface−Surface = − (551)
12p  1 1 
− − 2 
 ( 1) ( 2) 
2
D + Λ D + Λ

If the thickness of the slabs Λ1 and Λ2 is very large, so that Λ1, Λ2 → ∞, then we obtain
Equation (550) again.

dRSlice dRSlice

RSlice RSlice
x
D
x=0 x=D

Solid Solid
Slab-2 Slab-1

dxSlab-2 dxSlab-1

Figure 7.6 Interactions between two solid slab surfaces. D is the distance between the solid slabs, x is
the abscissa and RSlice is the radius of the slice in the slabs.
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 263

7.3.5 Microscopic approach of Hamaker between cylinder surfaces

If dispersion interactions between two parallel cylinder-shaped materials are considered,

as shown in Figure 7.7 a, then the final equation can be written as
p 2Cd12 r1r2 L  R1R2  A12 L  R1R2 
V ( D )Parallel Cylinders = − =− (552)
12 2 D 3 2  R1 + R2  12 2 D  R1 + R2 
32

where R1 and R2 are the radii, and L is the length of the cylinder. If the cylinders are located
as crossed with each other, as shown in Figure 7.7 b, Equation (552) becomes
p 2Cd12 r1r2 R1R2 A RR
V (D)Crossed Cylinders = − = − 12 1 2 (553)
6D 6D
Equation (553) shows the important simplification of the dispersion interaction potential
between two crossed cylinders, and thus this geometry is preferred for use in the surface
force apparatus, which we will see in Section 7.4.

7.3.6 Comparison of sphere–surface and sphere–sphere interactions with

surface–surface interactions: Langbein approximation

It is clear that the geometry of particles has an important effect on the interaction poten-
tial with other particles and surfaces. It is, then, a good idea to investigate the effective area
of the interaction. For the same dispersion interaction potentials, if we consider
sphere–surface and surface–surface interactions, by equalizing Equations (538) and (550),
we have
2pRSphD = 1 (554)

If we remember that Equation (538) is derived for a unit area = 1 of parallel slabs, it is clear
from Equation (554) that the dispersion interaction potentials are the same if the effective
interaction area in a sphere–surface interaction is equal to
ASph–Surface
eff = 2pRSphD (555)

R1 R2 R2

L R1
D D

a. Two parallel cylinders b. Two crossed cylinders

Figure 7.7 Interactions between two cylinder surfaces having the same length, L, but different radii, R1
and R2. a. Between two parallel cylinders having a distance, D between them. b. Between two crossed
cylinders.
264 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

for the same surface separation of D between the sphere–surface and surface–surface. Since
2
we know that [RSlice = (2RSph − x)x], from the chord theorem of plane geometry, we
can write [RSlice ≈ 2RSphD] for the (RSph >> D and x = D) case, so that Equation (555)
2

becomes
ASph−Surface
Eff ≅ pRSlice
2
(556)

which is in conjunction with the geometrical considerations that can be also derived from
Figure 7.3. Equation (556) shows that the effective area of interaction of sphere–surface is
the circular zone inside the sphere. This conclusion is termed the Langbein approximation.
It is clear that both ASph−Surface
Eff and RSlice are dependent on the radius of the spherical parti-
cle, RSph, and the separation distance, D, so that the decrease in both RSph and D lowers the
value of RSlice. In practice, during experimental measurement, RSlice values vary between
20 and 60 nm, for small microparticles having a radius of 1–2 mm and for separations of
0.2–1.0 nm from a planar slab (x values are in the range of 1–1.5 nm). However, during
actual force measurement, an amount of elastic flattening usually occurs, and this increases
the contact area considerably.
If we consider two contacting (D = 0) spheres having the same radius, the effective area of
the sphere1–sphere1 interaction for this case can be expressed as [ASph−Sph
Eff = pRSlice
2
= p(2RSph −
x)x]. For the (RSph >> x) case, this expression reduces to [AEff Sph−Sph
≈ 2pRSphx]. If the two con-
Sph1−Sph2
tacting spheres have different radii, then we can write AEff ≈ 4px(RSph1RSph2/RSph1 + RSph2)
to show the effective area of the sphere1–sphere2 interaction.

7.3.7 Derjaguin approximation

There is a need to convert interaction potential energies into interaction forces in order to
apply the Hamaker theory to experimental measurements. The corresponding interaction
force can be calculated from Equation (16) in Section 2.2 and Equation (529) in Section
7.3.1, by differentiating V(D) with D for objects having simple geometric shapes. However,
when the interacting materials have irregular shapes, it is a very difficult task to calculate
such forces by direct differentiation. B. V. Derjaguin, in 1934, proposed an approximation
to overcome this problem for the case where the separation distance is small in compari-
son to the curvature of the interacting surfaces. In this approximation, he generalized the
relationship between a sphere–surface interaction with the surface–surface interaction. If
we differentiate Equation (538), given for the sphere–surface interaction potential with D,
then the force between sphere and surface is
∂V ( D )Sphere–Surface A12 RSph
F ( D )Sphere–Surface = − =− (557)
∂D 6D2
If we repeat this procedure for surface–surface interaction, we can write for unit area from
Equation (550)
∂V ( D )Surface--Surface A
F (D)Surface–Surface = − = − 12 3 (558)
∂D 6pD

For sphere–sphere interaction for spheres having two different radii, from Equation (543)
we have
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 265

∂V ( D )Sphere–Sphere A12  R1R2 

F ( D )Sphere–Sphere = − =− (559)
∂D 6 D 2  R1 + R2 

and for two crossed cylinders at right angles having different radii, from Equation (553),
we have
∂V ( D )Crossed Cylinders A12 R1R2
F ( D )Crossed Cylinders = − =− (560)
∂D 6D2
However, Equation (557) can also be related to the interaction potential energy between
surfaces
A12 RSph
F ( D )Sphere–Surface = − (2pRSph ) = 2pRSphV ( D)Surface–Surface (561)
12pD 2
and similarly we can write Equation (559) as
A12   R1R2    R1R2 
F ( D )Sphere–Sphere = − 2p  R1 + R2   = 2p  R1 + R2  V ( D )Surface–Surface (562)
12pD 2
Equations (561) and (562) are examples of the Derjaguin approximation which gives the
force between two spheres in terms of the energy per unit area of two flat surfaces at
the same separation D. If one sphere is very large so that (R1 >> R2), we can obtain
Equation (561) from Equation (562), corresponding to the limiting case of a sphere near
a flat surface. For two crossed cylinders having different radii, the Derjaguin approxima-
tion gives
 V ( D )Surface–Surface 
F ( D )Crossed Cylinders = 2p R1R2   (563)
 sin fcross 

where fcross is the cross-angle between the two cylinders. Equation (563) gives Equation
(560) if fcross = 90°, and in addition, for cylinders having the same radius (R1 = R2), we again
obtain Equation (561) from Equation (563), corresponding to the case of a sphere near a
flat surface.
The Derjaguin approximation can be applied to any type of force law, such as attrac-
tion, repulsion, or oscillation, if D is much less than the radii of the spheres. This has been
verified experimentally and is very useful for interpreting experimental force data. The
Derjaguin approximation shows that, even though the same pair-potential force is operat-
ing, the distance dependence of the force between two curved surfaces is guite different
from that between two flat surfaces.

7.3.8 Macroscopic approach of Lifshitz

In condensed phases such as liquids, two molecules are not isolated but have many other
molecules in their vicinity. As we have seen in Section 2.5, the effective polarizability of
a molecule changes when other molecules surround it. In Hamaker’s treatment, the
additivity of pair-potentials is assumed and the influence of the neighboring molecules is
ignored, in contrast with interactions in real condensed systems. In addition, the additiv-
ity approach cannot be applied to molecules interacting in a third medium, as we have seen
266 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

in Sections 2.5.3, 2.6.4 and 2.7.4. Therefore a theory is needed to avoid these weaknesses
in the Hamaker approach. E. M. Lifshitz, in 1956, introduced an alternative, molar
approach which is called the macroscopic approach, to derive the interactions between
massive particles. In this theory, Lifshitz treated the objects in continuum, that is, sizes and
distances are large compared to atomic dimensions and have bulk properties such as dielec-
tric permittivity and refractive index. In this model, the solvent medium is assumed to be
a structureless continuum defined solely in terms of its bulk properties, such as density or
dielectric constant etc. These bulk properties hold, right down to molecular dimensions.
Lifshitz neglected the discrete atomic structure of the materials. This approach has its
origin in Maxwell’s equations, where electric and magnetic fields are subjected to fast
temporal fluctuations. The van der Waals pressure, according to Lifshitz’s theory, can be
expressed in terms of continuum properties, i.e. dielectric constant (relative permittivity),
e, of the interacting phases under consideration.
The Lifshitz theory also considered the retardation effect originating from quantum
theory. Basically, the dispersion interactions arise from mutual interactions between
fluctuating dipoles and propagate at the speed of light. However, the question arises: when
are they in phase and out of phase? If the separation distance is larger than a specified
length, the propagation time for the field becomes comparable to the oscillating
dipole period and thus becomes out of phase. The field then interacts with another
instantaneous dipole in a different phase, and the attraction force decreases. This retarda-
tion effect will diminish the low-frequency parts of the interaction at the longest distances,
while the higher-frequency contributions will be suppressed at smaller separations
down to 5 nm. Lifshitz applied an analysis of retardation effect through quantum field
theory, by applying quantum electrodynamics to calculate the lowering of the zero-point
energy of a particle, due to the coordination of its instantaneous electric moments with
those of a nearby particle. He finally obtained the same expressions as Hamaker; but in
Lifshitz’s treatment, the Hamaker constants can only be calculated from different param-
eters. The polarizability, a, and the first ionization potential, I, in the Hamaker
equations are replaced by the static and frequency-dependent dielectric constant, e, and
refractive index, n. There is an important difference though, in Lifshitz’s macroscopic
approach; the Hamaker constant is not a constant but a variable that depends on the
separation distance.
Since Lifshitz’s derivation is too difficult and beyond the scope of this book, the Hamaker
constant based on the Lifshitz theory is expressed as
 e 1 ( i
) − e 3 ( i
)   e 2 ( i
) − e 3 ( i
) 
∞
3  e1 − e 3   e 2 − e 3  3h
A≈ kT
4  e1 + e 3 
+
 e 2 + e 3  4p ∫  e ( i
) + e ( i
)   e ( i
) + e ( i
)  d

1 3 2 3
(564)

1

where e1, e2 and e3 are the static dielectric constants of the three media, k is the Boltzmann
constant, h is Planck’s constant, and v is the frequency. As we know from Chapter 2, in the
derivation of the London dispersion interaction expressions, the molecules were assumed
to have only single ionization potentials (one absorption frequency) in free space; however
if many surrounding molecules or a third (solvent) medium are present, then the single
absorption frequency cannot be used. It is obvious that the dielectric constants are not con-
stants themselves but dependent on the frequency of the electric field, so e(iv)s are the
values of ei at imaginary frequencies. Then, the first term in Equation (564) gives the zero-
frequency energy, including the Keesom and Debye interactions, whereas the second term
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 267

gives the frequency-dependent London dispersion energy contributions; which is the most
important part of the equation.
It is essential to know the relation of e(iv) with v, in order to calculate the Hamaker con-
stant from the sum over many frequencies. The static dielectric constants, e1, e2 and e3 are
the values of this function at zero frequency. The integral in Equation (564) has a lowest
value of v1 = 2pkT/h = 3.9 × 1013 Hz (s−1) at 25°C. This corresponds to a wavelength of
760 nm. If we assume that the major contribution to the Hamaker constant comes from the
frequencies in the visible light or UV region, the relation of e(iv) with v can be given as
n2 − 1
e (i
) = 1 + (565)
(1 + v 2 ve2 )
where n is the refractive index, and ve is the common mean ionization frequency of the mate-
rial, which is assumed for simplicity. It is now possible to express the Hamaker constant in
terms of the McLachlan equation (Equation (92)) given in Section 2.6.4.
3  e1 − e 3   e 2 − e 3 
A132 ≈ kT
4  e1 + e 3   e 2 + e 3 

+
3h
e (n12 − n32 ) (n22 − n32 ) (566)

[
8 2 (n12 + n32 ) (n22 + n32 ) (n12 + n32 ) + (n22 + n32 ) ]
where A132 is the Hamaker constant between materials (1) and (2) in a medium of (3), n1
and n1 are the refractive indices of molecules (1) and (2), and n3 is the refractive index
of the solvent medium. For two identical objects interacting across medium (3), we can
simplify Equation (566) to
3h
e (n12 − n32 )
2 2
3  e1 − e 3 
A131 ≈ kT + (567)
4  e1 + e 3  16 2 (n12 + n32 )3 2

When the Hamaker constant is positive, it corresponds to attraction between molecules,

and when it is negative, it corresponds to repulsion. By definition, e3 = 1 and n3 = 1 for a
vacuum. As we know from McLachlan’s equation (Equation (92)), the presence of a solvent
medium (3) rather than a free space considerably reduces the magnitude of van der Waals
interactions. However, the interaction between identical molecules in a solvent is always
attractive due to the square factor in Equation (567). On the other hand, the interaction
between two dissimilar molecules can be attractive or repulsive depending on dielectric
constant and refractive index values. Repulsive van der Waals interactions occur when n3
is intermediate between n1 and n2 in Equation (566). If two bodies interact across a vacuum
(or practically in a gas such as air at low pressure), the van der Waals forces are also attrac-
tive. When repulsive forces are present within a liquid film on a surface, the thickness of
the film increases, thus favoring its spread on the solid. However, if the attractive forces are
present within this film, the thickness decreases and favors contraction as a liquid drop on
the solid (see Chapter 9).
All the above derivations of Lifshitz continuum approach are valid when the materials
are electrically non-conductive (insulating), and the interacting surfaces are farther apart
than molecular dimensions (D >> s). However, if we consider conductive materials such
as metals, their static e = ∞ and Equations (566) and (567) are not valid. For this case, it
is possible to approximate the metal dielectric constant as
268 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

2e
e (i
) = 1 + (568)

2
where ve is the plasma frequency of the free electron gas in the range 4–5 × 1015 Hz in this
case. When Equation (568) is inserted in to Equation (564), we obtain the approximate
Hamaker constant for two bodies of a metal interacting across a vacuum:
3
A 11 ≈ h
e ≈ 4 × 10 −19 J (569)
16 2
Since metals have high dielectric constants and refractive indices, they have much higher
Hamaker constants than those of non-conducting materials.
Values of e, n and ve and Hamaker constants for two identical types of a material in a
vacuum, which are calculated from Equation (567) by taking e3 = 1 and n3 = 1, are given
in Table 7.1. Unfortunately, the lack of material constants, such as the dielectric constant,
as a function of frequency for most of the substances, and also the complexity of the derived
formulae have hampered the general use of the Lifshitz model. However, Lifshitz theory
made possible the advent of the first theories on the stability of hydrophobic colloids as a
balance between London attraction and electrical double-layer repulsion. Later, these the-
ories were further elaborated by Derjaguin and Landau, and independently by Verwey and
Overbeek. The general theory of colloidal stability (which is beyond the scope of this book)
is based on Lifshitz theory and has become known as the DLVO theory, by combining the
initials of these four authors.

7.4 Experimental Measurement of the Hamaker Constant

With the development of the Hamaker and Lifshitz theories, many researchers have tried
to measure forces to verify these approaches. Force measurements between a convex and
flat glass and parallel quartz surfaces were carried out in the 1950s. One plate was fixed
and the other plate was mounted on a spring where the deflection of the spring was meas-
ured by varying the separation distance over the range 100–1000 nm. There were various
experimental problems: the surfaces had to be atomically flat, but the surface roughness
present in real systems limited the separation distance resolution. For example, if a pro-
trusion was present on a surface, the other surface could not approach any closer. Surfaces
also had to be dust-free and charge-free. In order to overcome these experimental diffi-
culties, very flat materials with very small interacting areas were used. Various research
experiments carried out between 1954 and 1970 successfully validated the idea of retarded
dispersion interactions estimated from the Lifshitz theory.
Later, in 1973, Tabor and Israelachvili developed a surface force apparatus, SFA, to
measure the interaction force in a vacuum at the 1.5 nm level for the first time. In this
equipment, the interaction forces between two crossed cylinders coated with freshly cleaved
mica sheets having atomically smooth surfaces were measured. One of the cylinders is
mounted on a piezoelectric transducer, and the other cylinder is mounted on a spring of
known and adjustable spring constant with a force resolution down to 10−8 N. SFA has been
further developed for performing measurements in liquids and vapors. In these developed
SFA versions, the separation distance between the cylinders can be measured interfero-
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 269

Table 7.1 Dielectric constant (e), refractive index (n), main absorp-
tion frequency in the UV region (ne) and non-retarded Hamaker con-
stants (A11) for two identical liquids, solids and polymers at 20°C
interacting across vacuum (or air), calculated using Equation (567),
where e3 = 1 and n3 = 1. *From Equation (569)

ne A11
Material e n (1015 Hz) (10−20 J)

n-Hexane 1.89 1.38 4.2 6.1

n-Octane 1.97 1.41 3.0, 3.9 6.5
n-Hexadecane 2.05 1.43 2.9 5.3
Cyclohexane 2.03 1.426 2.9 5.2
Ethanol 25.3 1.361 3.0 4.2
n-Propanol 20.8 1.385 3.1 4.9
n-Butanol 17.8 1.399 3.1 5.2
n-Octanol 10.3 1.430 3.1 5.8
Acetone 20.7 1.359 2.9 4.1
Benzene 2.28 1.501 2.1 5.0
Toluene 2.38 1.497 2.7 6.3
Chloroform 4.81 1.446 3.0 5.9
Carbon tetrachloride 2.24 1.460 2.7 5.5
Water 78.5 1.333 3.6 4.4
Polyethylene 2.29 1.50 2.6 6.1
Polystyrene 2.55 1.59 2.3 7.2
Polymethyl methacrylate 3.12 1.50 2.7 6.4
Polyethylene oxide – 1.45 2.8 5.5
Polyvinyl chloride 4.55 1.54 2.9 7.9
Polytetrafluoroethylene 2.1 1.359 2.9 3.8
Polydimethyl siloxane 2.7 1.4 2.8 4.5
Nylon 6 3.8 1.53 2.7 7.1
SiO2 (quartz) 4.8 1.54 3.2 8.7
SiO2 (amorphous silica) 3.82 1.46 3.2 6.6
ZnO 11.8 1.91 1.4 8.8
TiO2 (rutile) 11.4 2.46 1.2 14.6
NaCl 5.9 1.53 2.5 6.6
KCl 4.4 1.48 2.5 5.6
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 (mica) 7.0 1.58 3.1 9.5
CaF2 (fluorite) 6.7 1.43 3.8 7.0
C (diamond) 5.7 2.40 2.7 30.7
Al2O3 11.5 1.75 3.2 14.8
Metals (Au, Cu) ∞ – 3–5 25–40*

metrically down to a precision of 0.1 nm, and the apparatus has a sensitivity of better than
10−3 mJ m−2 for measuring interfacial energies. In addition, mica surfaces have been used as
a substrate which is coated with the monolayer or polylayer films of other materials to
determine their Hamaker constants.
Atomic force microscopy, AFM, which was developed in the 1980s is also used for inter-
action force measurement between surfaces. In AFM, the force between the micro-
fabricated tip, which is placed at the end of an approximately 100 mm long and 0.5–5 mm
thick cantilever, with another surface is measured; however this force is usually too small
270 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

to give reasonable values. Then, a particle with a spherical, conical or any geometrical shape
is attached to the cantilever, and good results can then be obtained between like and unlike
surfaces. This method is also called the colloidal probe technique; the forces can be directly
measured in liquids too. The interacting surfaces are much smaller in AFM than in SFA,
so surface roughness and contamination problems are reduced, and AFM measurements
are more rapid and simple.

7.5 Relation Between Hamaker Constant and Surface Tension

In Section 5.6.1, we defined, the work of cohesion, W ci, as the reversible work, per unit area,
required to break a column of a liquid (or solid) into two parts, creating two new equilib-
rium surfaces, and separating them to infinite distance [W ci = 2gi], as given by Equation
a
(457). Similarly, the work of adhesion, W 12 , is defined as the reversible work, per unit area,
required to separate a column of two different liquids (or solids) at the interface, creating
two new equilibrium surfaces of two pure materials, and separating them to infinite dis-
a
tance [W 12 = g1 + g2 − g12], as given by Equation (458). Under constant pressure and tem-
perature conditions, the free energy of cohesion is the negative of the work of cohesion
[∆Gci = −W ci] and adhesion [∆G12 a
= −W 12
a
].
With two flat surfaces of material (1), each unit area is placed into a liquid (2), the change
in the interaction potential energy, ∆V, on going from the dispersed to associated state is
defined as [∆V = VAssoc − VDis] in Equation (519), and ∆V is related to the respective molar
cohesive energies of the surfaces and the solvent, ∆U 11 V
and ∆U V22, from Equations (523)
and (524). In this treatment, (−nV11) is proportional to ∆U 11 V
, and (−nV22) to ∆U V22. Thus,
the binding potential energy, V11, between molecules (1) and (1), can be related to the work
of cohesion and also to their surface tension as
−nV11 = W 11
c
= 2g1 (570)

and the same applies for V22 as [−nV22 = W = 2g2]. Equation (570) is valid, in a vacuum,
c
22
and the factor of two in this equation arises from eliminating these two unit areas while
bringing the two surfaces into contact. With the same reasoning, the binding potential
energy between dissimilar molecules (1) and (2), V12, can be related to the work of adhe-
sion and also to the interfacial tension between them as
−nV12 = W 12
a
= 2g12 (571)

If we combine Equations (523) and (570) we obtain

∆V = −W11c + 2 W11c W22c − W22c = −2(g 1 − 2 g 1g 2 + g 2 ) (572)

Now we need to investigate the relation of ∆V with W and g12. Since ∆V is the change in
a
12
the interaction potential energy on going from the dispersed to associated state, it is the
negative free energy change of bringing two unit surfaces of (1) into adhesive contact with
each other in the medium (2). When this happens, two unit areas of the 1–2 interface are
eliminated to form a single 1–1 interface. Thus, ∆V can be defined as twice the interfacial
energy of the 1–2 interface, g12, and from Equation (571) we can write
∆V = −2g12 = −W 12
a
= nV12 (573)
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 271

Thus, it is now possible to rearrange Equation (572) by combining it with Equation

(573)
W12a = W11c − 2 W11c W22c + W22c (574)

or
g 12 = g 1 + g 2 − 2 g 1g 2 = ( g 1 − g 2 )
2
(575)

If the interaction type is only dispersion, then Equation (575) can be used to estimate the
interfacial energy, g12, from the surface energy of the interacting materials in the absence
a
of experimental data on W 12 (see Sections 9.1 and 10.1).
If we want to calculate the surface free energies of liquids and solids from the Hamaker
constants, we must seek an equation relating the dispersion interaction potential with the
Hamaker constant. Since the work of cohesion, W ci , is defined as the reversible work, per
unit area, required to break a column of a liquid (or solid) into two parts, creating two
new equilibrium surfaces, and separating them to infinite distance, it is clear that we must
use a similar form of Equation (550), giving surface–surface interactions between two par-
allel slab surfaces. We cannot use Equation (550) directly because we only applied pairwise
potential energy summation between the molecules in the solid slab with the identical mol-
ecules in the other solid slab during its derivation, and we did not apply the potential energy
summation to the molecules in the same medium other than these slabs. If we carry out
the integration between all the molecules (including the identical molecules in the slabs
and all the other identical molecules in the same medium), we should have
A11
V ( D )Total = − constant (576)
12pDo2

per unit area, where Do is the effective molecular size, which is the separation distance
between the two imaginary semi-infinite slabs within the material. (That is, these imagi-
nary slabs are separated by just one molecular diameter distance.) In this treatment, the
constant is the bulk cohesive energy of the molecules with their immediate neighbors at
distance (D = Do) so that (constant = A11/12πD2). The first positive term arises from the
unsaturated (or broken) bonds at the two surfaces upon cleavage of the material. Thus,
Equation (576) can be written as
A11 A11 A  1 1 
V ( D )Total = − = 11 − (577)
12pDo2 12pD 2 12p  Do2 D 2 
When the two surfaces are in contact, that is (D = Do), then Equation (577) gives V(D)Total
= 0; however when (D = ∞), that is the newly created two new equilibrium surfaces are
separated to infinite distance to form two isolated surfaces, we have
A11
V ( D )Total = (578)
12pDo2
It is obvious that V(D)Total in Equation (578) corresponds to the free energy of cohesion,
so that [V(D)Total = 2g1]. Equating this to Equation (578) we obtain
A11
g1 = (579)
24pDo2
272 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

Equation (579) shows that the surface free energy is half the energy needed to separate two
flat semi-infinite slab surfaces from contact to infinity, that is, half the cohesion energy.
(The Born repulsion interactions are ignored in this treatment.)
However, the use of the molecular diameters, s (i.e., Do = s), does not give reasonable
results in Equation (579). Instead, by considering that there should be nine neighbor mol-
ecules in a planar close-packed structure, a semi-empirical equation has been developed,
for the cut-off distance for Do, which is substantially lower than s,
A11
g1 ≈ (580)
24p (s 2.5)
2

This equation is reliable for liquids interacting only with dispersion forces to within ±20%.
Unfortunately, this equation greatly underestimates the surface tension of H-bonding and
highly polar liquids.

7.6 Solvent Effects on Particle and Surface Interactions

7.6.1 Solvent effects on molecular interactions

The presence of solvent molecules between solute molecules affects all the interaction ener-
gies. We have seen that the presence of solvent molecules changes the molecular polariz-
abilities of solutes in Section 2.5.3 and decreases the strength of van der Waals interactions
(Section 2.6.4) and the total intermolecular pair potential energies (Section 2.7.4). When
two molecules interact in a condensed liquid medium, there are many solvent molecules
interfering in this interaction. Now, this becomes a many-body interaction and we have to
consider some important new effects:
1 When two solute molecules approach each other, the pair potential includes not
only the direct solute–solute interaction potential energy but also any changes in the
solute–solvent and solvent–solvent interaction energies. This is because a dissolved
solute molecule can approach another only by displacing solvent molecules from its
path. The net interaction therefore can be calculated by considering both the
solute–solvent and solvent–solvent interactions. As an example, at the same separation
distance, the same two solute molecules may attract each other in free space, but they
may repel in a solvent medium if the work that must be done to displace the solvent
molecules between them exceeds the work that is gained by approaching the solute
molecules. The interaction between two dissimilar molecules can be attractive or repul-
sive depending on refractive index values, whereas the interaction between identical
molecules in a solvent is always attractive.
2 When a solute molecule is introduced into a condensed medium, the medium expends
cavity energy, because it first forms a cavity to accommodate the guest solute molecule
by increasing its volume equal to the volume of the solute molecule, as shown in Figure
7.8 a. This cavity energy is an additional energy.
3 Solute–solvent interactions can change the properties of the solute molecules, such as
their dipole moment, polarizability and degree of ionization. Consequently, the proper-
ties of any solute are different in different condensed media.
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 273

4 Solute–solvent interactions perturb the local ordering of solvent molecules as shown in

Figure 7.8 b. This perturbation effect can produce an additional solvation or structural
force if the free energy of this perturbation varies with the distance between the two
solute molecules in this medium. Some associated solvents apply forces on solute mol-
ecules that are determined mainly by the orientation of the molecules of (1) and (2) in
the medium (3), so that the resultant distribution functions are not only functions of
distance, r, but also dependent on the orientation angle.
5 If molecules (1) and (2) are in complete contact in liquid (3), the hard-core repulsion
interaction must also be considered. This sometimes gives rise to positive values in
potential expressions.
These effects are interrelated and can be collectively termed as solvent effects or medium
effects. In addition, the van der Waals forces between (1–1), (2–2) and (1–2) pairs are
reduced because of the dielectric screening of the medium (3), which is particularly impor-
tant for liquid solvents with high dielectric constants. The attraction force is decreased by
a factor of the medium’s er for Keesom and Debye interactions, and by a factor of er2
for London dispersion interactions. This strong reduction in the attractive pair potential
means that the contributions of molecules further apart tend to be relatively minor, and
each interaction is dominated only by its nearest neighbors.

7.6.2 Combining rules for three-component systems: molecules, particles

and surfaces in a third medium

In Section 7.2 we described combining rules for molecular, particle and surface interactions in
a two-component system of (1) and (2). In this section, we will examine the combining rules
when the molecules, particles or surfaces of (1) and (2) are placed in a solvent medium (3).
If we assume that a liquid (3) consists of a mixture of molecules (1) and (2) in equal
numbers, and there is only one solvent molecule in contact with one solute molecule, as
shown in Figure 7.9 in two dimensions, then there are three possibilities for molecular loca-

Gas Gas Gas

Liquid Cavity Solution

a b

Figure 7.8 a. Condensed medium first forms a cavity to accommodate a guest solute molecule by
increasing its volume equal to the volume of the solute molecule. b. Solute–solvent interactions perturb
the local ordering of the solvent molecules, which can produce an additional solvation or structural force.
274 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

2
3 3 3
1 2

1 3
3 2
∆V1 ∆V2

a. Dispersed State

1 1

3 3
1 3 1 1 3 2
2 2 ∆V3 1 2

3 3 3 3
3 2 3 2

b. 12-Associated State c. 11-22-Associated State

Figure 7.9 Combining rules for three-component systems in two dimensions: a. Schematic representa-
tion of two solute (1) molecules in contact with two solvent molecules (3) one by one giving two (1–3)
bonds, and the same rule applies to solute molecules (2) giving two (2–3) bonds in the randomly dis-
persed state. b. Two (1) molecules are in contact with two (2) molecules giving two (1–2) bonds and the
remaining four solvent (3) molecules are in contact as pairs giving two (3–3) bonds in the 12 associated
state. c. Two (1) molecules are in contact with each other giving only a single (1–1) bond, two (2)
molecules are in contact with each other giving only a single (2–2) bond, and the remaining four solvent
(3) molecules are in contact as pairs giving two (3–3) bonds in the 11–22 associated state.

tions. In the randomly dispersed state, which is shown in Figure 7.9 a, two solute (1) molecules
will have contact with two solvent molecules (3), one by one, giving two (1–3) bonds, and the
same applies to solute molecules (2) giving two (2–3) bonds. In the 12 associated state, as
shown in Figure 7.9 b, two (1) molecules are in contact with two (2) molecules giving two
(1–2) bonds, and the remaining four solvent (3) molecules are in contact as pairs giving two
(3–3) bonds. In the (11–22) associated state, as shown in Figure 7.9 c, two (1) molecules are in
contact with each other giving only a single (1–1) bond, two (2) molecules are in contact with
each other giving only a single (2–2) bond, and the remaining four solvent (3) molecules are
in contact as pairs giving two (3–3) bonds. Similarly to Section 7.2, the binding potential
energy between molecules (1) and (1) can be expressed as [V11 = −l21] and between molecules
(2) and (2) as [V22 = −l 22], between molecules (1) and (3) as [V13 = −l1l3] and between
molecules (2) and (3) as [V23 = −l2l3], where l denotes any molecular property. The
binding potential energy for the dispersed state can be expressed as shown in Figure 7.9 a
 Potential Energy of Interaction Between Particles and Surfaces 275

VDispersed = −2l1l3 − 2l2l3 = −2(l1l3 + l2l3) (581)

The binding potential energy for the 12 associated state can be expressed as shown in Figure
7.9 b so that
VAssoc–12 = −2l1l2 − 2l23 = −2(l1l2 + l23) (582)

and the binding potential energy for the 11–22 associated state can be expressed as shown
in Figure 7.9 c, so that
VAssoc–11–22 = −2l21 − 2l22 − 2l23 = −2(l21 + l22 + l23) (583)

Then it is possible to estimate which state is preferable in a three-component system from

the difference in interaction potential energy, ∆V, on going from the dispersed to associ-
ated states. There are two possibilities: the first one
∆V1 = VAssoc–12 − VDis = −2l1l2 − 2l23 + 2l1l3 + 2l2l3 (584)

After simplification we have

∆V1 = VAssoc–12 − VDis = −2(l1 − l3)(l2 − l3) (585)

and for the second possibility, we may write

∆V2 = VAssoc–11–22 − VDis = −2l21 − 2l22 − 2l23 + 2l1l3 + 2l2l3 (586)

which can be simplified to

∆V2 = VAssoc–11–22 − VDis = −(l1 − l3)2 − (l2 − l3)2 (587)

The difference in interaction potential energy, ∆V on going from the 12 associated state, to
the 11–22 associated state, can also be calculated as
∆V3 = VAssoc–11–22 − VAssoc–12 = −2l21 − 2l22 − 2l23 + 2l1l2 + 2l23 (588)

After simplification we have

∆V3 = VAssoc–11–22 − VAssoc–12 = −(l1 − l2)2 (589)

Equations (585), (587) and (589) are very important for understanding the behavior of
two unlike molecules, particles or surfaces in a third (solvent) medium. If (∆V1 > 0), which
means that (VAssoc–12 > VDis) in Equation (585), then the molecules tend to disperse and a
repulsion occurs between the unlike molecules. This condition can be met only if the value
of l3 is intermediate between l1 and l2 so that when [l1 > l3 > l2] or [l2 > l3 > l1] then
Equation (585) must give a positive value of ∆V1, and two particles or surfaces in a third
medium will repel each other. For the other conditions, we may state that unlike particles
may attract or repel each other depending on the values of l1, l2 and l3. The same
conclusions apply for the ∆V2 = VAssoc–11–22 − VDis interaction potential energy difference
given by Equation (587). However, when we consider Equation (589) describing the
[∆V3 = VAssoc–11–22 − VAssoc–12] case, it is clear that the most favored final state will be that of
particles (1) associated with particles (1) and (2) with (2) and (3) with (3), so that there
is always a preferential attraction between like molecules or particles or surfaces in a multi-
component mixture, except for the cases where H-bonding and/or Coulombic interactions
are operative.
276 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

References
1. Israelachvili, J. (1991). Intermolecular & Surface Forces (2nd edn). Academic Press, London.
2. Landau, L.D. and Lifshitz, E.M. (1984). Electrodynamics of Continuous Media (2nd edn), Vol. 8.
Pergamon, Oxford.
3. Erbil, H.Y. (1997). Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed). Handbook of Surface and
Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
4. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
5. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
6. Butt, H.J., Graf, K. and Kappl, M. (2003). Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.
PART III

Solids
Chapter 8
Solid Surfaces

8.1 General Properties of Solid Surfaces and Their

Experimental Investigation
8.1.1 Properties of solid surfaces

The surface molecules of solids are practically fixed in position, and contrary to the behav-
ior of liquid molecules, they cannot move to any other place. Individual atoms and mol-
ecules are only able to vibrate around their mean position. As a result, solid surfaces cannot
spontaneously contract to minimize their surface area, and a non-equilibrium surface
structure forms. This situation is quite distinct from that of a liquid surface, which attains
equilibrium almost as soon as it is formed because of the mobility of the surface mol-
ecules. However, this does not mean that surface tension is absent in solids. In principle,
surface tension also exists in all solids and the inward pull on the solid surface atoms is
always present, owing to cohesion, exactly as in liquids. Nevertheless, the changes of surface
shape due to surface tension are very much slower in solids than in liquids; this is not
because the cohesion forces are smaller but because the mobility of the surface molecules
(or atoms) is very much less. For this reason, measurement of the solid surface tension is
a difficult and ambiguous procedure, and indirect methods are mostly applied (see Section
8.2.2 and Chapter 9).
When solids are deformed by external forces at ambient temperature, they generally react
elastically. For example, many solid materials recover their original size and shape in a
mechanical tensile test, if we remove the applied force. However, if we increase the pulling
force until we break the test specimen, then two new solid surfaces form, but the breakage
force is not equal to the cohesion forces between the solid molecules because the break
occurs at a mechanically weak point (i.e. a previously formed crack on the surface or a
crystal defect) present in the specimen, which is not representative of the whole bulk solid
material and there is also last-minute viscous flow of the test specimen which alters the
interfacial area. Instead, the measured surface tension force depends on the history of for-
mation of the test specimen. On the other hand, the effect of temperature on solids may
be decisive regarding their flow behavior. For example, at high temperature some solids,
such as sintering powders, become viscous and gain mobility so that they can diffuse lat-
erally under their melting points. They lose their elastic responses and thus capillarity equa-
tions can be applied for such cases. The sintering process alters the irregularities of the solid
280 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

surface and viscous sintering materials solidify in a new shape upon cooling. Some poly-
mers also behave similarly; they obey capillary equations above their melting points and
show elastic properties below their glass transition temperatures.
A solid surface is mostly contaminated with foreign matter as a thin layer above the
topmost surface molecules (or atoms), unless very special precautions are taken. If a solid
surface is left unprotected in ordinary air, it becomes coated with a film of greasy material
within a short time period (less than an hour). Even if the contamination film is a mono-
layer, it will alter the surface properties considerably. The cleanest solid surfaces can be
obtained by cleaving a single crystal under high vacuum. It is useful to know that freshly
split mica surfaces under high vacuum will attract each other, and if connected again,
sliding between the crystal planes is very difficult, whereas if the cleavage occurs under
ordinary air, the freshly split mica surfaces no longer attract each other and have obviously
become coated with greasy materials present in the air.
In comparison with their bulk properties, solid surfaces have two important problems.
First, the absolute number of atoms in a solid surface is small. For example, for a typical
sample surface area of 1 cm2, it has been calculated that copper metal (Cu-100) has 1.53 ×
1015 atoms at the surface, which corresponds to 2.5 × 10−9 mol cm−2. Since the area of the
surface probed by an instrument is often nearer to 1 mm2, detection limits of down to pico-
moles (10−12 M) may be necessary; this is a real challenge for any analytical instrument.
Second, the ratio of the number of surface atoms to the number of bulk atoms is also very
small. For the same copper example given above, this ratio has been calculated as 1 : 5.54
× 107, and it is generally found that the surface : bulk ratio in a solid is typically 1 : 107 to
1 : 108, so that an analytical instrument that is sensitive to 10−12 M is required; otherwise the
signal that arises from the bulk solid material will swamp the signal of the surface com-
ponent in the instrument. Fortunately, the surface analytical instruments discussed below
are capable of such sensitivity.
In general, most natural surfaces are amorphous to varying degrees; only a few are com-
pletely crystalline. Even many crystalline solids have amorphous surfaces that are different
from their bulk crystalline structures. Some solids do not have their original chemical
structure at the surface due to the action of gases present in the medium. For example,
metals such as aluminum form oxide layers on their surface under ambient conditions.
Oxygen is combined by covalent forces with the atoms present in the topmost layers of the
metal surface. Thick oxide films can form on some metals. Most metals form these oxide
layers over a long period of time, but aluminum is the most rapid, so it is very difficult to
wet an aluminum surface with another piece of molten aluminum, and also to solder or
weld this metal. In contrast, these metal oxide layers provide protection against metal cor-
rosion. On the other hand, adsorbed monolayers of gases are usually present on the surface
of most high-surface-energy solids. Air itself adsorbs on most solids; it alters the settling
properties of most powders, including sand. When air is adsorbed onto soil particles, it is
difficult to wet the soil, and this is one of the reasons for flooding from summer rain. Once
we realize these facts, it seems only academic to investigate crystalline solid surfaces.
However, there is a scientific need to compare experiments on well-defined crystalline sur-
faces in order to understand the adsorption and catalysis processes. In addition, completely
crystalline surfaces are now being used in the modern semiconductor industry, and
the development of this industry needs tailor-made crystalline surfaces, initially in the
laboratory, but then on an industrial scale.
 Solid Surfaces 281

By definition, an ideal solid surface is assumed to be atomically flat and chemically

homogenous. However, in reality there is no such ideal solid surface; all real solid surfaces
are often extremely uneven at temperatures above 0 K, unless polishing has been employed
to smooth out the irregularities present. The number of defects increases with the increase
in temperature. Solid surfaces have a surface roughness over varying length scales, and also
they are chemically heterogeneous to a degree, due to the presence of different chemical
groups, impurities or crystals at the surface. Surface roughness is defined as the ratio of
real surface area to the plan area, and it is larger than 1 for all practical surfaces. Recently,
it has become possible to image surface atoms with the advent of scanning probe
microscopy techniques, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM), and scanning tunneling
microscopy (STM). At the atomic level, solid surfaces have been found to consist of a
mixture of flat regions, called terraces, and defects, steps, kinks and point defects. Thus, each
surface site has its own local surface roughness. Since the local distribution of atoms around
each of these individual surface sites is different, their electronic properties, physical
response and surface chemistry are also different, and this may result in no two adjacent
atoms on a solid surface having the same properties. On a larger scale, solid surfaces are
also very complex. They have numerous small cracks and often aggregates of small crys-
tals and broken pieces in all possible orientations, with some amorphous materials in the
interstices. Even if a solid is wholly crystalline and consists only of a single crystal, then
there may be many different types of surface on it; the faces, edges and corners will all be
different. The presence of cracks in a surface decreases the strength of the crystals from
that deduced from theoretical considerations. Crystal defects affect the crystal’s density and
heat capacity slightly, but they profoundly alter the mechanical strength, electrical con-
ductivity and catalytic activity.
As stated in Chapter 1, the chemical structure of the top surface layers of a solid
determines its surface properties. If these top layers consist of the same chemical groups,
then the surface is called chemically homogeneous, and if they consist of different chemical
groups it is called chemically heterogeneous. The presence of two or more chemically
different solid substances in a surface layer enormously multiplies the possibilities for
variety in the types of surface, such as copolymer surfaces and catalysts having many
different atoms at the surface. The chemical heterogeneity of a surface is an important
property in industry affecting catalysis, adhesion, adsorption, wettability, biocompatibility,
printability and lubrication behavior of a surface, and it must be determined analytically
when required.

8.1.2 Experimental investigation of solid surfaces and the requirement for

ultra-high vacuum

The experimental and theoretical investigation of rough solid surfaces at the atomic (or
molecular) level seems to be an almost intractable problem on a poorly defined surface,
since any information obtained contains contributions from a myriad of different combi-
nations of surface sites and chemical compositions. Thus, it is necessary to define precisely
the chemical composition and structural, electronic states and bonding properties of mol-
ecules of the solid substrate under investigation, in order to ensure we obtain the same
reproducible results from experiments. Application of several advanced spectroscopic
282 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

surface analysis techniques allows a complete surface investigation. X-ray photoelectron

spectroscopy (XPS, or the other name ESCA for electron spectroscopy for chemical analy-
sis), ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS), extended X-ray absorption fine struc-
ture (EXAFS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), low-energy electron diffraction (LEED),
high-energy electron diffraction (HEED or RHEED), reflection–absorption infrared spec-
troscopy (RAIRS), high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS), second-
ary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) and
temperature-programmed reaction spectroscopy (TPRS) are the main methods used to
analyze the surface chemistry of solids. All these methods must be applied under ultra-
high vacuum conditions, which corresponds to the pressure being reduced to below
10−9 Torr (1 Torr = 133.3 Pascal, Pa = N m−2), otherwise the surfaces of solids are covered
with a monolayer of adsorbed molecules of any gas or vapor present in the medium. The
application of ultra-high vacuum in a chamber is a solution to preparing a clean solid
surface and keeping this surface clean and well defined over the duration of a surface exper-
iment up to several hours. For example, it has been calculated from the kinetic theory of
gases that it takes 2.6 sec to form a monolayer of carbon monoxide on any solid having an
atomic density of 1015 atom cm−2 (typical for most solids) at 27°C under P = 10−6 Torr gas
pressure; whereas it takes 7.3 hours under P = 10−10 Torr pressure. In general, it is assumed
that gas pressures lower than 10−7 Pa are required to keep a solid surface clean for a time
period of several hours.
There are several methods for obtaining completely crystalline and clean solid surfaces.
Many brittle and layered compounds such as mica, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite and
some semiconductor crystals are cleaved in situ, using a razor blade under ultra-high
vacuum to give clean surfaces. The starting material is a pure, three-dimensional single
crystal and a slice of the desired orientation is cut from this crystal. Instead of a razor blade,
the double-wedge technique is also used to cleave some other brittle materials. In this tech-
nique, the crystalline material is pre-cut and positioned between very hard wedges to main-
tain proper cleavage. Depending on the crystallographic orientation, only some definite
crystal planes can be obtained. However, the freshly cleaved crystal surfaces may be
mechanically stressed, and metastable surface configurations that are different from the
equilibrium structure may also be formed.
It is also possible to prepare crystal surfaces from non-brittle materials. Mechanical
scraping of the outermost contamination layer will also give clean surfaces. Some hard
solids can be ground and polished, and some soft materials are cleaned chemically or elec-
trochemically to give clean solid surfaces. If ultra-high vacuum conditions are not applied
during these processes, the crystal surfaces may be contaminated or oxidized, or a mono-
layer of a gas present in the medium may be formed over them. Polishing a metal surface
changes its structure into a completely amorphous assemblage of metal atoms, packed as
in liquids. The surface layers of a polished metal are actually liquefied by heat supplied
momentarily by the friction action of the moving polisher. The surface temperature can
rise rapidly to the melting point of the metal during sliding friction and polishing, but this
process can occur only if the melting point of the polisher is higher than that of the sub-
stance being polished; hardness alone is of little importance.
Alternatively, samples prepared outside high vacuum conditions can be transferred into
an ultra-high vacuum chamber for analysis after formation. This method is important in
industry. For example, electrochemical methods in liquids give atomically clean crystalline
 Solid Surfaces 283

semiconductor surfaces but these samples should be moved into an ultra-high vacuum
chamber for surface analysis. For this purpose, these samples are capped with a thin and
desorbable protective layer and after transporting through air with this capping layer
protecting the main surface, the cap may be desorbed subsequently by heating under
ultra-high vacuum and the weakly bound substrate removed to leave behind the clean
semiconductor surface. In another method, the substrate is heated in an oxygen-rich con-
tainer to produce gaseous CO and CO2 to clean the carbonaceous layers on a substrate. If
excess oxygen atoms are adsorbed onto a catalysis surface, the substrate is heated gently in
a H2 environment to produce gaseous H2O to remove O2.
A general method of cleaning solid surfaces is sputtering, where the solid surface is bom-
barded with noble gas ions. Argon gas is usually preferred for this purpose. The argon ion
bombardment process can be carried out by inserting argon gas at a pressure of typically
1 Pa into a vacuum chamber and applying a high electric field. The freshly formed high-
energy argon ions (100–3000 eV, depending on the applied electric voltage) are used to
bombard the sample surface and to remove the monolayers formed at a rate of several
monolayers per minute. However, sputtering by argon ion bombardment removes the con-
taminants, as well as the first few layers of the solid substrate, and gives an undesirable
pitted rough solid surface because of the violent nature of this process. Later, adsorbed or
embedded argon atoms on the sample surface are removed by annealing which also heals
the defects on the crystal surface. Sputtering methods can be applied successfully to clean
the surface of pure materials, but they change the surface chemical structure when applied
to alloys. Sputtering is also applied for depositing thin metal films onto solid surfaces in a
method called physical vapor deposition. In this method, a target, which is the source of the
metal film, and a solid sample surface are placed in a high-vacuum chamber. The target is
bombarded by high-energy argon ions, and the metal atoms that are ejected from the target
surface partially condense on the sample surface to form a thin metal film. However, the
energy of the argon ions must be strictly controlled because if they have excessive energy,
they would penetrate into the target metal without disrupting its surface sufficiently. In a
similar method, heated metals are evaporated in a high-vacuum chamber to form a thin
metal film on specific solid substrate samples.
On the other hand, optical microscopy, confocal microscopy, ellipsometry, scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), atomic force
microscopy (AFM) and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) are the main micro-
scopic methods for imaging the surface structure. There are many good books and reviews
on spectroscopic and chemical surface analysis methods and microscopy of surfaces;
description of the principles and application details of these advanced instrumental
methods is beyond the scope of this book.
With the application of these instrumental tools, we can measure the properties of so
called well-defined surfaces. But, what is a well-defined surface? Initially, if we assume that
the surface under investigation is flat and contains a very high ratio of terraces to defect
sites, and it is chemically homogeneous and consists of just one type of atom (or mol-
ecule) on the surface, then we can introduce a greater complexity into the system by adding
controlled amounts of surface defects and chemical heterogeneities. Such surfaces are called
well-defined surfaces. This is a useful approach, and a large database has been established
on the properties of well-defined metal, metal oxide, semiconductor, polymer, catalyst and
insulator surfaces, which have been investigated extensively in the past. In a well-defined
284 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

surface experiment, it is necessary to use a particular crystal plane that can be obtained
when cut from a single crystal. Such crystal planes contain atoms in a number of well-
defined sites. If required, the geometrical location and the number of adsorption sites on
a model solid surface can be varied by simply cutting a single crystal in different directions
to expose different crystallographic planes. Atomically flat or alternatively vicinal surfaces,
which consist of short atomically flat terraces separated by atomic steps, can also be
obtained by the carefully controlled crystal cleavage method.

8.2 Surface Tension, Surface Free Energy and Surface Stress

of Solids
8.2.1 Surface stress and its relation with surface tension and surface free
energy of solid surfaces

Since the molecules on a solid surface are generally fixed, a solid cannot spontaneously
contract to minimize its surface area. This situation is completely different from that of
liquids. As we have seen in Sections 3.2.4, 3.2.5 and 3.3.1, if the Gibbs dividing plane is
placed such that Gi = 0, then the surface tension of a pure liquid, go, is equal to the (spe-
cific excess) surface free energy per unit area, ∆GSo (Equation (222)). However, these two
quantities are not in general equal for solid surfaces, because when a fresh surface is formed
by cleaving the solid in a vacuum or, if the solid is volatile in its own vapor, then the atoms,
molecules or ions present in the freshly generated surface are immobile and will normally
be unable to arrange in their equilibrium configuration. Consequently, a non-equilibrium
structure forms at the solid surface, and it may take a considerable time (even an infinite
amount of time!) for the atoms (or molecules) to come to their equilibrium positions. This
situation is quite distinct from that for a liquid surface, which attains equilibrium almost
as soon as it is formed because of the ease of mobility of its molecules. Thus, it is conven-
ient to define surface tension of solids in terms of the restoring force necessary to bring the
freshly exposed surface to its equilibrium state. However, the definition of surface free
energy of solids is the same as for liquids; it is the work spent in forming a unit area of a
solid surface. It is clear from this argument that the surface tension is not equal to the
surface free energy for solids. In addition, when the surface area of a liquid increases, the
number of surface molecules (or atoms) increases in proportion, according to the Gibbs
equation, whereas for solids such a plastic, the increase in surface molecules is very limited.
Instead, when the surface area of a solid is increased by stretching it mechanically, the
distance between neighboring surface atoms changes with the increase in area, while the
number of surface atoms remains constant in most cases. For solid surfaces, this elastic
increase with the increase in surface area is much more important than the negligible
plastic, the increase. At this point, a new term surface stress, y, is defined as the external
force per unit length that must be applied to retain the atoms or molecules in their initial
equilibrium positions (equivalent to the work spent in stretching the solid surface in two
directions in a two-dimensional plane). In solids, the surface free energy is not necessarily
equal to the surface stress, unlike the situation with liquids, and an expression is required
to relate the surface free energy with the surface stress. When a one-component solid is
isotropic, then the work done to increase its surface area by an amount dA can be written
 Solid Surfaces 285

as dW = y dA. However, this work is also equal to dW = d(AGS), by the definition of surface
free energy. If we equalize both expressions, we obtain
y dA = d (AGS) (590)

then, the surface stress can be found as

d( AG S ) G SdA AdG S  dG S 
y= = + = G S + A  (591)
dA dA dA  dA 

(dGS/dA) = 0 for a one-component pure liquid, and thus we have y = GS = go. However,
this is not true for a freshly formed solid surface, and the magnitudes of GS and [A (dGS/dA]
are comparable. The surface stress may be related to surface free energy via the term surface
strain, l. The total surface strain upon extending the surface area of a substance can be
expressed as dltot = (dA/A). If we combine the total strain term with Equation (591) we
have
 dG S 
y = GS +   (592)
 dltot 

For solids, the total surface strain has two components, as elastic and plastic strains: [dltot
= dle + dlp]. When only elastic strain is present on solid surfaces, we can write dltot = dle,
so that Equation (592) becomes
 dG S 
y = GS +   (593)
 dle 

Equation (593) is called Shuttleworth’s equation and shows how we can calculate the
surface stress. In theory, if we want to calculate the Gibbs free energy per unit area from
surface tension and surface stress we may write
 dlp   dle 
G?S = g+ y (594)
 dltot   dltot 

However, GS? is not a true thermodynamic quantity, because it does not express the equi-
librium; instead it depends on the history of the solid surface formation, as we see above.
So far, we have considered only the isotropic solids. If, however, the solid is anisotropic,
such crystals can respond differently in different directions when increasing the surface
area. This property increases the number of required equations twofold, and the matter is
rather complex because it is unclear which shape the anisotropic crystal would prefer for
a given volume, if its total surface free energy is minimized; this subject is beyond the scope
of this book.

8.2.2 Theoretical estimation of the surface free energy of solids

Some semi-empirical methods are offered to estimate the surface tension of solids which
have specific atomic or molecular interactions:
1 The simplest case is a solid bonded with short-range covalent forces, such as a diamond.
Harkins assumed that the total surface energy at 0 K is simply half of the energy to break
286 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the total number of covalent bonds passing through a 1 m2 cross-sectional area of the
diamond, that is
1
U iS = U icohesion (595)
2
If we assume that the Gibbs surface free energy, GSi, is nearly equal to the total surface
energy, U iS, at room temperature, by neglecting entropic effects it is possible to calculate the
GSi value. As an example, if we split all the C—C bonds in a diamond at the (111) crystal
face, there will be 1.83 × 1019 bonds m−2. The energy per C—C bond in diamond has been
found experimentally to be 6.2 × 10−19 J per bond. Then, we can calculate the Gibbs sur-
face free energy value of diamond as, GSi ≈ USi = 1/2 (1.83 × 1019 × 6.2 × 10−19) × 103 =
5670 mJ m2. For the (100) crystal face of diamond, a value of GSi = 9820 mJ m−2 has been
calculated. These figures are not absolutely correct but are good estimates and also show
the high dependence of the surface free energy of solids on the number of bonds, and the
corresponding crystal faces.

2 For solids interacting with only van der Waals pair potentials with no orientation
effects, the face-centered cubic crystals of noble gases are good model systems.
Using the Lennard-Jones (12–6) pair-potential equation, which considers the van der
Waals attraction and Pauli repulsion, and applies computer simulations to both the
splitting energy of fixed atoms in the crystal and their rearrangement energies,
GSi = 45 ± 1.8 mJ m−2 has been calculated for argon crystal, depending on the different
crystal orientations. Calculations were also performed for Ne, Kr and Xe crystals, and
it was shown that the value of GSi increases with the increase in elementary molecular
mass.
3 For ionic solids interacting with Coulomb pair potentials, similar calculations can be
carried out. However, this is a rather complex matter because Coulomb, van der Waals
attraction and Pauli repulsion should all be taken into account. In addition, there are
uncertainties in the choice of suitable pair-potential equation (many inter-atomic poten-
tial equations, including Lennard-Jones were tried), and the calculated GSi results are
highly dependent on the particular choice of pair-potential model. As an example, GSi =
212 mJ m−2 was calculated theoretically for the NaCl (100) crystal, which is near to the
experimental value of GSi = 190 mJ m−2 from extrapolation of the molten salt surface
tension values, but far away from GSi = 300 mJ m−2, which was found from crystal cleav-
age experiments.
4 There are two main methods for estimating the surface free energy of metallic solids.
The pair-potential approach can also be used to predict the surface tension of metal
surfaces. Alternatively, a quantum-mechanics-based method has been developed
which depends on the behavior of free electrons in a metal box. The wave functions of
the electrons have nodes at the walls of the box, whose sides correspond to the surfaces
of metals. The wave functions for the standing waves inside the box yield permissible
energy states for the electron, which are independent of the lattice type. In a thought
experiment, if the metal is broken into two faces through its cross-section, then the
electrons are forced to occupy higher energy states because there is no room in their
previous locations due to the boundary conditions. The gain in kinetic energy
corresponding to the rejected states is therefore assumed to be the surface energy of the
 Solid Surfaces 287

metal; the results obtained are in fair agreement with the experimental surface tension
values.

8.2.3 Experimental determination of surface free energy of solids

There are many theoretical difficulties in defining the surface free energy of solids, mainly
arising from the deviations from ideality due to the immobility of surface atoms and mol-
ecules, and also the presence of surface defects. Dislocations, such as a missing atom or
molecule and the presence of extra atoms (adatoms) or molecules on the solid surface, and
the formation of kinks, edge and screw dislocations, are a few examples of such defects,
and thus the surface free energy of solids largely depends on the history of the surface
formation. On the other hand, there is a need to pre-determine the average surface ten-
sions of solids in order to predict their usage in many industrial applications. In general,
mostly indirect experimental methods are applied to this task:
1 For low-energy solids such as crystalline organic materials and most polymers, surface
tension can usually be estimated from the contact angle measurement of liquid drops
onto them, using surface tension data of liquids in these calculations (see Section 9.1).
2 If the solid can be melted, its surface tension is measured while it is a liquid, at varyious
temperatures, and the derived experimental data are extrapolated to room temperature
by means of suitable semi-empirical equations. Since the surface enthalpy of the solid is
10–20% larger than its near-melt temperature values, this fact is also considered in these
calculations.
3 The work required to cleave off a unit area of a solid is measured experimentally for
some layered solids, which can give flat surfaces. However, the results are reliable only
for a very small proportion of solids. This is because mechanical deformations occur-
ring during the cleavage test consume most of the splitting energy, and in addition, sur-
faces can reconstruct and return to their equilibrium positions after cleaving, a step for
which energy cannot be determined during the test. As an example, the cleavage of a
mica crystal gives a surface tension of 375 mJ m−2 in air and 4500 mJ m−2 in a vacuum,
showing the effect of water vapor and other greasy material adsorption in air during the
measurement.
4 Powder solids generate heat when immersed in liquids due to the solvation action of the
solvent molecules, which destroys the solid interface. This exothermic heat can be meas-
ured precisely using advanced calorimeters, which are sensitive to just a few Joules per
mole of material. If the surface area of this powder has been measured previously using
an independent method, such as by BET adsorption, then it is possible to calculate the
surface free energy from the heat of immersion.
5 When a solid powder is used as the stationary phase in the inverse gas chromatography
method, the interaction of a well-known gas or organic vapor is measured, and the
adsorption results for gaseous molecules on the solid powder are used to calculate
the difference in surface free energy of bare stationary solid surface and that of the
solid–vapor interface (gS − gSV).
6 When compression forces are applied to a small crystal, it is possible to measure
the changes in lattice spacing by using X-ray and LEED instruments. Then the
288 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

decrease in the lattice constant and solid surface tension can be calculated, but these data
are more suitable for calculating non-equilibrium surface stress rather than surface
tension.

8.3 Gas Adsorption on Solids

As we saw in Section 3.3, the concentration difference of one constituent of a gas or liquid
solution at the surface of another phase is called adsorption. In other words, adsorption is
the partitioning of a chemical species between a bulk phase and an interface. Desorption is
the reverse of the adsorption process, showing that the molecules are leaving the interface
towards the other phase. Adsorption is different from absorption where a species penetrates
and is dissolved throughout the bulk phase of a liquid or a solid. For gas or liquid adsorp-
tion on solids, the solid material on which adsorption takes place is defined as the adsor-
bent; the material in the adsorbed state (while bound to the solid surface) is called the
adsorbate, and the gas, vapor or liquid molecule prior to being adsorbed is called the
adsorptive. In this section, we will investigate only the principles and applications of gas
adsorption on solids (see Section 9.4 for liquid adsorption on solids).
Gas or vapor molecules may become bound to a solid surface if they approach close
enough to interact. When a gas molecule strikes a solid surface, it may be adsorbed on the
solid by interaction with the unsatisfied fields of force of the surface atoms or molecules.
The gas molecule loses sufficient energy to the atoms on the solid surface by exciting them,
vibrationally or electronically, to become effectively bound to the surface. An ensemble of
a monolayer of adsorbed molecules forms with this process, and the average time of stay
of a molecule upon the surface is called the mean stay time. In this way, the surface tension
of the solid surface is diminished, often to a small fraction of its original value. If the
strength of the adsorbate–adsorbent interaction is higher than that of the strength of the
thermal energy that forces them to mobilize, then the adsorbed molecules spend most of
their time on the adsorption sites on the surface, so that they are called localized. If the
reverse is true, the adsorbate molecules can readily move along the surface from one site
to another and are called non-localized. Whether or not equilibrium has been attained is
an important issue in adsorption. Gas adsorption on porous surfaces usually shows hys-
teresis, that is adsorption and desorption isotherms do not coincide. This is not usually an
indication of an irreversible process; it may be due to the time differences between the
adsorption and desorption processes.
When a solid is in equilibrium with a gas, if the gas is more concentrated in the solid
surface than in the bulk of the solid, then the gas is called positively adsorbed, whereas if
the gas is less concentrated in the surface region, it is called negatively adsorbed. The quan-
tity of molecules taken up by a surface depends on several variables including tempera-
ture, pressure, surface energy distribution, and the surface area and porosity of the solid.
The quantity of molecules adsorbed on the solid adsorbent surface and the pressure of the
adsorptive gas at a constant temperature can be plotted to give an adsorption isotherm. In
an adsorption process, the fractional coverage of the adsorbate, qf, is defined as
NS
qf = (596)
N tot
 Solid Surfaces 289

where N S is the number of adsorbate molecules (or atoms) per unit area on the solid
substrate, and N tot is the total number of adsorbate molecules (or atoms) per unit area
to produce one complete monomolecular layer (monolayer) on the substrate surface. The
value of N tot is not necessarily, but is sometimes, numerically equal to the number of surface
molecules (or atoms) of the solid substrate. [If the size of the adsorbed molecules (or
atoms) is appreciably larger or smaller than the size of the molecules (or atoms) on the
surface of the substrate, then there will be a difference between Ntot and the total number
of surface sites.] If a molecule can be adsorbed on a surface without fragmentation, then
the process is called associative adsorption, whereas if fragmentation does occur, it is called
dissociative adsorption. Time is also an important parameter in the adsorption process,
because longer times will increase the amount of adsorption to a final equilibrium value,
whereas it may be difficult to reach the equilibrium in a short time for some cases, and for
these reasons the exposure parameter is defined as the product of the adsorptive gas pres-
sure and the time of exposure during adsorption (the normal unit is a Langmuir, where
1 L = 10−6 Torr-sec).

8.3.1 Physisorption on a gas–solid interface

Adsorption on solids is usually classified according to the type of force involved in binding
the adsorbed molecules (or atoms) to the surface molecules (or atoms) of the solid. When
physical adsorption or physisorption takes place, the only bonding forces are the non-
specific and relatively weak van der Waals forces. Since there is no covalent bond forma-
tion in this process, there is no electron exchange between the adsorbed molecule and the
substrate surface. An overspill of electron charge from the solid into the gas molecule results
in an imbalance of electron density on either side of the interface. The physisorption
process is always exothermic, and the energy given out on adsorption is called the enthalpy
of adsorption, ∆Hads. Equilibrium is very rapidly established in physisorption, and the value
of ∆Hads is low, typically in the region of −10 to −40 kJ mol−1, usually not exceeding
−60 kJ mol−1. The magnitude of ∆Hads is generally of the same order, but slightly larger than
the latent heat of condensation, ∆Hvap, of the adsorbtive molecules. Physisorbed molecules
are fairly free to move and rotate, and are usually not bound to a specific location on
the surface, but may diffuse laterally along the surface of the adsorbent. The
adsorbate–adsorbate interactions are sometimes greater than the adsorbate–surface inter-
actions. The Born repulsive forces become significant as the molecules (or atoms) closely
approach each other. Since the attraction forces arise only from the van der Waals forces,
physisorption is non-specific and any molecule (or atom) can adsorb on any solid surface
under appropriate conditions. The decrease of temperature lowers the kinetic energy of
adsorptive gas molecules and increases the amounts of physisorbed molecules. Thus,
physisorption is usually important for gases below their critical temperature, typical exam-
ples being the adsorption of nitrogen, methane, or noble gases such as argon and krypton
on the surface of any solid adsorbent.
As more adsorptive gas molecules (or atoms) are introduced into the system over time,
the adsorbate molecules tend to form a monolayer that covers the entire adsorbent surface.
When a monolayer forms, the fractional coverage equals one (qf = 1). Being only weakly
bound, physical adsorption can easily be reversed, and the physisorbed molecules can easily
290 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

be desorbed (or removed) from the surface to the gas phase by lowering the pressure of
the adsorptive gas. On the other hand, the continued addition of gas molecules beyond
monolayer formation leads frequently to the gradual stacking of multiple layers (or multi-
layers) on top of each other. These multi-layers also disappear rapidly if the pressure of the
adsorptive gas is reduced. When pores are present on the solid surface, the formation of
multi-layers occurs simultaneously with capillary condensation. The latter process is
described by the Kelvin equation (see Sections 4.7 and 4.8), which quantifies the propor-
tionality between residual (or equilibrium) gas pressure and the size of capillaries capable
of condensing gas within them. Next, as the adsorptive gas pressures approach saturation,
the pores of the adsorbent become completely filled with adsorbate. Knowing the density
of the adsorbate, one can calculate the volume it occupies and, consequently, the total pore
volume of the sample. If at this stage, one reverses the adsorption process by withdrawing
a known amount of gas from the system in steps, one can also generate the desorption
isotherms. For porous adsorbents, adsorption and desorption isotherms rarely overlay
because of the hysteresis which may be due to the time and energy differences between
adsorption and desorption. This hysteresis leads to isotherm shapes that can be mecha-
nistically related to those expected from particular pore shapes.

8.3.2 Chemisorption on a gas–solid interface

Adsorption can also result in strong chemical bond formation between the adsorbent
surface and the adsorbate molecules (or atoms), by exchanging and sharing electrons, and
may be regarded as the formation of a surface compound. The nature of this bond may lie
anywhere between the extremes of virtually complete ionic or complete covalent charac-
ter. Spectroscopic methods can be used to evaluate the nature of the surface bonding
involved. Chemisorption may be rapid or slow and may occur above or below the critical
temperature of the adsorptive gas. The heats of chemisorption are much larger than for
physisorption, and ∆Hads is in the range of −40 to −1000 kJ mol−1 (typically in the range of
−100 to −400 kJ mol−1). As a consequence of the bond strength, chemical adsorption is dif-
ficult to reverse and chemisorbed layers are usually very stable to desorption at high tem-
peratures and very low pressures. If desorption does take place, it may be accompanied by
chemical changes on the solid adsorbent surface. For example, oxidation can be viewed as
the chemisorption of oxygen, and when oxygen gas is adsorbed on carbon, it is held very
strongly. During desorption by heating to high temperatures, a mixture of CO2 and CO
gases leaves the surface, thus consuming the carbon adsorbent. Since, in practice,
chemisorbed molecules do not desorb at low temperatures, experiments in ultra-high
vacuum conditions are possible on these monolayers. Chemisorption is significantly dif-
ferent from physisorption in that it is highly selective and can occur only between certain
adsorptive and adsorbent species. Chemisorption typically proceeds only as long as the
adsorptive can make direct contact with the surface; it is therefore a monolayer process, as
no multi-layers form. Exceptions can exist if the adsorptive is highly polar, NH3 being an
example. However, both physical and chemical adsorption may occur on an adsorbent
surface at the same time; a layer of molecules may be physically adsorbed on top of an
underlying chemisorbed layer. It is also possible for a gas to be physically adsorbed at first,
and then to react chemically more slowly with the surface of the solid. At low tempera-
 Solid Surfaces 291

tures, chemisorption may be so low that only physisorption occurs, but with the increase
in temperature and rise in kinetic energy of the adsorbate molecules, physisorption will
be very small and only chemisorption may occur. For example, at liquid nitrogen
temperature (77 K), the nitrogen gas is adsorbed physically on iron, but at 800 K, where the
energy level is too high for physisorption, nitrogen gas is adsorbed chemically to form iron
nitride.
In contrast to physisorption, chemisorption involves the formation of strong bonds
between adsorbate molecules at specific surface locations known as active sites. For a crys-
talline adsorbent, the strength of adsorption is usually dependent on which face is exposed.
Thus, chemisorption can be used primarily to quantitatively evaluate the number of surface
active sites, which are likely to promote (catalyze) chemical reactions. Static chemisorption
isotherms of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and oxygen give the active metal area of hetero-
geneous catalysts. In an analogous manner, the amount of acidic or basic sites on a sub-
strate is determined from the chemisorption of a basic or acidic gas, such as ammonia or
carbon dioxide, respectively. When chemisorption occurs, the molecular structure of the
substrate usually changes, and even surface reconstruction may occur on covalent or metal-
lic solids. Upon chemisorption onto a substrate surface, most of the translational, and often
the rotational degrees of freedom, are lost, and the order of the system increases, giving a
negative entropy change, ∆Sads. Since the constant temperature, T, is always positive, from
the thermodynamical expression (∆Gads = ∆Hads − T ∆Sads), it follows that ∆Hads has to be
negative (exothermic) for the chemisorption process to proceed spontaneously (∆Gads < 0).

8.3.3 Thermodynamics of gas adsorption on solids: relation with the Gibbs

adsorption equation

The amount of material to be adsorbed on a surface is described by the adsorption func-

tion, Gi = f(P,T), where Gi is the excess moles of the component, i, adsorbed at the interface
per unit area of an interphase. The value of Gi can be determined experimentally. Since it
largely depends on the temperature, keeping the temperature constant and measuring the
increase in the adsorbed amount by varying the adsorptive gas pressure gives a graph of G
versus P, which is called an adsorption isotherm. From these graphs, adsorption isotherm
equations such as the Langmuir, Freundlich and B.E.T. etc. are derived, depending on the
theoretical model used. (However, sometimes no analytical expression can adequately fit a
complicated experimental adsorption isotherm.)
The adsorption isotherms are related to the Gibbs adsorption equation given in Section
3.3.1. The Gibbs equation shows that the amount of any adsorbate (gas or liquid) on a
substrate is proportional to the variation of surface tension of the adsorbent with the
change in the chemical potential of the adsorbate [G2 = − (dg/dm2)T], as given by Equation
(226), where, G2 is the excess moles of the adsorbate that are adsorbed per unit area of the
interphase. We know that the chemical potential of the adsorbate is related to its activity,
a2, as given in Equation (169), in Section 3.2.1, so that we have (m2 = m*2 + RT ln a2), and
complete differentiation gives (dm2 = dm*2 + RT d ln a2) where the standard chemical poten-
tial of component 2, m*2, is a constant quantity giving, dm*2 = 0. Then, we obtain the [dm2 =
RT d ln a2] expression, and the Gibbs adsorption equation becomes [G2 = −(a2/RT)
(dg/da2)T], as given in Equation (227). For the adsorption of gases (or volatile vapors) on
292 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

solid adsorbents, the activities can be related to the partial gas pressures. If the gas (or
vapor) obeys the ideal gas laws, Equation (227) may be written [G2 = −(P2/RT) (dg/dP2)T]
as given by Equation (230), where P2 is the gas (or vapor) partial pressure. For gas–solid
adsorption, it is more convenient to use the n2S term which is the excess number of moles
of adsorbate on the surface (nS2 ≡ G2 AS), as given in Equation (223), to eliminate the surface
excess term, G. Then Equation (230) becomes
A S P2  dg 
n2S = − (597)
RT  dP2  T
After rearrangement, the variation of surface tension of the solid adsorbent by the partial
pressure of the adsorptive gas at a constant temperature can be expressed as
n2S RT
− dg = dP2 (598)
A S P2
Since most of the solid adsorbents are porous materials having a large surface area per
mass, it is convenient to relate the interfacial area, AS, with the weight of the adsorbent,
and we can define a new term, specific area, ASpec. (m2 kg−1), so that, (AS = ASpec. w) where
w is the weight of the adsorbent. Then, Equation (598) becomes
n 2S RT
−dg = d ln P2 (599)
A Spec.w
The term ASpec. is constant for a given adsorbent solid, and at equilibrium, the ratio of
(nS2/w) is a mathematical function of the P2 of the adsorbtive gas at a constant T. Thus, we
can integrate Equation (599) in the form
g P2
RT n2S
− ∫ dg = ∫ w d ln P 2 (600)
go
ASpec. 0

After integration of the left side of Equation (600) we have

P2
RT n2S
go −g =p =
ASpec. ∫ w d ln P 2 (601)
0

If the mathematical relation between the (n2S/w) and P2 terms is known for any adsorption
process, then Equation (601) can be integrated analytically, and it is possible to calculate
the two-dimensional surface pressure (or spreading pressure), p, of the adsorbate on the
solid adsorbent as a function of the fractional coverage.
Alternatively, if no mathematical relationship is known, Equation (601) can be converted
into a plot of adsorbate mass versus partial gas pressure, to apply a graphical integration.
The excess number of moles of adsorbate at the surface, nS2, can be written as (nS2 = mS2/Mw),
where mS2 is the mass (excess) of adsorbate at the surface, and Mw is the adsorbate molec-
ular mass. For simplicity, if we take the adsorbent mass as a constant value at w =
1 kg, then Equation (601) becomes
2 P
RT
p= ∫
ASpec.M w 0
m2S d ln P2 (602)

Then, the two-dimensional surface pressure, p, can be calculated by graphical integration

of a plot of mS2 versus ln P2.
 Solid Surfaces 293

If the nS2 or mS2 parameters are determined experimentally, then the corresponding molar
area, Amolar, (m2 kg-mol−1) occupied by a mole of adsorbate gas on the solid surface can be
calculated as
ASpec. ASpec.M w
Amolar = = (603)
n2S m2S

8.3.4 Experimental determination of adsorption isotherms

The extent of adsorption of gases onto solid surfaces can be determined experimentally
using a wide variety of apparatus and techniques, and the literature on this subject is exten-
sive. In general, measurements fall into one of two categories: either the volume of the gas
adsorbed is determined manometrically, or gravimetric methods are used, where the mass
adsorbed on the solid is determined directly.
Volumetric methods are more popular, their application at low temperatures greatly
increases the physiosorption amounts, and the measurements become much easier under
these conditions. Nitrogen gas adsorption at about −196°C (77 K) is commonly applied in
the surface area determination of adsorbents in the B.E.T. method (−196°C is the boiling
point of liquid N2 at atmospheric pressure, which is generally used to cool the adsorbent
sample). In the volumetric method, the adsorbent (usually in the form of a powder) is
placed into a bulb, and the bulb is evacuated. Then, the dead space which is the volume
of the bulb not occupied by the adsorbent is determined initially by introducing a non-
adsorbing (or weakly adsorbing) gas, such as helium, into the bulb at constant pressure and
temperature. Then the bulb is evacuated again to withdraw the helium gas. Next the adsorp-
tive gas, such as nitrogen, is admitted into the bulb at constant temperature and pressure.
When the system reaches equilibrium, the definitive pressure, P2, is measured. The volume
of the adsorptive gas minus the dead space gives the amount of gas adsorbed, and nS2 is cal-
culated from the volume difference by using the ideal gas law. Then, the pressure is further
increased and the volume experiment is repeated to determine the points in the isotherm.
In the gravimetric method, the adsorbent (usually in the form of powder) is placed into
a bulb, which is mounted on a sensitive balance and the bulb is then evacuated. Next, the
weight increase of the adsorbent solid as a function of the absorptive gas pressure is moni-
tored at constant temperature. More recently, the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) tech-
nique has been applied; this is very sensitive to mass increases. Quartz is a piezoelectric
material and the thin crystal can be excited to oscillate in a traverse shear mode at its reso-
nance frequency when a.c. voltage is applied across the metal (usually gold) electrodes,
which are layered on two faces of the crystal. When the mass on the crystal increases upon
adsorption, its resonance frequency decreases. The increase in the mass is calculated from
the reduction in resonance frequency. On the other hand, adsorption on single flat surfaces
can also be measured by ellipsometry, which measures the film thickness of transparent films
optically using the difference between light reflection from bare and adsorbed surfaces.
The total interfacial area, AS, must also be known in order to obtain the G2 values in
adsorption isotherms. The value of AS is generally calculated from the (AS = ASpec. w) expres-
sion, when ASpec. is known. Since nearly every solid surface has a roughness and porosity,
the evaluation of ASpec is generally difficult and requires special techniques. In most prac-
294 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

tical applications, the volumetric B.E.T. adsorption isotherm in the range of 0.05 < P/Po <
0.35 is determined for this purpose, mainly using nitrogen or argon gases as the adsorp-
tive. The B.E.T. adsorption equation, given in Section 8.3.8, is used to calculate the ASpec. of
the adsorbent. The Mercury intrusion porosimeter instrument can be used to determine the
pore distribution of the adsorbent if the pore sizes are larger than 3 nm and up to 360 µm
(but practically, a pore size of larger than 100 nm gives better results). Liquid mercury
does not wet most solid surfaces because of its very high surface tension of
486 mN m−1 giving contact angles larger than 90°, and it must be forced to enter a capil-
lary. Mercury is applied to a bulb filled with the adsorbent powder, and the volume of
mercury intruding into the sample as a function of the applied pressure is measured.
Washburn developed an expression to relate the pore diameter with the mercury pressure,
by assuming that the pore or capillary is cylindrical and the opening is circular in cross
section so that only pores whose radius
2g Hg cos q
r> (604)
P
are filled where, q, is the contact angle of the mercury drop on the so-called flat solid. In
other words, mercury under external pressure, P, can resist entry into pores smaller than
r, but cannot resist entry into pores larger than r. Then, one can determine which pore
sizes have been invaded by mercury and which sizes have not, for a particular pressure.
The volume of mercury moving into the sample can be measured by attaching a capillary
tube to the sample cup and allowing this tube to be the reservoir for the mercury during
the experiment. When the external pressure changes, the variation in the length of the
mercury column in the capillary indicates the volume passing into or out of the sample
cup. However, electronic detection of the rise and fall of mercury within the capillary is
much more sensitive, providing an even greater volume sensitivity down to less than a
microliter. A typical mercury intrusion porosimetry test involves placing a sample into a
container, evacuating the container to remove contaminant gases and vapors, and, while
still evacuated, allowing mercury to fill the container. Next, pressure is increased towards
room pressure while the volume of mercury entering larger openings in the sample bulk
is monitored. When the pressure has returned to ambient, pores of a diameter down to
about 12 nm have been filled. The sample container is then placed in a pressure vessel for
the remainder of the test. A maximum pressure of about 400 MPa is typical for commer-
cial instruments, which will force mercury into pores down to about 3 nm in diameter.
Mercury intrusion porosimetry gives the total pore volume and density of the adsorbent.
Since the reversible work of PdV is required to insert the mercury into a unit area of a solid
surface, this is equal to the work necessary to wet the solid surface. Thus, the entire surface
area wetted by mercury liquid can be expressed from surface thermodynamics as
P
1
g Hg cos q ∫0
Atotal = − PdV (605)

8.3.5 Types of adsorption isotherm

Physical and chemical adsorption and desorption isotherms are important in characteriz-
ing the overall adsorbent surface. The slightest change in the shape of the plotted isotherm
 Solid Surfaces 295

is indicative of a particular surface feature. There are various forms of adsorption isotherm,
which are normally plotted as the amount of adsorbate gas, mS2, or surface excess moles,
G2, or fractional coverage, qf, versus the equilibrium partial pressure of the adsorptive gas,
P2, or alternatively relative pressure (P2/P02), where P02 is the saturated vapor pressure at
constant temperature. In addition, mS2 is sometimes expressed as the mass per gram adsor-
bent (mS2/w) or moles per gram of adsorbent (nS2/w). (For adsorption from liquid solutions,
the solution concentration, c, is used in the abscissa, instead of P2.) It should be noted that
all the above adsorption isotherms can be plotted from the same experimental data and
the choice of the abscissa and ordinate parameters is arbitrary.
In the scientific literature, tens of thousands of experimental adsorption isotherms have
been published, but they all probably belong to one of the nine categories given in Figure
8.1. Type I isotherms rise sharply at low relative pressures and reach a plateau at
qf = 1. The shape is consistent with the formation of a monolayer upon which no further
adsorption takes place. As we will see in Section 8.3.7, the type I isotherm corresponds to
the Langmuir adsorption isotherm in which the plateau in the plot is characterized by
saturation at high gas pressures. This saturation may be due to the formation of an adsor-
bate monolayer. However, the Langmuir isotherm very often results from the adsorbent
being microporous with pores whose widths are less than 2 nm. In this case, the limiting
value of the adsorption is due to the filling of micropores rather than completion of
the monolayer. On the other hand, the Langmuir isotherm also describes the ideal
chemisorption where gas molecules are adsorbed chemically until the adsorbent surface
becomes saturated.

Γ qf = 1 Γ TYPE-II Γ
or or qf = 1 (B.E.T.) or TYPE-III
qf qf qf (B.E.T.)
TYPE-I
(LANGMUIR)

P/P° 1 P/P° 1 P/P° 1

Γ Γ Γ
or TYPE-IV or TYPE-V or
qf qf qf
(LINEAR)
(HENRY)

P/P° 1 P/P° 1 P/P° 1

Γ Γ Γ
or or or
qf qf qf
(HIGH AFFINITY)
(STEP)
(FREUNDLICH)

P/P° 1 P/P° 1 P/P° 1

Figure 8.1 Typical adsorption isotherm plots.

296 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

When physisorption is considered in gas–solid systems, monolayer formation is not very

common; instead, multi-layer adsorption is much more frequent, as shown in type II to V
isotherms. Both types II and III are derived from experiments on multi-layer adsorption
on non-porous solids (or solids with small macroporosity percentage), and both type IV
and V isotherms, from multi-layer adsorption on appreciably porous solids. Type II is very
frequently encountered as the B.E.T. multi-layer isotherm type for gas–solid adsorptions.
The first concave part is attributed to the adsorption of a monolayer, and when the gas
pressure is increased further, more layers adsorb on top of the first until many adsorbed
layers are ultimately formed with this process. Thus, it is possible to form macroscopically
thick layers in this type. Examples include N2 gas adsorption on non-porous or macrop-
orous powders such as carbons and oxides. Type III is a rare B.E.T. isotherm where the
binding of the first monolayer to the adsorbent is weaker than the binding of molecules
to already adsorbed molecules. Examples include H2O adsorption on graphitized carbon
or polyethylene polymer. The B.E.T. multi-layer adsorption isotherm equations will be
given in Section 8.3.8. Type II is similar to type IV, except that the latter tends to level off
at high relative pressures, and also the type III isotherm is similar to type V at low pres-
sures, and the latter tends to level off at high pressures. The Type IV isotherm is impor-
tant in the study of real catalysts and is used when adsorption hysteresis is present due to
the different rates of adsorption and desorption. Desorption from a porous substrate is not
as easy as adsorption as there is a high probability of readsorption during the desorption
process. The characteristic hysteresis loop of the type IV isotherm is indicative of small
mesopores which facilitate condensation. Industrial adsorbents and catalysts often show a
type IV isotherm.
The most basic isotherm is the linear increase in the amount of adsorbate with an
increase in adsorptive gas pressure, and this behavior is described by the Henry’s law limit
isotherm, which will be discussed in Section 8.3.6. The Freundlich type of adsorption
isotherm, whose equations will be given in Section 8.3.9, is also very common for hetero-
geneous surfaces. It gives an exponential concave curve with respect to the abscissa. In a
high-affinity adsorption isotherm, the molecules bind to the adsorbent very strongly so that
all the adsorptive molecules present bind the solid surface as adsorbate. This type is often
seen for polymer or protein adsorption from liquid solutions. The Step adsorption
isotherm is characterized by porous adsorbents with large pores. At low gas pressure,
a monolayer adsorbs similarly to the Langmuir adsorption; multi-layers then form at
moderate pressures and the pores are filled. Finally, saturation is seen at high gas pressures
due to the reduction of effective surface area after the pores have been filled by the adsor-
bate. Examples of step adsorption include noble-gas adsorption on well-defined uniform
solids, such as highly oriented pyrolytic graphite.

8.3.6 Ideal gas behavior: Henry’s law limit

For the simplest case, if (nS2/w) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the adsorp-
tive gas, P2, then we can write
n2S
= K H P2 (606)
w
 Solid Surfaces 297

where KH is a constant. Then, Equation (601) becomes

P2
RTK H
p=
ASpec. ∫ P d ln P
2 2 (607)
0

and upon integration we have

RTK H RT  n 2S  RTn 2S
p= P2 =  = = RT G 2 (608)
A Spec. A Spec.  w  AS
Equation (608) is exactly equal to Equation (433), given in Section 5.5.3 for the two-
dimensional perfect gas for liquid solution surfaces. Equation (608) relates p to the surface
excess and is called the surface equation of state. Similarly to Equation (436), we can write
S
[pAmolecule = kT] for gas–solid adsorption, where ASmolecule is the area available per adsorbate
molecule in the monolayer, and k is the Boltzmann constant (R = kNA). The adsorption
isotherm given by Equations (607) and (608) corresponds to the so-called Henry’s law limit,
in analogy with the Henry’s law equations that describe the vapor pressures of dilute solu-
tions. Equation (606) predicts a linear relation between mS2 (or fractional surface coverage,
qf, and adsorbate gas pressure, P2, as shown in the linear plot in Figure 8.1.

8.3.7 Langmuir adsorption isotherm

The Langmuir adsorption isotherm was developed by Irving Langmuir in 1916 from kinetic
considerations to describe the dependence of the surface fractional coverage of an adsorbed
gas on the pressure of the same gas above the adsorbent surface at a constant temperature.
The Langmuir isotherm expression was re-derived thermodynamically by Volmer and sta-
tistically mechanically by Fowler. In his original treatment, Langmuir made several assump-
tions for his model:
1 Adsorption occurs on specific sites on the adsorbent and all sites are identical.
2 The interaction energy of adsorption is independent of how many of the surrounding
sites are occupied.
3 Only one adsorbate occupies each site, and once a monolayer is deposited, occupying all
the sites on the adsorbent, the adsorption ceases.
However, all of these assumptions were found to be considerably wrong following recent
chemisorption studies performed on crystals and catalysts using advanced instruments. In
addition, the Langmuir model does not consider the ordering of the adsorbate layer and
its restructuring as it is deposited on the surface. However, Langmuir’s model still provides
a useful insight into the pressure dependence of the extent of surface adsorption, despite
its limitations as a theory, because it contains all the required parameters to provide a very
good first approximation.
The equilibrium that may exist between the gas adsorbed on a surface and the adsorptive
molecules in the gas phase is a dynamic state, i.e. the equilibrium represents a state in which
the rate of adsorption of molecules onto the surface is exactly counterbalanced by the rate
of desorption of molecules back into the gas phase. For the derivation of his model, Lang-
muir used the fact that the rate of adsorption is equal to the rate of desorption during equi-
librium, since otherwise the number of adsorbed molecules would change. Initially, an
298 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

adsorbent has a total number of adsorption sites on the surface, Vtotal (mol m2). During the
adsorption process, when the number of, Voccup, sites are occupied with the adsorbate, then
only Vvacant sites are vacant (Vvacant = Vtotal − Voccup). Langmuir assumed that the adsorption rate
is proportional to the number of vacant sites and the pressure of the adsorptive gas:
Rate of adsorption = kadP2Vvacant (609)
−1 −1
where kad is the adsorption rate constant (s Pa ). However, the desorption rate is only pro-
portional to the number of occupied sites,
Rate of desorption = kdesVoccup (610)
−1
where kdes is the adsorption rate constant (s ). When equilibrium is reached, the rate of
adsorption is equal to the rate of desorption so that
kdesVoccup = kadP2Vvacant = kadP2(Vtotal − Voccup) (611)

After rearrangement, we have

Voccup kad P2
= (612)
Vtotal kdes + kad P2
However, (V occup/V total) is equal to qf, from the definition of fractional coverage given in
Equation (596). If we denote a constant, b, as the ratio of the rate constants (b = kad/kdes),
then Equation (612) becomes
bP2
qf = (613)
1 + bP2
where b is called the Langmuir isotherm constant (Pa−1). Two extreme cases are possible:
1 At low pressures, (bP2 << 1), and Equation (613) gives qf ≈ bP2, which corresponds to
Henry’s law limit case, and the adsorption isotherm is linear.
2 At high pressures, (1 << bP2), and Equation (613) reduces to qf ≈ 1, which corresponds
to the asymptotic region of the type I curve in Figure 8.1.
Since we cannot directly measure the fraction of coverage experimentally, we need to cal-
culate this term from the adsorbed amounts, or moles so that
n2S N As o n2S N As o
qf = = (614)
AS ASpec.w
where s o is the surface area per adsorbate molecule and NA is Avogadro’s number. Alter-
natively, since (qf = Γ/Γmono), Equation (613) can be expressed as
G monobP2
G= (615)
1 + bP2
where Gmono is the number of adsorbed moles per gram or per unit area of the adsorbent
when all binding sites are occupied by a monolayer.
If the experimental adsorption isotherm results are obtained from volumetric measure-
ments, then qf is usually calculated from the ratio of the volume of the gas adsorbed, V, to
the volume of the gas needed to produce a coverage of one monolayer, Vm (qf = V/Vm).
From Equation (613) we can write
 Solid Surfaces 299

VmbP2
V= (616)
1 + bP2
After rearrangement, Equation (616) turns into a linear expression
P2 P2 1
= + (617)
V Vm bVm
and a plot of (P2/V) against the gas pressure, P2, will give a straight line of slope (1/Vm)
and intercept (1/bVm). This will allow the determination of the b and Vm constants from
the same isotherm.
The Langmuir isotherm equation can also be derived from the formal adsorption and
desorption rate equations derived from chemical reaction kinetics. In Section 3.2.2, we see
that the mass of molecules that strikes 1 m2 in one second can be calculated using Equa-
tion (186), by applying the kinetic theory of gases as [dm/dt = P2 (Mw/2pRT)1/2], where P2
is the vapor pressure of the gas in (Pa), Mw is the molecular mass in (kg mol−1), T is the
absolute temperature in Kelvin, R is the gas constant 8.3144 (m−3 Pa mol-K−1). If we
consider the mass of a single molecule, mw (kg molecule−1), (m = Nmw), where N is the
number of molecules, by considering the fact that (R = kNA), where k is the Boltzmann
constant, and (Mw = NAmw), we can calculate the molecular collision rate per unit area
(1 m2) from Equation (186) so that
dN P2
= (618)
dt (2pmw kT )1 2
If adsorption is assumed to be similar to a reversible chemical reaction, such as [Xgas +
Surface ↔ Xads-Surface], then from statistical mechanics, we can write for the rate of
adsorption,

Rate of adsorption = 
dN 
(1 − q f ) exp − ads 
U
(619)
 dt  RT
Since, (1 − qf) = (Vvacant/Vtotal), this term in Equation (619) gives the probability of hitting
a vacant site, and the final part of the equation is the standard Boltzmann factor in the rate
equation, considering the adsorption activation energy, Uads. Similarly, we can write for the
rate of desorption

Rate of desorption = q f N Su des exp − des 

U
(620)
 RT 
where NS is the concentration of surface sites per unit area, udes is the frequency factor, and
Udes is the activation energy for desorption. If the rates of adsorption and desorption are
equated and the expression is rearranged, we have
P2 (1 − q f ) U − U ads 
qf = exp des (621)
(2pmw kT )1 2 N Su des  RT 
If we define the Langmuir isotherm constant, b, in kinetic terms as
U des − U ads 
exp
 RT 
b≡ (622)
(2pmw kT )1 2 N Su des
300 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

then Equation (622) reduces to

qf = bP2(1 − qf) (623)

which simplifies to the Langmuir isotherm equation [Equation (613)] again. The value of
the Langmuir constant, b, is increased by a reduction in the isotherm temperature, or an
increase in the strength of adsorption, which can be expressed by ∆Hads. In practice, a given
equilibrium surface coverage may be attainable at various combinations of pressure and
temperature so that, when the temperature is lowered, the pressure required to achieve a
particular equilibrium surface coverage decreases.
Some molecules are dissociated upon adsorption, and this type of adsorption is called
dissociative adsorption. The adsorption reaction can be shown as [(XY)gas + 2 Surface ↔
Xads-Surface + Yads-Surface], and the Langmuir adsorption expression must be modified
because two sites on the adsorbent are consumed per adsorbate molecule. The probability
of desorption is also different. When these differences are considered, the Langmuir
adsorption equation for the dissociative adsorption becomes

qf =
(b / P2 )1 2 (624)
1 + (b / P2 )
12

8.3.8 B.E.T. multi-layer adsorption isotherm

Physisorption arises from the van der Waals forces, and these forces also condense gas
molecules into their liquid state. Thus, in principle, there is no reason to stop upon
completion of a monolayer during physisorption. Indeed, the formation of multi-layers,
which are basically liquid in nature, is very common in physisorption experiments.
Brunauer, Emmett and Teller developed a theory in 1938 to describe physisorption, where
the adsorbate thickness exceeds a monolayer, and this isotherm equation is known by the
initials of the authors (B.E.T.). The original derivation of the B.E.T. equation is an exten-
sion of Langmuir’s treatment of monolayer adsorption from kinetic arguments. Later, in
1946, Hill derived this equation from statistical mechanics. In the B.E.T. isotherm, it is
assumed that:
1 Adsorbate molecules stay in their locations after adsorption.
2 Each first layer molecule acts as a potential adsorption site for a second layer molecule,
which in turn acts as a site for a third layer molecule and so on.
3 Energy of adsorption is the same for all layers, other than the first.
4 The molecules in the first layer have different potential energies due to the effect of solid
surface molecules, U1 = Uads = −Udes.
5 The molecules in the second and higher layers have the same potential energy as in the
bulk liquid, U2 = Un = Ucon = Uvap.
6 The layers do not interact with each other energetically.
7 A new layer can start before another is completely finished.
8 At equilibrium, the rates of condensation and evaporation are the same for each indi-
vidual layer.
The general form of the B.E.T. equation is given as
 Solid Surfaces 301

NS V C ( P2 P2o )
qf = = = (625)
N tot Vm [1 − ( P2 P2o )] [1 + ( P2 P2o ) (C − 1)]
where NS is the number of adsorbate molecules per unit area on the solid substrate and
Ntot is the total number of adsorbate molecules per unit area to produce one complete
monolayer on the substrate surface, as given in Equation (596), and C is a constant:
f1(T )  ∆U ads(1) − ∆U vap   ∆H ads(1) − ∆H vap 
C= exp ≈ exp (626)
f vap(T )  RT   RT 

Large values of C show a large difference in heat of adsorption between the first and sub-
sequent layers. When C becomes large, the isotherm increasingly resembles the Langmuir
adsorption isotherm. For volumetric adsorption measurements, Equation (625) can be
rearranged in a linear form
P2
=
1
+
(C − 1)  P2  (627)
V ( P2o − P2 ) VmC VmC  P2o 

and a plot of P2/V(Po2 − P2) against the reduced gas pressure (P2/Po2) will give a straight
line of slope (C − 1/Vm C) and intercept (1/Vm C). This will allow the determination of the
C and Vm constants from the same isotherm.
Some criticism can be made of the assumptions of the B.E.T. adsorption model. If the
second and other layers are assumed to be in the liquid state, how can localized adsorp-
tion take place on these layers? Also, the assumption that the stacks of molecules do not
interact energetically seems to be unrealistic. In spite of these theoretical weaknesses, the
B.E.T. adsorption expression is very useful for qualitative application to type II and III
isotherms. the B.E.T equation is very widely used in the estimation of specific surface areas
of solids. The surface area of the adsorbent is estimated from the value of Vm. The most
commonly used adsorbate in this method for area determination is nitrogen at 77 K. The
knee in the type II isotherm is assumed to correspond to the completion of a monolayer.
In the most strict sense, the cross-sectional area of an adsorption site, rather than that of
the adsorbate molecule, ought to be used, but the former is an unknown quantity; however,
this fact does not prevent the B.E.T. expression from being useful for the evaluation of
surface areas of adsorbents.
Many adsorbents are porous, and porosity increases the surface area and provides spaces
where adsorbate molecules may condense. However, the presence of porosity makes
the treatment of the adsorption process more complex, because adsorption in small
pores is preferred over that on plane surfaces. The reason is capillary condensation, which
we have seen in Sections 4.7 and 4.8, whereby the pores are filled with the liquid at
pressures less than Po2 due to the strong attraction between condensed molecules. Pores
having a width of less than 2 nm are classified as micropores, 2–50 nm as mesopores, and
greater than 50 nm as macropores. It is generally realized that the adsorption isotherm is
not coincident with the desorption isotherm, and this phenomenon is called adsorption
hysteresis.
In the B.E.T. treatment, there is no restriction on the number of adsorbate layers
that can be adsorbed on a flat surface. However, when pores are present, the number
of adsorbed layers is clearly restricted. Brunauer modified the B.E.T. equation in 1944
so that
302 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

V
=
[
C ( P2 P2o ) 1 − (n + 1) ( P2 P2 ) + n ( P2 P2 )
o n o n +1
] (628)
[
Vm [1 − ( P2 P2 )] 1 + ( P2 P2o ) (C − 1) − C ( P2 P2o )n +1
o
]
where n is the maximum number of adsorbate layers that can be accommodated on each
of the walls of a hypothetical capillary having two parallel plane walls. When n = 1, Equa-
tion (628) reduces to the Langmuir equation, and when n = ∞, the standard B.E.T. equa-
tion results. Equation (628) gives a good fit for the (P2/Po2) > 0.35 part of the isotherm, but
it is not suitable for type IV and V isotherms because it does not consider the capillary
condensation effects within the pores.
In spite of its limitations, the linear standard B.E.T. equation (Equation 627) is widely
used to determine the surface areas of adsorbents. Specific surface area is often correlated
with rates of dissolution and other rate-related phenomena, such as catalyst activity, elec-
trostatic properties of powders, light scattering, opacity, sintering properties, glazing, mois-
ture retention, shelf-life and many other properties that can influence the processing and
behavior of powders and porous solids in industry. Therefore, surface area measurement
is probably the most widely used means of characterizing porous materials. Since the
surface area corresponds to the roughness of the particle exterior and its porous interior,
gas adsorption is the preferred technique.

8.3.9 Other adsorption isotherms

There are many other types of isotherm, and some of the important types will be given in
this section. On some surfaces, the Langmuir assumptions of independent and equal energy
surface sites are not valid, and the isotherm deviates considerably from the Langmuir
isotherm. Two or more sites having different adsorption energies may exist on such sur-
faces, and selective adsorption takes place where the energetically more favorable sites are
occupied initially. Thus, heat of adsorption varies as a function of fractional coverage. Two
important isotherms are applied for such cases:

Freundlich adsorption isotherm

This is one of the oldest empirical adsorption isotherms, developed by Freundlich in 1907.
It is useful for adsorption from liquid solutions and also for chemisorption isotherms.
NS V
qf = = = K F P21 n (629)
N tot Vm
where KF and n are two empirical constants and n > 1. The enthalpy of adsorption is
assumed to vary logarithmically with fractional coverage, qf, for values in the range 0.2–0.8.
In the Freundlich adsorption isotherm, no monolayer formation (complete coverage)
occurs. The isotherm does not become linear at low pressures, but remains convex to the
pressure axis. When we write Equation (629) in logarithmic form, we have
1
ln V = ln(Vm K F ) + ln P2 (630)
n
 Solid Surfaces 303

A plot of ln V versus ln P2 gives a line with slope 1/n of the intensity of the adsorption,
and the intercept (VmKF) gives a measure of adsorbent capacity.

Temkin adsorption isotherm

This empirical adsorption isotherm is useful for the chemisorption experiments where a
monolayer forms, and it considers that all sites are not energetically equivalent. The
enthalpy of adsorption is assumed to vary linearly with the fractional coverage
q = KT ln (nP2) (631)

where KT and n are two empirical constants. This is useful for fitting the middle region of
chemisorption isotherms.

8.3.10 Heat of adsorption

The heat evolved during an exothermic adsorption process can be measured calorimetri-
cally, under constant volume or pressure conditions, when a known amount of gas is
allowed to adsorb onto a clean adsorbent. The heat of adsorption is made up of two con-
tributions: (1) the heat arises from interaction of the adsorbate molecules with the adsor-
bent surface, and (2) the heat arises from lateral interactions between adsorbate molecules.
The second heat source is small and is often neglected so that only adsorbate–adsorbent
interactions are considered when the heat of adsorption of the homogenous and hetero-
geneous surfaces is investigated. A homogenous surface is energetically uniform and the heat
of adsorption is independent of the fraction of the surface covered. A heterogeneous surface
is energetically non-uniform and the heat of adsorption varies with the area fraction of
surface covered. Liquid surfaces are fluid and consequently homogenous since any non-
uniformity is very short-lived. Solid surface molecules have no fluidity and mostly give het-
erogeneous surfaces, and the slightest presence of homogeneity can cause considerable
changes in adsorption properties.
Since, the heat of adsorption is dependent on the fractional coverage, its calculation from
thermodynamics is a complex matter. In this section, we will only derive some basic para-
meters. When equilibrium is reached between the adsorbate and adsorptive gas molecules,
the reversible free energy change of adsorbed gas molecules on the solid (adsorbate), dGads,
is equal to the non-adsorbed gas molecules (adsorptive), dGg in the medium. Then, we may
write from Equation (126), given in Section 3.1.1, for a total number of moles of gas and
unit area of adsorbent
−SgdT + VgdP2 = −SadsdT + Vad dP2 (632)

After rearrangement we have

 ∂P2  Sg − Sads
= (633)
 ∂T  n S , AS Vg − Vads
2

Since, Vg >> Vads, and if we assume ideal gas conditions, that is [Vg = RT/P2], then Equa-
tion (633) becomes
304 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

 ∂ ln P2  Sg − Sads
= (634)
 ∂T  n S , AS RT
2

When we write nS2 is a constant in Equation (634), we mean a constant fractional cover-
age, qf, because the number of moles of adsorbed gas is constant. This is called isosteric,
which means the same coverage. If the process is reversible, we may write the entropy dif-
ference from thermodynamics as

Qst
Sg − Sads = (635)
T

where Qst is the isosteric heat of adsorption. Under constant pressure, Qst = −∆Hst where ∆Hst
is the isosteric enthalpy of adsorption, and Equation (634) becomes

 ∂ ln P2  =−
∆H st
(636)
 ∂T  n S , AS RT 2
2

Upon integration we have

∆H st  1 
ln P2 = + Integral constant (637)
R T

and the slope of the plot of (ln P2) versus (1/T) gives the isosteric enthalpy of adsorption,
∆Hst. For this purpose, adsorption isotherms taken at various temperatures are plotted on
the same graph, and an arbitrarily chosen horizontal line representing the same surface
fractional coverage in this graph cuts the isotherms at different pressures. Then, this isos-
teric temperature–pressure data is used to plot a new (ln P2) versus (1/T) graph to deter-
mine the ∆Hst parameter from Equation (637). This method is applicable only when the
adsorption process is thermodynamically reversible.
On the other hand, two more heats of adsorption are also in use in adsorption science:
the integral heat of adsorption, Qi, is an experimentally found quantity from constant
volume calorimeter measurements, using the simple expression

 Qtotal 
Qi = (638)
 n2S  V

where Qtotal is the total heat evolved during adsorption; Qi, is also fractional coverage
dependent. Lastly, the so-called differential heat of adsorption, Qdif, is defined as

Qdif = Qst − RT (639)

The experimental determination of the isosteric enthalpy of adsorption is important in

distinguishing between physisorption and chemisorption on solids. As given above, ∆Hads
is low, typically in the region −10 to −40 kJ mol−1, and is slightly larger than the latent heat
of condensation, ∆Hvap of the adsorptive molecules in physisorption. On the other hand,
the adsorption heats are much higher than the physisorption, and ∆Hads is in the range
−40 to −1000 kJ mol−1 (typically in the range −100 to −400 kJ mol−1) in chemisorption, due
to chemical bond formation.
 Solid Surfaces 305

8.4 Catalytic Activity at Surfaces

In the chemical and petroleum industries, solid catalysts are used to promote and
control a wide variety of chemical reactions. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate
of a chemical reaction without being consumed. A catalyst can increase the rate of a
chemical reaction when the reaction approaches equilibrium, but it cannot induce a reac-
tion that is not permissible under the laws of thermodynamics. Catalysts are also impor-
tant in providing a useful distribution of products in complex chemical reactions. The
adsorption of molecules (mostly chemisorption) on to a surface is required in any surface-
mediated chemical process. As we have seen in Section 8.3, an adsorbate may rearrange, or
fragment on the surface, or desorb. However, it is also possible for the adsorbate to react
with other molecules that are co-adsorbed on the surface. When such a reaction happens,
the adsorption characteristics of the product are also very important because, if it binds
strongly to the surface, it cannot be desorbed, and thus, the catalyzed reaction stops. In
general, a continuously cycling surface catalyzed reaction can be broken down into a short
sequence of steps as follows. If we consider reactant molecules, A and B in the gaseous bulk
above a solid surface that supports an ensemble of active sites S, there may be five steps:
1 diffusion of adsorptive reactants to the active site on the solid surface;
2 adsorption of one or more reactants (adsorbates) onto the surface: if molecule
A is chemically adsorbed onto one of the active sites, a surface complex (S–A) is
formed;
3 surface reaction: A reacts with B forming molecule (A + B);
4 desorption of products from the surface: (A + B) escapes the site, thus regenerating site
S;
5 diffusion of products away from the surface.
The above scheme shows the importance of both adsorption and desorption processes.
Adsorption of at least one of the reactant molecules is required for catalysis to occur. If the
accelerated rate of reaction is simply due to the concentration of molecules at the surface,
catalysis may result from physisorption of the reactants. On the other hand, chemisorp-
tion can be used primarily to quantitatively evaluate the number of surface active sites,
which are likely to promote (catalyze) chemical reactions. Chemisorption analyses are
applied to physically characterize a catalyst material, to determine a catalyst’s relative effi-
ciency in promoting a particular reaction, to study catalyst poisoning, and in monitoring
the degradation of catalytic activity over time of use.
The performance of a catalyst depends on several variables. First, adsorption sites must
be both numerous and available to the reactant molecules. If they are not available, they
cannot be used as a catalyst. For example, some potential adsorption sites may be located
deep within a micropore that is too narrow for the reactant molecule to enter, or for the
reaction product to exit; in this case the surface site cannot be an active participant in
chemisorption. Alternatively, a site could be located along a tortuous path that impedes
the efficient flow of reactants towards the active site and products away from the site. Cat-
alytic activity depends on how rapidly chemisorption occurs and the strength (energy) of
the chemisorption bond. If the bond is too weak, the molecule may desorb prior to react-
ing; if it is too strong, the release of the product and regeneration of the site may be
306 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

retarded. Isothermal chemisorption methods, as well as temperature-programmed

chemisorption methods, can be used to study surface energy distribution. Another impor-
tant design criterion is to maximize the number of active sites per unit of catalyst.
There is a problem in the investigation of catalysts. The chemisorption experiments
carried out in laboratories are performed under high vacuum, whereas the real
catalysts work under high pressure to catalyze chemical reactions; this may well result
in different behavior. Recently, high-pressure adsorption cells and instruments using
photons to probe species have been developed to examine catalysts in their original
conditions.
Heterogeneous catalysts include metals, metal oxides and solid acids. Pure metals may
be directly employed as solid catalysts, or alternatively they may be dispersed as small grains
on the surface of supporting oxides such as TiO2, ZrO2, Al2O3, or SiO2. One type of unsup-
ported catalyst is composed of Raney metal catalysts, which are prepared by dissolving an
aluminum–nickel alloy in a solution of sodium hydroxide, which dissolves the aluminum
component. The end product is a highly porous active metal sponge, all other undesirable
materials having been removed. Some metal oxides are fused or sintered with promoters
to form a network of pores throughout the metal mass. For example, the iron catalyst,
which is used in ammonia synthesis, is prepared in this way. Similarly, cobalt catalysts are
used in the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons from CO and H2; platinum cata-
lysts are used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils; platinum–palladium catalysts are used
in the oxidation of hydrocarbons; and platinum–rhodium catalysts are used in the oxida-
tion of NH3 to HNO3.
Zeolites are hydrated alumino-silicates and are used widely in the chemical and envi-
ronmental industries. Their activity is influenced by the ratio of silica to aluminum. Amor-
phous silica–alumina catalysts have a lower activity than zeolitic catalysts and are used in
mild hydrocracking reactions where acidic surfaces are required. The acidity is maintained
by oxygen atoms attached to the aluminum atoms.
On the other hand, the preparation of a supported catalyst involves selecting precursors
of the active components and any necessary promoters, and mixing them in a solvent. Then
an inert carrier is coated with this mixture and the active metal or precursor is dispersed
on the carrier. The product is dried, mixed with a binder then ground, pelletized, extruded,
or otherwise shaped. Finally, the material is calcined and activated by oxidation, reduction,
or other means.
The investigation of reaction performance and selectivity of catalysts is a very
wide subject, both theoretically and experimentally, and is beyond the scope of this
book.

References
1. Adam, N.K. (1968). The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
2. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973). An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
4. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
 Solid Surfaces 307

5. Butt, H.J., Graf, K. and Kappl, M. (2003). Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.
6. McCash, E. M. (2001). Surface Chemistry. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
7. Attard, G. and Barnes, C. (1998). Surfaces. Oxford Science Publications, Oxford.
Chapter 9
Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids

9.1 Definition, Young’s Equation and Use of Contact

Angles in Industry
9.1.1 Theory of contact angles

The surface tension of solids, especially polymers with a low surface free energy cannot be
measured directly because of the elastic and viscous restraints of the bulk phase, which
necessitates the use of indirect methods. As we have seen in Chapter 8, the mobility of the
surface molecules in a solid is exceedingly low when compared with any liquid, and a solid
surface does not usually display those faces demanded by the macroscopic minimizing of
surface free energy. Most solids are incapable of adjusting to such equilibrium conforma-
tions and in practice their surface structure will be largely a frozen-in record of an arbi-
trary past history, where some imperfections, humps and cracks are present. Thus, the laws
of capillarity of liquids cannot be applied to solids. The only general method is the rather
empirical method of estimating the solid surface tension from that of the contacting liquid.
If we consider a liquid drop resting on a solid surface as shown in Figure 9.1, the drop is
in equilibrium by balancing three forces, namely, the interfacial tensions between solid and
liquid, SL; between solid and vapor, SV; and between liquid and vapor, LV. The contact
angle, q, is the angle formed by a liquid drop at the three-phase boundary where a liquid,
gas and solid intersect, and it is included between the tangent plane to the surface of the
liquid and the tangent plane to the surface of the solid, at the point of intersection. The
contact angle is a quantitative measure of the wetting of a solid by a liquid. Unless it is very
volatile, any liquid (including liquid metals such as mercury) having a low viscosity can be
used as the liquid of the drop. Low values of q indicate a strong liquid–solid interaction
such that the liquid tends to spread on the solid, or wets well, while high q values indicate
weak interaction and poor wetting. If q is less than 90°, then the liquid is said to wet (or
sometimes partially wet) the solid. A zero contact angle represents complete wetting. If q is
greater than 90°, then it is said to be non-wetting. From a microscopic point of view, if the
solid has a low-energy surface, it attracts the molecules of the liquid with less force than
the liquid molecules attract one another. Therefore, the molecules in the liquid next to the
surface have a weaker force field than in the liquid surface, so that the liquid molecules at
the interface are pulled more strongly into the bulk of the liquid than they are by the solid.
There is a tension in the layer adjacent to the solid, and the liquid molecules are somewhat
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 309

g LV

GAS OR VAPOR

LIQUID
q
g SV g SL

SOLID

–g LV sin q

Figure 9.1 Vectorial equilibrium for a drop of a liquid resting on a solid surface to balance three forces,
namely, the interfacial tensions, between solid and liquid, gSL, that between solid and vapor, gSV, and that
between liquid and vapor, gLV, resulting in Young’s equation: (gSV = gSL + gLV cos q), where q is the contact
angle. The down component of the vector forces (−g LV sin q) is also shown.

separated, owing to the one-sided force field. The situation is analogous to the behavior of
a drop of one liquid on another immiscible liquid, the drop liquid having a higher surface
tension than that of the lower liquid (but not equivalent because of the mobility of surface
molecules at the interphase region between two immiscible liquids).
T. Young was the first to describe contact angle equilibrium, in 1805. The vectorial sum-
mation of forces at the three-phase intersection point (the so-called three-phase contact
point) gives
gSV = gSL + gLV cos q (640)

where g is the surface tension (or surface free energy) term. If [gSV > (gSL + gLV)] which
shows the presence of a high surface energy solid, then Young’s equation indicates (cos q
= 1), corresponding to (q = 0), which means the complete spreading of the liquid on this
solid. On the other hand, in order to complete the resolution of vector forces about the
three-phase contact point, an up component (gLV sin q) should be present, as shown in
Figure 9.1. This force is balanced with a (−gLV sin q) force that corresponds to the strain
field on the surface of the solid. It is shown that this strain causes the formation of micro-
humps on the surface of some soft polymers when a strongly interacting liquid drop (giving
low q values) sits on them.
It is also possible to derive the Young’s equation from thermodynamical considerations.
The displacement of the contacting liquid is such that the change in area of a solid covered,
∆A, results in the change in surface free energy:
∆G = ∆A(gSL − gSV) + ∆AgLV cos (q − ∆q) (641)
310 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

At equilibrium, when the interfacial area goes to zero at the limit

∆G
lim ∆A→0 =0 (642)
∆A
The (∆q/∆A) term behaves as a second-order differential and drops out in taking the limit
of ∆A → 0, so one obtains from Equation (641)
gSL − gSV + gLV cos q = 0 (643)
Equation (643) is identical to Young’s equation, as given by Equation (640).
a
In Sections 5.6.1 and 7.5, we defined the work of adhesion, [W 12 = −∆G12 a
] as the reversible
work at constant pressure and temperature conditions, per unit area, required to separate
a column of two different liquids (or solids) at the interface creating two new equilibrium
surfaces of two pure materials, and separating them to infinite distance. In terms of surface
tension, the work of adhesion can be written as [W 12 a
= g1 + g2 − g12], as given by Equation
(458). For a solid–liquid interaction, we may rewrite Equation (458) as
−∆GSL
a
= W SL
a
= gSV + gLV − gSL (644)
Dupré, in 1869, combined Equations (640) and (644) to give the Young–Dupré equation:
−∆G SL
a
= W SL
a
= gSV(1 + cos q) (645)
Equation (645) shows that contact angle is a thermodynamic quantity, which can be related
to the work of adhesion and interfacial free energy terms. When q values are small, the
work of adhesion is high and considerable energy must be spent to separate the solid from
the liquid. If q = 0°, then W aSL = 2gLV; if q = 90°, then W aSL = gLV, and if q = 180°, then
W aSL = 0, which means that no work needs to be done to separate a completely spherical
mercury drop from a solid surface (or a water drop from a superhydrophobic polymer
surface), and indeed these drops roll down very easily even with a 1° inclination angle of
the flat substrate.
Later, in 1937, Bangham and Razouk showed that the gSV and gLV terms in Young’s equa-
tion are related to the g oS and g oL of the pure solid and liquid phases (the components in
contact with vacuum) at equilibrium, by the expression
g oS − gSV ≡ pSV (646)
g oL − gLV ≡ pLV (647)
where, pSV is the equilibrium film (or spreading) pressure of the vapor (or gas) adsorbate on
the solid, and pLV is the equilibrium film pressure of the gas or vapor adsorbate on the liquid
(p can only be zero or positive, see Section 5.5). If the solid is appreciably soluble in the
drop liquid, then the pLV term must be taken into account because any gas or vapor adsorp-
tion at the liquid–vapor interface is controlled thermodynamically by the activity of the
solute. Nevertheless, since the solubility of a solid is generally very low in the contacting
liquid drop, it is usual to ignore the pLV term and assume that (g oL = gLV). On the other hand,
pSV is the film pressure of the liquid vapor on the solid and it must be considered during
contact angle measurements, especially on high-energy surfaces. The pSV term arises from
the liquid molecules evaporating and then condensing and adsorbing onto the solid next
to the liquid drop during contact angle measurement, thus creating a tiny layer of liquid
film of unknown thickness on the solid. Then, Young’s equation can be modified as
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 311

g oS − pSV = gSL + gLV cos q (648)

By rearrangement one obtains

g oS − gSL = gLV cos q + pSV (649)

The (g oS − gSL) term can be determined experimentally from contact angle and adsorption
measurements, but unfortunately there is no straightforward method to determine the (g oS)
and (gSL) terms independently. There is some dispute about the presence of pSV during
contact angle measurements: Fowkes and Good proposed that pSV is negligible in cases
of a finite contact angle on low-surface-energy solids such as polymers. In contrast, some
researchers have reported several experimental pSV values for low-energy polymer surfaces.
Generally, pSV is assumed to be at monolayer or lower coverage for a liquid whose contact
angle is less than 90° on high-surface-energy solids, and its value may be determined
by the Gibbs integral method, in which the adsorption of the vapor of the liquid, G, is
measured by ellipsometry (see Section 8) and using the expression,
Past
p SV = RT ∫ G ( P )d ln P (650)
0

Equation (650) is equivalent to Equation (434), given in Section 5.5.3, and Equations (598)
and (601) given in Section 8.3.3.

9.1.2 Industrial applications of contact angles

Measurement of contact angles provides a better understanding of the interactions between

solids and liquids, or between immiscible liquids. Although it is a difficult task to measure
the contact angle properly on solids, a large body of reliable data has been accumulated
and a vast literature exists correlating contact angle data with surface tension of solids. The
interactions between solids and liquids play a key role in understanding the chemical and
physical processes in many industries. The adhesion between different composite struc-
tures (glass–metal, leather–fabric, wood–paper) and the wetting of adhesive on a substrate
can be accessed by contact angle measurements. The determination of q is very important
in the paints and coatings industries. The motivation for new preparation methods is to
obtain long-lasting adhesion between the coating and substrate surfaces (paper, metal,
wood, plastic etc.), and in the automotive and building industries, there is the requirement
to optimize the interfacial tension and to measure the strength of interaction, by the use
of contact angles. The effectiveness of the coating formulation and the coating process,
for example a car body coating, can be accessed by measuring the hydrophobicity (i.e. the
contact angle) of the lacquer surface. The advent of new, environmentally friendly water-
based coatings and inks started new research in the paper industry to improve ink per-
formance. Adhesion of inks to polymeric food packaging film products also benefits from
surface chemistry. As an example, all the materials involved in an offset printing process
need to have a certain surface free energy in order to attain optimum printing quality, so
contact angle measurements are required at many steps in the printing process. On the
other hand, composite materials made of reinforcing fibers and polymeric (resin) matrix
systems have replaced many of the traditional metals and other heavier and weaker mate-
312 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

rials, and have begun to be used in a wide range of products in the aerospace, automotive
and sporting goods industries. Using contact angle measurements, it is possible to opti-
mize the adhesion between the fiber and resin matrix system, and to find the right for-
mulation of the resin matrix with proper wetting properties against the fiber. In the textiles
industry, everything from carpet fibers to surgical gowns involves surface treatments such
as anti-static or anti-stain coatings applied to the textile material to provide protection.
The wettability of single fibers or fabrics as well as their hydrophobicity and washability
can be checked by contact angle measurements.
The medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries also use contact angle measure-
ments in their research and quality control laboratories. Biocompatibility is an important
issue in the medical and dental industries. Surface-modified biomaterials are being
employed to create disposable contact lenses, catheters, dental prosthetics and body im-
plants; however they must be biocompatible, that is, they should not be rejected by the
human body. In the case of dental surgery, good adhesion between the tooth and embod-
iment is required. Thus, contact angle measurements are necessary in all wettability and
biocompatibility studies. The effectiveness of the cleaning solution formulation for contact
lenses can be improved by optimizing the surface free energy of the lens and the solution.
On the other hand, applying special surface treatments can largely influence the distribu-
tion and dissolving behavior of a pharmaceutical powder. The dissolving behavior of an
orally ingested pharmaceutical powder, tablet or capsule, or transdermally applied con-
trolled-release drug product can be improved with the help of contact angle and surface
tension measurements. In the cosmetics industry, the effectiveness of shampoos, cleaning
solutions, suntans, body creams and lotions can be followed by measuring the contact
angle. In order to improve absorbency and provide protection against wetness, superab-
sorbent personal hygiene products such as baby diapers have been developed with the help
of contact angle measurements. The surface tension of pesticide or fertilizer formulations
directly affects their spreading on plant leaves or in soil, which has an influence on envi-
ronmental pollution. Similarly, oil-polluted sea and land can be treated using surfactant
solutions, and the cleaning process can be monitored by contact angle measurements on
the treated samples. Recently, contact angle methods have been used to assess the cleanli-
ness of semiconductor surfaces in the electronics industry. Contact angle methods also have
great potential for the newly developing nanotechnology field.
In comparison with other surface characterization techniques, contact angle methods
are accepted as complementary techniques, providing supporting information to other
more expensive surface analysis methods such as ESCA, SIMS, SAXS, Raman, IR etc. A
researcher may be guided in the right direction by contact angle results before performing
a more elaborate analysis using much more expensive surface characterization equipment.

9.2 Measurement of Static Contact Angles

Measurement of contact angles appears to be quite easy when first encountered, but this
can be misleading and the accurate measurement of thermodynamically significant contact
angles requires painstaking effort. If the substrate is not prepared properly, if very pure
liquids are not used while forming drops and if some important practical issues during
measurement, such as drop evaporation, the location of the needle in the drop, and
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 313

maintaining a sharp image, are not considered, then incorrect and generally useless contact
angle results can be obtained, which may be used as “evidence” for false thermodynamical
conclusions. Unfortunately, many experiments, carried out improperly, have been reported
in the scientific literature; this should be avoided for future studies.
Many different methods have been developed for the measurement of contact angles,
but only a few are popular today. Two preferred approaches are: the measurement of the
static contact angle of a sessile drop on a non-porous flat solid using a video camera or
goniometer; and the dynamic contact angle measurement method using tensiometry,
which involves measuring the forces of interaction, while a dynamic (moving) flat solid
plate is immersed into or withdrawn from a test liquid (see Section 9.3). We will also
present some other useful methods in Sections 9.2.2–9.2.5.

9.2.1 Direct measurement of static contact angle by video

camera or goniometer

The most widely used method is to measure the angle of a sessile drop resting on a flat
solid surface using a goniometer–microscope equipped with an angle-measuring eyepiece
or, more recently, a video camera equipped with a suitable magnifying lens, interfaced to
a computer with image-analysis software to determine the tangent value precisely on the
captured image. A suitable cold light source and a sample stage whose elevation can be
controlled to high precision are also required for the application of this technique.
Formerly, the drop profile was photographed and the tangent of the sessile drop profile at
the three-phase contact point drawn onto the photo-print to determine the value of
the contact angle. In static q measurement, the results are somewhat dependent on the
experience of the operator.
The measurement of a single static contact angle to characterize the solid–liquid inter-
action is not adequate because, in practice, there is no single equilibrium contact angle, qe,
on a solid surface. While deriving Young’s equation, we assumed an ideal solid that is chem-
ically homogeneous, rigid, and flat to an atomic scale. However, there is no such solid
surface, because all solid surfaces have surface imperfections and are heterogeneous to a
degree, as we saw in Chapter 1. Thus, there may be a range of static contact angles, depend-
ing on the location of the drop and on the application type of the measurement. Experi-
mentally, only two types of contact angle measurement technique are standardized:
1 When a liquid drop is formed by injecting the liquid from a needle connected to a
syringe onto a substrate surface, it is allowed to advance on the fresh solid surface and
the measured angle is said to represent the advancing contact angle, qa. For each
drop–solid system there is a maximum value of qa before the three-phase line is broken
(it should be noted that the stainless steel needle must be kept in the middle of the drop
during measurement of qa, and the needle may be coated with paraffin wax in order to
prevent climbing of some strongly adhering liquids, such as water, on the metal needle
surface; alternatively, plastic needles such as Teflon and polypropylene may be used with
water).
2 The receding contact angle, qr, can be measured when a previously formed sessile drop
on the substrate surface is contracted by applying a suction of the drop liquid through
314 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the needle. Precise measurement of qr is very difficult (see Section 9.4.1 for drop evap-
oration effects).

These contact angles fall within a range where the advancing contact angles approach a
maximum value and receding angles approach a minimum value (qa > qr). Alternately, both
advanced and receded angles are measured when the stage on which the solid is held is
tilted to the point of incipient motion of the drop (see Section 9.2.3).
Both qa and qr depend on the surface roughness (detailed shapes and configurations of
the patches or strips) and also on the surface chemical heterogeneity. The direct determi-
nation of qa within ±2° is easy, but it is difficult to reduce the relative error to ±0.5°. This
is because the direction of a liquid profile rapidly changes with the distance from the three-
phase contact point. The difference between qa and qr gives the contact angle hysteresis, H,
(H ≡ qa − qr), which can be quite large, around 5–20° in conventional measurements (or
20–50° in some exceptional cases). The reasons for contact angle hysteresis will be exam-
ined in Section 9.6.
There are differences between the techniques applied for the experimental measurement
of static qa and qr. Historically, in the 1950s, Zisman and co-workers, who were the pioneers
in contact angle standardization, used the tip of a fine platinum wire to bring a droplet to
the surface and detach it from the wire. More liquid is added in successive droplets from the
wire, and q is measured after each addition by viewing through a goniometer microscope;
the limiting value of q is taken to be qa. The retreating angle was measured via stepwise
removal of small increments of liquid by touching the tip of a fine glass capillary to the drop
and withdrawing it to give qr. In the 1960s, Fowkes, Good and co-workers introduced the
liquid drop by means of a micrometer syringe, which had a fine stainless steel needle up to
a drop contact diameter of 4 mm. The liquid drop was held captive while additional liquid
was added to the drop until a steady value of qa was obtained and the addition of the liquid
stopped. The needle, having a diameter of less than 1 mm, must not be removed from the
drop during measurement as this may cause mass and profile vibrations, which can decrease
qa to some lower metastable state. Contact angles must be measured on both sides of the
drop and reported separately. The liquid is withdrawn from the drop by means of the same
micrometer syringe to measure qr. However, there is a strong influence on the qr value from
the rate of liquid removal from the drop. Neumann and co-workers made a small hole in
the flat substrate sample and first deposited a small drop on the substrate through a needle
connected to this hole beneath the substrate. The size of the drop is then increased by
feeding more liquid to the drop by means of this needle connected to a motorized syringe.
This procedure prevents the drop oscillating and also destruction of the axisymmetry. By
this means, they controlled the rate of advance or retreat of the symmetrical sessile drop on
the substrate, to measure qa and qr precisely. They also developed a method to determine
both the contact angle and surface tension of the liquid by applying a digital image analysis
to drop profiles and a computation method named axisymmetric drop shape analysis, ADSA.
In this method, an objective function is constructed which expresses the error between the
physically observed profile and the theoretical Laplacian curve; the function is then mini-
mized using an iterative procedure.
The inclusion of gravity correction into the Young–Laplace equation is feasible for large
sessile liquid drops formed on solids. Determination of what is a large drop and what is
small can be performed by simply comparing the contact radius of the sessile drop with
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 315

the square root of the capillary constant, a of the liquid. If it is much smaller (say more
than 10 times) than the square root of the capillary constant, then the influence of gravi-
tation can be neglected. When volatile liquid drops are formed, measurements must be
made in an enclosed chamber to prevent drop evaporation by permitting establishment of
the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid. However, when high-boiling-point liquids,
such as water, glycerol, and hexadecane, are used, and the measurements are carried out
rapidly, there is no need for such a chamber. Some researchers do not measure qa or qr;
they only measure the observed angle of the free-standing drop after removing the needle
(an unknown period passes after the drop formation) calling it the equilibrium contact
angle, qe. Values of qe are between qa and qr, but often nearer to qa. Since this angle does
not represent the initial contact angle formed on the fresh surface, it is of a lower degree
of scientific usefulness than is a true qa or qr. Some researchers use qe as the mean value of
qa and qr, but this approach is thermodynamically wrong.
There are several advantages to static contact angle measurement. It can be used for
almost any solid substrate, as long as it has a relatively flat portion and can be fitted on the
stage of the instrument. Testing can be done using very small quantities of liquid. It is also
easy to test high-temperature liquids such as polymer melts in heated chambers. However,
there are several limitations to the method. First, conventional goniometry relies on the
consistency of the operator in assignment of the tangent line. This may lead to subjective
error, especially significant when the results of multiple users are compared. This problem
can be reduced by computer analysis of the droplet shape and contact angle. The second
problem is the variable rate of introducing the drop liquid through the needle during deter-
mination of qa and the variable rate of withdrawal of the liquid during determination of
qr. The sessile drop method is not particularly well adapted to quantitative measurement
of the dependence of contact angle on the rate of advance or retreat, because a linear rate
of change in drop volume does not correspond to a linear rate of motion of the drop front.
An appropriate rate is of the order of 0.01–0.10 mm min−1 linear advance or retreat by using
a motor-driven syringe. Also, it is best to specify a constant time allowed before measur-
ing the contact angle after the motion stops, e.g. 1–10 sec, to damp the drop oscillations
formed in order to obtain more precise data. The third problem is distortion of the drop
surface caused by the needle. If the needle enters the drop at a point very close to the solid,
it may obscure the drop profile. It is best to keep the needle at the middle of the drop. If
the needle passes through the upper surface of the drop, there will be some capillary rise
of the liquid up the needle and distortion of the surface. (However, it has been claimed by
some authors that this capillary rise does not perturb the liquid in the region of the contact
line with the solid.) Removing the needle from the drop does not help, because that makes
it impossible to study hysteresis. Finally, objects other than flat objects, such as cylindrical
fibers, cannot be easily studied by the goniometry approach.

9.2.2 Captive bubble method

A captive air (or other gas) bubble is formed in the liquid contacting with the solid by
means of an inverted micrometer syringe beneath the substrate which is kept in the test
liquid. The contact angle is measured by means of a goniometer microscope or video
camera. In this method, the solid–vapor interface is in equilibrium with the saturated vapor
316 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

pressure of the liquid, which is present in the bubble. When more air is added to the bubble
through the needle, the surrounding liquid front retreats and gives an angle which is equiv-
alent to qr in the conventional sessile drop method in air. Withdrawing the air from the
bubble causes the liquid front to advance, which is equivalent to qa. It is interesting to note
that the qe measured in the captive bubble method is nearer to qr than to qa.

9.2.3 Sliding drop on an inclined plate method

A sessile drop is formed on a plate of solid substrate gripped at one end onto a motorized
horizontal stage, which can be tilted to the point of incipient motion of the drop. When
the plane of the solid surface reaches a critical slope, the drop starts to slide. The measured
angle at the downhill edge of the drop approaches qa, and the angle at the uphill edge
approaches qr, as shown in Figure 9.2. The angles should be measured immediately prior
to the drop starting to slide. The tilt angle, ft, can also be used to derive thermodynamic
conclusions; however, this method is not very reliable, because the determination of a clear
and sharp drop image at the instance of sliding is difficult, and also it gives inconsistent
results with rough substrates which show a strong pinning behavior with the liquid drop,
so that no drop sliding occurs even at a tilt angle of ft = 90°. In addition, some researchers
cautioned against this method because it yields values of qa and qr that are strongly depend-
ent on the drop size.

9.2.4 Drop dimensions method

The contact angle may be calculated indirectly from measurement of the dimensions of a
sessile drop. In order to carry out such a calculation, the drop should be small enough so

Substrate

Liquid Drop qr

qa

ft Motorized Stage

Tilt Angle

Figure 9.2 Determination of contact angle from the sliding drop on an inclined plate method. The
advancing contact angle, qa, is the measured angle at the downhill edge of the drop, the receding contact
angle, qr is measured at the uphill edge, and ft is the tilt angle.
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 317

that its deviation from a spherical shape may be neglected. The height of the drop is h =
R(1 − cos q), from plane trigonometry, R being the radius of the spherical segment, as
shown in Figure 9.3. The contact radius of the liquid drop, rb, is given as (rb = R sin q).
Then, we may write
h 1 − cos q
= tan 
q
= (651)
rb sin q  2

If h and rb are measured, q can be calculated from Equation (651). For large drops, h
and rb can be so distorted by gravitation that Equation (651) cannot be used, and much
more elaborate calculations are needed. On the other hand, the contact angle may be
calculated if the drop volume can be experimentally measured by using advanced syringes.
If the contact radius of the liquid drop, rb of known volume, V is measured, then q can be
calculated from the dimensionless ratio obtained from three-dimensional spherical
trigonometry

DROP
h
q rb

SUBSTRATE

Figure 9.3 Determination of contact angle from the drop dimensions method: h is the height of the drop
[h = R (1 − cos q)], rb is the contact radius of the liquid drop (rb = R sin q) and R is the radius of the circle
of the spherical segment.
318 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

rb3 3 sin 3 q
= (652)
V p (2 − 3 cos q + cos 3 q )
Alternatively, if both rb and h can be measured, we can preferably use
rb2 h 3(1 + cos q )
= (653)
V p (2 + cos q )
Equations (651)–(653) imply that the base of the drop is an exact circle, but it is rarely
circular due to the non-uniformity of most of the solid surfaces. This is the main source
of error in this method.

9.2.5 Static Wilhelmy plate method

Previously, Guastalla had developed a method to measure the contact angles by using a
balance and two hanging Wilhemy plates. These plates are immersed in the same liquid,
each suspended from a balance. One of the plates is the (solid) surface under investigation
and the other is a reference solid, which is completely wetted by the liquid (a metal plate
for example). The slides are set up to have the same perimeter, and the ratio of the down-
ward pull on the test specimen divided by the downward pull on the completely wet plate
(both corrected for buoyancy) is (gLV cos q/gLV) or (cos q) only. Thus, the contact angle can
be found from the differences in the work of adhesion of the sample and the reference solid
within the same liquid.
Later, Neumann developed the static Wilhelmy plate method which depends on capillary
rise on a vertical wall, to measure q precisely. A Wilhelmy plate whose surface is coated
with the solid substrate is partially immersed in the testing liquid, and the height of the
meniscus due to the capillary rise at the wall of the vertical plate is measured precisely by
means of a traveling microscope or cathetometer. If the surface tension or the capillary
constant of the testing liquid is known, then the contact angle is calculated from the equa-
tion, which is derived from the Young–Laplace equation
2
∆rgh2
= 1−  
h
sinq = 1 − (654)
2g  a

where ∆r is the density difference between the liquid and the vapor, g is the acceleration
due to gravity and a is the capillarity constant (see Section 4.4). However, if the surface is
appreciably rough or chemically heterogeneous, contact angle results are not reproducible
with this method.

9.3 Dynamic Contact Angle Measurement

Dynamic contact angles are the angles which can be measured if the three-phase boundary
(liquid/solid/vapor) is in actual motion. A Wilhelmy plate is used in dynamic contact angle
measurements, and this method is also called the tensiometric contact angle method. It has
been extensively applied to solid–liquid contact angle determinations in recent years. In
practice, a solid substrate is cut as a thin rectangular plate, otherwise a solid material is
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 319

coated onto a Wilhelmy plate made of platinum or other metal by some means. The test
plate is suspended from the beam of an electrobalance and is held vertically at a fixed posi-
tion during the measurement, while the beaker containing the test liquid is raised and
lowered via a motorized platform. Both the balance and platform assembly are interfaced
to a computer for data acquisition and control. The plate is scanned in both advancing and
receding directions at constant velocity, from which a force–distance plot is constructed.
Before the experiment, the surface tension of the test liquid is measured using the same
equipment, usually by using either a platinum Wilhelmy plate or a du Noüy ring. Later,
the test plate is mounted vertically above the liquid. The plate is suspended with the bottom
edge above the surface of the liquid to begin the measurement. When the beaker contain-
ing the test liquid is raised and touched to the plate, a force is detected on the balance. The
location at which the plate contacts the liquid surface is called the zero depth of immersion.
If the plate is immersed deeper into the liquid, then the balance detects a greater force,
which is the sum of the wetting force, the weight of the probe and the buoyancy force. The
forces on the balance are [Ftotal = wetting force + weight of probe − buoyancy], which can be
given as
Ftotal = pgLV cos q + mg − rLgvHd (655)
where Ftotal is the total measured force on the electrobalance, m is the mass of the plate, g
is the acceleration of gravity, rL is the liquid density, v is the thickness of plate, H is the
width of the plate, d is the immersion depth, p is the plate perimeter [p = 2(H + v)], gLV
is the liquid surface tension and q is the contact angle at the liquid–solid–air three phase
contact line. The weight of the plate probe (m g) can be measured beforehand and set to
zero on the electrobalance during measurement, while the effect of buoyancy can also be
removed by extrapolating the force back to the zero depth of immersion. Then, the remain-
ing component force is only the wetting force
wetting force = Fwet = gLVp cos q (656)
Thus, at any depth, the force data can be received and used to calculate contact angle. In
practice, the force on the plate is measured as it is cycled slowly down and up. When the
plate is immersed into the test liquid as the liquid level is raised, the contact angle thus
obtained is called the advancing contact angle, qa. After the sample is immersed to a set
depth the process is reversed, so that the plate is withdrawn from the test liquid back to its
original position, at the zero depth of immersion. As the plate retreats from the liquid, the
contact angle thus obtained is called the receding contact angle, qr. Dynamic contact angles
may be assayed at various rates of speed. If low velocities are applied, then the contact angle
results are similar to the properly measured static contact angles. However, dynamic Wil-
helmy plate method results are usually found to be a little smaller than results obtained
with other methods.
The progress of the experiment can be shown graphically as in Figure 9.4, with the x-
axis representing the immersion depth and the y-axis the force over perimeter. The contact
angles are calculated from the buoyancy versus depth information. As shown in Figure 9.4,
the graph of force/wetted length versus depth of immersion appears as follows:
1 The sample is above the liquid and the force/length is zeroed.
2 The sample hits the liquid surface. If the sample has a contact angle <90°, then the liquid
rises up, causing a positive force.
320 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

3 By raising the test liquid level, the sample is immersed, and the buoyant force increases
to cause a decrease in the total force on the balance. Advancing contact angle is calcu-
lated from this force–immersion depth line.
4 After having reached the desired depth, the sample is withdrawn out of the test liquid.
The receding contact angle is calculated from this force–immersion depth line.
There are many advantages of the dynamic tensiometric approach over conventional
static sessile drop methods. Unlike static sessile drop methods, the accuracy of the dynamic
Wilhelmy plate method can be better than 0.5° and is without human reading uncertainty.
The value of qr can be measured as easily as qa with this method giving reliable hysteresis
values. Contact angles on fibers can be measured, and it is possible to obtain reliable data
from fibers with diameters below 10 mm. Another advantage is that the measurement is
carried out for the entire perimeter of the immersed solid, giving an averaged value for the
contact angle. (Some authors have suggested that this average value may have little signifi-
cance if the surface tension is not highly uniform across a face.) The graphs produced by
this technique are very useful in studying hysteresis. In addition, the variations generated

Fwet
P

Receding

1 2
4 4
3

Advancing

1 2

0 Depth, d

Figure 9.4 Dynamic contact angle measurement using the Wilhelmy plate method. Variation of the
wetting force over wetted length versus depth of immersion with the stages: (1) the sample is above the
liquid; (2) the sample hits the liquid surface; (3) the sample is immersed into the test liquid to give an
advancing contact angle which can be calculated from this force–immersion depth line; (4) after having
reached the desired depth, the sample is withdrawn out of the test liquid to give a receding contact angle
from this line.
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 321

over multiple wetting/dewetting cycles can yield information on surface changes after the
wetting (such as absorption or surface reorientation).
The dynamic tensiometric method has three major limitations. First, a large amount of
very pure test liquid must be available in the beaker to immerse the solid in a single exper-
iment. Second, the solid sample must be formed in a definite geometry such as a rectan-
gular plate, cylindrical rod, or single fiber, so that it will have a constant perimeter over a
portion of its length (immersion depth). In addition, the two sides of the sample plate must
also be coated homogeneously with the same solid for proper dynamic contact angle meas-
urement. Surfaces with a high roughness may give inconsistent results. Third, it is difficult
to use this technique at high temperatures above 100°C.

9.4 Liquid Evaporation Effects During Contact Angle Measurement

9.4.1 Receding contact angle determination from drop evaporation

For sessile drops, liquid evaporation is inevitable unless the atmosphere in the immediate
vicinity of the drop is completely saturated with the vapor of the liquid. In contact angle
measurement, liquid evaporation is generally regarded as undesirable because it may cause
the liquid front to retreat and the contact angle value to decrease, so usually a contact angle
value which is intermediate between qa and qr is observed unintentionally. In practice, a
closed chamber can be used to ensure saturation of the vapor of the liquid to minimize
this effect. When water is used as the drop liquid, the humidity in the chamber must be
controlled and be set to saturation conditions to prevent water evaporation. However, the
use of closed chambers is not popular in general contact angle practice in either industry
or academic circles, so incorrect contact angle measurements are common, if the meas-
urement has not been made very rapidly when moderately volatile liquids are used as drop
liquids.
It has been suggested that drop evaporation may also be used beneficially. The receding
contact angles of water drops on several polymer surfaces can be determined by following
time-dependent drop evaporation with a video-microscopy technique, in comparison with
the static needle-syringe sessile drop method. For initial contact angles of water drops of
less than 90°, evaporation proceeds with a decreasing contact angle and a pinned contact
radius; this persists for much of the evaporation time, and the contact radius finally begins
to recede. The contact angle at this point therefore represents a natural receding angle, qr.
The contraction of the contact radius does not proceed smoothly but rather undergoes a
stick–slip motion so giving rise to local peaks in the receding angle. It was concluded that
the drop evaporation method allows a minimum rate of liquid withdrawal from the drop,
which minimizes (or standardizes) the linear rate of retreat of the drop on the substrate,
giving reliable receding contact angles, qr.

9.4.2 Drop evaporation theory for spherical and ellipsoidal drops

If we want to use a contact angle value in thermodynamic equations, measurement of the

initial value of a contact angle, qi, at the instance of drop formation is required. Determi-
322 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

nation of qi is difficult in many instances, due to liquid evaporation effects. Thus, a more
complete understanding of how liquid evaporation varies the contact angle of a sessile drop
on a solid surface, in still air or in controlled atmospheric conditions, is important in
wetting and surface characterization processes. If drop evaporation can be modeled ade-
quately, then it is possible to predict precise initial contact angle values. There are two
modes of drop evaporation: 1 at constant contact angle with diminishing contact area and
2 at constant contact area with diminishing contact angle. (A mixed type is also present
especially at the last stages of drop evaporation where the mode would change from one
to the other.) Since it is possible to monitor time-dependent drop evaporation with the
advanced video-microscopy technique, it is possible to test diffusion-controlled evapora-
tion models. When a liquid drop is sufficiently small and surface tension dominates over
gravity, it is generally assumed that the drop forms a spherical cap shape which can be char-
acterized by four different parameters: the drop height (h), the contact radius (rb), the
radius of the sphere forming the spherical cap (R), and the contact angle (q), as shwon in
Figure 9.3. If only rb and q are measured during an evaporation experiment, then the drop
volume is given by Equation (652); if, however, all the rb, q and h parameters can be meas-
ured during an experiment, we can preferably use
prb2 h (2 + cos q )
V= (657)
3 (1 + cos q )
for the drop volume calculation. The rate of volume decrease by diffusion-controlled (slow)
evaporation with time, where the effect of convective air currents are neglected, is given
from the diffusion theory as

−
dV  4pRD
 dt 
= (cS − c ∞ ) (658)
rL

where t is the time (s), D is the diffusion coefficient (cm2 sec−1), cS is the concentration of
vapor at the sphere surface at R distance (g cm−3), c∞ is the concentration of the vapor at infi-
nite distance (R∞) (g cm−3), and rL is the density of the drop substance (g cm−3). When q <
90°, in the regime of constant contact radius, rb, it has been proposed that the rate of mass
loss, calculated from the drop profile by applying a model based on a two-parameter spher-
ical cap geometry, is directly proportional to h and rb, but not to the spherical radius, R. For
a constant contact radius, the variation of contact angle with time is given as
2D(c ∞ − cS ) sin 3 q
−  =
dq
(659)
 dt  rLrb2 (1 − cos q )
After differentation, Equation (659) can be reduced to the angular function, F(q) on one
side and the diffusion parameters on the other side
1 − cos q 4 D(c ∞ − cS ) (t − t o )
F (q ) = ln[ tan(q 2)] + =− (660)
sin 2 q rLrb2
The angular function fits a straight line in a F(q) versus q plot, over the range 30–90°
according to the expression [F(q) = −1.592 + 1.632q], where q is in radians.
Mathematical expressions for an ellipsoidal cap drop resting on a solid surface having
three parameters (base radius, height and contact angle) were subsequently also derived,
and this model fitted the experimental data better than those evaluated from the spherical
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 323

cap model. The volume of the ellipsoidal cap can be evaluated by rotating the ellipse curve
about the y-axis resulting in:
prbh (2rb tan q − h)
V= (661)
3 tan q

and the ellipsoidal diffusion model becomes

dV 2 Dph( c ∞ − c S )  1 a  −1 ea −1 (b − h ) ea  
− =  2 + 2he  tan b − tan (662)
dt rL b 2  

where a and b are the semi-axis lengths of the ellipse profile in the x and y directions, and
e is the eccentricity, which is geometrically defined as [ e ≡ ( b 2 − a 2 ) b].
Next, a method was developed to determine the initial peripheral contact angle, qip, of
sessile drops on solid surfaces from the diffusion controlled rate of drop evaporation, for
the constant drop contact radius mode. Application of this method requires use of the
product of the vapor diffusion coefficient of the evaporating liquid, with its vapor pres-
sure at the drop surface temperature (D∆Pv), which can be found directly from independ-
ent experiments following the evaporation of fully spherical liquid drops in the same
chamber. It is then possible to calculate qip, from
−(dV dt )rL RTrb
sinq ip = (663)
Ai ( D∆Pv )M w

where Mw is the molecular weight, rL is the density of the liquid, R is the gas constant, T
is the absolute temperature, rb is the contact radius between the solid–liquid interface, and
Ai is the initial surface area of the liquid–air interface at time t = 0 of the evaporation,
which can be found from (Ai = 2pr 2b/1 + cos qi). The peripheral contact angle thus obtained
may be regarded as the mean of all the various contact angles existing along the circum-
ference of the drop. Thus, each determination yields an average result not unduly influ-
enced by irregularities at a given point on the surface. In addition, the error in personal
judgment involved in drawing the tangent to the curved drop profile at the point of contact
is eliminated.
So far, we have not considered the presence of the flat substrate, which restricts the space
into which vapor may diffuse and so reduces the evaporation rate. It has been predicted
theoretically that a completely spherical small droplet possessing a 180° contact angle and
sitting on a flat solid surface will have a rate of mass loss reduced by (ln 2), compared with
an identical, completely spherical droplet far removed from any solid surface. When the
effect of the presence of horizontal substrate is taken into account, we need to modify Equa-
tion (659) as

−
dV  4pRD
 dt 
= (cS − c∞ ) f (q ) (664)
rL

where f(q) is a function of the contact angle of the spherical cap. Picknett and Bexon gave
two useful polynomial fits covering the angular ranges 0–10 and 10–180°

 0.6366q + 0.09591q 2 − 0.06144q 3 (0 < q < 10°)

2 f PB (q ) =  (665)
0.00008957 + 0.6333q + 0.116q − 0.08878q + 0.01033q
2 3 4
(10 < q < 180°)
324 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

where the contact angle q is in radians. Equations (664) and (665) are tested with liquid
drops having contact angles smaller than 90°, and also with angles larger than 110° and
150°, and very good fits with the experimental results are obtained. In general, drop evap-
oration experiments provide very good information on contact angle and also liquid–solid
interaction, hysteresis, surface roughness, and energy barriers on the substrate (slip–stick
motion). Unfortunately, since it takes considerable time to follow drop evaporation and
also to carry out an image analyses in a single experiment, it has not been accepted as a
popular method at present.

9.5 Contact Angle of Powders

In the case of porous solids, powders and fabrics, the measurement of contact angles is not
an easy task. Any method is limited to the packing instability of the powders in the test
medium, and all data should be viewed with caution, and whenever possible, the contact
angles measured in compressed powder cakes should be confirmed by other independent
measurements such as measurements on films of this substance prepared by solvent casting
or dip coating. There are mainly two methods to measure the contact angle of solid
powders:
1 Wicking, which is the measurement of the rate of capillary rise of the test liquid
in a porous medium to determine the average pore radius, surface area and contact
angle.
2 Powder tensiometry, where the powder solid is brought into contact with a testing
liquid and the mass of liquid absorbed into the solid column is measured as a function
of time.
In both methods, Washburn’s equation is used, which was derived from the Poiseuille equa-
tion to measure viscosity in capillary viscometers. The rate of volume flow (V/t) through
a capillary tube with radius, rc, is given by the Poiseuille equation as
V ( rL gh + ∆P )prc4
= (666)
t 8hh
where t, h, rL and g denote the time, viscosity, density and surface tension of the
liquid, respectively; g is the acceleration of gravity, h is the length of the capillary tube
and ∆P is the pressure difference across the ends of the tube. Washburn assumed that, any
liquid penetrating into a porous solid or a powder column flows through the cylindrical
pores of radius, rc, and, by neglecting the gravitational contribution, Equation (666)
becomes
dV ∆Pprc4
≅ (667)
dt 8hh
From simple geometry, the volume of a cylindrical pore can be written as
dV dh
= prc2 (668)
dt dt
After combining Equations (667) and (668) and simplifying, we obtain
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 325

dh ∆Prc2
= (669)
dt 8hh
Since the pressure difference can be expressed as (∆P = 2g cos q/rc), from Equations
(327)–(330) in Section 4.4, and Equation (350) in Section 4.8, we can eliminate the ∆P
term in Equation (669) so that
dh g rc cos q
= (670)
dt 4hh
Equation (670) is known as the Washburn equation. The rc term can also be eliminated
from Equation (670) by using a completely wetting liquid giving q = 0, and measuring the
increase of the liquid level in the powder column by time. In the practical wicking method,
the powder is filled inside a glass capillary tube, the bottom of this tube is brought into
contact with the test tube, and the increase of the liquid meniscus with time is followed by
a cathetometer.
On the other hand, the powder tensiometry method can be applied with any Wilhelmy
type tensiometer. A special thin glass tube, which has a porous plug at the bottom, is filled
with the powder which will be tested and the powder column is then brought into contact
with the testing liquid. The mass of liquid absorbed into the porous solid is measured as
a function of time by means of an electrobalance. The amount absorbed is a function of
the viscosity, density and surface tension of the liquid, the material constant of the solid,
and the contact angle of the interaction, as given in the following relationship:
 h  2
t = 2 m (671)
 KrL g cos q 
where t denotes the time after contact, m the absorbed mass, q the contact angle and K a
material constant. A graph of the absorbed mass squared versus time yields a straight line
with slope (h/K r 2L g cos q). Since the viscosity, density and surface tension can be meas-
ured from independent experiments, or taken from tables, the material constant, K, can be
determined by the use of a completely wetting test liquid giving q = 0. After evaluation of
the K parameter, q of the powder solid with the test liquid can be calculated.

9.6 Contact Angle Hysteresis and its Interpretation

As defined in Section 9.2, contact angle hysteresis is the difference between the advancing
and receding contact angles:
H ≡ qa − qr (672)

Hysteresis of the contact angle results from the system under investigation not meeting
ideal conditions. In order to apply Young’s equation, the solid should be ideal: it must be
chemically homogeneous, rigid, flat at an atomic scale and not perturbed by chemical inter-
action or by vapor or liquid adsorption. If such an ideal solid surface is present, there would
be a single, unique contact angle. On the contrary, it is common to find contact angle
hysteresis on practical non-ideal surfaces, in the region of 10° or larger; and 50° or more
of hysteresis has sometimes been observed.
326 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

In general, there appear to be five causes of contact angle hysteresis. Surface roughness
and microscopic chemical heterogeneity of the solid surface are the most important ones,
and the others such as drop size effect, molecular reorientation and deformation at the
surface and the size of the liquid molecules to penetrate into the pores and crevices of the
solid surface are less important. A great deal of research has gone into analysis of the sig-
nificance of hysteresis. It has been used to characterize surface heterogeneity, roughness
and mobility on surface groups.

9.6.1 Effect of surface roughness

If the surface of a substrate is rough, then the actual surface area is greater than the plan
surface area and thus for a given drop volume, the total liquid–solid interaction is greater
on the rough surface than on a flat surface. If the smooth material gives a contact angle
greater than 90°, the presence of surface roughness increases this angle still further, but if
q is less than 90°, the surface roughness decreases the angle. Wenzel, in 1936, assumed that
the drop liquid fills up the grooves on a rough surface and related the surface roughness
with the contact angle by a simple expression
cos q er A r
rW = = (673)
cos q es A s
where rW is the ratio of the actual surface area, Ar, to the apparent, macroscopic plan
area, As, cos q er is the equilibrium contact angle of the real solid, and cos q se is the equilib-
rium contact angle on a flat, smooth surface. This relation is valid only for sub-
microscopic (small) roughening and cannot be applied to coarse roughening. When
combined with Young’s equation (Equation (640)), we can write for the contact angle
on a rough surface
 g − g SL 
cos q er = rW cos q es = rW  SV  (674)
 g LV 
Wenzel’s relation has been confirmed in terms of the first two laws of thermodynamics.
Huh and Mason, in 1976, used a perturbation method for solving the Young–Laplace equa-
tion while applying Wenzel’s equation to the surface texture. Their results can be reduced
to Wenzel’s equation for random roughness of small amplitude. They assume that hys-
teresis was caused by nonisotropic equilibrium positions of the three-phase contact line,
and its movement was predicted to occur in jumps. On the other hand, in 1966, Timmons
and Zisman attributed hysteresis to microporosity of solids, because they found that
hysteresis was dependent on the size of the liquid molecules or associated cluster of
molecules (like water behaves as an associated cluster of six molecules).
Quantification of surface roughness effects is difficult and somewhat controversial. The
equilibrium contact angle cannot be measured directly due to the existence of metastable
states. Thus, a rigorous thermodynamic relationship to describe wetting phenomena is dif-
ficult to apply because of the uncertainties in the basic parameter set. Recently, micro- or
nano-patterned model surfaces have been prepared using a variety of modern techniques
such as electron-beam etching, micro-contact printing, and photoresist structuring, and
the validity of Wenzel’s equation has been tested. Good fits are obtained for surfaces having
micro-roughness, with liquids that wet the solid surface well. However, for non-wetting
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 327

liquids, since these cannot penetrate into the pores of a surface, air pockets remain in
these surface pores and Wenzel’s equation cannot be applied due to the lack of solid–liquid
interaction.

9.6.2 Effect of chemical heterogeneity

Contact angle hysteresis on a flat, atomically smooth solid surface is due to chemical het-
erogeneity of the surface. For heterogeneous surfaces, some domains exist on the surface
that present barriers to the motion of the three-phase contact line. For the case of chem-
ical heterogeneity, these domains represent areas with different contact angles. For example,
when a water drop is formed on a heterogeneous surface, the hydrophobic domains will
pin the motion of the contact line as the liquid advances, thus increasing the contact angles.
When the water recedes, hydrophilic domains will hold back the draining motion of the
contact line thus decreasing the contact angle. The movement of the wetting front can give
rise to hysteresis, as demonstrated by qa and qr, and that actual contact line movement
can appear as stick-slip behavior, resulting in the slow movement of the triple-line on a
heterogeneous surface.
At a microscopic level, the non-uniformity of the solid surface allows many metastable
configurations for the fluid interface and the energy barriers between them are the source
of hysteresis. The range of hysteresis is dependent on the availability of energy to overcome
such barriers. It has been proposed that the height of an energy barrier between successive
metastable positions increases as the contact angle becomes closer to the stable equilib-
rium state. The problem is statistical in nature and the occurrence of the heterogenous
regions in the triple-line zone can be estimated.
In 1944, Cassie and Baxter derived an equation describing contact angle hysteresis for
composite smooth solid surfaces with varying degrees of heterogeneity:
cos q er = ∑ f i cos q i (675)

where fi is the fractional area of the surface with a contact angle of qi. For a two-
component surface, the above equation can be expressed as:
cos q re = f1 cos q1 + f2 cos q2 = f1 cos q1 + (1 − f1)cos q2 (676)

When air pockets are present on a rough surface, the Cassie–Baxter equation can also be
applied to the contact angle estimate of a water drop on such a surface. Since the contact
angle of water in air is equal to 180°, by taking q2 = 180°, which corresponds to (cos q2 =
−1), Equation (676) then becomes
cos q re = fs cos qs − (1 − fs) = fs(cos qs + 1) − 1 (677)

where fs is the fractional area of the solid surface with a contact angle of qs on the flat solid
surface. The Cassie–Baxter equation was found to be useful in the analysis of heteroge-
neous surfaces, but it cannot explain the corrugation of the three-phase contact line and
a wide scatter in contact angle data often observed for heterogeneous systems, which has
been attributed to the drop size (see next section). In 1984, De Gennes and Joanny pro-
posed a model for contact angle hysteresis based on contact line pinning at solid surface
defects. They exploited the analogy between physically rough surfaces and chemically het-
erogeneous surfaces so that their conclusions were equally applicable to both cases. In con-
328 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

clusion, despite the simplicity of contact angle measurement, the contact angle hysteresis
problem is very complex and far from being completely understood.

Hysteresis due to contamination

Solid surfaces are usually contaminated with foreign substances during their manufacture or
formation. The liquids that are used in the drop formation may also contain foreign sub-
stances to decrease their surface tension. Thus rigorous cleaning of the solid surfaces and
purification of the drop liquids before measurement of q is essential. Solid surfaces are
washed with solvents, which do not dissolve the solid but dissolve the possible contaminat-
ing materials. If such rigorous cleaning is not carried out and an oily contamination remains,
this will result in a smaller water drop, a receding contact angle (because much of the oil
would be spread on the water surface) and a different contact angle hysteresis value.

9.6.3 Other reasons for contact angle hysteresis

Hysteresis due to molecular orientation and deformation on solid surfaces

This type of hysteresis often occurs with polymer surfaces. Molecular reorientation in the
polymer surface, under the influence of the contacting liquid phase, takes place especially
if the polymer has polar or hydrogen-bonding chemical groups in its structure. The terms
surface reconstruction or surface reorientation are also employed. In this process, the surface
configuration of polymers (the spatial arrangement of atoms at the surface) changes in
response to a change in the surrounding environment. As an example, the hydroxyl groups
in a polymer backbone chain are buried away from the air phase for a polymer–air inter-
face, but when a water sessile drop is formed on the polymer surface, the hydroxyl groups
turn over to form hydrogen bonds with water. This movement results in reorientation of
the surface under test and can be detected by the time-dependent change in contact angle.
Such a change does not necessarily require long-range segmental motion but can be
achieved by relatively simple short-range motion such as rotational motion of segments at
the surface. It is obvious that the types of atoms or groups in a particular polymer chain
in bulk do not determine the surface properties, but the types of atoms or groups actually
existing at the top of the surface determine the surface-wetting properties. For such sur-
faces, after the initial qa and qr measurement, very different contact angle values may be
measured after reorientation, and the hysteresis varies.

Hysteresis due to the drop size

The advancing and receding contact angle values may decrease with decreaseing drop size
(or in the captive bubble method, with the size of the bubble). This decrease is more pro-
nounced in qr values than in qa.
Since gravity effects are neglected for small drops, a possible explanation is the presence of
the negative line tension. Gibbs was the first to postulate the line tension concept. He pro-
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 329

posed that an additional free-energy component (line tension) for a three-phase system
(solid/liquid/vapor) is needed to provide a more complete description of the system. The line
tension results from an excess free energy for molecules located at or close to the three-phase
contact line, and becomes increasingly important with decreasing drop size. By considering
the line tension, Boruvka and Neumann modified Young’s equation (Equation (640)) as:
gSV − gSL = gLV cos q + gSLV Kgs (678)

where gSLV is the line tension and Kgs is the geodesic curvature of the three-phase contact
line. Since Kgs is equal to the reciprocal of the drop base radius for a spherical drop sitting
on a flat horizontal and homogeneous surface, Equation (678) can be expressed as follows:
g SLV
g SV − g SL = g LV cos q + (679)
rl
where rl is the drop base radius. The line tension can be determined from the slope of a
plot of (cos q) versus (1/rl) according to the dependence
g SLV
cos q = cos q ∞ − (680)
rlg LV
where cos q∞ = (gSV − gSL/gLV) is assumed, and q = q∞ for rl → ∞. However, experimental line
tension values were found to be 105–106 times greater than the values predicted from the-
oretical calculations. The inconsistency between the theory and experiment is attributed
to solid surface imperfections, heterogeneities and roughness. Line tension research is
somewhat controversial, and a new parameter, pseudo-line tension (gSLV*), was also pro-
posed, which includes the effects of surface imperfections to replace the thermodynamic
line tension. Drelich and Miller derived a modified Cassie–Baxter equation containing the
line tension contribution as:
f1g SLV1 (1 − f1 )g SLV2
cos q = f1 cos q1 + (1 − f1 ) cos q 2 − + (681)
rl1g LV rl 2g LV
The modified Cassie–Baxter equation was successfully used to interpret some of the contact
angle data reported for heterogeneous surfaces.

Hysteresis due to liquid adsorption

When liquid molecules are adsorbed onto a solid surface, their surface concentration will
be a function of the distance along the solid, and of time, in a band close to the three-phase
contact line. Consequently, there will also be a corresponding gradient of surface free
energy density, which will directly affect the horizontal component of force at the three-
phase line resulting in contact angle hysteresis.

9.7 Temperature Dependence of Contact Angle

The surface tension of liquids, gLV, decreases with increasing temperature, and if we assume
that the surface tension term related to a solid is much less affected by a temperature
330 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

increase, and thus (gSV − gSL) is approximately constant, then the (cos q) term
should increase from Young’s equation, when the temperature rises. This corresponds to a
decrease of q with increase in temperature. Consequently, the temperature coefficient of
the contact angles (dq/dT) will be negative. The experimental results confirm this expec-
tation. However the effect of temperature on contact angle is small; a common figure of
about –(0.1°/K) is observed. If the solid, such as a polymer, swells in the testing liquid drop,
an increase in temperature further decreases the measured q. This is because the higher
temperatures favor intermixing, and q would be smaller the greater the mutual interpen-
etration.

9.8 Solid Surface Tension Calculations from Contact

Angle Results
Measurement of contact angles on solids yields data that reflect the thermodynamics of a
liquid/solid interaction. These data can be used to estimate the surface tension of the solid.
For this purpose, drops of a series of liquids are formed on the solid surface and their
contact angles are measured. Calculations based on these measurements produce a param-
eter (critical surface tension, surface tension, surface free energy etc.), which quantifies the
characteristic of the solid surface and its wettability.

9.8.1 Critical surface tension of solids (Zisman’s method)

Zisman and co-workers introduced an empirical organization of contact angle data on

solids (especially on polymers) in 1952. They measured q for a series of liquids on the same
solid sample and plotted (cos q) versus (gLV) for the test liquids; even for a variety of non-
homologous liquids, the graphical points fell close to a straight line or collected around it
in a narrow rectilinear band that approaches cos q = 1 (q = 0) at a given value of gLV. This
value, called the critical surface tension of solid, gc, can be used to characterize the solid
surface under test. It often represents the highest value of surface tension of the test liquid
that will completely wet the solid surface. The linear expression fitting the (cos q) versus
(gLV) is given as
cos q = 1 − b(gLV − gc) (682)

where the slope of the line gives, −b, the intercept gives (bgc + 1), and both b and gc terms
can be calculated from a single plot. The b value has been found to be approximately
0.03–0.04. This approach is most appropriate for low-energy surfaces that are being wetted
by nonpolar liquids. Zisman warned that (gc ≠ gSV) and gc is only an empirical value char-
acteristic of a given solid; however gSV is a thermodynamic quantity. Binary solutions such
as water plus methanol must not be used to construct Zisman plots, since one of the com-
ponents is selectively adsorbed on the solid surface and causes deviations in the contact
angle value. The gc results of some solids are given in Table 9.1.
However, there are objections to this method, because the value of gc is often uncertain
since the extrapolation is quite long, and considerable curvature of the empirical line is
present for solids on which a wide range of liquids form non-zero contact angles. It is gen-
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 331

Table 9.1 Critical surface tension,gc, dispersion component, g dSV, and surface tension, gSV, values of poly-
meric solids. (Values compiled from standard references especially from: Kaelble, D.H. (1971) Physical
Chemistry of Adhesion. Wiley-Interscience, New York. and Zisman, W.A. (1964) in Contact Angle Wet-
tability and Adhesion, Adv. Chem. Ser. No: 43, American Chemical Society, Washington D.C.)

gc g dSo gSo
Critical surface Dispersion Surface Tension
tension (mN/m) Component (mN/m) (mN/m) from
Solid from Zisman plot from Fowkes method Fowkes method

Paraffin wax 22.0 23.2 23.7

Polyethylene 31.0 31.3 32.4
Polydimethylsiloxane 24.0 20.5 22.1
Polyhexafluoropropylene 16.2 11.7 12.4
Polytetrafluoroethylene 18.5 14.5 15.6
Polytrifluoroethylene 22.0 21.9 24.8
Polyvinylidenefluoride 25.0 26.2 32.3
Polyvinylfluoride 28.0 31.2 36.6
Polystyrene 33.0 38.4 40.6
Polyvinylalcohol 37.0 – –
Polyvinylchloride 39.0 38.1 39.6
Polyvinylidenechloride 40.0 38.2 41.3
Polyethylene terephthalate 43.0 36.6 39.5
Nylon 66 46.0 33.6 41.3

erally believed that, when dealing with liquids where van der Waals forces are dominant,
gc of the polymeric solid is independent of the nature of the liquid, and is a characteristic
of the solid alone. However, when the polymer contains polar and hydrogen-
bonding chemical groups, which contribute to the polymer/liquid interactions, the
gc value may depend on both the nature of the liquids and the polymer. This has led to
the concepts of surface and interfacial tension components theory, as given in Sections
9.8.2–9.8.5.

9.8.2 Geometric-mean approach (Fowkes’ and later Owens and

Wendt’s method)

Fowkes proposed in 1964 that the work of cohesion, Wc, and the work of adhesion, Wa,
can be separated into their dispersion, d, polar, p, induction, i, and hydrogen-bonding, h
components:
Wc = W dc + W pc + W ci + W hc + . . . (683)

Wa = W da + W pa + W ia + W ha + . . . (684)

The dispersion component of the work of adhesion between a solid and a liquid could be
expressed as
W da = (W dc )S (W cd )LV = 2 g Sdg LV
d
(685)
332 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

and the interfacial tension for a solid–liquid system interacting by London dispersion forces
alone can be given as
g SL = g So + g LV − 2 g Sdo g LV
d
(686)

By combining his equation with the Young equation (Equation (648)), Fowkes obtained
the Young–Fowkes equation
g LV cos q = −g LV + 2 g Sdo g LV
d
− g SV (687)

Since Fowkes assumed that pSV = 0 for low-energy solid (polymer) surfaces, where (gLV >
gSV) for finite contact angles of high-energy liquid drops on them, he then expressed the
equilibrium ideal contact angle, qe as
 gd 
cosq e = − 1 + 2 g Sdo  LV  (688)
 g LV 
A plot of (cos qe) versus (g dLV/gLV) gives a straight line with an origin at (cos qe = −1), and
with a slope of 2 g Sdo . Fowkes assumed that (g dLV = gLV) for all non-polar liquids, and cal
culated (g dSo) values of some nonpolar polymers by using Equation (688). He later evalu-
ated the g dLV values for polar liquids as a fraction of their total gLV, initially for water by
using water-immiscible hydrocarbon liquid interactions. He used an empirical equation,

d
gW =
(g W + g O − g WO )
(689)
4g Od
where the subscript (W) denotes water and (O) hydrocarbon. Fowkes assumed that (g Od =
gO) for all nonpolar hydrocarbons, and using data for eight hydrocarbons versus water, he
found a value of g dW = 21.8 mJ m−2 for water, which is still in use today. Next, he used the
contact angle data of polar liquids on nonpolar solids such as paraffin wax and polyethyl-
ene, and by applying Equation (688), he calculated (g dLV) values for polar liquids, because
it is impossible to determine these by any direct method. After using the liquid surface
tension components, it is possible to calculate the surface tension of solids. In Table 9.1,
the g dSo and gSo values of Fowkes are presented in comparison with the gc values of Zisman,
for a number of polymers.
In 1969, based on the Fowkes equation, Owens and Wendt proposed a new expression by
dividing the surface tension into two components, dispersive, g di, and polar, g pi, using a geo-
metric mean approach to combine their contributions. They assumed that the free energy
of adhesion of a polymer in contact with a liquid can be represented by the equation
(
Wa = 2 g SV
d d
g LV + g SV
p p
g LV ) (690)

based on the assumptions

gi = g di + g pi (691)

and
g SL = g SV + g LV − 2 g SV
d
( d
g LV + g SV
p p
g LV ) (692)

by combining with the Young equation, one obtains

(
g LV (1 + cos q e ) = 2 g SV
d d
g LV + g SV
p p
g LV ) (693)
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 333

Owens and Wendt applied only two liquids to form drops in their experimental surface
tension determinations. They used g dLV = 21.8 and g LV
p
= 51.0 for water, and g dLV = 49.5 and
−2
g LV = 1.3 mJ m for methylene iodide, in their calculations. After measuring the contact
p

angles of these liquid drops on polymers, they solved Equation (693) simultaneously for
two unknowns of g dSV and g pSV, so that it would then be easy to calculate the total surface
tension of the polymer from the (gSV = g dSV + g pSV) equation. Later, Kaelble extended this
approach and applied determinant calculations to determine g dSV and g pSV. When the
amount of contact angle data exceeded the number of equations, a non-linear program-
ming method was introduced by Erbil and Meric in 1988.
The geometric-mean approach has been in constant use for more than three decades,
even though many articles have been published proving it to be incorrect. The Owens and
Wendt equation falsely predicts ethanol and acetone to be as immiscible in water as
benzene! The main problem is the incorrect assumption that all polar materials interact
with all other polar materials as a function of their internal polar cohesive forces. That is
WSLp ≠ 2 g Spo g Lp (694)

as explained in Section 7.2. Once it is realized that polar interactions are mostly electron
donor–acceptor (acid–base) interactions, and strong interfacial interactions occur only
when one phase has basic sites and the other has acidic sites (otherwise there is no use for
the polar surface tension components), then the use of geometric mean approximations
for polar interactions is meaningless.

9.8.3 Harmonic-mean approach (Wu’s method)

This method utilizes a similar approach to Owens and Wendt’s method but uses a
harmonic-mean equation to sum the dispersion and polar contributions. Wu reported that
the Owens and Wendt equation was giving surface tension values for polymers in error by
as much as 50–100% when compared with their melt values, particularly for polar poly-
mers. He suggested that a harmonic (or reciprocal) mean approximation might be better
for polar polymers as given:
d
4g SV d
g LV 4g p g p
g LV (1 + cos q ) = + p SV LVp (695)
g SV + g LV g SV + g LV
d d

It is obvious that the harmonic-mean approach has the same defects as the Owens and
Wendt approach, and that internal cohesive polar interaction properties cannot determine
the interfacial interaction energy between two different materials. This equation was also
abandoned.

9.8.4 Equation of state approach (Neumann’s method)

Neumann and coworkers proposed that the solid–liquid interfacial tension should be a
function of the liquid and ideal solid surface tensions, gSL = f (gSL, gLV). They assumed the
ideal solid surface to be smooth, homogeneous, rigid and non-deformable. Moreover, there
is no dissolution of the solid in the liquid drop, nor is there any adsorption of any of the
334 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

components from the liquid or gaseous phase by the solid. The semi-empirical equation
of state approach was expressed as follows

g SL =
(g SV − g LV )
2

(696)
( .015 g SVg LV )
1 − 0
Neumann and co-workers demonstrated that the minimum gSL was zero and could not be
negative. Later they modified Equation (696) as follows, to avoid the discontinuity as the
denominator goes to zero
[
g SL = (g SV + g LV ) − 2( g SVg LV ) exp − b (g LV − g SV )
2
] (697)

where b = 0.000115 (m2 mJ−1)2. Combining Equation (697) with the Young equation will
yield
g SV
exp − b (g LV − g SV )
2
cos q = −1 + 2 (698)
g LV
The equation of state approach is very controversial in many respects, and many papers
have been published to invalidate this approach. First, it has been shown by Morrison to
be based on erroneous thermodynamics. Second, it was shown that there are gross experi-
mental disagreements between predictions from Equation (696) and observed interfacial
tensions between water and organic liquids. Third, Neumann and co-workers have tended
to ignore any chemical contributions such as hydrogen bonding or acid–base interactions
to surface or interfacial tension calculations, treating all surface tensions similar to van
der Waals interactions, even for water, where the contribution of hydrogen bonding
to cohesive energy and surface tension is very large. Lee showed the limitations of this
approach by stating that, without considering chemical interactions, this approach is
incomplete and definitely not universal for interfacial tension calculations.

9.8.5 Acid–base approach (van Oss–Good method)

Based on the Lifshitz theory of attraction between macroscopic bodies, van Oss, Good and
Chaudhury developed a more advanced approach after 1985 to estimate the free energy of
adhesion between two condensed phases. They suggested that a solid surface consists of two
terms: one the Lifshitz–van der Waals interactions, g LW, comprising dispersion, dipolar and
induction interactions, and the other the acid–base interaction term, g AB, comprising all the
electron donor–acceptor interactions, such as hydrogen bonding. They thought that the
Lifshitz calculations yield g LW, that is the consequence of all the electromagnetic interac-
tions taken together, whether due to oscillating temporary dipoles (g d), permanent
dipoles (g p) or induced dipoles (g i). LW also includes the interactions of pairs, triplets,
quadruplets etc. of molecules within each phase, in all the actual configurations that are taken
on when they interact. Then, the corresponding components of work of adhesion are
−Wa = ∆GSL = ∆GLW
SL + ∆G SL
AB
(699)

and the combining rule for the LW component in Equation (699) is given as
∆GSL
LW
= ∆GSLW ∆GLLW (700)
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 335

Equation (700) is in concordance with the Fowkes approach for dispersion attractions (see
Equation (685)). The term g LW
SL can now be written as

LW
g SL = g SLW + g LLW − 2 g SLWg LLW (701)

or
= ( g SLW − g LLW )
LW 2
g SL (702)

van Oss and Good did not apply a geometric-mean combining rule to acid–base (AB)
interactions. Since hydrogen bonds are a sub-set of acid–base interactions, and surfaces of
a number of liquids possess only electron donor properties and have no electron acceptor
properties, or the reverse is true, one may consider the asymmetry for these interactions.
Thus, van Oss and Good adopted Small’s combining rule for acid–base interactions, which
is not a geometric mean:
− ∆GSL
AB
= 2( g S+g L− + g S−g L+ ) (703)

where g +i is the Lewis acid, and g −i is the Lewis base parameter of surface tension. The term
g AB
SL is now given as

AB
g SL = 2( g S+g S− + g L+g L− − g S+g L− − g S−g L+ ) (704)

or
AB
g SL = 2( g S+ − g L+ ) ( g S− − g L− ) (705)

On the other hand, if the LW interfacial free energy is written in conjunction with the
Young–Dupré equation, we have
−∆GLW
SL = g S + g L − g SL
LW LW LW
(706)

By combining Equations (701) and (706), one obtains

− ∆GSL
LW
= 2 g SLWg LLW (707)

Later, by combining Equations (699), (703) and (707), one obtains the total interfacial free
energy of adhesion as:
− ∆GSL = 2( g SLWg LLW + g S+g L− + g S−g L+ ) (708)

For negligible spreading pressure (pSV), by combining Equation (708) with the
Young–Dupré equation, the general contact angle equation is obtained:
g LV (1 + cos q ) = 2( g SLWg LLW + g S+g L− + g S−g L+ ) (709)

In order to find the AB interactions of cohesion in a solid or liquid phase, Equation (703)
is rewritten for a single phase:
− ∆GiAB = 4 g i+g i− (710)

i = 2g i ), and then Equation (710) becomes

since (−∆G AB AB

g iAB = 2 g i+g i− (711)

If both g +i and g −i are present to interact, the substance is termed bipolar. If one of them is
not present (equals zero), the substance is termed monopolar. If both g +i and g −i are absent,
336 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

the substance is termed nonpolar. Therefore, g AB i = 0 for nonpolar and monopolar sub-
stances, and g AB
i is present for only bipolar substances. The total interfacial tension can be
obtained from the sum of Equations (702) and (705):
g SL = ( g SLW − g LLW ) + 2( g S+ − g L+ ) ( g S− − g L− )
2
(712)

The most important consequence of Equation (712) is the contribution of acid–base inter-
action results in negative total interfacial tension, in some circumstances. A solid–liquid
system may be stable although it has a negative gSL. This occurs if (g +L > g +S) and
(g −L < g −S), or if (g +L < g +S) and (g −L > g −S), and if |g AB
SL | > |g SL |.
LW

In order to apply Equation (709) to contact angle data, we need a set of values of g LW L ,
g L and g −L for reference liquids. Since, g LV
− LW
= g LV for nonpolar liquids, the problem is to
determine a set of g +L and g −L values for dipolar or monopolar liquids. van Oss and Good
+
introduced an arbitrary relation for water. They assumed that g W = g W− for water, and since
g = 51.0 mJ m is known, they calculated g W = g W = 25.5 mJ m−2, from Equation (711).
AB −2 + −

The values of all acid–base parameters derived therefrom are relative to those of water, and
finally they suggest a set of liquid surface tension component data with these operational
values; these are given in Table 9.2.
After finding the reference liquid surface tension component values, there are two
+ −
methods to calculate the polymer surface values of g LW S , g S and g S. In the first method, three
forms of Equation (709) are simultaneously solved using the contact angle data of three
different liquids, two of them being polar. In the second method, g LW S can be determined
first by using a nonpolar liquid, then two other polar liquids are used to determine g +S and
g −S. Unfortunately, sometimes negative square roots of g +S and/or g −S occur; this has not yet
been definitively explained and causes much objection to this theory. It is recommended
that if polar liquids are employed, water should always be used; otherwise if only two polar
liquids other than water are used (e.g. ethylene glycol and formamide), highly variable g +S
and g −S values may be obtained.
van Oss–Good methodology has been successfully applied to the interpretation of
immiscible liquid–liquid interactions. It is also somewhat successful in polymer solubility
prediction in solvents, critical micelle concentration estimation of surfactants, polymer

Table 9.2 Values of surface tension components of test liquids: g dLV of Fowkes; g PLV of Owens and Wendt
+ −
and g LW AB
LV, g LV, g LV, g LV of van Oss–Good components. (Values compiled from Fowkes, F.M., McCarthy, D.C.
and Mostafa, M.A. (1980) J. Colloid. Interface Sci., 78, 200; Good, R.J. (1993) Contact Angle Wettability
and Adhesion, Mittal, K.L. (ed.). VSP, Utrecht)

+ −
Liquid gLV g dLV P
g LV g LW
LV g AB
LV g LV g LV

Water 72.8 21.8 ± 3 51.0 21.8 51.0 25.5 25.5

Glycerol 64.0 37.0 ± 4 27.0 34.0 30.0 3.92 57.4
Ethylene glycol 48.0 – – 29.0 19.0 1.92 47.0
Formamide 58.0 39.5 ± 7 18.5 39.50 19.0 2.28 39.6
Methylene iodide 50.8 48.5 ± 9 2.3 50.8 0 0 0
Dimethyl sulfoxide 44.0 – – 36.0 8.0 0.5 32.0
Chloroform 27.2 – – 27.2 0 3.8 0
α-Bromonaphthalene 44.4 47.0 ± 7 0 47.0 0 0 0
 Contact Angle of Liquid Drops on Solids 337

phase separation, microemulsion formation in chemistry, and cell adhesion, cell–cell,

antigen–antibody, lectin–carbohydrate, enzyme–substrate and ligand–receptor interac-
tions in biology.

References
1. Adam, N.K. (1968). The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces. Dover, New York.
2. Erbil, H.Y. (1997). Interfacial Interactions of Liquids. In Birdi, K.S. (ed). Handbook of Surface
and Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
3. Neumann A.W. and Spelt J.K. (1996). Applied Surface Thermodynamics. Surfactant Science Series
Vol. 63. Marcel Dekker, New York.
4. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973). An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry. Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge.
5. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
6. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
7. Butt, H.J., Graf, K., Kappl, M. (2003). Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
8. Rowan, S.M., Newton, M.I., McHale, G. (1995). Evaporation of Microdroplets and Wetting of
Solid Surfaces. J. Phys. Chem., 99, 13268–13271.
9. Erbil, H.Y. and Meric, R.A. (1997). Evaporation of Sessile Drops on Polymer Surfaces: Ellipsoidal
Cap Geometry. J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, 6867–6873.
10. Meric, R.A. and Erbil, H.Y. (1998). Evaporation of Sessile Drops on Polymer Surfaces: Pseudo-
Spherical Cap Geometry. Langmuir, 14, 1915–1920.
11. Erbil, H.Y. (1998). Determination of Peripheral Contact Angle of Sessile Drops on Solids from
the Rate of Drop Evaporation. J. Phys. Chem. B, 102, 9234–9238.
12. Erbil, H.Y. and Dogan, M. (2000). Determination of Diffusion Coefficient – Vapor Pressure
Product of some Liquids from Hanging Drop Evaporation. Langmuir, 16, 9267–9272.
13. McHale, G., Erbil, H.Y., Newton, M.I. and Natterer, S. (2001). Analysis of Shape Distortions in
Sessile Drops. Langmuir, 17, 6995–6998.
14. Erbil, H.Y., McHale, G. and Newton, M.I. (2002). Drop Evaporation on Solid Surfaces: Constant
Contact Angle Mode. Langmuir, 18, 2636–2641.
15. Erbil, H.Y. and Avci, Y. (2002). Simultaneous Determination of Vapor Diffusion Coefficient
from Thin Tube Evaporation and Sessile Drop Evaporation on Solid Surfaces. Langmuir, 18,
5113–5119.
16. Erbil, H.Y. and Meric, R.A. (1988). Determination of surface free energy components of poly-
mers from contact angle data using nonlinear programming methods. Colloids and Surfaces, 33,
85–97.
17. Erbil, H.Y., Demirel, A.L., Avci, Y. and Mert, O. (2003). Transformation of a Simple Plastic into
a Super-Hydrophobic Surface. Science, 299, 1377–1380.
Chapter 10
Some Applications Involving
Solid–Liquid Interfaces

10.1 Adsorption from Solution

When we introduce an insoluble solid into a solution, a change in composition of the solu-
tion usually occurs. This is as a result of preferential adsorption of one of the components
on the adsorbent solid. Adsorption from solution is a broad subject including detergent,
dye, ion, polymer and biological material adsorption on solids, and a huge amount of lit-
erature has been published in this field, since it is important to many industries. In this
section, an introduction to the subject will be presented, but excluding ionic adsorption.

10.1.1 Properties and experimental aspects

The experimental investigation of adsorption from a solution is much simpler than that
of gas adsorption. A known mass of adsorbent solid is shaken with a known volume of
solution at a given temperature until equilibrium is reached, at which point there is no
further change in the concentration of the supernatant solution. This concentration can
be determined by a variety of methods involving wet chemical or radiochemical analysis,
colorimetry, refractive index, etc. The experimental data are usually expressed in terms of
an individual adsorption isotherm in which the amount of solute adsorbed at a given tem-
perature per unit mass of adsorbent, which is calculated from the decrease (or increase) of
solution concentration, is plotted against the equilibrium concentration. On the other
hand, theoretical treatment of adsorption from solution is usually more complicated than
that of gas adsorption, because it always involves competition between solute and solvent
molecules, or between the components of a liquid mixture for the adsorption sites and also
the heterogeneous nature of solid–solution interactions. Although there are several differ-
ences, the Gibbs adsorption isotherm given in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, and some basic con-
cepts developed for gas adsorption on solids given in Chapter 8, can also be applied to
adsorption from solution. The surface excess obtained using analytical methods is equal to
the thermodynamic Gibbs surface excess in dilute solutions, since there is no problem in
location of the Gibbs dividing plane. However, this is not true for concentrated solutions.
There are large similarities between the adsorption from binary liquid mixtures at the
liquid–vapor (which we examined in Chapter 5) and liquid–solid interfaces. In both
processes, the fractional surface coverage, qf, is always complete and the compositions of
 Some Applications Involving Solid–Liquid Interfaces 339

the adsorbates on the surfaces change only when the bulk solution composition is changed.
This is different from gas–solid adsorption where qf is a function of the adsorptive gas pres-
sures. As we know, adsorption can be determined from surface tension data for the
liquid–vapor interface; however, this is not possible for liquid–solid interfaces and adsorp-
tion can only be determined from the composition changes in the solution after the adsor-
bent is immersed, and the equilibrium is reached. If the proportion of one of the
components at the solid surface is greater than its proportion in bulk solution, then that
component is positively adsorbed and, consequently, the other component must be nega-
tively adsorbed. For adsorption from binary solutions, it is clear that both components will
be present at the liquid–solid interface, and the isotherm, which represents such an adsorp-
tion, is called the composite adsorption isotherm, as will be explained in Section 10.1.2. Indi-
vidual adsorption isotherms for the adsorption of each component can be drawn, especially
for the solutes present in dilute solutions (see Section 10.1.3).
In adsorption from solution, physisorption is far more common than chemisorption,
although the latter is sometimes possible. Solute adsorption is usually restricted to a
monomolecular layer, since the solid–solute interactions, although strong enough to
compete successfully with solid–solvent interactions in the first adsorbed monolayer, do
not do so in subsequent monolayers, because the interaction is screened by the solvent
molecules. Thus, multilayer adsorption has only rarely been observed in a number of cases,
and identified, when the number of adsorbate molecules exceeds the number of mono-
layer molecules possible on the total adsorbent surface area. However, this analysis cannot
be applied to polymer adsorption, because it is generally impossible to determine the
surface area of a monomolecular layer of a polymer adsorbed flat on the solid surface. This
is because the adsorbed polymer can only be anchored to the surface at a few points, with
the remainder of the polymer in the form of loops and ends moving more or less freely in
the liquid phase.
Adsorption from solutions onto solid surfaces is important in many industrial practices,
such as dye or organic contaminant removal, edible oil clarification by activated carbon,
and ion exchange, where the adsorption of ions from electrolyte solutions is carried out.
Adsorption from solution is also used in analytical chemistry in various chromatography
applications. On the other hand, surfactant, polymer and biological material adsorption
on solids, to modify the surface of solid particles in stabilizing dispersions, are also very
important industrial fields.

10.1.2 Composite adsorption isotherms from binary liquid mixtures

A mass mA of insoluble adsorbent is introduced into a binary solution, containing n1o moles
of component (1) and n2o moles of component (2), before the adsorbent is immersed
into a solution, where not is the total number of moles of solution before adsorption
(not = n1o + n2o), and then the solution is allowed to reach equilibrium. After the adsorption
takes place, n1S is the number of moles of component (1) on the surface of unit mass of
solid adsorbent, giving a total adsorption of (mAn1S) of component (1) whereas, nS2 is the
number of moles of component (2) on the surface of unit mass of solid adsorbent, giving
a total adsorption of (mAn2S) of component (2). The number of moles of component (1)
that remain in solution at the adsorption equilibrium is denoted by n1; and the number of
340 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

moles of component (2) in solution at adsorption equilibrium is denoted by n2. Theoret-

ically, the amounts of components (1) and (2) present in the system are the same before
and after adsorption takes place. Thus, we can write
mAnS1 = n1o − n1 (713)

mAnS2 = no2 − n2 (714)

In order to use the mol fraction terms in the above expressions, from (n1/n2 = x1/x2), we
can write
n2 x1
mA n1S = n1o − (715)
x2
n1x 2
mA n2S = n2o − (716)
x1
which can be rearranged as
mAnS1x2 = no1x2 − n2x1 (717)

mAn2Sx1 = no2x1 − n1x2 (718)

Since (n2 x1 = n1 x2), subtracting Equation (718) from Equation (717) yields
mA(nS1x2 − nS2x1) = no1x2 − no2x1 (719)

Since (x2 = 1 − x1), (not = n1o + no2) and (no1 = not xo1) are all valid, Equation (719) can be
rearranged as
nto ∆x1
= n1S x 2 − n2S x1 (720)
mA
where (∆x1 = xo1 − x1). The term on the left-hand side of the above equation (not∆x1/mA) can
be determined experimentally, and Equation (720) gives the composite adsorption
isotherm for binary liquid mixtures, because both nS1 and nS2 appear on the right-hand side
of the equation. The data are usually drawn as plots of (not∆x1/mA) against x1. Positive values
of (not∆x1/mA) indicate the positive adsorption of component (1) (x1 < xo1) and corre-
spondingly, (not∆x2/mA) will be negative indicating the negative adsorption of component
(2), which shows that component (2) is richer in the bulk phase than the solid–solution
interface. The composite adsorption isotherms may be U-shaped or S-shaped, as given in
Figure 10.1. If one of the components is preferentially (positively) adsorbed on the solid
surface for all the bulk concentrations, then a U-shaped composite isotherm results. On
the other hand, if one of the components is positively adsorbed over part of the concen-
tration range, and negatively adsorbed over the remainder, then an S-shaped composite
isotherm results. In general, the shape of composite isotherms is dependent on the nature
of the adsorbent and the bulk solution properties. Homogeneous surfaces favor U-shaped
isotherms, whereas heterogeneous surfaces, such as an oxygen complex containing active
carbon, favor S-shaped isotherms.
In practice, the adsorption from solution behavior can often be predicted qualitatively
in advance, in terms of the polar/non-polar nature of the solid and of the solution com-
ponents. A non-polar adsorbent will tend to adsorb non-polar adsorbates strongly and
polar adsorbates weakly, and vice versa. In addition, non-polar solutes will tend to be
 Some Applications Involving Solid–Liquid Interfaces 341

n0 ∆x1 a. n0 ∆x1
b.
mA mA

0 1
0 1
x1
x1

Figure 10.1 Composite adsorption isotherms for adsorption on solids from binary liquid mixtures: a. U-
shaped isotherm. b. S-shaped isotherm.

adsorbed strongly from polar solvents (low solubility) and weakly from non-polar solvents
(high solubility), and vice versa.

10.1.3 Individual adsorption isotherms from dilute solutions

Adsorption onto solids from dilute solutions is important in dyeing processes, detergent
action and the purification of liquids by passing through adsorption columns. For a dilute
solution, where solute (2) is dissolved in solvent (1), it is generally assumed that (x1 ≅ 1)
and (x2 ≅ 0) in Equation (720), so we can write
nto ∆x 2
≅ n2S (721)
mA
For this derivation, nS1 is not assumed to be zero, but only (nS1 x2) is very small in magni-
tude. The nS2 term can be related to the excess concentration of the solute on the solid–
solution surface
nS2 = G S2Aspec (722)

where Aspec is the specific surface area of the adsorbent. The determination of Aspec in solu-
tions is difficult as a result of the ill-defined and heterogeneous nature of surfaces. Indi-
vidual adsorption isotherms from dilute solutions are drawn by plotting nS2 or G S2 against
x2, having varying shapes. However, the most commonly obtained form is very similar to
the type-I (Langmuir) isotherm of gas–solid adsorption. Although the Langmuir adsorp-
342 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

tion theory cannot be applied directly to solid–solution interfaces, because the adsorbed
film contains solvent as well as adsorbate molecules, it is common to apply the Langmuir
and/or Freundlich adsorption equations to adsorption from solution data. When the
adsorption isotherm can be fitted using the Langmuir equation, the saturation adsorption
of the solute can be obtained from the isotherm, and if the cross-sectional area of a solute
molecule at the interface is known, Aspec of the solid can be calculated. A dye such as
Methylene Blue is used for this purpose because of the ease of its concentration determi-
nation colorimetrically. For colorless adsorbates, the change in the refractive index of the
solution can be determined. However, there are uncertainties in the cross-sectional areas
of relatively large and asymmetric adsorbate molecules, such as moderately long-chain fatty
acids and various dyestuffs, and it is necessary to make assumptions regarding their ori-
entation and packing efficiency to calculate their effective surface coverage. In view of the
uncertainties involved in such calculations, it is usually desirable to calibrate a particular
adsorption from solution system with the aid of a surface area determination in air, which
is measured by the BET method, using nitrogen as the probe gas. It is clear that adsorp-
tion from solution has the merit of being experimentally easier than gas adsorption;
however, the problems in interpretation are far greater.

10.2 Detergency
Detergency is the removal of solid or liquid dirt particles from the adsorbed (or attached)
solid surfaces by using surfactants in an aqueous solution. In this definition, the dissolu-
tion of the dirt by pure chemicals or mechanical cleaning is excluded in order to discrim-
inate detergency from the dry-cleaning processes where organic solvents are used and
from the mechanically operated special washing machines, which are in daily use at present.
The sole detergent action can independently remove all oily substances and solid particles
such as dust, soot etc. from a solid surface in a washing process; but it is usually supported
by mechanical agitation in washing machines to speed up the cleaning process. The
washing of textiles by the application of detergents accounts for the bulk of all surfactant
usage, but detergent action is not limited to textiles. There is a wide variety of possible sub-
strates to be cleaned by detergents, including hard materials such as plastic, metal, glass,
ceramic; soft natural materials such as body skin and hair etc. On the other hand, the dirt
materials are versatile; they may be liquid or solid (usually a combination of both), polar
or non-polar, of small or large particle size, and chemically reactive or inert towards the
substrate and/or the detergent. Thus, the development of a general theory of detergent
cleaning mechanism is limited for such a wide variety of possible substrate–dirt systems.
However, the basic principles of detergent action are nearly the same for every cleaning
process, although their application is not possible for some substrate–dirt systems, espe-
cially where chemical reaction or chemisorption occurs.

10.2.1 Mechanisms of detergent action

It is clear that the solid or liquid dirt particles are adsorbed on a substrate, because
it is energetically more favorable to adsorb. If we can reverse the process, so that it is
 Some Applications Involving Solid–Liquid Interfaces 343

energetically more favorable for dirt material to leave the substrate surface and to suspend
or to dissolve in the solution, then the cleaning action will be accomplished spontaneously.
In thermodynamic terms, when a dirt particle is adsorbed on a substrate surface, it
forms a solid–dirt interface (SD) with an interfacial tension of gSD. When the dirt is
removed from this solid surface in aqueous solution, two new surfaces will be created;
one is the solid–water solution interface (SWs) having an interfacial tension of gSWs, and
the other is the dirt–water solution interface (DWs) with an interfacial tension of gDWs;
both have the same surface area with the former (SD) interface, in ideal cases. For solid
dirt particles, the constancy of the interfacial area may be possible, whereas if the dirt
is liquid, the removal of the dirt particle will accompany an area change, since the removed
liquid dirt drop preferably takes a spherical shape in the solution due to surface free
energy minimization. In this process, an increase in the temperature of the water solution
will also help conversion into the spherical drop shape with the decrease in viscosity of the
oily dirt.
The presence of solid or liquid dirt on a solid is in analogy with the formation of a sessile
drop on a substrate, as shown in Figure 9.1. The dirt material is not necessarily in a spher-
ical cap shape; it may be a rectangular block or in an irregular shape for solid dirt parti-
cles. For ease of schematic representation, if we replace the liquid drop with the dirt
particle, we can write D instead of L (L→D) and the vapor with the water solution
(V→Ws); then the work of adhesion between a dirt particle and a solid surface per unit
area can be expressed from Equation (644) as
a
WSD ∆GSD
a
=− = g SWs + g DWs − g SD (723)
A A
We need to decrease the value of W aSD to separate the dirt particle from the surface. In ther-
modynamic terms, the quantity ∆G aSD must be negative for the separation to be sponta-
neous. When a detergent is dissolved in water, due to the positive surface excesses of
detergent molecules at DWs and SWs interfaces, the values of gDWs and gSWs are reduced, so
that the (W aSD/A) term decreases, from Equation (723). The reduction of W aSD increases the
ease of removing the dirt particles with mechanical agitation.
On the other hand, if the dirt is liquid, it may form a layer or a spherical cap shape on
the substrate surface, especially in warm solutions. Then, it is possible to apply the
Young–Dupré equation (Equation (645)) to the detergent action
a
WSD ∆GSD
a
=− = g DWs (1 + cos q ) (724)
A A
By combining Equations (723) and (724) we obtain
gDWs cosq = gSWs − gSD (725)

There may be two situations depending on the initial contact angle of the liquid dirt drop
on the solid substrate. If (q > 90°), this corresponds to (gDS > gSWs), from Equation (725),
and Equation (724) shows that W aSD decreases rapidly with the increase in contact angle
by the detergent action, as shown in Figure 10.2 a (W aSD also decreases with decreasing
contact interfacial area between D and S). If, however, (q < 90°), this corresponds to (gSWs
> gDS), and Equation (724) shows that W aSD can decrease only with a decrease in the contact
angle by the detergent action, as shown in Figure 10.2 b. However, the work of adhesion
344 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

a.

q q

b.

Figure 10.2 Schematic representation of the detachment of oily dirt material from a substrate surface:
a. The sequences left to right illustrate the detachment of the dirt having an initial contact angle of
q > 90°. b. The sequences left to right illustrate the detachment of the dirt having an initial contact angle
of q < 90°. The lift-off hydraulic force detaches the spherical droplet at the end, but some drop remains
on the surface for case b.

values are large for the latter case, only part of the oily dirt can be removed from the surface
with the help of mechanical action, and some will remain adsorbed on the solid surface,
as shown in Figure 10.2 b. On the other hand, W aSD is small for the (q > 90°) case and the
oily dirt can be entirely removed with the help of mechanical action in a washing machine,
as shown in Figure 10.2 a. The lift-off process arising from the hydraulic forces in the solu-
tion also helps to remove the dirt in both cases.
In microscopic terms, the water molecules with a high surface tension (≈ 72.8 mJ m−2)
cannot enter the dirt–solid interfacial region to dislodge the dirt in detergent-free
conditions. However, when a suitable surfactant with detergency properties is dissolved in
water, it decreases the surface tension of water near the surface tension of the dirt (≈ 20–
40 mJ m−2), and the hydrophobic parts of the detergent molecules line up both on the solid
surface and on the dirt particles, thus increasing the surface excess of detergent molecules
in these interfaces, and reducing the adhesion of the dirt to the solid. Afterwards, the dirt
may be removed by mechanical action and will be held suspended in the aqueous solution
due to detergent adsorption on the dirt particles. Meanwhile, several other detergent
molecules form an adsorbed layer on the cleaned solid surface.
 Some Applications Involving Solid–Liquid Interfaces 345

10.2.2 Properties of a good detergent

In summary, a good detergent must possess good wetting characteristics both with the dirt
and with the solid substrate, so that the detergent can come into intimate contact with
them so as to remove the dirt into the bulk of the liquid and disperse it, so that the dis-
persed dirt cannot re-deposit on to the cleaned surface again; otherwise, a washing proce-
dure would only lead to a uniform distribution of the dirt. When a surfactant has ease of
adsorption at the solid–water and dirt–water interfaces, it will then act as a good deter-
gent. A detergent with a longer hydrocarbon chain in its structure can remove dirt better.
On the other hand, the adsorption at the air–water interface, with the consequent lower-
ing of surface tension down to ≈20–40 mJ m−2 is not necessarily an indication of detergent
effectiveness. For example, non-ionic detergents usually have excellent detergent action,
but they are poor surface tension reducers. In addition, the detergent action is dependent
upon the concentration of unassociated surfactant and practically unaffected by the
presence of micelles. The micelles may act as a reservoir to replenish the unassociated
surfactant adsorbed from solution.
Re-deposition of dirt on solid surfaces can be prevented by stabilizing the dispersion of
the detached dirt, by the adsorption of detergent molecules on the dirt particles in the
aqueous solution. The adsorbed detergent molecules prevent the aggregation and floccu-
lation of dirt particles by electrostatic repulsion, or by forming hydration barriers. Since
the substrate and dirt surfaces are generally negatively charged, anionic detergents tend to
be more effective than cationic detergents for this task. As a result of strong hydration of
the poly (ethylene oxide) chains, non-ionic detergents are also effective for this purpose
and mixed anionic plus non-ionic detergents are usually better than anionics alone. In
textile cleaning, the rate of diffusion of a detergent into a porous fabric is very important,
and the choice of a surfactant involves a compromise between a small hydrocarbon chain
length for rapid diffusion, and a longer hydrocarbon chain length for better dirt removal
and dispersion characteristics.
It is possible to test the action of a detergent in the laboratory: launderometer is a typical
method. A white textile cloth is polluted with standard dirt mixtures comprising carbon
black and grease such as vaseline, and cleaned with a standardized washing procedure (the
temperature of washing solution, agitation rate and washing duration are kept constant);
then the optical reflectivity is measured to evaluate the efficiency of the detergent. Recently,
a tergotometer method has been developed to test particular washing applications, where
special model dirt mixtures and paddle agitation are used. Radioactive labeling may also
be used instead of optical reflectivity measurements to evaluate the cleanliness of the cloth.
The microscopic determination of the shape and the contact angle of the droplet with a
video camera is also an important tool to monitor detergent action.

10.2.3 Functions of detergent additives

The builders, such as silicates, pyrophosphates (Na4P2O7) and tripolyphosphates, are

generally incorporated into detergent formulations to improve their performance.
They produce mildly alkaline solutions, which are favorable to detergent action. They also
form soluble non-adsorbed complexes with the metal ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+, which
346 Surface Chemistry of Solid and Liquid Interfaces

contribute to water hardness, and act as deflocculating agents, thus helping to avoid dirt
redeposition. Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose additive improves detergent performance in
washing cotton fabrics by forming a protective hydrated adsorbed layer on the cleaned
fabric; this helps to prevent dirt re-deposition. Optical brighteners are commonly incor-
porated into textile detergents to absorb ultraviolet light and emit blue light, in order to
mask the yellow tint, which may develop in white fabrics.

References
1. Aveyard, R. and Haydon, D.A. (1973). An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
2. Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry (3rd edn).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
3. Erbil, H.Y. (1997). Surface Tension of Polymers. In Birdi, K.S. (ed.). Handbook of Surface and
Colloid Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
4. Butt, H.J., Graf, K. and Kappl, M. (2003). Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim.
5. Shaw, D.J. (1996). Introduction to Colloid & Surface Chemistry (4th edn). Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford.
6. Adamson, A.W. and Gast, A.P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces (6th edn). Wiley, New York.
Index

absorption, 288 Bagley, 167

acid-base approach, 334 Bangham and Razouk, 310
active sites, 291 Bashfort and Adams equation, 229, 230, 236
activity, 77, 100, 158, 160 Beerbower, 167, 169
adhesion, 18, 19, 109, 137, 194, 226, 270 Benjamin Franklin, 190
work, 310, 344 Berthelot, 42
adhesive free energy, 111 BET method, 293–296, 300–02, 342
adiabatic process, 68 bilayer, 206–08
adsorbate, 98, 288, 291, 342 biocompatibility, 312
adsorbent, 288 Bohr atom, 32, 33, 42, 43
adsorption, 7, 96–8, 104, 176–88, 329 Boltzmann, 10, 17, 22, 29, 31, 34, 43, 70, 120,
associative, 289 153, 184, 266
composite isotherm, 339 Bond number, 229
dissociative, 289, 300 bond,
enthalpy, 289, 303 angle, 11, 12, 119
entropy, 291 moment, 12
gas, 288–304, 339 Born repulsion, 21, 48
hysteresis, 288, 290, 296 Born-Oppenheimer approximation, 23
isotherm, 288, 293, 294 bound water, 54
solution, 338–42 Böttcher, 167
thermodynamics, 176–88 Brönsted acid-base, 52, 53
adsorptive, 98, 288 buoyancy, 319
alternating layers, 221
amphipathic, 169 Canonical,
amphiphilic, 61 ensembles, 104
amphoteric, 174 partition functions, 104, 120
angle-averaged potentials, capacitance, 15
dipole-dipole, 31 capillarity, 97, 127, 136, 137, 149, 223, 234, 236
dipole-induced dipole, 37, 39 capillary,
induced dipole-induced dipole, 34, 39 condensation, 147, 301
ion-dipole, 29 constant, 138, 226, 227, 229, 230, 244
unification, 38 rise method, 137, 223, 226–31, 233, 247, 315
arc length, 129, 135 wave method, 223
associated state, 252, 253, 274, 275 captive bubble method, 315, 316
atomic force microscopy (AFM), 50, 247, 248, Carnot cycle equation, 67–9, 149
269, 270, 283 Cassie-Baxter equation, 7, 327, 329
348 Index

catalytic activity, 305, 306 interactions, 18, 24, 27, 28, 32, 38, 42, 51,
cavity energy, 272 252, 256, 275, 286
Chaudhury, 334 covalent bond, 9, 10, 52, 54
chemical, critical micelle concentration (CMC), 187,
bonding, 9 201–05
heterogeneity, 6, 7, 281, 327 critical points, 123, 142
interactions, 9 critical surface tension, 330, 331
potential, 74–7, 100, 107, 121, 157, 159, Crowley,167
160 curvature, 6, 97, 126–32, 139, 226, 228
chemisorption, 100, 101, 290, 291, 295, 304, Gaussian, 131, 132
339, 342 mean, 131, 132
heat, 290 principal, 131
chord theorem, 257, 258 radius, 128, 129, 140, 144–48, 229, 243
Clapeyron equation, 124, 125 three-dimensional, 130–36, 228
clathrate, 58, 59 cyclic processes, 67
Clausius inequality, 69, 78, 79
Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 123–25, 143, Dalton’s law, 158, 159
164 Debye induced dipole interactions, 37, 38, 40,
Clausius-Mossotti equation, 15, 17, 35 45–7, 251, 255, 266
cloud point, 204 Debye, 11, 17
cohesion, 18, 19, 26, 27, 84, 86, 106, 109, 117, Debye-Langevin equation, 17, 32, 34
118, 124,137, 162, 166, 194, 226, 254, DeGennes and Joanny, 327
279 density distribution function, 111, 113
cohesive, deposition ratio, 221
chemical potential, 107–12 Derjaguin approximation, 264, 265
energy density, 161–4 desorption, 98, 101, 290, 298, 299
colligative properties, 158, 160 detergency, 342–46
combining rules, 251–54 detergent, 170
compressibility factor, 76, 106, 161 dielectric constant, 15, 24, 26, 27, 32, 38, 48, 51,
concave, 266, 267
function, 127, 128 dihedral angle, 11, 119
side, 227 dipole moment
conformation, 11 induced, 14–6, 32, 33, 52
contact angle, 7, 90, 138, 226, 230, 231, permanent, 11, 15, 16, 27, 34, 47
308–37 dipole-dipole interactions, 28, 30, 31, 252
advancing, 313–15, 319–21, 325 disorder, 69, 158
dynamic, 313, 318–21 dispersant, 169
equilibrium, 313–15 dispersion interactions, 18, 40, 59, 151, 252,
evaporation effect, 321–24 257, 263, 274, 332
hysteresis, 7, 320, 325–29 DLVO theory, 268
powders, 324, 325 donor-acceptor interactions, 52, 55, 59, 85, 168
receding, 313–16, 319–21, 325 double-wedge technique, 282
static, 312–18 Drelich and Miller, 329
temperature dependence, 329, 330 drop dimensions method, 316
tensiometric, 318 drop profile, 228
convex, drop volume method, 223, 231–34
function, 127, 128 Drude equation, 41
side, 227 dry-cleaning process, 342
Coulomb, du Noüy ring method, 236–38, 247
forces, 10, 25, 51, 251, 256 Dupre equation, 194, 310
 Index 349

elastic response, 117, 279, 284 free energy, 71, 89, 93, 113, 123, 124,
electric, 135, 150, 158, 159, 165, 195, 196, 257,
field, 14, 15, 25 286
potential, 14, 25 integral method, 311
electronegativity, 11, 12, 52–4 intermolecular forces, 22, 157
electrostatic, monolayers, 176, 177
bond, 9, 10 phase rule, 77, 79, 99, 157
interactions, 24, 52, 54 Gibbs-Duhem equation, 75, 96, 160
ellipsometry, 293 Good, 311, 314, 334–36
emulsifiers, 169, 170 Goniometer, 313
emulsion polymerization, 210–13 gravitation constant, 19, 240
endothermic, 64 gravitational forces, 18, 20, 87, 234, 317
energy of vaporization, 109, 254 Guggenheim, 97, 142
enthalpy, 58, 59, 62, 66
vaporization, 124 Hamaker approach, 251, 255–66
entropy, 58, 59, 62, 67–71, 124, 156–62 interaction constant, 259–63, 266–72
Eötvos, 141–43 Hansen, 166, 167
Euler reciprocity, 65, 79, 95, 134 Harkins, 195, 196
excess, harmonic mean approach, 333
entropy, 160 heat capacity, 64
free energy, 160 heat of adsorption, 303, 304
interfacial free energy, 85 integral, 304
internal energy, 82 differential, 304
moles of component, 99, 291, 292 Helmholtz free energy, 71, 72, 89, 93, 95, 97,
polarizability, 34, 35, 47, 51 181, 182
surface chemical potential, 96 Henry
surface entropy, 94, 97, 141 law, 185, 296–98
surface free energy, 5, 97 adsorption isotherm, 295
surface pressure, 94 heterogeneous closed systems, 78–81
excluded volume, 44, 107 Hildebrand, 119, 162–65, 254
exothermic, 64 Hill, 300
extensive variables, 62, 66 HLB method, 170, 175
homomorph, 166
film balance, 180, 240 Huh and Mason, 326
First Law of Thermodynamics, 63, 64, 78, hydrogen-bonding interactions, 18, 52–60, 119,
92 166–68, 251, 254, 285
fluid, 3, 117 hydrophilic interactions, 18, 57, 60, 61, 169,
Fowkes, 311, 314, 331, 332, 335 170, 173, 214, 215, 251
fractional coverage, 288, 289, 304 hydrophobic,
Freundlich adsorption isotherm, 295, 296, 302, interactions, 18, 57–61, 169, 171, 215, 251,
342 312, 344
fugacity, 76–8 effect, 58, 59
coefficient, 78–80
immiscible liquids, 89, 186, 254
geometric-mean rule, 42, 164, 331, 332 induced polarization, 14, 18, 32
Gibbs, inexact differentials, 65
adsorption isotherm, 99, 100, 177, 180, initiator, 210
183–7, 291, 338 intensive variables, 62
dividing surface, 4, 81, 82, 90–99, 101, 102, interatomic forces, 9
133–36, 177–82, 284, 338 interface definition of, 3
350 Index

interfacial, lift-off process, 344

boundary, 4, 63 like dissolves like rule, 254
free energy, 85 line tension, 328
layer, 81, 136 liposome, 202, 206–08
tension, 85, 89, 134, 154, 308 London dispersion interactions, 40–46, 166,
internal, 251, 255, 259–66, 267
energy, 62–5, 73, 74, 79, 82, 91, 120, 124, 252 long-range forces, 39, 40, 250, 251
pressure, 105, 106 Lorenz and Lorentz, 17, 167
interparticle forces, 250 lyophilic, 169–71
interphase region, 81 lyophobic, 169, 171
intra-molecular forces, 9
ionic bond, 9, 10 macrobodies, 250, 251
ion-induced nonpolar interactions, 35, 36, 38 macropores, 301
ion-induced polar interactions, 36 macroscopic approach, 266–68
ion-ion interactions, 18, 24, 27–9, 252 Madelung constant, 26
ionization potential, 41, 42, 47, 52 Marangoni effect, 189
ion-quadrupole interactions, 31 maximum bubble pressure method, 223, 228,
irreversible process, 65, 67, 78 234–36, 244
isochore, 106 Maxwell, 17, 22
equations, 73, 95, 105
Jurin, 137, 139 McBain, 187
proportionality, 137 McLachlan equation, 47, 267
McLeod, 142
Katayama, 142 mean stay time, 98, 288
Keesom orientation interactions, 31, 32, 37, meniscus, 122, 123, 139, 228, 229
38,40, 45, 46, 166, 251, 255, 266 mercury injection porosimetry, 139, 148, 294
Keller, 167 mesopores, 301
Kelvin, 141, 143–8, 150–53, 164 metallic bond, 9, 10
Kraft temperature, 204 micelle, 60, 61, 187, 201–13
micropores, 301
Landau and Lifshitz approach, 34 microscopic approach, 255
Lane, 229, 230 microtensiometry, 247
Langbein approximation, 263, 264 Mie pair potential, 22, 50
Langmuir, 176, 191, 289 mixing, 158
adsorption isotherm, 295, 297–300, 302, 341, molar,
342 polarization, 15
insoluble monolayer, 176, 190–92, 199 refraction, 17
trough, 179–81, 197, 213, 240 molecular,
Langmuir-Blodgett coatings, 213–22 dynamics, 120, 121
Langmuir-Schaeffer coatings, 222 geometry, 11
latent heat, orientation, 3, 4, 189, 328
vaporization, 124 polarizability, 13, 32, 33, 41, 42, 47, 52
surface, 141 molecular-orbital theory, 10, 55
latex, 210 monolayer, 83, 98, 100, 170, 181–84, 280, 290
Lee, 334 collapsed state, 199, 200
Lennard-Jones pair potential, 22, 50, 119, 120, condensed, 192, 199, 200, 216
166, 286 expanded, 192, 199, 200
Lewis acid-base interactions, 52, 53 gaseous, 188, 190–92, 199, 200, 214
Lewis, 335 insoluble, 190–93
Lifshitz, 251, 265–68 monomer, 210
 Index 351

Monte Carlo, 120, 121 radial distribution function, 118, 119

multilayer, 83, 100, 170, 217, 290, 296, Ramsay and Shields, 142, 143
300–02 randomly dispersed state, 252, 253, 274, 275
Raoult’s law, 77, 106, 157, 158
nanotechnolgy, 250 Rayleigh, 139, 190, 191, 229
Nernst’s distribution law, 201 refractive index, 17, 48, 167, 266, 267
Netzer, 222 Regular Solution Theory, 109, 161
Neumann, 314, 329, 333, 334 relative permittivity, 15, 24, 26, 27, 32, 51, 167,
Neumann’s triangle, 103 266
Newton, 19, 20, 87, 120, 127, 128,140 repellency, 6
non-pressure-volume work, 65, 66, 91 repulsive interactions, 18, 21, 40, 43, 48–51,
nucleation, 147, 149 119, 251, 267
homogeneous, 147, 150–53 retardation effect, 266
heterogeneous, 150, 154, 155 ring method, 223, 236

octupole moment, 27 Sagiv, 222

open systems, 73 saturated vapor presure, 122
orientation polarization, 13, 34 Scatchard, 164, 165
oscillating jet method, 223, 244 Schrödinger equation, 11, 18, 23
osculating circle, 127, 129, 135 screening effect, 27
Ostwald ripening,145, 150 Second Law of Thermodynamics, 67–72
Owens and Wendt equation, 331, 332 short-range forces, 21, 43, 250, 251
single crystals, 280
pair potential energy, 22, 23, 48–51, 106, 112, sintering, 279
254, 255, 265, 286 Slater and Kirkwood equation, 41
parachor, 142, 143 sliding drop, 316
path dependent integrals, 67 Small, 335
Pauli principle, 48, 119 solubility parameters, 109, 125,161, 165, 166
perturbation theories, 120, 255 solution,
phase, 3, 78, 94, 97, 121, 122, 124, 149, 156, equilibrium, 156, 157
254 surfaces, 156
physical interactions, 9, 18 solvation forces, 251, 272–75
physiosorption, 100, 289 solvent medium effects, 34,38, 47, 51,
Picknett and Bexon, 323 272–75
Planck’s constant, 41, 47, 266 specific surface excess entropy, 97, 141
plastic response, 284 spherical drop, 7
PLAWM trough, 180, 197 spinning drop method, 240–44
Pockels, 191 spreading, 7, 193–200
polar-induced polar interactions, 37 coefficient, 195–7
polarizability, 32–6, 252, 255, 266 pressure, 102, 177, 180, 186, 189, 199, 200,
polar-nonpolar interactions, 36 216, 240, 241, 292, 310, 335
potential energy, 19, 64 sputtering, 283
probabilities of states, 69, 118 stalagmometer, 231
Pythagoras’s theorem, 257, 258 standard chemical potential, 76
Stark effect, 17
quadrupole moment, 27, 38 statistical,
quadrupole-quadrupole interactions, 31 mechanics, 104, 120
quantum mechanics, 10, 11, 18, 40–42, 48, 52, thermodynamics, 104
70, 266 Stern layer, 205
quartz crystal microbalance, 221, 293 stick-slip behavior, 327
352 Index

Stirling’s approximation, 70 vacuum permittivity, 15, 24

Sugden, 143 valence-bond theory, 9, 10
superheating, 146 van der Waals,
surface, interactions, 18, 21, 22, 31, 37–9, 43–8, 51,
area, 5, 93–6, 142, 183, 185 54, 105, 106, 108, 163, 186, 250–55, 267,
definition, 3, 4 273, 289
equation of state, 102, 183, 297 radius, 49, 54, 56, 59, 60
excess, 90, 92, 101, 178, 184 van Laar, 162, 163
free energy, 5, 85, 86, 94, 142, 284–87, 308 van Laar-Lorentz equation, 165
force apparatus (SFA), 50, 263, 268–70 van-Oss, 334–36
pressure-area isotherm, 199, 200 vesicle, 202, 207, 208
roughness, 6, 7, 271, 326 video image digitization, 223, 230, 233, 234,
spectroscopy, 4 313
stress, 284, 285 Volmer, 185
tension, 5, 85, 86, 137, 140, 156, 180, 279, Vonnegut’s equation, 246
284, 308, 330 volume element, 118
surfactant, 99, 169–76, 201–10, 217, 249,
342 Washburn equation, 294, 324, 325
Baloform, 174 wave mechanics, 10, 40
diblock, 174 Wenzel equation, 7, 326
Gemini, 174 wettability, 6, 308, 312, 321
packing parameter, 207 Wilhelmy plate, 181, 198, 214, 223, 236,
polymeric, 174 238–41, 244, 247, 248
static, 318
Temkin adsorption isotherm, 303 dynamic, 318–21
thermal, Wu, 333
expansion coefficient, 106
pressure, 106 Young-Dupre equation, 310, 335, 343
Third Law of Thermodynamics, 71 Young-Laplace equation, 126–28, 133–7, 139,
tilt angle, 316 140, 143, 148, 223, 226, 227, 234, 235, 314,
triple point, 122 326
Trouton’s rule, 111, 112 Young’s equation, 309, 310, 326, 329, 332
two-dimensional gas, 182–84
Zisman, 314, 326, 330, 331
ultra-high vacuum, 281 zwitterionic, 174