Supervision in Teacher Education

J McCarthy and L F Quinn, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, USA

ã 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Supervision in Teacher Education Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching in 1920,

recommended that teacher education programs be clini-
Supervision in teacher education is meant to assist teacher cally based, with ongoing opportunities for observation
education candidates preparing to enter the profession for and supervised practice in real world settings (Imig and
the first time and to assist practicing teachers in the Imig, 2006).
development of the skills necessary for effective teaching. A little more than 50 years after the Bulletin #14
Supervision is usually carried out through three separate report, the AACTE Commission on Education for the
processes: (1) observation, (2) analysis, and (3) discussion Profession of Teaching determined that educators must
or sharing information collected and organized by the develop teaching skills through practice in a controlled
supervisor with the teacher education candidate or training environment accompanied by effective direction
teacher. Teachers in the field often comment that they and supervision. The effective use of both laboratory and
learned how to teach by practicing the act of teaching field-centered approaches has long been viewed as crucial
in actual classroom situations with a skillful supervisor to to the development of the complex competencies of
guide them and that student teaching is often viewed as teaching.
the most useful part of the teacher education process Early schools were often staffed by low-paid indivi-
(Roth, 1983). John Dewey (1963) speaks of experiences duals with little formal education. The profession of
that are educative, and says that the direction in teaching had yet to develop and supervising teachers
which growth takes place must be specified and indicated. was often left to local officials whose task was to visit
Experience alone is not always a good teacher and schools and make recommendations for their improve-
teacher education programs around the world have imple- ment (Fuller, 1982). Supervisors may also appear in the
mented some form of supervision as a part of teacher form of educated individuals or a visiting committee
preparation. whose mission was to see that the teaching was competent
Approaches to supervision have been described through and the learning adequate. Even in the early stages of
various terms (some philosophical and some practical) supervision in teacher education, it was understood that
as: essentialism, experimentalism, and existentialism supervisors would be objective, draw conclusions based on
(Glickman, 1990); positivism, phenomenology, and critical the evidence, and give balanced feedback. An increase in
theory (May and Zimpher, 1986); and learner-centered the number of teachers required to meet the needs of the
(Paris and Gespass, 2001). Whatever the name given to ever-growing number of students and schools resulted in
supervision, observing, analyzing, and discussing the act of more emphasis being placed on teacher preparation and
teaching is viewed as an effective way to improve teaching supervision.
performance. Additionally, government departments of Normal schools of the nineteenth century in the
education exert a strong influence on supervision in teacher United States (US) gave detailed attention to supervised
education by setting requirements for the amount of clinical practice that followed a significant amount of time spent
practice a teacher must complete in order to be licensed. observing in classrooms (Clifford and Guthrie, 1988).
Feiman-Nemser (1990) reports that James Earl Russell,
dean of Teachers College (1894–1927), described a model
Historical Perspectives on Supervision in
laboratory school where exemplary teachers would over-
Teacher Education
see the training of novices. In the mid-1960s, the Harvard
Supervision in teacher education is not a new component University Masters in Teaching Program initiated a clin-
of preparing teachers or providing professional develop- ical supervision process in which the teacher education
ment opportunities for teachers already in the field. candidates and teachers helped determine the focus of
While reform efforts to improve the conditions of teacher their own supervision (Goldhammer, 1969).
education have proliferated in the past 40 years, the We find similar stages of development in teacher prep-
importance of a well-trained supervisor to facilitate the aration programs with regard to supervision practices
growth of a novice or an experienced teacher remains as around the world. There are numerous efforts underway
central to the process today as it did nearly a century ago. at this time to standardize teacher education programs.
Bulletin #14, The professional preparation of teachers for The Bologna Accord (1999) in Europe and the Report
American public schools, a report issued by the Carnegie of the House of Representatives Standing Committee

615
616 Teacher Education – Preservice Teacher Education

(www.gmacbolognaproject.com/docs/BolognaCheatSheet– teacher education candidates and teachers. With this in

2005) on Education and Vocational Training in Australia mind, institutions of higher education around the world
(Hartsuyker, 2007), as well as several national committees plan and implement strategies for improving supervisory
and commissions in the US (including a commission practices in teacher education. In the University of
sponsored by the National Academy of Education) bear Montreal’s 4-year teacher preparation program, at least
testament to this movement. The European Commission 700 hours in a school setting are required. Supervisors and
(2007) has also recently put forth proposals aimed at teacher education candidates in this program are taught
improving the quality of teacher education in member the processes of practical argument (Fenstermacher,
states and standardizing the guidelines. All of these 1987), shared reflective practice (Tochon, 1996), and use
reports and commissions have implications for the future of videotapes to gain a greater awareness of the relation-
supervision of teacher candidates. ship between feedback and action in the supervisory
process (Gervais, 2005). The benefits of paired-place-
ments and the power of communication within particular
Supervision in Constructing a Professional
contexts to improve teacher education practice in collab-
Identity
orative settings are examined in detail by Sorensen (2005)
The practice of teaching and learning to teach are so at the University of Nottingham.
inextricably connected that attempting to help someone The use of specific tasks to help preservice teachers in
learn to teach without actually critiquing their attempts at Santiago, Chile identify, interpret, and analyze professional
teaching seems pointless. Interactions between experts performance within a specific institutional culture is dis-
and novices in teacher education that focus on instruction cussed by Rittershaussen et al. (2005). This study examines
have been the subject of numerous research studies. When the knowledge constructed by preservice teachers regarding
the emphasis in supervision is on helping teachers develop professional performance and the challenges they perceive
skills in delivering instruction, helping the same teachers in becoming members of a professional context through
construct a professional identity may become secondary. dialog with supervisors. A study by Chan et al. (2007) looked
Recent research on supervision has focused on teacher at the preconceptions of teaching and learning held by
participation in their own development as teachers preservice teachers in Singapore. Another study by de
through collaboration with colleagues, peer feedback, Leon-Carillo looked at the preconceptions of teacher
reflective practice, and action research (Glickman, 1990; roles held by preservice teachers in the Philippines. The
Holland et al., 1992; Yusko, 2004; Shin et al., 2006). One preconceptions that students bring with them to the teacher
view of supervision as described by Glickman (1990) sees preparation program can serve as guides for the field
‘‘the focus of supervision as a process of eliciting the experiences they need to have in order to become effective
teacher’s own thinking and planning.’’ (p. 550). professionals. Other studies, including one conducted by
Constructing a professional identity cannot occur in a Ballard (2002), have shown that student teacher beliefs are
vacuum. This process requires that quality leaders assist greatly influenced by those of the cooperating teachers with
novice teachers in their journey towards a professional whom they work. These findings indicate the need for
identity. The complex act of the construction of a profes- careful selection and training of cooperating teachers.
sional identity by teacher education candidates during the
transition from university setting to a school context is
Supervision and Induction
examined through a collaborative partnership utilizing
Internet discourse among all participants (Dauvisis et al., Supervision is a natural by-product of induction pro-
2005; The Association of Teacher Educators’ Commission grams. Induction programs are designed to give new or
on Quality Leaders for Novice Teachers, 2006). Dubar’s experienced teachers support and assistance rather than
(1996) description of professional identity development as simply assessing their work. As part of induction pro-
the simultaneously stable and provisional; individual and grams, mentors, that is, teachers with a record of success
collective; subjective and objective; and biographic and in their own classrooms, are assigned to guide other
structural result of different processes of socialization teachers in the acquisition of the skills of teaching and
that build individuals and define institutions encompasses the professional tools necessary for a teaching career.
the many variables associated with learning to teach in a Induction programs often include a form of clinical super-
social environment. vision for teachers who face trouble in the classroom.
The school administrator plays an important role in
establishing an environment that facilitates the supervi-
Research on Supervision
sion and the work of mentors. Experienced teachers are
Research on supervision in teacher education has demon- asked by their administrators to serve as mentors or
strated that supervisory observations alone are not suffi- cooperating teachers. Some teachers assume the mentor
cient to fully interpret and critique the experiences of role eagerly as another step in their own professional
 Supervision in Teacher Education 617

development. Others may be less than enthusiastic. professional growth to reflect upon their instructional
Whichever way teachers approach the task of supervision, practices. Such discussions help them recognize the ele-
they have firm opinions about what conditions must be ments necessary to prepare their own classroom learning
present for teachers to be successful. Many perceive the environments to accommodate the individual needs of
school administrator to be responsible for establishing an learners.
environment that supports both supervision and the men- The purpose of supervision, whether it is to improve
toring process and that assists experienced teachers in teaching behaviors, to increase teacher reflection and
their role as a professional guide. The support that coop- critical analysis, to increase skill in using a particular
erating teachers and mentors are able to offer teachers is teaching strategy, or to improve general satisfaction with
strongly influenced by physical considerations such as the teaching, must be clear among all members of the super-
proximity of classrooms, the schedules, and the teaching visory triad for its greatest effect to be achieved.
assignments, all of which are ultimately controlled by the
administrators (Quinn, 1994). Participants in a supervision triad
The availability of such induction support and mentor- Teacher education candidate
ing varies greatly among teacher education contexts, rang- The teacher education candidate or teacher seeking pro-
ing from nonexistent to outstanding. There is a growing fessional support is the purpose for supervision. Their
body of research to draw on regarding the value of such role is to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and performance
support for the beginning teacher. Darling-Hammond that meet expected standards in the areas of planning;
(2006) cites numerous studies that show that teachers instruction and management of the classroom environ-
who participate in a supervised student teaching experi- ment; and management of the activities and behavior of
ence are more likely to stay in the profession, as are those students. In addition, candidates and teachers are
who participate in mentoring programs during their first expected to comply with all school and district policies.
2 years of teaching (p.339).
The cooperating teacher
The cooperating teacher is often viewed as the single most
The Supervision Triad
important influence by teacher education candidates in the
The activities and processes of supervision in teacher process of learning to teach. Costa and Garmston (1987) list
education normally occur in a triad (teacher education three contributions that a cooperating teacher or mentor
candidate or practicing teacher; cooperating teacher or can offer to others. They model best practices, they pass
mentor; and university supervisor or administrator). along the tools of the trade, and they encourage develop-
While variations on the degree of involvement and classi- ment of the intellectual process of teaching in others by
fication of members of the triad do exist, the teacher articulating their actions and thought processes. Effective
education candidate or teacher is the purpose for the cooperating teachers and mentors become what Costa and
supervision, while another, more experienced teacher Garmston (1994) refer to as cognitive coaches.
takes responsibility for observing and critiquing the nec- At some point in the interaction with a practicum
essary teaching activities. A university or college supervi- student, student teacher, intern, or beginning teacher,
sor, whose responsibility is to guarantee that requirements the cooperating teacher or mentor will have to give criti-
of the institution are fulfilled, works closely with all other cism or offer advice. Henry and Beasley (1989) offer
members of the triad as well as the school administrator to suggestions for interactive practices by cooperating tea-
ensure that the supervision is being conducted in a pur- chers and mentors that lead to effective supervisory
poseful and supportive manner. This triad formation is experiences. Among these suggestions, clear and specific
common to most, if not all, existing teacher education communication and feedback, modeling espoused beha-
programs. viors, consistency, offering rationale for actions and sug-
It is expected that the supervision triad will create an gestions, and using problem-solving strategies to guide
effective learning environment for the development of professional growth are considered as most supportive of
practical knowledge, skills, and dispositions relevant to supervisory interactions.
the professional growth of teachers. Through completion
of specific assignments such as writing and implementing The university supervisor
lessons for small groups or an entire class of students The main role of the university supervisor in the super-
during field-based experiences, the teacher education vision triad is to see that institutional requirements are
candidate observes the complexities of classroom life completed by the teacher education candidate. The uni-
and is able to analyze these observations through discus- versity supervisor must often assume roles other than that
sion with an experienced cooperating teacher and a of observing teaching practices and providing construc-
university supervisor. Supervisory discussions encourage tive analysis of said practices. The university supervisor
teacher education candidates and teachers seeking may find it necessary to facilitate relationships among
618 Teacher Education – Preservice Teacher Education

teachers, to serve as a personal confidant when necessary, work with the strengths that diverse students bring with
to provide individualized instruction, and to provide them to school rather than searching for reasons why they
guidance in areas that may have been overlooked by are deficient according to the teacher’s values and expec-
other participants in the triad (Zimpher, 1980). The uni- tations? (2) How can supervisors facilitate the develop-
versity supervisor may also serve as a seminar leader and a ment of teachers who can be effective with all types of
placement consultant. learners in a diverse classroom?, and (3) How can clinical
All participants in the supervision triad need to possess supervision help preservice teachers provide a level play-
certain personal characteristics that help to prevent dis- ing field for all members of the classroom group? The
harmony and discord. The characteristics most relevant to answers to these dilemmas are critical at this time of
the supervision triad focus on interpersonal and commu- increasing globalization.
nication skills. Before supervision in teacher education One elementary school in the southwestern US has more
takes place, agreements must be established and guide- than 80 flags hanging in the lunchroom representing the
lines set. It is imperative that all members of the triad homelands of the students in the school. The minority has
become familiar with the supervisory process to be fol- become the majority in the Clark County School District.
lowed and be aware of the potential outcomes of the Yet the teaching force is predominantly Anglo and female.
process. Supervision styles should accommodate differing Teacher educators in many nations, such as England,
stages of teacher development. Seminal development of Ireland, and the US to name a few, are grappling with
frameworks for classifying supervisory behaviors and con- these issues. Given the current political realities, supervi-
ferences were offered by Amidon and Flanders (1967) and sors and teachers alone cannot alter the reality of poverty,
Spaulding (1967). Variations on these frameworks have class, and language. What they are trying to do is equip
produced a variety of ways to conduct and assess supervi- preservice teachers with experiences that allow them to
sion in teacher education. work in culturally diverse classrooms and begin to reflect
on what skills and knowledge they will need to provide
equitable learning experiences for all ( Jacobs, 2006).
Changing Perspectives on Supervision in
Teacher Education
Supervision for social justice Alternative routes to licensure
Diversity in the school-age population is a major concern There appear to be differences in the types and models of
for educators in many nations. Changing demographics supervision provided for students in university-based
and increasing diversity have presented challenges for the teacher education programs and for those who come in
majority of teacher education programs. Many nations through an alternative program or the normal school
have expressed concern that the needs of all students route. This seems to hold true globally. Some alternative
are not being met in schools as they are currently staffed programs shorten the field experience segment of the
with teachers who are not knowledgeable on working with program. Some students do not have clinical experience
diverse student populations. Some programs are trying until their last semester, or student teaching experience.
hard to provide preservice teachers with the knowledge, The person actually supervising may differ as well. In
skills, and experiences they need in order to provide all the some alternative teacher education programs there are
students with quality education. The challenges are many. no university supervisors, only cooperating teachers.
Han and Singh (2007) report on the difficulties in the Some programs in the US put college graduates imme-
recruitment and retention of student teachers and tea- diately into a classroom before they have any pedagogy
chers from minority and immigrant groups in Australia. coursework. These novice teachers take classes while on
There is a mismatch between the type and length of the the job and are assigned mentor teachers to work with
field experiences needed by immigrant education stu- them while they are teaching in their own K-12 class-
dents who have had no experience with the culture of rooms. If the quality of the mentoring is good, many of
Australian schools and the generic model of field experi- these new teachers can do quite well.
ences offered by teacher preparation programs. The Other licensure programs that consist mainly of online
minority preservice teachers believe that their supervi- coursework have only limited fieldwork. Their students
sors do not understand their needs. As a result, the have no preliminary practice or observations in class-
increasing diversity of Australian students is not being rooms, but hit the ground running during their student
met with an increase in teacher candidates from other teaching experience. Again, the quality of the supervision
ethnic or linguistic groups. and mentoring plays a big role in the success or failure of
Teacher education programs are currently seeking these teachers. We can expect to see more alternative
answers to questions related to preparing high-quality routes to licensure developing around the world as large
teachers for all student populations. Some of these numbers of existing teachers retire and the populations in
questions are: (1) How can preservice teachers learn to many countries continue to grow.
 Supervision in Teacher Education 619

School university partnerships teachers. Some programs use formalized data such as
A unique response to the challenge of university-based pre- and post-test scores. Others have students reflect, in
teacher education programs working closely with public their portfolios, on the effectiveness of the lessons they
schools has been that of the professional develop- taught and an analysis of what worked and what did not
ment school (PDS). In some places, these are called part- work and why. Many accreditation bodies are demanding
ner schools. In the US, PDSs were initiated in response to this sort of evidence before licensure of new teachers
a recommendation of the Holmes Group, an organization and many state and national legislatures are also demand-
of College of Education deans (Darling-Hammond, 2006). ing this type of evidence of teacher effectiveness at the
The purpose of the PDSs was to create partner schools preservice level.
that worked closely with teacher education faculty to
create an environment conducive to learning to teach all
children. Public school teachers were viewed as teacher The Use of Technology in Supervision
educators and provided supervision of clinical experi-
The age of technology has influenced methods of supervi-
ences. Sometimes, the experience of the teacher educa-
sion in teacher education. A variety of technological
tion candidates in PDSs is modeled on medical education
tools exist that can support supervision and student self-
and preservice teachers actually do rounds similar to the
assessment in teacher education. Some teacher prepara-
practices of medical students in hospital rotations. Such
tion programs provide preservice teachers with laptops to
arrangements require expert supervision. Teachers at
use for journaling their daily experiences in the classroom.
PDSs often engage in graduate coursework in supervisory
Students can also utilize their laptops to communicate
practices.
with their supervisors and peers on a regular basis, thus
creating a community of learners. Electronic communica-
tion is especially helpful for students doing field work in
Variations on a Traditional Model of Supervision
remote or rural areas, but can be used by all preservice
in Teacher Education
teachers. Some forms of supervision make use of video-
Teacher education programs around the world are experi- cams and electronic recording devices for students to
menting with new models of supervision. These models utilize in the reflection and analysis of their teaching
are sometimes driven by contextual variables and some- efforts. Technology can be seen as a tool to improve the
times by sound pedagogical theory. For example, one quality of student practice and teacher mentoring. In the
program in the US is trying paired student teacher information age driven by technology, supervision in
placements similar to other experiments. They have teacher education may become more self-directed than
grounded their program in Vygotsky’s zone of proximal that in the past, as novices and experienced teachers alike
development and are trying to provide the teacher educa- turn to the Internet for advice and examples.
tion candidates with peer support as they progress through
the developmental levels of learning to teach (Baker and
Techniques for using technology in
Milner, 2006). The newly adopted teacher education
reflection/self-analysis
guidelines in Ethiopia call for five consecutive practicum
Technology has also provided preservice teachers with
courses in partner schools from the beginning of the pro-
greater opportunity than ever before for self-analysis and
gram (Degago, 2007). One program in rural Australia has
reflection of their work. Students can even download
facilitated the placement of future teachers in remote rural
demonstration teaching classes and watch expert teachers
schools by implementing a support system that incorpo-
teach in real classrooms. They then can analyze their
rates face-to-face mentoring with innovative use of com-
own teaching based on what they saw. Many teacher
munication technology (see more about technology in the
preparation programs are teaching their students the
next section.). Some programs in European nations require
evaluation systems that will be used to assess their perfor-
1 or 2 full years of clinical experience before licensure
mance when they are teaching full time. Some programs
(Cobb, 1999). Others in some developing countries still
are even using these systems to assess candidate skill and
rely on the normal school license rather than a degree
expertise, so as to better prepare the teacher for the
program. Students in these programs rely on the teachers
expectations of the workplace. Many of these assessments
in the schools for supervision and mentoring.
are online and students can get immediate feedback from
their supervisors.
Portfolios have been used in teacher preparation pro-
Supervisory Assessment of Field Experiences
grams for some time. Now, however, students are prepar-
This is an age of teacher accountability for student ing electronic portfolios of their culminating field
learning. Thus, many supervisors look for evidence that experiences and are including videoclips of their teaching.
learning is taking place in the classroom of preservice Not only are these portfolios used by supervisors to
620 Teacher Education – Preservice Teacher Education

mentor future teachers, but they can also be used as part influence practice, there are many commonalities with
of an application package when the candidate applies for regard to the challenges and implementation of effective
professional employment. supervision.

Online supervision in teacher education

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