AMORPHOUS

METAL

A project submitted to:

Dr. Marzokie M. Mocsir

Natural Sciences and Mathematics Department

College of Arts and Sciences

Notre Dame of Marbel University

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in

ENGCHEM 111

(Chemistry for Engineers)

By:

Morte, Mark Vincent D.

Maravillesa, Heceller

October 8, 2019
 INTRODUCTION

Transformers are the basic and important components of any power system or electrical circuitry.

By far, one of the major components in the transformer other than the ‘’transformer windings’’

that is having the prime importance is the ‘’transformer core’’. The functionality of the transformer

is wholly dependent on this part. Irrespective of the type of transformer used in a certain power

system the efficiency largely depends upon the material i.e. metal used for the core or the choice

of core. The better the ‘’magnetic properties of the core material’’ used the more efficient the

operation of transformers will be. ‘’Magnetization’’ is the process that is taking place constantly

in the core of a transformer as the electric current is passed through its windings i.e. primary. When

the current is passed through its primary windings depending upon the ‘’number of turns’’ in the

winding the core starts the process of magnetization as soon as it happens and keep on Magnetizing

and De-magnitizing itself depending upon the magnetizing properties and the saturation time for

that particular material of core. Technically, as the current passes through primary winding the

metal placed inside this current carrying conductor/coil i.e. ‘’core’’ faces a magnetic field due to

the current and the strength of this magnetic field upod the intensity of the electric current and

hence the magnetic lines of forces due to the current. In particular iron and some other

ferromagnetic materials/metals have small magnetic portion called ‘’Domains’’ that are aligned in

an irregular manner as compared with one another these domains in general cancel out each other

and hence the material or the specimen as a whole remains un-magnetized. ‘’When an external
magnetic field is applied’’ i.e. in the presence of the magnetic field due to the current carrying coil

these domains get themselves ‘’aligned in the direction of applied magnetic field.’’ i.e. in the

direction parallel to the magnetic lines of forces.

Figure 1. Representation of Magnetic Domains in a typical Ferromagnetic material

magnetization of a typical ferromagnetic material. The materials with comparatively higher

hysteresis loop area are considered to have high hysteresis losses and hence are called

‘’Magnetically Hard Materials’’. They find applications as permanent magnets or magnetic tapes

where relatively high “Remanence” or “Coercivity” is needed

Fig. 2. Representation of Magnetization cycle in a typical Ferromagnetic material

does not come back to “zero magnetization” by the removal of the imposed magnetizing field.

“The amount of magnetization it retains at zero driving field is called its Remanence”. A reverse

field must be applied to drive it back to zero. “This amount of reverse driving field required to

demagnetize it is called its Coercivity”. When current is applied to coil that is looped around a

material an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, it will start magnetizing the

specimen this magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop. There is a property

associated with magnetization of metals called “Hysteresis” which is due to the reason that the

magnetization do not come back to zero level or the hysteresis loop cannot retrace itself back to

zero. This property of ferromagnetic materials is useful as a magnetic "memory". Some of the

compositions in ferromagnetic materials retain an imposed magnetization for long periods of time

and are useful as "permanent magnets". Hence in case of transformers such materials are preferred

for the core as are magnetically soft i.e. have less hysteresis loss, low “Remanence” and

“Coercivity” and as a result have a smaller hysteresis loop area or thinner hysteresis loop. For this

to be achieved the metals are used in the form of alloys i.e. usually in the form of combinations of

materials. Most common combination used for transformer cores in high voltage power systems

is “Silicon Steel sheets” as it increases the magnetic properties required and makes it magnetically

soft with less hysteresis losses. By the addition of a small percentage of silicon it is seen that the

magnetic properties of the sheets used for the transformer core increases. These are called electrical

steels or “Silicone- Iron” (Si-Fe) sheets the use of such alloys of as a material for core of

transformers yields much higher efficiency than the metal used alone. As it increases the magnetic

properties and makes material less conductive and can be easily magnetized or demagnetized i.e.
Makes it much softer than magnetically hard materials. It adds to the permeability of the material,

reduces the conductivity and power losses decrease with the increase in the amount of silicone but

we cannot add much amount of silicon as it will make the material brittle and difficult to handle.

According to the theory of electromagnetics, the electromotive force (emf) induced in a

transformer winding is proportional to the operating frequency and the magnetic flux linking the

winding, smaller magnetic flux is required if the operating frequency is higher. Therefore,

increasing switching frequencies of power electronic systems can lead to a dramatic reduction of

the volume and weight of transformers used in the systems compared with those operated at low

frequencies for a given power rating. But with the increase in the frequencies some other problems

originate related with the losses i.e. Eddy-current losses and Magnetic Core losses, “thermal effects

on magnetic hysteresis of core materials”, skin effects. The aim of the research is emphasised on

finding out the most feasible and applicable soft materials that have the properties of soft magnetic

materials i.e. have high permeability, a comparatively high resistance or low conductivity, low

losses and used as a core material enables the operation at higher frequencies with significant

efficiencies and to characterise the “Amorphous Metal Alloys” to be used as material of core for

the “High Frequency High Power Density (HFHPD) transformers” [1]. With the rapid advance of

power electronic technology, the operational switching frequencies in power electronic systems,

such as the switch mode power supply (SMPS), have been extended to the megahertz region, and

the power range associated by converters extends from a few micro-VA to some hundreds of MVA

[2-3]. This leads to the smaller size or volume of transformer needing less area and high output

efficiency. But the core material used for transformer needs to be compact and highly efficient in

order for the transformer to achieve high performance level or to operate at higher frequency and

efficiencies respectively. This research work will focus on the soft magnetic materials used in the
HFHPD transformers and inductors, including electrical sheets, soft ferrites and amorphous

magnetic alloys, in terms of their magnetic properties at high frequency operations. Comparing the

various materials reveals that the low power loss soft ferrites seem to be the most suitable for

HFHPD applications. Magnetic materials are traditionally classified as dia-magnets, paramagnets

and ferro-magnets according to their bulk susceptibility. Diamagnets have small and negative

value of this susceptibility. Their magnetic response opposes the applied magnetic field.

Paramagnets are materials having small and positive. Ferro-magnets are most widely recognized

magnetic materials for which the value of this susceptibility is positive and much greater than 1

[4]. Ferromagnetic Materials: The ferromagnets can be further classified as “soft and hard

magnetic materials” according to their coercivities. Typically, “soft magnetic materials” have

coercivities of below 1 kA/m [4]. They are regarded as magnetically “soft” since they can be easily

magnetized or demagnetized. Ferromagnetic materials can also be classified as either grain

oriented or non-oriented according to their microstructures. The former has large magnetic

domains (recognizable under proper conditions) and the latter has smaller domains, or not easily

discernible domain structures [5]. Soft magnetic materials can find their applications as the core

materials in power transformers, electronic transformers (those used in power electronic systems),

magnetic components in microwave systems, and the stator and rotor cores for rotating electric

machines. Soft iron and electrical sheet steels are two typical soft magnetic materials. Although

high permeability and low coercivity of magnetic materials are needed for transformer cores, the

low conductivity is also very important to reduce the eddy current losses since they operate under

AC conditions. The electrical sheet steels are mainly used in AC applications. Silicon iron (Si-Fe)

is widely used for the high power applications.

Amorphous metals Amorphous metals are a new range of non-crystalline materials with interesting

properties for manufacturing of micro-metallic components. The amorphous structure of the

materials is generally realized by combining alloying metallic elements of considerably different

atom sizes with rapid cooling when transitioning from the liquid to the solid phase. By rapid

cooling the alloy is frozen in the amorphous state, thereby not allowing the metallic atoms to

combine into the well-known lattice structure characterizing conventional metals. The required

critical cooling rate generally sets limits on the achievable forms in which amorphous metals can

be realized, typically thin ribbons, foils, and wires. However, recent development has enabled the

casting of amorphous metals with dimensions exceeding 1 mm: these are known as bulk metallic

glasses (BMGs). BMGs are interesting for the forming of micro-components because the material

is not subject to the grain size forming limitations, dislocations, and sliding planes of normal

crystalline materials and can be formed at the micrometer scale with good results. The forming of

BMGs takes place between the glass transition temperature Tg and the crystallization temperature

Tx. At Tg the BMG becomes a supercooled viscous liquid exhibiting decreasing flow stress with

increasing temperature. A second dependent parameter of the forming temperature is the

crystallization time tcryst, at which the amorphous structure is lost and the material turns

crystalline. There is a time/flow stress trade-off when selecting the forming temperature; a higher

temperature equals low flow stress and low viscosity but limited forming time due to the

decreasing crystallization time. On the other hand, a lower forming temperature results in increased

flow stress and viscosity of the BMG, resulting in longer process time and increased tool loads,

whereas the window of amorphous processing time increases. Further, BMG materials are
generally very strain-rate-dependent and fast processing results in high flow stresses. It has been

claimed that BMG above the glass transition temperature behaves like asphalt on a summer's day,

since the viscosity of both BMG and asphalt is strongly dependent on temperature and strain rate.

Figure 3 depicts the flow stress dependency of Mg60Cu30Y10 bulk amorphous alloy in

comparison to a conventional crystalline magnesium–aluminum alloy.

Amorphous metal is usually an alloy rather than a pure metal. The alloys contain atoms of

significantly different sizes, leading to low free volume (and therefore up to orders of magnitude

higher viscosity than other metals and alloys) in molten state. The viscosity prevents the atoms

moving enough to form an ordered lattice. The material structure also results in low shrinkage

during cooling, and resistance to plastic deformation. The absence of grain boundaries, the weak

spots of crystalline materials, leads to better resistance to wear and corrosion. Amorphous metals,

while technically glasses, are also much tougher and less brittle than oxide glasses and ceramics.

Thermal conductivity of amorphous materials is lower than of crystals. As formation of amorphous

structure relies on fast cooling, this limits the maximum achievable thickness of amorphous

structures. To achieve formation of amorphous structure even during slower cooling, the alloy has

to be made of three or more components, leading to complex crystal units with higher potential

energy and lower chance of formation. The atomic radius of the components has to be significantly

different (over 12%), to achieve high packing density and low free volume. The combination of

components should have negative heat of mixing, inhibiting crystal nucleation and prolongs the

time the molten metal stays in supercooled state. The alloys of boron, silicon, phosphorus, and

other glass formers with magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, nickel) are magnetic, with low coercivity

and high electrical resistance. The high resistance leads to low losses by eddy currents when

subjected to alternating magnetic fields, a property useful for eg. transformer magnetic cores.
Amorphous alloys have a variety of potentially useful properties. In particular, they tend to be

stronger than crystalline alloys of similar chemical composition, and they can sustain larger

reversible ("elastic") deformations than crystalline alloys. Amorphous metals derive their strength

directly from their non-crystalline structure, which does not have any of the defects (such as

dislocations) that limit the strength of crystalline alloys. One modern amorphous metal, known as

Vitreloy, has a tensile strength that is almost twice that of high-grade titanium. However, metallic

glasses at room temperature are not ductile and tend to fail suddenly when loaded in tension, which

limits the material applicability in reliability-critical applications, as the impending failure is not

evident. Therefore, there is considerable interest in producing metal matrix composite materials

consisting of a metallic glass matrix containing dendritic particles or fibers of a ductile crystalline

metal.

Figure 1. Properties of Vitreloy compared to metal alloy.

Amorphous metals are technically glasses, but they are much tougher and less brittle than regular

oxide glasses and ceramics. And unlike common regular glass, which is used for electrical

insulators on power lines, amorphous metals display a high degree of electrical conductivity The

important commercial application of amorphous metals is mainly due to its special magnetic

properties and high electrical conductive nature. The low-magnetization loss is also useful in

high-efficiency transformers. Two commercial products, Liquid-metal and Vitreloy, use

amorphous metal alloys to manufacture various items like watches and cell phone covers. The

alloys they use combine a number of desirable features like high tensile strength and excellent

resistance to harmful corrosion that surpass regular metals. Another positive quality is its high

coefficient of restitution (COR). This measure of the “restitution” of a collision between two

objects and how much kinetic energy remains for the objects to rebound makes the material ideal

in the manufacturing of thin-faced golf club heads. The ability to cast and mold amorphous

Liquid-metals plus its high resistance to wear has resulted in it replacing plastic materials in

some instances. Apple is testing the viability of using amorphous metals to see if they are able to

retain a scratch-free surface longer than competing materials made in complex shapes. Heavy

industry also uses various amorphous metals as protective coatings for industrial machinery, on

petroleum drill pipes and for boiler tubes in electrical plants. In some cases, the metals can

replace titanium in certain applications for medical instruments, military vehicles and the

aerospace industry. Amorphous metal rods are also being used to replace depleted uranium rods

in kinetic energy devices. In one of the first applications in space, Liquid-metal plastics were

used on the Genesis space probe as solar wind ion collectors.

Less no-load losses: No load losses are 20 to 30% less as compared to a conventional silicon steel

sheet transformer which keeps occurring for the lifetime despite transformer load. Easy repair: its

modular construction makes repair easy and fast. Better overload capacity: Overload capacity is

better as heat generation is less due to less loss and obviously less effect on aging of insulation.

Better distribution efficiency: distributions efficiency increases due to reduced no-load loss. This

can save monetary investments in generations capacity concern. Environmental caretaker: Also

contributes to the protection of the environment as it lowers the emission of CO2 and SO2 as result

of reduced generation need.

Disadvantages

The final product in the ribbon form is brittle and narrow continuous. To cut this into section is a

tough job. Hence preferred to be manufactured as a hollow cylindrical wound core of single

continuous strip. The larger cross-section of the core is required for same power and rating of

silicon steel lamination. this is due to less useable peak magnetic field intensity in the amorphous

core. Also causes added weight and size. With the large size of core longer, winding conductors

are obvious which causes increased load losses.

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High-Power-Density Transformer. 2018 26th International Conference on Systems Engineering

(ICSEng).

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X 2B2, 2A2 and 2 2B2 States of Benzyl. ChemInform, 19(5).

3) FL Kong, CT Chang, A Inoue, E Shalaan, F Al-Marzouki - Journal of Alloys and Compounds,

2014

4) Irimia R, Gottschling M (2016) Taxonomic revision of Rochefortia Sw. (Ehretiaceae,

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5) Thermal properties of amorphous metallic alloys. Amorphous Metallic Alloys, 451–470.

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