The Keras Blog Keras is a Deep Learning library for Python, that

is simple, modular, and extensible.

Archives Github Documentation Google Group

Building Autoencoders in Keras

In this tutorial, we will answer some common questions about
autoencoders, and we will cover code examples of the following models: Sat 14 May 2016
By Francois Chollet
a simple autoencoder based on a fully-connected layer In Tutorials.
a sparse autoencoder
a deep fully-connected autoencoder
a deep convolutional autoencoder
an image denoising model
a sequence-to-sequence autoencoder
a variational autoencoder

Note: all code examples have been updated to the Keras 2.0 API on March 14, 2017. You will
need Keras version 2.0.0 or higher to run them.

What are autoencoders?

"Autoencoding" is a data compression algorithm where the compression and decompression

functions are 1) data-specific, 2) lossy, and 3) learned automatically from examples rather than
engineered by a human. Additionally, in almost all contexts where the term "autoencoder" is used,
the compression and decompression functions are implemented with neural networks.

1) Autoencoders are data-specific, which means that they will only be able to compress data similar
to what they have been trained on. This is different from, say, the MPEG-2 Audio Layer III (MP3)
compression algorithm, which only holds assumptions about "sound" in general, but not about
specific types of sounds. An autoencoder trained on pictures of faces would do a rather poor job of
compressing pictures of trees, because the features it would learn would be face-specific.

2) Autoencoders are lossy, which means that the decompressed outputs will be degraded
compared to the original inputs (similar to MP3 or JPEG compression). This differs from lossless
arithmetic compression.

3) Autoencoders are learned automatically from data examples, which is a useful property: it
means that it is easy to train specialized instances of the algorithm that will perform well on a
specific type of input. It doesn't require any new engineering, just appropriate training data.

To build an autoencoder, you need three things: an encoding function, a decoding function, and a
distance function between the amount of information loss between the compressed
representation of your data and the decompressed representation (i.e. a "loss" function). The
encoder and decoder will be chosen to be parametric functions (typically neural networks), and to
be differentiable with respect to the distance function, so the parameters of the
encoding/decoding functions can be optimize to minimize the reconstruction loss, using Stochastic
Gradient Descent. It's simple! And you don't even need to understand any of these words to start
using autoencoders in practice.

Are they good at data compression?

Usually, not really. In picture compression for instance, it is pretty difficult to train an autoencoder
that does a better job than a basic algorithm like JPEG, and typically the only way it can be
achieved is by restricting yourself to a very specific type of picture (e.g. one for which JPEG does
not do a good job). The fact that autoencoders are data-specific makes them generally impractical
for real-world data compression problems: you can only use them on data that is similar to what
they were trained on, and making them more general thus requires lots of training data. But future
advances might change this, who knows.

What are autoencoders good for?

They are rarely used in practical applications. In 2012 they briefly found an application in greedy
layer-wise pretraining for deep convolutional neural networks [1], but this quickly fell out of
fashion as we started realizing that better random weight initialization schemes were sufficient for
training deep networks from scratch. In 2014, batch normalization [2] started allowing for even
deeper networks, and from late 2015 we could train arbitrarily deep networks from scratch using
residual learning [3].

Today two interesting practical applications of autoencoders are data denoising (which we feature
later in this post), and dimensionality reduction for data visualization. With appropriate
dimensionality and sparsity constraints, autoencoders can learn data projections that are more
interesting than PCA or other basic techniques.

For 2D visualization specifically, t-SNE (pronounced "tee-snee") is probably the best algorithm
around, but it typically requires relatively low-dimensional data. So a good strategy for visualizing
similarity relationships in high-dimensional data is to start by using an autoencoder to compress
your data into a low-dimensional space (e.g. 32 dimensional), then use t-SNE for mapping the
compressed data to a 2D plane. Note that a nice parametric implementation of t-SNE in Keras was
developed by Kyle McDonald and is available on Github. Otherwise scikit-learn also has a simple
and practical implementation.

So what's the big deal with autoencoders?

Their main claim to fame comes from being featured in many introductory machine learning
classes available online. As a result, a lot of newcomers to the field absolutely love autoencoders
and can't get enough of them. This is the reason why this tutorial exists!

Otherwise, one reason why they have attracted so much research and attention is because they
have long been thought to be a potential avenue for solving the problem of unsupervised learning,
i.e. the learning of useful representations without the need for labels. Then again, autoencoders
are not a true unsupervised learning technique (which would imply a different learning process
altogether), they are a self-supervised technique, a specific instance of supervised learning where
the targets are generated from the input data. In order to get self-supervised models to learn
interesting features, you have to come up with an interesting synthetic target and loss function,
and that's where problems arise: merely learning to reconstruct your input in minute detail might
not be the right choice here. At this point there is significant evidence that focusing on the
reconstruction of a picture at the pixel level, for instance, is not conductive to learning interesting,
abstract features of the kind that label-supervized learning induces (where targets are fairly
abstract concepts "invented" by humans such as "dog", "car"...). In fact, one may argue that the
best features in this regard are those that are the worst at exact input reconstruction while
achieving high performance on the main task that you are interested in (classification, localization,
etc).

In self-supervized learning applied to vision, a potentially fruitful alternative to autoencoder-style

input reconstruction is the use of toy tasks such as jigsaw puzzle solving, or detail-context
matching (being able to match high-resolution but small patches of pictures with low-resolution
versions of the pictures they are extracted from). The following paper investigates jigsaw puzzle
solving and makes for a very interesting read: Noroozi and Favaro (2016) Unsupervised Learning of
Visual Representations by Solving Jigsaw Puzzles. Such tasks are providing the model with built-in
assumptions about the input data which are missing in traditional autoencoders, such as "visual
macro-structure matters more than pixel-level details".
Let's build the simplest possible autoencoder
We'll start simple, with a single fully-connected neural layer as encoder and as decoder:

from keras.layers import Input, Dense

from keras.models import Model

# this is the size of our encoded representations

encoding_dim = 32 # 32 floats -> compression of factor 24.5, assuming the input is 784 floats

# this is our input placeholder

input_img = Input(shape=(784,))
# "encoded" is the encoded representation of the input
encoded = Dense(encoding_dim, activation='relu')(input_img)
# "decoded" is the lossy reconstruction of the input
decoded = Dense(784, activation='sigmoid')(encoded)

# this model maps an input to its reconstruction

autoencoder = Model(input_img, decoded)

Let's also create a separate encoder model:

# this model maps an input to its encoded representation

encoder = Model(input_img, encoded)

As well as the decoder model:

# create a placeholder for an encoded (32-dimensional) input

encoded_input = Input(shape=(encoding_dim,))
# retrieve the last layer of the autoencoder model
decoder_layer = autoencoder.layers[-1]
# create the decoder model
decoder = Model(encoded_input, decoder_layer(encoded_input))

Now let's train our autoencoder to reconstruct MNIST digits.

First, we'll configure our model to use a per-pixel binary crossentropy loss, and the Adadelta
optimizer:

autoencoder.compile(optimizer='adadelta', loss='binary_crossentropy')

Let's prepare our input data. We're using MNIST digits, and we're discarding the labels (since we're
only interested in encoding/decoding the input images).

from keras.datasets import mnist

import numpy as np
(x_train, _), (x_test, _) = mnist.load_data()

We will normalize all values between 0 and 1 and we will flatten the 28x28 images into vectors of
size 784.

x_train = x_train.astype('float32') / 255.

x_test = x_test.astype('float32') / 255.
x_train = x_train.reshape((len(x_train), np.prod(x_train.shape[1:])))
x_test = x_test.reshape((len(x_test), np.prod(x_test.shape[1:])))
print x_train.shape
print x_test.shape

Now let's train our autoencoder for 50 epochs:

autoencoder.fit(x_train, x_train,
epochs=50,
batch_size=256,
shuffle=True,
validation_data=(x_test, x_test))

After 50 epochs, the autoencoder seems to reach a stable train/test loss value of about 0.11. We
can try to visualize the reconstructed inputs and the encoded representations. We will use
Matplotlib.

# encode and decode some digits

# note that we take them from the *test* set
encoded_imgs = encoder.predict(x_test)
decoded_imgs = decoder.predict(encoded_imgs)

# use Matplotlib (don't ask)

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

n = 10 # how many digits we will display

plt.figure(figsize=(20, 4))
for i in range(n):
# display original
ax = plt.subplot(2, n, i + 1)
plt.imshow(x_test[i].reshape(28, 28))
plt.gray()
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)

# display reconstruction
 ax = plt.subplot(2, n, i + 1 + n)
plt.imshow(decoded_imgs[i].reshape(28, 28))
plt.gray()
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)
plt.show()

Here's what we get. The top row is the original digits, and the bottom row is the reconstructed
digits. We are losing quite a bit of detail with this basic approach.

Adding a sparsity constraint on the encoded representations

In the previous example, the representations were only constrained by the size of the hidden layer
(32). In such a situation, what typically happens is that the hidden layer is learning an
approximation of PCA (principal component analysis). But another way to constrain the
representations to be compact is to add a sparsity contraint on the activity of the hidden
representations, so fewer units would "fire" at a given time. In Keras, this can be done by adding an
activity_regularizer to our Dense layer:

from keras import regularizers

encoding_dim = 32

input_img = Input(shape=(784,))
# add a Dense layer with a L1 activity regularizer
encoded = Dense(encoding_dim, activation='relu',
activity_regularizer=regularizers.l1(10e-5))(input_img)
decoded = Dense(784, activation='sigmoid')(encoded)

autoencoder = Model(input_img, decoded)

Let's train this model for 100 epochs (with the added regularization the model is less likely to
overfit and can be trained longer). The models ends with a train loss of 0.11 and test loss of 0.10.
The difference between the two is mostly due to the regularization term being added to the loss
during training (worth about 0.01).

Here's a visualization of our new results:

They look pretty similar to the previous model, the only significant difference being the sparsity of
the encoded representations. encoded_imgs.mean() yields a value 3.33 (over our 10,000 test
images), whereas with the previous model the same quantity was 7.30. So our new model yields
encoded representations that are twice sparser.

Deep autoencoder
We do not have to limit ourselves to a single layer as encoder or decoder, we could instead use a
stack of layers, such as:

input_img = Input(shape=(784,))
encoded = Dense(128, activation='relu')(input_img)
encoded = Dense(64, activation='relu')(encoded)
encoded = Dense(32, activation='relu')(encoded)

decoded = Dense(64, activation='relu')(encoded)

decoded = Dense(128, activation='relu')(decoded)
decoded = Dense(784, activation='sigmoid')(decoded)

Let's try this:

autoencoder = Model(input_img, decoded)

autoencoder.compile(optimizer='adadelta', loss='binary_crossentropy')

autoencoder.fit(x_train, x_train,
epochs=100,
batch_size=256,
shuffle=True,
validation_data=(x_test, x_test))

After 100 epochs, it reaches a train and test loss of ~0.097, a bit better than our previous models.
Our reconstructed digits look a bit better too:
Convolutional autoencoder
Since our inputs are images, it makes sense to use convolutional neural networks (convnets) as
encoders and decoders. In practical settings, autoencoders applied to images are always
convolutional autoencoders --they simply perform much better.

Let's implement one. The encoder will consist in a stack of Conv2D and MaxPooling2D layers (max
pooling being used for spatial down-sampling), while the decoder will consist in a stack of Conv2D
and UpSampling2D layers.

from keras.layers import Input, Dense, Conv2D, MaxPooling2D, UpSampling2D

from keras.models import Model
from keras import backend as K

input_img = Input(shape=(28, 28, 1)) # adapt this if using `channels_first` image data format

x = Conv2D(16, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(input_img)

x = MaxPooling2D((2, 2), padding='same')(x)
x = Conv2D(8, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(x)
x = MaxPooling2D((2, 2), padding='same')(x)
x = Conv2D(8, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(x)
encoded = MaxPooling2D((2, 2), padding='same')(x)

# at this point the representation is (4, 4, 8) i.e. 128-dimensional

x = Conv2D(8, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(encoded)

x = UpSampling2D((2, 2))(x)
x = Conv2D(8, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(x)
x = UpSampling2D((2, 2))(x)
x = Conv2D(16, (3, 3), activation='relu')(x)
x = UpSampling2D((2, 2))(x)
decoded = Conv2D(1, (3, 3), activation='sigmoid', padding='same')(x)

autoencoder = Model(input_img, decoded)

autoencoder.compile(optimizer='adadelta', loss='binary_crossentropy')

To train it, we will use the original MNIST digits with shape (samples, 3, 28, 28), and we will just
normalize pixel values between 0 and 1.

from keras.datasets import mnist

import numpy as np

(x_train, _), (x_test, _) = mnist.load_data()

x_train = x_train.astype('float32') / 255.

x_test = x_test.astype('float32') / 255.
x_train = np.reshape(x_train, (len(x_train), 28, 28, 1)) # adapt this if using `channels_first`
x_test = np.reshape(x_test, (len(x_test), 28, 28, 1)) # adapt this if using `channels_first` im

Let's train this model for 50 epochs. For the sake of demonstrating how to visualize the results of a
model during training, we will be using the TensorFlow backend and the TensorBoard callback.

First, let's open up a terminal and start a TensorBoard server that will read logs stored at
/tmp/autoencoder.

tensorboard --logdir=/tmp/autoencoder

Then let's train our model. In the callbacks list we pass an instance of the TensorBoard callback.
After every epoch, this callback will write logs to /tmp/autoencoder, which can be read by our
TensorBoard server.

from keras.callbacks import TensorBoard

autoencoder.fit(x_train, x_train,
epochs=50,
batch_size=128,
shuffle=True,
validation_data=(x_test, x_test),
callbacks=[TensorBoard(log_dir='/tmp/autoencoder')])

This allows us to monitor training in the TensorBoard web interface (by navighating to
http://0.0.0.0:6006):

The model converges to a loss of 0.094, significantly better than our previous models (this is in
large part due to the higher entropic capacity of the encoded representation, 128 dimensions vs. 32
previously). Let's take a look at the reconstructed digits:

decoded_imgs = autoencoder.predict(x_test)

n = 10
plt.figure(figsize=(20, 4))
for i in range(n):
# display original
ax = plt.subplot(2, n, i)
plt.imshow(x_test[i].reshape(28, 28))
plt.gray()
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)

# display reconstruction
ax = plt.subplot(2, n, i + n)
plt.imshow(decoded_imgs[i].reshape(28, 28))
plt.gray()
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)
 plt.show()

We can also have a look at the 128-dimensional encoded representations. These representations
are 8x4x4, so we reshape them to 4x32 in order to be able to display them as grayscale images.

n = 10
plt.figure(figsize=(20, 8))
for i in range(n):
ax = plt.subplot(1, n, i)
plt.imshow(encoded_imgs[i].reshape(4, 4 * 8).T)
plt.gray()
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)
plt.show()

Application to image denoising

Let's put our convolutional autoencoder to work on an image denoising problem. It's simple: we
will train the autoencoder to map noisy digits images to clean digits images.

Here's how we will generate synthetic noisy digits: we just apply a gaussian noise matrix and clip
the images between 0 and 1.

from keras.datasets import mnist

import numpy as np

(x_train, _), (x_test, _) = mnist.load_data()

 x_train = x_train.astype('float32') / 255.
x_test = x_test.astype('float32') / 255.
x_train = np.reshape(x_train, (len(x_train), 28, 28, 1)) # adapt this if using `channels_first`
x_test = np.reshape(x_test, (len(x_test), 28, 28, 1)) # adapt this if using `channels_first` im

noise_factor = 0.5
x_train_noisy = x_train + noise_factor * np.random.normal(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=
x_test_noisy = x_test + noise_factor * np.random.normal(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=x_test

x_train_noisy = np.clip(x_train_noisy, 0., 1.)

x_test_noisy = np.clip(x_test_noisy, 0., 1.)

Here's what the noisy digits look like:

n = 10
plt.figure(figsize=(20, 2))
for i in range(n):
ax = plt.subplot(1, n, i)
plt.imshow(x_test_noisy[i].reshape(28, 28))
plt.gray()
ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
ax.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)
plt.show()

If you squint you can still recognize them, but barely. Can our autoencoder learn to recover the
original digits? Let's find out.

Compared to the previous convolutional autoencoder, in order to improve the quality of the
reconstructed, we'll use a slightly different model with more filters per layer:

input_img = Input(shape=(28, 28, 1)) # adapt this if using `channels_first` image data format

x = Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(input_img)

x = MaxPooling2D((2, 2), padding='same')(x)
x = Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(x)
encoded = MaxPooling2D((2, 2), padding='same')(x)

# at this point the representation is (7, 7, 32)

x = Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(encoded)

x = UpSampling2D((2, 2))(x)
x = Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='relu', padding='same')(x)
x = UpSampling2D((2, 2))(x)
decoded = Conv2D(1, (3, 3), activation='sigmoid', padding='same')(x)

autoencoder = Model(input_img, decoded)

autoencoder.compile(optimizer='adadelta', loss='binary_crossentropy')

Let's train it for 100 epochs:

 autoencoder.fit(x_train_noisy, x_train,
epochs=100,
batch_size=128,
shuffle=True,
validation_data=(x_test_noisy, x_test),
callbacks=[TensorBoard(log_dir='/tmp/tb', histogram_freq=0, write_graph

Now let's take a look at the results. Top, the noisy digits fed to the network, and bottom, the digits
are reconstructed by the network.

It seems to work pretty well. If you scale this process to a bigger convnet, you can start building
document denoising or audio denoising models. Kaggle has an interesting dataset to get you
started.

Sequence-to-sequence autoencoder
If you inputs are sequences, rather than vectors or 2D images, then you may want to use as encoder
and decoder a type of model that can capture temporal structure, such as a LSTM. To build a LSTM-
based autoencoder, first use a LSTM encoder to turn your input sequences into a single vector that
contains information about the entire sequence, then repeat this vector n times (where n is the
number of timesteps in the output sequence), and run a LSTM decoder to turn this constant
sequence into the target sequence.

We won't be demonstrating that one on any specific dataset. We will just put a code example here
for future reference for the reader!

from keras.layers import Input, LSTM, RepeatVector

from keras.models import Model

inputs = Input(shape=(timesteps, input_dim))

encoded = LSTM(latent_dim)(inputs)

decoded = RepeatVector(timesteps)(encoded)
decoded = LSTM(input_dim, return_sequences=True)(decoded)

sequence_autoencoder = Model(inputs, decoded)

encoder = Model(inputs, encoded)

Variational autoencoder (VAE)

Variational autoencoders are a slightly more modern and interesting take on autoencoding.
What is a variational autoencoder, you ask? It's a type of autoencoder with added constraints on
the encoded representations being learned. More precisely, it is an autoencoder that learns a latent
variable model for its input data. So instead of letting your neural network learn an arbitrary
function, you are learning the parameters of a probability distribution modeling your data. If you
sample points from this distribution, you can generate new input data samples: a VAE is a
"generative model".

How does a variational autoencoder work?

First, an encoder network turns the input samples x into two parameters in a latent space, which
we will note z_mean and z_log_sigma. Then, we randomly sample similar points z from the latent
normal distribution that is assumed to generate the data, via z = z_mean + exp(z_log_sigma) *
epsilon, where epsilon is a random normal tensor. Finally, a decoder network maps these latent
space points back to the original input data.

The parameters of the model are trained via two loss functions: a reconstruction loss forcing the
decoded samples to match the initial inputs (just like in our previous autoencoders), and the KL
divergence between the learned latent distribution and the prior distribution, acting as a
regularization term. You could actually get rid of this latter term entirely, although it does help in
learning well-formed latent spaces and reducing overfitting to the training data.

Because a VAE is a more complex example, we have made the code available on Github as a
standalone script. Here we will review step by step how the model is created.

First, here's our encoder network, mapping inputs to our latent distribution parameters:

x = Input(batch_shape=(batch_size, original_dim))
h = Dense(intermediate_dim, activation='relu')(x)
z_mean = Dense(latent_dim)(h)
z_log_sigma = Dense(latent_dim)(h)

We can use these parameters to sample new similar points from the latent space:

def sampling(args):
z_mean, z_log_sigma = args
epsilon = K.random_normal(shape=(batch_size, latent_dim),
mean=0., std=epsilon_std)
return z_mean + K.exp(z_log_sigma) * epsilon

# note that "output_shape" isn't necessary with the TensorFlow backend

# so you could write `Lambda(sampling)([z_mean, z_log_sigma])`
z = Lambda(sampling, output_shape=(latent_dim,))([z_mean, z_log_sigma])

Finally, we can map these sampled latent points back to reconstructed inputs:

decoder_h = Dense(intermediate_dim, activation='relu')

decoder_mean = Dense(original_dim, activation='sigmoid')
h_decoded = decoder_h(z)
x_decoded_mean = decoder_mean(h_decoded)
What we've done so far allows us to instantiate 3 models:

an end-to-end autoencoder mapping inputs to reconstructions

an encoder mapping inputs to the latent space
a generator that can take points on the latent space and will output the corresponding
reconstructed samples.

# end-to-end autoencoder
vae = Model(x, x_decoded_mean)

# encoder, from inputs to latent space

encoder = Model(x, z_mean)

# generator, from latent space to reconstructed inputs

decoder_input = Input(shape=(latent_dim,))
_h_decoded = decoder_h(decoder_input)
_x_decoded_mean = decoder_mean(_h_decoded)
generator = Model(decoder_input, _x_decoded_mean)

We train the model using the end-to-end model, with a custom loss function: the sum of a
reconstruction term, and the KL divergence regularization term.

def vae_loss(x, x_decoded_mean):

xent_loss = objectives.binary_crossentropy(x, x_decoded_mean)
kl_loss = - 0.5 * K.mean(1 + z_log_sigma - K.square(z_mean) - K.exp(z_log_sigma
return xent_loss + kl_loss

vae.compile(optimizer='rmsprop', loss=vae_loss)

We train our VAE on MNIST digits:

(x_train, y_train), (x_test, y_test) = mnist.load_data()

x_train = x_train.astype('float32') / 255.

x_test = x_test.astype('float32') / 255.
x_train = x_train.reshape((len(x_train), np.prod(x_train.shape[1:])))
x_test = x_test.reshape((len(x_test), np.prod(x_test.shape[1:])))

vae.fit(x_train, x_train,
shuffle=True,
epochs=epochs,
batch_size=batch_size,
validation_data=(x_test, x_test))

Because our latent space is two-dimensional, there are a few cool visualizations that can be done
at this point. One is to look at the neighborhoods of different classes on the latent 2D plane:

x_test_encoded = encoder.predict(x_test, batch_size=batch_size)

plt.figure(figsize=(6, 6))
plt.scatter(x_test_encoded[:, 0], x_test_encoded[:, 1], c=y_test)
plt.colorbar()
plt.show()
Each of these colored clusters is a type of digit. Close clusters are digits that are structurally similar
(i.e. digits that share information in the latent space).

Because the VAE is a generative model, we can also use it to generate new digits! Here we will scan
the latent plane, sampling latent points at regular intervals, and generating the corresponding digit
for each of these points. This gives us a visualization of the latent manifold that "generates" the
MNIST digits.

# display a 2D manifold of the digits

n = 15 # figure with 15x15 digits
digit_size = 28
figure = np.zeros((digit_size * n, digit_size * n))
# we will sample n points within [-15, 15] standard deviations
grid_x = np.linspace(-15, 15, n)
grid_y = np.linspace(-15, 15, n)

for i, yi in enumerate(grid_x):
for j, xi in enumerate(grid_y):
z_sample = np.array([[xi, yi]]) * epsilon_std
x_decoded = generator.predict(z_sample)
digit = x_decoded[0].reshape(digit_size, digit_size)
figure[i * digit_size: (i + 1) * digit_size,
j * digit_size: (j + 1) * digit_size] = digit

plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10))
plt.imshow(figure)
plt.show()
 That's it! If you have suggestions for more topics to be covered in this post (or in future posts), you
can contact me on Twitter at @fchollet.

References
[1] Why does unsupervised pre-training help deep learning?

[2] Batch normalization: Accelerating deep network training by reducing internal covariate shift.

[3] Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition

[4] Auto-Encoding Variational Bayes

Powered by pelican, which takes great advantages of python.