EDUCATION IN PRE MODERN INDIA

Education in the Muslim Period

The beginning of the 8th century A.D. witnessed a large number of Mohammedan invasions. Mahmud
Ghaznavi invaded the country and established a large number of schools and libraries in his own country
by the looted wealth. Later on when the Muslim rulers established permanent empire in India, they
introduced a new system of education. Consequently, the ancient system of education was greatly
changed. In fact, the education of the Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period.
No Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in the field of education.

Aim of Education

The aim of education during Muslim period was the illumination and extension of knowledge and the
propagation of Islam. The education of this period was imparted for the propagation of Islamic
principles, laws and social conventions. Education was based on religion and its aim was to make
persons religious minded. The Muslim education aimed also at the achievement of material prosperity.

Organization of Education

In the Muslim period, education was organized in Maktabs and Madrasas. Primary education was given
in Maktabs and Higher Education in Madrasas. In Maktabs the children were made to remember the
‘Ayats’ of Quran. They were also imparted the education of reading, writing and primary arithmetic.
Children were given the education of Persian language and script. After completing the primary
education, children were sent to Madrasas to receive higher education. Special emphasis was also given
to the education of religious education of secular subjects, which was imparted in Madrasas.

The chief characteristics of education in Muslim period were lack of University education, neglect of
Vernaculars, decline in teacher- pupil relationship and problem of discipline. Corporal punishment was
started. The system of examination depended upon the will of the teacher to send the pupil to the
higher classes or not. Degree was given after the completion of education. Military education was also
considered compulsory in order to establish supremacy over the Hindu kings.

Organization of Islamic Education in India

 Maktabs

In a Maktab children of general people were given primary education. Along with religious education
they were also taught reading, writing and arithmetic. He was also taught some romantic literature of
Persian e.g. Laila Majnu, Yusuf- Julekha etc. General practical education was also given in Maktabs.
Letter writing applications and accountancy were taught in them.
 Madrasas

After completing the education in a Maktab, one could come to a Madrasa for Higher Education. During
the Muslim period, Madrasas were centers of higher learning. In Madrasa, along with religious objective
education, practical affairs of life were also attended to. Akbar did a great deal in this direction and tried
to give a practical shape also to education in a unprecedented manner. Islamic religion was compulsorily
taught to all the students. But Akbar stopped this tradition. He provided study of Hindu religion and
philosophy also in many Madrasas. He introduced the study of medicine, history, geography, economics,
political science, philosophy, astrology, law and mathematics. He made the study of Vedanta,
Jurisprudence and Patanjali compulsory for Sanskrit students. Abul fazl has described the educational
system introduced by Akbar in his famous book Ain-e-Akbari. Law in those days was based on religious
practices. So the study of religious principles was in a way education in law.

Method

Oral education and memorization of the assigned lesson were the chief methods of teaching in the
Maktabs. Akbar encouraged writing and tried to reform the scripts. He wanted the educational
procedure to be systematic. So he urged that the student should be given the knowledge of alphabets,
then word knowledge and afterwards sentence knowledge. During this period, cooperation of students
was sought in maintenance of discipline. Practical education was given much importance. There was no
half-yearly or annual examination fixed for students. But the students were examined from time to time
in practical situations of life. Military training, development of fine arts, crafts and women education
were given much importance in this period.

Education under the East India Company Rule

Early European Educational Efforts

Indigenous education was prevalent before the advent of the Britishers in India. Though the native
educational institutions like Muslim Maktabs and Madrasas, Hindu Pathshalas, the Tol institutions of
Bengal and those known as Agraharas of southern India were declining gradually, their importance
however in fulfilling the educational needs of the Indian masses cannot be under estimated.

The European religious missionaries had started coming to India in the last phase of 15th century A.D.
they mainly came for trade and commerce but in due course of time their downfall was brought about
by mutual conflicts and at last only the English survived and established their empire in India. The
advent of European missionaries introduced a new phase in education of the country and developed it
appreciably. The fundamental aim of these missionaries was to propagate Christian religion through
European mode of education. For them education was not an end in itself but a means to the spread of
Christianity. At length in the year 1813, the British parliament made Indian education an important
aspect of State duties by putting before the East India Company educational policy and attendant
responsibilities unequivocally.
In the 19th century British rule had firmly been established in India. Consequently, English system of
education was being much encouraged. This led to the downfall of indigenous education. Though the
East India Company came to India for exploring business possibilities but it ultimately thought to
establish its own empire in the country. Towards the achievement of this goal, at first they mingled with
the Bengal politics successfully. They obtained the Diwani powers in Bengal and acquired full control
over the Nawabs.

A Madrasa in 1780 at Calcutta and a Sanskrit College in 1791 at Benaras were established for pleasing
the Muslim and Hindu population. Charles Grant published his famous essay- ‘Observation’ and drew
the attention of the British public towards the deplorable condition of education in India. As a result in
the Charter of 1813, the British Parliament made the company responsible for education of the Indian
people. This Charter indirectly helped the Missionaries to preach their religion in the grab of education.
This Charter brought education under the control of the administration.

There was some progress of education during the period between 1813 and 1833 in the atmosphere of
uncertainty about a definite policy. The Company had many difficulties before it such as the problems
pertaining to the aim of education, education for all or only to a limited group, the medium of
instruction, the role to be given to the missionaries and how to spend one lac rupees annually. In 1814,
the Board of Directors clarified the educational policy. The rise of liberal group in England had its impact
on carving out a more liberal policy of education in India.

Downward Filtration Theory in Education

Filtration means coming of something to the bottom from the top. Thus, the filtration theory in
education meant coming down of education or knowledge from the top to the bottom i.e. from the
higherclass people to the lower classes or the general people. The main aim was to educate only the
high-class people in order to give them higher posts in the administration to strengthen the roots of
British Empire. Also to educate the higher-class people who might undertake the responsibility of
educating the general public. During the Company’s rule Missionaries were encouraged to work in the
field of education and they opened a number of schools and colleges for educating children of the
higher-class family.

The purpose of this theory could not be fully achieved. It could have only partial achievement in the
sense that the British Government got a few educated Indians who could help in running the
administration. Education became concentrated only to those who had money. However private
enterprises engaged in the 6 field of education did a lot towards educating the people and creating in
them a love for freedom. Thus, the work of national regeneration and educational expansion began.

Progress of Education During 1835 and 1853

There has been much activity in the field of education during 1835 and 1853 as this was a period of
problems and controversies. These problems were solved during the days of Lord Aukland.
Every province evinced interest in its educational venture and continued experiments in the sphere of
education. By the end of this period, the government had realized that the question of the education of
India could not further be postponed or avoided and that there was an urgent need of some definite
plan in that direction. Along with the controversy over the issue of medium of instruction, the
Orientalists-Occidentalists controversy also came to a close. The Government of India, therefore,
wanted to take a definite step in the direction of Indian education by framing some comprehensive plan
for the purpose. Ultimately, it came in the form of Wood’s Despatch in the 1854.

Wood’s Despatch of 1854

A Committee was formed in 1854 for studying the problems of education. Charles Wood was its
chairman. Hence, the Despatch is famous after his name. The Despatch contained 100 principal clauses.
A short summary of the major recommendations contained in the Despatch is as follows:

1. The Aim of Education- The aim should be impart useful knowledge to the Indian people in such a way
as to raise their intellectual, moral and economic status.

2. The Curriculum- Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian should be included in the curriculum along with English,
Western literature and science. Education in Law was also recommended.

3. The Medium of Instruction- The Despatch recommended that along with English, Indian languages
should also be accepted as the media of instruction.

4. Department of Public Instruction- The Despatch recommended that a department of public

instruction should be constituted in each province. The Director of Public Instruction should be the
Chairman of this Department.

5. University Education- For development of higher education two Universities should be established,
one each at Calcutta and Bombay on the pattern of the London University. The Despatch also
recommended for a university at Madras and other places if a need was felt.

6. Importance of Graded Education- For receiving higher education, one should get education from the
lower stage. The Despatch urged the Company to establish graded institutions.

7. Expansion of general education- Education should be made available to all. It recommended for
education of the Indian people in all directions.

8. Grant-in-Aid for Education- The despatch advised the Provincial Government to formulate its own
rules of grant-in-aid system. The rules should be accepted for all categories of educational institutions,
primary or higher.

9. Teachers’ Training- Despatch recommended that there should be at least one training college in each
province for training of teachers.
10. Women’s Education- Despatch recognized the importance of private enterprises in this area and
advised that they should be further encouraged and women should be given education in all the
provinces.

11. Education and Employment- Despatch stated that the purpose of education was to develop human
qualities for success in life. So education should be obtained with a wider outlook and not only to obtain
services.

12. Vocational Education- Despatch suggested for Vocational education of the people through schools
and colleges to be established for the purpose.

Thus, the Despatch contains a number of fundamental and valuable recommendations. It ushered in a
new but glorious era in the history of Indian education. It has been termed as the Magna Charta of
Indian Education. However, despite all virtues the Despatch is not wholly immune from certain glaring
defects. Because of the Revolt of 1857, many of the recommendations of the Despatch could not be
implemented.

Educational Progress from 1854-1882

 Primary Education

During the period 1854-1884 primary education was neglected and the recommendations of Wood’s
Despatch in its favour had no impact. The Company’s attention was primarily diverted towards
university education. So primary education was neglected. The Despatch made the Company
responsible for primary education.

 Secondary Education

The number of secondary schools increased during the period between 1854 and 1882. Missionaries
played a leading role in the field. Many Indians opened a number of secondary schools in Madras and
Bengal.

 Higher Education

Four Universities were opened in the country, one each at Lahore, Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. The
administration was under the Senate fully controlled by the government. These universities were only
the examining bodies and used to award degrees to successful candidates. Except in Punjab, English was
the medium of instruction in other three universities.

The Indian Commission of 1882

By 1882 it was considered necessary to assess the development of education in the country and to
remove the defects, which had crept into it. For this purpose Lord Ripon appointed on February 3, 1882
the Indian Education Commission under the Chairmanship of William Hunter, a member of the Executive
Council of the Viceroy. The Commission is also popularly known as Hunter Commission. It was required
to look into the condition of primary education alone, but it studied the problems of secondary and
higher education also. The Commission gave the following suggestions for reforms in primary education

1. It should be useful to life

2. Primary school passed persons should be given preference in some services.

3. More efforts should be made for development of primary education.

4. Special primary schools should be opened in tribal and hilly areas.

5. The local boards should be made wholly responsible for primary education.

6. The indigenous schools should be encouraged.

Secondary Education

The Commission advised to remove the defects of primary education. English should be made the
medium of instruction. The Curriculum should be divided into Literary and science on the one hand and
Practical and vocation on the other. Some subjects should be included for spiritual development of
students. The schools should be Indianised. The Commission pleaded for a special curriculum for
women. Lady teachers should be appointed. It also laid emphasis on Muslim education. It opposed the
increasing influence of Missionaries in the field of education.

Higher Education

The Commission recommended that the grant should be determined keeping in view the strength of
teachers and students, need and capacity of the institution. The colleges engaged in higher education
should 9 be given sufficient grants for experimental laboratories, reading rooms, libraries, equipments,
science rooms, building and furniture etc.

The Commission was required to consider whether the government schools should remain under the
control of the government or should they be transferred to Indian hands. Missionaries were influenced
by this measure as they found the government as their rival in the field of education. The Commission
ultimately recommended that the Government should withdraw itself completely from the field of
education and schools should be entrusted to private enterprises. Hence the commission encouraged
Indian private enterprises a great deal.

Thus, the recommendations of the Commission have a special place in the history of Indian education as
it tried to give a direction to Indian education, which was in a bad shape.

Progress of Education from 1882 to 1902

The Hunter Commission was appointed only for primary education but it also studied the problems of
secondary and higher education. The Government attached great importance to its suggestions and
tried to implement the same as far as possible. Now we shall understand in brief the progress made in
the field of education after the government received recommendations of the Commission.

Primary Education

According to the recommendations of the Hunter Commission primary education was entrusted to local
bodies. But due to financial difficulties the local bodies could not do justice with primary education. The
indigenous schools faded away. The government did not help the local bodies adequately for
encouraging primary education.

Secondary Education

The condition of secondary education was better than primary education, as the government took more
interest in this sphere. The high school curriculum was divided into two groups- literary and science and
vocational. English was accepted as a medium of instruction and Indian languages were neglected. The
number of high schools increased.

University and Higher Education

Secondary education prepared students for higher education. Thus, the development of secondary
education led to opening of new colleges and universities. The colleges established by Indian private
enterprises were larger in number than those started by the Missionaries. However, the Missionaries
also worked hard for the development education in the country.

The establishing of Indian National Congress in 1885 led to the regeneration of national spirit in the field
of education. Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati, Mrs. Annie Besant and Sir Surendra Nath Banerji and
Gopal Krishna Gokhale strove hard for all the development of education. Their services in the field of
education will ever remain immortal in our country.

20th century is a very important period in the history of Indian education. During this period the spirit of
nationalism was generated and the people successfully fought for their freedom. For the history of
Indian education the early years of this century are of great importance. During 1905 and 1920 the
Swadeshi movement and the appointment of Calcutta University Commission were such events, which
immensely influenced the field of education.

Swadeshi Movement and Education

The Indian National Congress strove hard for generating the spirit of national consciousness and
freedom. This movement was influencing each section of Indian society and the education. The sole
purpose of the Swadeshi movement was to discard foreign goods of all types and to use in their place
the things that are prepared within the country. The capacity to produce the needed materials could be
developed only through vocational education. For this the leaders urged that the efforts in the field of
education should be diverted towards industrial and vocational channels. Thus was established the
National Council of Education at Calcutta which tried to give the desired direction to education. This
council made a comprehensive scheme of education from the primary to the university stage.
Due to efforts of Gopal Krishna Gokhale and others primary education was declared compulsory in
several provinces. Laws were framed in each province for this purpose. After the Delhi Darbar and
declaration of George V hope became stronger for the development of secondary and higher education.
But because of the outbreak of the World War I, the progress was checked. Baroda and Bombay placed
better example before the country for the development of primary education.

The Calcutta University Commission 1917-1919

In 1917 the Calcutta University Commission was appointed in 1917 under the chairmanship of Sir. M.E.
Sadler. The Commission was appointed for the reforms of Calcutta University. The recommendations of
this Commission improved the condition of Calcutta University and general nature of higher education in
the country. Secondary education was accepted as the foundation of university education. So the
Commission gave a number of suggestions for its improvement. Some important recommendations for
the improvement of secondary education were as follows:

1. Only an intermediate passed candidate should be admitted to universities.

2. Intermediate colleges should be established as a necessity.

3. Subjects useful for practical life should be compulsorily taught in intermediate classes.

4. A Board of High School and Intermediate Education should be established in each province. This
Board should be made independent of the existing education department.

5. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction in the intermediate college.

The commission also gave suggestions for administration, functions and organization of the university. It
also emphasized women education, Teachers’ Training and Vocational education. The recommendations
of the Commission were regarded much ahead of the time. They were patterned on the Oxford and
Cambridge universities. Inspite of many shortcomings the utility of the recommendations of the
Commission cannot be denied. Due to the suggestions of this commission a number of new universities
were opened in the country. Of these the Universities at Patna, Lucknow, Aligarh, Agra, Dacca, Delhi,
Nagpur, Hyderabad and Mysore may be mentioned.

Lord Curzon

Lord Curzon had been the most magnificent Viceroy of India. His days were important for the
development of primary education. The number of primary schools doubled with ten years (1902-1912).
The government grant was raised by 50%.

After the Montford Reforms the power of the Central Government alone to determine the educational
policy ended. The Provincial governments were also given enough power. National movements were at
their peak during this period. The Simon Commission was sent to India and it appointed the Hartog
Committee to examine the position of education in the country. It gave suggestions for reforms of
education at all levels. Both primary and secondary education developed much during this period.
Number of colleges and 12 universities increased and many national institutions were opened. Research
and Honours courses were started in universities. Some provision was also made for technical
education.

Development of Education (1937-1947)

After 1937, the conditions were changed again due to the introduction of the Government of India Act,
1935. Due to this introduction Indian Ministries were formed in the various provinces and the Central
Government again started to take active interest in educational affairs. The Central Education
Department was now called Central Ministry for Education. Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad was made the
first Education Minister of the Government of India. The interim Government took special interest in
educational matters and many new departments and schemes were started. As a result the University
Grants Commission, Central Advisory Board for Education, the Central Bureau of Education was
established.

Three plans were made for primary education- Basic Education Scheme, Vidya Mandir Scheme and the
Voluntary School Scheme. Secondary education became out of approach due to high cost of living. Four
new universities were opened. Hence their number became 18 in the country. Abbott and Wood were
invited to reorganize vocational education in the country. The report gave many important suggestions
such as Organization of Vocational Education Council, to consider vocational education at par with
literary and science education, to open vocational schools separately etc.

In 1937 Congress ministries were formed in many provinces of India, according to the Government of
India Act, 1935. Mahatma Gandhi was the leading figure of the Indian political scene. He was conversant
with the deplorable condition of education in the land. For improving the condition he advocated a
scheme for primary education, which is popularly known as Basic Education Scheme. His main objective
was to make the foundation of the educational edifice strong.

The Sargent Report on Education

At the end of the Second World War, a new educational scheme popularly known as the Scheme was
submitted to the Indian Government. John Sargent who was them the Educational Adviser to the
Government of India was asked to draft such a memorandum as might contain an outline of the plan for
post-war educational expansion. The Central Advisory board of Education accepted this memorandum
during the course of their meetings in 1943 and 1944. The memorandum was based on all these reports,
which had been published by the sub- committees appointed by the Board for the different aspects of
education. The Report is of great historical importance as it contains a detailed account of education
from 13 nursery stage to University level. To the credit of this report, it must be admitted that all-round
development of the child has been its major goal. In a way it is the first report of its kind, which seeks to
examine and study the entire national education so comprehensively and minutely.