CHAPTER1

DIODESANIDTHEIR CHARACTERISTICS
In this chapteryou will study the atomic structureof a semiconductor,a material that is
neither a good conductornor a good insulator.Diodes, transistors,and integratedcircuits
(ICs) are all made from semiconductormaterials such as germanium (Ge) and silicon
(Si). You will also study the diode, which is the most basic semiconductordevice. A
diode is an unidirectional device that allows current to flow through it in one direction
only. You will learn what is meant by the termsforward and reversebias and also be-
come familiar with important diode characteristics,approximations,and ratings.

1-1 SEMICONDUCTORMATERIALS
Semiconductorsconduct less than metal conductors but more than insulators. Some
common semiconductormaterialsare silicon (Si), germanium(Ge), and carbon (C). Sil-
icon is the most widely used semiconductormaterial in the electronicsindustry.Almost
all diodes, transistors,and ICs manufacturedtoday are made from silicon.
Intrinsic semiconductorsare semiconductorsin their purest form. An example
would be a semiconductorcrystal with silicon atoms only. Extrinsic semiconductorsare
semiconductorswith other atomsmixed in. Theseother atomsare called impuri|, atoms.
The processof adding impurity atoms is called doping. The doping alters the character-
istics of the sendconductor,mainly its conductivity. The impurity atoms have either
fewer than four valenceelectronsor more than four valenceelectrons.At room temper-
ature (about 25'C) an intrinsic semiconductoracts more like an insulator than a conduc-
tor. The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductoris greater than that of an intrinsic
semiconductor.The level of conductivity is dependentmainly on the number of impurity
atoms that have been addedduring the doping process.

Atomic Structure
Figure l-l shows the atomic structurefor a silicon atom. The atomic number for silicon
is 14, meaningthat there are 14 protonsin its nucleus,balancedby 14 orbiting electrons.
Notice in Figure l-l(a) that the first shell (ft-shell)surroundingthe nucleushas two
electrons,the secondshell (/-shell) has eight electrons,and the third shell (n-shell) has
four electrons.The outermost ring of an atom is called the valence ring, and the elec-
trons in this ring are called valence electrons.All semiconductorshave four valence
electrons.The number of valence electronspossessedby an.vatom determinesits elec-
trical conductivity. The number of valenceelectronsin an atom also determineshow it
will combine with other atoms. The best conductors have only one valence electron,
while the best insulatorshave complete shells.
The simplified drawing of a silicon atom is shown in Figure l-l(b). The core rep-
resentsthe nucleus and inner electrons.The outer four electronsrepresentthe valence
(b)
electronsof the silicon atom. As you will see, the nucleus and inner electronsare not
Figure l-l that important when analyzinghow atomscombine with eachother; hencethe reasonfor
Atomic structureof a silicon the simplified drawing. One more point: the Si core has a net charge of *4 becauseit
atom. (a) Atomic structure of an contains14 protonsand l0 inner electrons.
atom showing the nucleus and
its orbital rings of electrons.(b) Forming a Crystal
Simplified drawing of a silicon
atom.The core includes the When silicon atoms are groupedtogether,somethingvery interestinghappens.Each sil-
nucleusand inner electrons. icon atom sharesits four valence electronswith other nearby atoms, thereby forming a
 -

Figure 1-2
Bonding diagram of a silicon
crystal.
@ (si) tsi) (si)
@
(sr)
@ (si)
@ @
{sit
@ o @ @
@ @ @ o o Flgure 1-4
Doping a sil
pentavalent :
solid crystalline structure.For the six inner silicon atoms in Figure l-2, eachatom has (As) is shou
eight valenceelectronsas a result of the electron sharing,which is the amount required but other per
for maximum electrical stability. Notice in Figure 1-2 that only the core and valence such as antir
electronsare shown for each atom. phosphorous
used.
This sharing of valence electronsis called covalent bonding. The covalent bonds
betweeneach silicon atom produce the solid crystalline structure.

Thermally Generated Electron-Hole pairs

For a silicon crystal at absolute zero (-273"C), all the valenceelectronsremain locked
in their respective covalent bonds. This means that no free electrons will be floating
around in the silicon material. Above absolute zero, however, some valence electrons
may gain enoughenergy from heat, radiation, or other sources,to escapefrom their par-
ent atoms.When an electronleavesits covalentbond, it becomesa free electronthat can
move freely in the material. This free electron also producesa vacancy or hole in the
covalent bond structurethat it left. Thermal energy is the main causefoi the creation of
an electron-holepair, as shown in Figure l-3.
As the temperatureincreases,more thermally generatedelectron-holepairs will be
created.In Figure l-3, the hole acts like a positive chargebecauseit will attract a free
lectron f/-\' electron passingthrough the crystal.
I
( s i) Hole It should be noted that a silicon semiconductormaterial has fewer thermally gener-
\ \ >r'', ated electron-holepairs than a germaniumcrystal at the sametemperature.This implies

o that a silicon crystal is more stablethan a germaniumcrystal at higher temperatures.Its

(si) (si) stability is the primary reason why silicon is the number one semiconductormaterial
used in the manufacturingof diodes, transistors,and integratedcircuits.
It is important to note that intrinsic semiconductormaterialshave only a few ther-

o mally generatedelectron-holepairs at room temperatureand thereforeare still relativelv

good insulators. Figure 1*5
Doping a silir
trivalent impr
Figurc 1-3 1_2 DOPING (Al) is shown
Thermal energy producesa free
electronand a hole. This is As mentionedearlier, doping is a processthat involves adding impurity atoms to an in_ illustration, br
often called an electron-hoie impurities suc
trinsic semiconductor.Intrinsic semiconductorsare of limited use in the field of electron-
palr. gallium (Ga)
ics. Intrinsic semiconductormaterials such as silicon or germanium are almost always
used.
2 . CHAPTERI
t
I

r Free electron doped with impurity atoms to increasetheir conductivity. An extrinsic semiconductor
material, then, is one that has been doped with impurity atoms.

tsi)
( v n-type Semiconductors
/,,--)){f,-.\ A pentavalentatom is one that has five valenceelectrons.Some examplesare antimony
( s i) | | ( n s )| | ( s i) (Sb), arsenic (As), and phosphorous(P). A silicon crystal doped with a large number of
1v-f{fur pentavalentimpurity atoms results in many free electronsin the material. This occurs
becauseat the location of each pentavalentatom there is one electron that is not used in
,-\ )
e, the covalent bond structureof the material. Remember,only eight electronscan exist in
the valencering of a silicon atom. Therefore,one of the valenceelectronsin the penta-
valent impurity atom is not neededin the covalent bond structureand can float through
figurr l-4
the material as a free electron.This is illustrated in Figure 1-4. The free electron shown
Dopinga silicon crystal with a actually belongs to the arsenic atom, but since the covalent bond is already complete
pentavalentimpurity. Arsenic with eight valenceelectrons,the electron is extra, or not needed.When millions of pen-
(As)is shown in this illustration, tavalentimpurity atomsare addedto an intrinsic silicon crystal, there are millions of free
but other pentavalent impurities electronsthat can float through the material. Since the electron is the basic particle of
suchas antimony (Sb) or negativecharge,we call this n-type semiconductormaterial.The net chargeof the n-type
phosphorous(P) could also be material is still neutral, however,since the total number of electronsis equal to the total
used.
number of protons. n-type semiconductorsalso contain a few holes becausethermal en-
ergy still createsa few electron-holepairs in the crystal. The few valenceelectronsthat
do absorb enough energy to leave their respectivecovalent bonds increasefurther the
number of free electronsin the material. The vacancies,or holes, createdin the crystal
act like positive chargesbecauseif a free electron passesby, it will be attractedto the
hole and fill it. since there are many more free electronsthan holes in an n-type semi-
conductor material, the electronsare called the majority current carriers and the holes
are called the minority current carriers.
There are many positive ions present in n-type semiconductormaterial because
when the fifth valenceelectron of the pentavalentatom leavesits home or parent atom,
an imbalanceis createdin the number of positive and negativechargesthat exist for that
atom" In this case,the nucleusof the impurity atom will contain one more proton than
its number of orbiting electrons.The positive ions are fixed chargesin the crystal that
Hole (si) are unable to move.

I p-type Semiconductors
I
( s i)
t, (si)
A trivalent atom is one that has only three valenceelectrons.Some examplesare alumi-
num (Al), boron (B), and gallium (Ga). A silicon crystaldopedwith a large numberof
trivalent impurity atoms results in many holes, or vacancies,in the covalent bond struc-
(si)
ture of the material. This happensbecauseat the location of each trivalent atom in the
crystal one more valence electron is neededto obtain the maximum electrical stability
with eight electrons,as shown in Figure l-5. When millions of trivalent impuritiesare
Figurt 1-5
added to an intrinsic semiconductormaterial, millions of holes are createdthroughout
Dopinga silicon crystal with a
trivalentimpurity. Aluminum the material. Since a hole exhibits a positive charge,we call this p-type semiconductor
(Al) is shownin this material. The net charge of the p-type material is still neutral, however, since the total
illustration,but other trivalent number of electronsis equal to the total number of protons.
impuritiessuch as boron (B) or p-type semiconductorsalso contain a few free electrons,becausethermal energy
gallium(Ga) could also be still produces a few electron-hole pairs. Electrons are the minority carriers in p-type
used. semiconductormaterial, while holes are the maiority current carriers.

DIODES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

 I

p-type semiconductormaterial contains many negative ions becausefree electrons Figure 1

passingby may fill the holes in the covalent bond structurecreatedby the trivalent im- Forward
purity atoms.Thus, the trivalent impurity atom will have one more orbiting electronthan (a) Exte
it has protons in its nucleus,thereby creating a negativeion. The negativeions are fixed electron
chargesand are unable to move in the crystal. the deplt
(aJ
where th
hole. On
electrons
hole in tl
Anode (A) Cathode (K) 1-3 THE PN JUNCTION (b) Elect
arToq w
A popular semiconductordevice called a diode is made by combining the p- and n-type current ir
semiconductormaterials,as shown in Figure l-6(a). Notice that the doped regions meet arTow.
(b) to form a pn junction Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow
through them in one direction only.
Figure 1-6
pn junction. (a) Basic The schematicsymbol for a semiconductordiode is shown in Figure l-6(b). The p
construction of a diode showing side of the diode is called the anode (A), while the n side of the diode is called the
the separatep and n regions. cathode (K).
(b) Schematicsymbol for a
semiconductordiode showing
the anode (A) and cathode (K)
terminals.
Depletion Zone
Figure l-7(a) showsa pn junction with free electronson the r side and holeson the p
side. Notice that the free electronsare representedas dash (-) marks and the holes are
represented as small circles(Q).
At the instant the pn junction is formed, free electrons on the z side migrate or
diffuse acrossthe junction to the p side. Once on the p side, the free electronsare mi-
nority current carriers. The lifetime of these free electrons is short, however, because
they fall into holes shortly after crossingto the p side. The important effect here is that
when a free electron leavesthe n side and falls into a hole on the p side, two ions are
(a)
created:a positiveion on the n sideand a negativeion on thep side (seeFigure l-7(b)).
As the processof diffusion continues,a barrier potential, Vr, is createdand the diffusion
of electronsfrom the n side to the p side stops.Electronsdiffusing from the n side sense
a large negative potential on the p side that repels them back to the n side. Likewise,
holes from the p side are repelled back to the p side by the positive potential on the n
side. The area where the positive and negative ions are located is called the depletion
zone. Other namescommonly used are depletion region and depletion layer The word
depletion is used becausethe areahas been depletedof all chargecarriers.The positive
and negative ions in the depletion zone are fixed in the crystalline structure and are
therefore unable to move.
(b)

Figure 1-7
pn junction. (a) pn junction Barrier Potential, V"
showing the electrons1-) in the
The ions createa potential difference atthe pnjunction as shown in Figure l-7(b). This
n side and holes (O) in the p
side. (b) Formation of depletion
potential difference is called the barrier potential and is usually designatedVu. For sil-
zone with positive ions at the icon, the barrier potential at thepn junction is approximately0.7V. For germanium,V, is
left edge of the n material and about 0.3V. The barrier potential cannot be measuredexternally with a voltmeter, but it
negative ions at the right edge does exist at the pn junction. The barrier potential causesthe diffusion of the current
of the p material. carriers to stop.

4 . CHAPTER1
I

Figurel-E
Forwardbiasedpn junction.
(a) External voltage forces free o o o
electronsfrom the n side across o o o
the depletion zone to the p side o o o
wherethe electron falls into a o o o
hole.Once on the p side the
electronsjump from hole to
hole in the valence band.
(b) Electron flow is against the
anow, whereasconventional
cunent is in same direction as
itrTow.

(a)

Electron flow

Conventionalflow

(,(')

(b)

1-4 FORWARD.BIASED PN JUNCTION

The term bias can be defined as a control voltage or current. Forward-biasinga diode
allows current to flow easily through the diode. Figure l-8(a) illustrates a pn junction
that is forward biased.
In Figure l-S(a) notice that the n mateial is connectedto the negativeterminal of
the voltage source,V and the p material is connectedto the positive terminal of the volt-
age source,V The voltage source,V must be large enoughto overcomethe internal bar-
rier potentialVu.The voltagesourcerepelsfree electronsin the n side acrossthe deple-
tion zone and into the p side. Once on the p side, the free electron falls into a hole. The
electron will then travel from hole to hole as it is attractedto the positive terminal of the
voltage source,V For every free electron entering the n side, one electron is leaving the
p side. Notice in Figure l-8(a) that if the pn junction is made from silicon, the external
voltage sourcemust be 0.7 V or more to neutralizethe effect of the internal barrier po-
tential, V", and in turn produce current flow.
Figure 1-8(b) showsthe schematicsymbol of a diode with the voltagesource,V
connectedto provide forward bias. Notice that forward bias exists when the anode,A, is
made positive with respectto the cathode,K. Notice that electronsflow to the n side,

DIODES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS . 5

 I

against the arrow on the diode symbol. The arrow on the diode symbol points in the
direction of conventionalcurrent flow. Either current direction works well when analyz-
ing diode circuits. In this book, however,we will use electron flow when analyzing cir-
cuits containing diodes.

1-5 REVERSE.BIASEDPN JUNCTION

Figure l-9(a) showshow to reverse-biasa pn junction. Notice that the negativeterminal
of the voltage source,l{ is connectedto the p-type semiconductormaterial and that the
positive terminal of the voltage source,V is connectedto the n-type semiconductorma-
terial. The effect is that charge carriers in both sectionswill be pulled away from the
junction. This increasesthe width of the depletion zone, as shown. Free electronson the
n side will be attractedaway from the junction becauseof the attraction of the positive
terminal of the voltage source, V Likewise, holes in the p side will be attractedaway
from the junction becauseof the attraction by the negative terminal of the voltage
source.V
Figure l-9(b) shows the schematicsymbol of a diode with the voltage source, I
connectedto provide reverse bias. The result of reverse bias is that the diode is in a
nonconductingstateand acts like an open switch, ideally with infinite resistance.

Figure l*9
Reverse-biased pn junction.
(a) Extemal voltage pulls ooooo
majority current carriers away
ooooo
from the pn junction. This
ooooo
widens the depletion zone.
ooooo
(b) Schematicsymbol showing
how a diode is reverse-biased
with the external voltage, V

Figurt 1-10
(a)
Volt-ampere
of a silicon

(b)

6 . CHAPTER I
 Leakage Current
Even a reverse-biaseddiode conductsa small amount of current, called leakagecurrent.
The leakagecurrent is mainly due to the minority current carriersthat exist in both sec-
tions of the diode. The minority cunent carriersare holes in the n side and free electrons
in the p side. The minority current carriersexist as a result of thermal energy producing
many electron-hole pairs. Since temperaturedetermines the number of electron-hole
pairs generated,the leakagecurrent is also affectedby temperature.Any increasein the
temperatureof the diode causesthe leakagecurrent in the diode to increase.Thesemi-
nority current carriersmove in a direction that is oppositeto the direction provided with
forward bias.

1-6 VOUT.AMPERECHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Figure l-10 is a graph of diode cunent versusdiode voltagefor a silicon diode. The
graph includes the diode current for both forward- and reverse-biasvoltages.The upper
right quadrantof the graph representsthe forward-biascondition. Notice that very little
diode current flows when the forward voltage, V", is less than about 0.6 V. Beyond 0.6
V of forward bias, however,the diode current increasessharply.Notice that the forward
voltage drop, V., remains relatively constantas /o increases.0.7 V is the approximate
value assumedfor the barrier potential of a silicon pn junction. For germanium diodes
the barrier potential is approximately0.3 V. Therefore,if the graph in Figure 1-10 was
for a germanium diode, the current would increase sharply for a forward voltage of
about 0.3 V.

Breakdown Voltage, V"*

The lower left quadrantof the graph in Figure l-10 representsthe reverse-bias condi-
tion. Notice that only a very small current flows until the breakdown voltage, Vr^, is
reached.The current that flows prior to breakdownis mainly the result of thermally pro-
duced minority current carriers.As mentionedearlier, this current is called leakagecur-
rent and is usually designated1*. Leakage current increasesmainly with temperature,

Figure1-10 1p (mA)
Volt-amperecharacteristiccurve
of a silicon diode.

Vp (Volts;<-

DIODES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

 FF-

and is relatively independentof changesin reverse-biasvoltage. The slight increasein

reversecurrent, 1^, with increasesin the reversevoltage, V^, is a result of surfaceleak-
age current. Surfaceleakagecurrent exists becauseon the edgesof a silicon crystal there
are many holes due to the unfilled covalent bonds.Theseholes provide a path for a few
electronsin the crystal.
Avalancheoccurs when the reverse-biasvoltage, V*, becomesexcessive.Thermally
producedfree electronson the p side are acceleratedby the voltage sourceto very high
speedsas they move through the diode. Theseelectronscollide with valenceelectronsin
other orbits. These free electronsare also set free and acceleratedto very high speeds,
thereby dislodging even more free electrons.The processis cumulative, hencewe have
an avalancheeffect.
When the breakdown voltage, Vr*, is reached the reverse current, 1^, increases
sharply. Diodes should not be operatedin the breakdown region. Most rectifier diodes
have breakdown voltagesexceeding50 V.

DC Resistanceof a Diode
Examine the forward-biasregion for the graph shown in Figure l-10.
The graph of Vo versus 1o shows that a diode is a nonlinear device becausethe
diode current, 1o, does not increasein direct proportion with the diode voltage, Vo. For
example,the diode voltage does not have to be doubled to double the diode current.The
dc resistanceof a forward-biaseddiode can be calculatedusing Equationl-1.
VO
R ', : (1-1)
IF

where Vo is the forward voltage drop and 1o is the forward current

Ewmplc I: For the dide curvein Figure 1*10, calculatetle dc resistauce,Rr, at

pointsA andB.
Answrr: are:
UsingEquationl-1, the calculations
v-
PointA.'Rr=
?t F Point B.' Rr: *
lp

* 0'q5Y = 0.1J-
11mA 22.5mA Figure 1-11
First appror
* 59O = 31.1,fl
(a) Forward
. Noticethat asthe diodeconductsmoreheavily,the forwardresis- like a close
(b) Reverse
tance,R," decreases.
treated like
(c) Graph s
Using an Ohmmeter to Check a Diode and reverse

The condition of a semiconductordiode can be determinedwith an ohmmeter.When

using an analog meter, check the resistanceof the diode in one direction, then reverse
the meter leads and measurethe resistanceof the diode in the other direction. If the
diode is good, it should measurea very high resistancein one direction and a low resis-
tance in the other direction. For a silicon diode, the ratio of reverseresistance,Ro, to
forward resistance,Ro, should be very large, such as 1000: I or more.

8 . CHAPTER I
 If the diode is shorted, it will measurea low resistancein both directions. If the
diode is open, it will measurea high resistancein both directions.
A word of caution. when using analog ohmmetersto check a diode, do not use the
R X 1 range. The reasonis that the current forced through the diode by the meter may
exceedthe current rating of the diode. The R x 100 range is usually the best range on
which to check a diode.

Using a DMM to Check a Diode

Most digital multimeters (DMMs) cannot be used to measurethe forward or reversere-
sistanceof a diode junction. This is becausethe ohmmeter rangesin most digital mul-
timeters do not provide the proper forward bias to turn on the diode being tested.There-
fore, the resistanceranges on a DMM are often referred to as low power ohm (Lp,o)
ranges.
Most digital multimeters provide a special range for testing diodes. This range is
called the diode ( )* I range. This is the only range setring on the DMM that can
provide the proper amount of forward bias for the diode being tested.It is important to
note that when the digital multimeter forward-biasesthe diode being tested,the digital
display will indicate the forward voltage dropped acrossthe diode rather than the for-
ward resistance,Ro. A good silicon diode testedwith a DMM should show a voltage
somewherebetween 0.6 and 0.7 V for one connectionof the meter leads, and an over-
range condition for the opposite connection of the leads.An open diode will show an
ovelrange condition for both connectionsof the meter leads,while a shorteddiode will
show a very low or zero reading for both connectionsof the meter leads.

1-7 DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

Three different diode approximationscan be used when analyzing diode circuits. Which
one to use dependson the desiredaccuracyof your circuit calculations.

First Approximation
The first approximationtreats a fcrward-biaseddiode like a closed switch with a voltage
drop of zero volts, as shownin Figure l-l l(a). Likewise,the first approximationtreatsa

Forward-biased Closed switch

Figurrl-ll (zero volts)
Firstapproximationof a diode. *tr -
(a)Forward-biased diode treated
like a closedswitch.
6) Reverse-biased diode (a)
treated like an open switch.
(c)Graphshowingideal forward
Reverse-biased Open switch
andreversecharacteristics. (zero current)
-> + ..- r

(b)

(c,

DIODES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS . 9

 -

reverse-biaseddiode like an open switch with zero current, as shown in Figure l-ll(b). Figure 1-13
The graph in Figure l-11(c) indicatesthe ideal forward- and reverse-biascharacteristics.'' Third apprc
The first approximationof a diode is often usedif all that is neededis a rough idea (a) Forwarc
of what the circuit voltagesand currents should be. including tl
Vr, and the
The first approximationis sometimescalled the ideal diode approximation.
(b) Reverse
showing hi1
Second Approximation infinite) of
The second approximation treats a forward-biaseddiode like an ideal diode in series condition. (
with a battery, as shown in Figure l-12(a). For silicon diodes the battery voltage is as- forward an
characteris
sumed to be 0.7 V the same as the barrier potential, V", at a silicon pn junction.

Forward-biased
YB

_t+_+ -
*Jf r l r

Reverse-biased

- +
----)--

(b)

{c}

Figurr 1-12
Secondapproximation of a diode. (a) Forward-biaseddiode treated like an ideal diode in series
with a battery. (b) Reverse-biaseddiode treatedlike an open switch. (c) Graph showing forward
and reversecharacteristics.

The secondapproximationof a reverse-biaseddiode is an open switch. See Figure

l-12(b).
The graph in Figure l-12(c) indicatesthe forward- and reverse-biascharacteristics
of the secondapproximation.Notice the diode is consideredto be off until the forward
voltage, Vr, reaches0.7 V. Also, the diode is assumedto drop 0.7 V for all currentsthat
passthrough the diode.
The secondapproximationis used if more accurateanswersare neededwhen mak-
ing the circuit calculations.

Third Approximation
The third approximationof a diode includes somethingcalled the bulk resistance,desig-
nated r". ru is the resistanceof the p and n materials.Its value is dependenton the dop-
ing level and the physical size of the p and n materials.
The third approximationof a forward-biaseddiode is shown in Figure 1-13(a). The
total diode voltage drop using the third approximationis calculatedusing Equation l-2.
Vr: Vn * Io16 (r-2)
IO . CHAPTERI
Egun l-13 Forward-biased
lhird approximation of a diode. vB rB
(a)Forward-biased diode
includingthe barrier potential,
___-)t__
+ -
**"|rlnnn-
V", andthe bulk resistance,rr.
(a)
(b)Revene-biased diode
showinghigh resistance(not
infinite)of the reverse-bias Reverse-biased
condition. (c) Graph showing
forwardand reverse
characteristics.
____)+
- +

Reverseleakage

Reverse-biasresistance

(b)

(c)

The bulk resistance,rB, causes the forward voltage across a diode to increase
slightly with increasesin the diode current.
Figure l-13(b) shows the third approximationof a reverse-biaseddiode. The resis-
tance across the open switch illustrates the high leakageresistancethat exists for the
reverse-biascondition. Notice the small leakagecurrent in the graph of Figure l-13(c)
when the diode is reverse-biased.This is a result of the high resistancethat exists when
the diode is reversebiased.

More on Bulk Resistance,r"

The graph in Figure l-13(c) shows the forward- and reverse-biascharacteristicsin-
cluded with the third approximation.Notice the slope of the diode curve when forward
biased.The value of the bulk resistance,rB, can be determinedby using Equation l-3.

AV
(l-3)
N
where AVrepresents the changein diode voltage producedby the changesin diode cur-
rent. 4L

of l.l V for a fsrwarddi-

r eEEffir Ip, is aerc rfu the fm-

f GxdF 0.7 V. Tlun w€ csn use

DIODES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS . 11

 -

rB = 2.5 {l

%n=1ov Rr= 100O Yin=lov Rr=100O

vr= lov

v a = o ' 7Y Vn=O;lV rs=2.5Q

Y i n =l 0 V Rr=100Q Vin=l0V Rr= l00Q

\=e.3v Vt=9'0'l Y

Figure 1-14
Circuits usedto illu$trate the use of the first, second,and third diode approximationsin calculatingthe circuits' voltage and current val-
ues.(a) Original circuit. (b) First approximationof a diode. (c) Secondapproximationof a diode. (d) Third approximationof a diode.

12 . CHAPTERI
1-8 DIODE RATINGS
The following is a list of maximum ratings and electrical characteristicsfor semiconduc-
tor diodes.

Breakdown Voltage Rating, V"*

The reversebreakdown voltage rating is extremely important since the diode is usually
destroyedif this rating is exceeded.The breakdownvoltage, V" , is the voltage at which
avalancheoccurs.
This rating can be designatedby any of the following: peak inverse voltage(pIV);
peak reverse voltage (PRV); breakdown voltage rating (Vsp); or peak reverse voltage
maximum (Vnnil.There are other ways to designatethe breakdownvoltagerating, how-
eveq the ones most commonly used are listed here. The breakdown voltage ratings are
maximum ratings and should never be exceeded.

Average Forward-Current Rating, I,

This important rating indicates the maximum allowable averagecurrent that the diode
can handle safely. The averageforward-current rating is usually designatedas /e. Ex-
ceeding the diode's Ia rating will destroy the diode.

Maximum Forward-SurgeCurrent Rating, 1"r-

The maximum forward-surgecurrent (Irtr) rating is the maximum instantaneouscurrent
the diode can handle safely from a single pulse. Diodes are often connectedto large
electrolytic capacitorsin power supplies (see chapter 2). when power is first applied,
the initial charge current for the capacitor can be very high. Exceedingthe 1o", rating
will destroy the diode.

Maximum ReverseCurrent, .I*

Almost all data sheets list at least one value of reverse current, /^, for a specified
amount of reverse-biasvoltage. For example,the data sheetof an IN4002 silicon diode
specifies a typical /^ of 0.05 pA for a diode junction temperature,Tr, of 25"C and a

DIODES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS . 13

 CHAPT
DIOD
-

reversevoltage, V^, of 100 V. With this data, the reverseresistance,R*, of the diode can
be calculated:

R-:f
100v
0.05 pA
= 2 x l } eO o r 2 G O

It should be emphasizedthat the maximum ratings of a diode should never be ex-

ceededunder any circumstances.If any maximum ratings are exceeded,there is a good
chancethe diode will fail and need to be replaced.
To test your understandingof the material presentedin this chapter,select Chapter
I from the menu screenof the computer software program. The software allows you to
chooseamong true/false,multiple choice, or circuit-type problems.

SUMMARY
Semiconductoratoms have four valenceelectrons.Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are
both examplesof semiconductormaterials.Most diodes, transistors,and integratedcir-
cuits (ICs) are made fronr silicon. Semiconductorssuch as silicon are neither good con-
ductors nor good insulators.An intrinsic semiconductoris a pure semiconductormaterial
without any impurity atoms added to it. An extrinsic semiconductormaterial is a semi-
conductor material that has impurity atoms added to it during a process called doping.
Doping increasesthe conductivity of the semiconductormaterial.N-type semiconductors
have many free electronsas a result of the doping processwhile p-type semiconductors
have many holes.
A diode is a unidirectional device that allows current to flow through it in one di-
rection only. Diodes that are forward-biasedhave a low resistance,while diodes that are
reverse-biasedhave a very high resistance.When checking a silicon diode with an ana-
log ohmmeter,the ratio of reverseresistance,R^, to forward-resistance,R,o should be at
least 1000:1. The first approximation of a diode heats a forward-biaseddiode like a
closed switch with a voltage drop of zero volts. The secondapproximation of a diode
includes the barrier potential, Vr. For silicon diodes Va : 0.7 V. Both the first and sec-
ond approximationsof a diode treat a reverse-biaseddiode like an open switch with in-
finite resistance.The third approximationof a diode includes both the barrier potential,
Vo and the bulk resistance,rB, when forward-biased.The bulk resistance,rr, of a diode
is the resistanceof the p and n materials.The third approximation of a reverse-biased
diode also includes the reverseresistance,R^.

14 . CHAPTERI