18.01A Topic 1: Linear and quadratic approximations.

Read: SN: A.

Vocabulary: Linear approximation = linearization

Quadratic approximation
Geometric series
Binomial theorem
Basic idea: If h is small then h2 is really small and h3 is really, really small.
Example: Suppose f (x) = 3 + 4x + 5x2 + 7x3 .
Then for x small, f (x) ≈ 3 + 4x (linear approximation).
I.e. we can ignore the higher powers of x.
More accurate approximation: f (x) ≈ 3 + 4x + 5x2 (quadratic approx.)
Notice that
1. f (0) = 0.
2. f 0 (x) = 4 + 2 · 5x + 3 · 7x2 ⇒ f 0 (0) = 4.
4. f 00 (x) = 2 · 5 + 3 · 2 · 7x ⇒ f 00 (0) = 2 · 5.
⇒ linear approximation is: f (x) ≈ f (0) + f 0 (0)x for x ≈ 0.
1
and quadratic approximation is: f (x) ≈ f (0) + f 0 (0)x + f 00 (0)x2 for x ≈ 0.
2

To see why these are the best approximations we turn to calculus.

While we’re at it we’ll work near an arbitrary base point x = a.
Basic idea:
∆y
For y = f (x), f 0 (x) ≈ ∆x ⇒ ∆y ≈ f 0 (x) ∆x. y


0
⇔ f (x) − f (a) ≈ f (x) (x − a). 
(I.e the tangent line approximates the graph.)
∆y
= slopeWW 
∆x W +
 iTrr ∆y
rT
Basic linear formulas:
rrrr TTTTT
(A2) f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) for x ≈ a. 
r
rr ∆x slope = f 0 (x)
r
r•r
(A4) 1/(1 − x) ≈ 1 + x for x ≈ 0. rrrrr x
rr x x + ∆x
(A5) (1 + x)r ≈ 1 + rx for x ≈ 0.
(A6) sin x ≈ x for x ≈ 0.
We can prove A4-6 using A2.
Examples:
1. Approximate f (x) = (1 + x)99 (1 + 3x)77 for x ≈ 0.
answer: f (x) ≈ (1 + 99x)(1 + 77 · 3x) = 1 + 330x + 99 · 231x2 ≈ 1 + 330x.
2. Aproximate f (x) = 1/(1 − sin x)2 for x ≈ 0.
answer: Since sin x ≈ 0 when x ≈ 0 (A4) gives
f (x) ≈ (1 + sin x)2 ≈ (1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x2 ≈ 1 + 2x.

(continued)

1
18.01A topic 1 2

Basic quadratic formulas:

f 00 (a)
(A13) f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 for x ≈ a.
2
1
(A9) ≈ 1 + x + x2 for x ≈ 0.
1−x
r(r − 1) 2
(A10) (1 + x)r ≈ 1 + rx + x for x ≈ 0.
2
(A11) sin x ≈ x for x ≈ 0.
2
(A12) cos x ≈ 1 − x2 for x ≈ 0.
We can prove A9-12 using A13.
Examples: (quadratic)
r
√ √ b √ 1b 1 b
Q1. a + bx = a 1 + x ≈ a(1 + x − ( x)2 ) (for x ≈ 0).
a 2a 8 a
sin θ θ
Q2. tan θ = , (near 0) ≈ ≈ θ(1 + θ2 /2) ≈ θ.
cos θ 1 − θ2 /2
Examples: √
2A-1. Find the linearization of a + bx in two ways. First by using formula (A2)
and second using the basic formulas and algebra.
√
answer: i) Give the function a name: f (x) = a + bx.
Find the
√pieces of (A2):
√ √ √
f (0) = a; f (x) = a + bx ⇒ f 0 (x) = b/ a + bx ⇒ f 0 (0) = b/ a.
√
Use (A2): f (x) ≈ a + √ba x, for x ≈ 0.
ii) This is done in example Q1 above, simply ignore the quadratic term.
1
2A-2. Same as exercise 1 for f (x) = .
a + bx
answer: i) Find the pieces of (A2):
1 b b
f (0) = ; f 0 (x) = − 2
⇒ f 0 (0) = − 2 .
a (a + bx) a
1 b
Use (A2): f (x) ≈ − 2 x, for x ≈ 0.
a a
1
2A-8. Find the quadratic approximation for f (x) = for x ≈ 1/2.
1−x
1
answer: Find the pieces for (A13) (here, a = ):
2
1
f ( ) = 2; f 0 (x) = (1−x)
1 0 1
2 ⇒ f ( 2 ) = 4; f 00 (x) = (1−x)
2 00 1
3 ⇒ f ( 2 ) = 16.
2
1 1
Use (A13): f (x) ≈ 2 + 4(x − ) + 8(x − )2 .
2 2

(continued)
18.01A topic 1 3

Same problem, finding the answer using algebra:

Let y = f (x).
Let u = x − 12 , (so x ≈ 12 ⇔ u ≈ 0).
1 2 1 1
⇒ y= = ≈ 2(1 + 2u + 4u2 ) = 2 + 4(x − ) + 8(x − )2 .
1/2 − u 1 − 2u 2 2
(The first approximation comes using (A9).)

√ special relativity (example 3 in notes §A)

Example from
m = m0 c/ c2 − v 2 , what√v needed to produce 1% increase in mass?
Want m/m0 = 1.01 = c/ c2 − v 2 = (1 − (v/c)2 )−1/2 ≈ 1 + 21 (v/c)2 .
Let u = v/c, 1.01 = 1 + 12 u2 ⇒ .02 = u2 ⇒ u ≈ 17 ⇒ v ≈ 27000 mi/sec.
Algebraic substitution rules:
1. Can substitute a linear (quadratic) approx for any factor or divisor as long as they
have a constant term.
2. Once you make a linear substitution you can never recover the quadratic approxi-
mation.
Examples: (why we need to have a constant term)
1. x(1+x)
x(2+x)
x
6≈ 2x .
ln(1 + x) x
2. x
6≈ = 1.
xe x
ln(1+x)/x
Instead = ex
≈ 1−x/2
1+x
≈ (1 − x/2)(1 − x) ≈ 1 − 3x/2.
(Note: this would be hard to do by differentiation.)
Example: (why we can’t get the quad. approx after a linear substitution)
f (x) = (1 + x + x2 + x3 )(1 + 2x + 3x2 )
Quad. approx near 0: f (x) ≈ (1 + x + x2 )(1 + 2x + 3x2 ) ≈ 1 + 3x + 6x2
If first made linear approx: f (x) ≈ (1 + x)(1 + 2x) = 1 + 3x + 2x2 which is not THE
quadratic approx. of f (x)
The exponential function et ≈ 1 + t + t2 /2 for t near 0.
Proof : Let f (t) = et then f (t) = f 0 (t) = f 00 (t) = et .
⇒ f (0) = f 0 (0) = f 00 (0) = 1.
⇒ f (t) ≈ 1 + t + t2 /2 for t ≈ 0.

Examples:
Suppose you have $1000 in bank at 2% continuous interest. Approximately how much
money is in the bank after 1 year? After 2 years?
answer: Balance = f (t) = 1000e.02t ≈ 1000(1 + .02t + (.02t)2 /2).
f (1) ≈ 1000(1 + .02 + .0002) = 1020.20.
f (2) ≈ 1000(1 + .04 + .0008) = 1040.80.