GENTRAL LibKaRY LL, GUWAHATI 72 Liquid Flat-Plate Collectors [A brief description of the liquid flat-plate collector has been given in Sec, 2.1, and its varied applications have been described in Sec. 2.2. These include water heating, space heating and cooling, and low- temperature cycles for power generation. 4.1 GENERAL The basic parts that make up a conventional liquid flat-plate collector are (i) the absorber plate, (ii) the tubes fixed to the absorber plate through which the liquid to be heated flows, (iii) the transparent covers, and (iv) the insulated container. The main advantage of a flat-plate collector is that it utilizes both the beam and diffuse components of the solar radiation. In addition, because of its simple stationary design, it requires little maintenance. Its principal disad- vantage is that because of the absence of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large. As a result, the collection efficiency is generally low. The liquid heated is generally water. However, sometimes mixtures | of water and ethylene glycol are used if ambient temperatures below 0°C are likely to be encountered. The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet ranging in thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm, while ther petal, range in diameter fro re also of Pv elded or pressure bonded yh: 4 itch ranging from 5 to 12 ¢ bea, ned tothe fp OF ATE inline anj ON Pre metal most commonly Used, bp, tubes, Leste ete in India, be other absorber plate-tube combi ee roe ‘These include aluminium cheat Tepper or gala steel tubes with a pressure bond, mild fag avaized steal sheets with izalvanized steel tubes, and stains ieee with builtin channels, The header pipes, which lead the abe ot ofthe ealletor and distribute it to the tubes, are me ian tal as theeubes and are of lighlly Tanger diameten gf 25cm. sr or toughened glass of or Smm thickness i the most fa mate fr the transparent covers. The usual Practice is to have ‘or two covers with spacings ranging from 1.5 to 3 em. > The bom and sides are usually insulated by mineral woo) ry sour dts oo with covering of aluminium fol and as a thick ‘Than 250 Sem, Thewhole assembly is contained within by ‘Chibi elted ata suitable ange. The collector box may be made irae ‘steel sheet, or fibre glass. Te ace areas of met commercially available collectors are ao ‘2m°, with the length (along the sh lirectic sll 2s sth (along the sloping direction) being usually larger ‘More details of the component alee a ponents used in collectors are given in IS Ta the lac few years, the use of plat sua te est fom sears, the we of late materials forthe absorb gi seas ar vel hovers increased Thi particly titan dacs eee crea iees temperatures up to 60 oF 70°C. Jey ltt wee not used bc they degraded on exposure # sale Te ave lw ema enfutves a high cel in pomertechoology Pa metals, However, recent advance! pute tray Wich ose att evelopment of suitable ‘exposures to sunlight pind weight and easy '0 gua Fat plate Cotecrrs 11 jaoto COO input and raw material origin wil be ery importa ely i at praluton tai Matte lets nthe inef0 present Bin India, is low. However, it i ‘phe Pall i eon is increasing rapidly. sent 49 000 25 yave been installed in India nthe 1980, The typist ol Alot 2 BO a ity calestor is about Rs 2500 per square me ost conte of atatems aro usually about 1 times the abowe cst, fostalle 8 oe cast of eretion ping nd sess they i sin? ya. PERFORM aa, yw take UP for wil ted flat-plat situation sede side f the abs of flat-plate collectors willbe tubo oth ol will be conside! ‘balance 02 steady state a2 AS- 0 a eon |ANCE ANALYSIS ‘detailed consideration the performance 1 collector. The analysis will first be done sin which the liguid is flowing through orber plate. Later on, the given and transient the absorber plate yields the following ees rate of heat transfer to the working cuseful heat gain, ar du absorbed inthe ab crits on rection and re-radiation from st by con coe th bata ad ie. the ca sorber plate, the collector is rum Sec. 37, the fx incident om the 1? cover of given by Eq. (3- 33) Ipzluretlarat ot Wr ltiplied by te ach ofthe terms in the above equation adr to dete called the transmissivity-absorptiy product ( 0 mine the flux $ absorbed in the ‘absorber Pl - sc orteay + Uara + G8 #1 ety} sow Foor r tetas ag ss sa, iw whieh, uomissiviTY OF THE COvER = trnannivy oF ts lane cover even He eatin op yy 5 AN Matar Uno fer ett ion at thy yey AP gy oral borin EM 64 Uh ating vs toy cum fo ov lve gas cow AYA, emt wc i ny Ac uboaptvity of he abn bor pate, ‘ret. eet Au, = transl bor ptilty pros for be wi tur) tyr the collector (fino in ens 1), {o0g = teananiivity aboot prendct for dt radiation fy of Hie C0708 nate OW calor a Hectic betaine an an ay a us oo ‘ ivy wbtined iy considering ony abrption, we "nh oor teem have bee dt i Chapter wl Gotha "Tr, one to ovat ge it Faq (ALD, IC noeemsary to isl lotraction aca ec an A it fie fespressions for eadeulating the wales of (0. (HY and gy The avn a nerf a calculi wil therein be taken up the section hich ie th tei paral ‘aaa 3) Twthe dition given in By. (4, he are ofthe absorber pate, ss i the denominator Oe the sletr aperture are) i calestr gros rea (i slo wae The elector aperture th ‘et opening in the topenst corer thr which ela udiaten ‘iste into the elector, the cleo rosa is the va fhe topo cover Linctuding the fame). i uuely about 10018 | eM rot more than 4, while is abut 151020 percent more nd, FE the liuid flow rate through the collector is stopped, there is fo | ssf heat gain and the ffseny is ser. this oe the aber Fisteatuins a temperstore such that Sy Thi tempers the Righest thatthe absorber plate cah atin and romelinee ‘fered oa the sagnation temperate, Konmledge af the steno coperatare is wefl as an indctor fr comparing difer eoce fe ident on the illest "Al sin i low, ‘i aflected! anid refracted (i. 1 reflected bea TNC this stage, Hil be worthwhile to doting G0 termi gg | ll cn role : monet inant etn ny a maton Century | elfen al in cht th a inatontanots eto fice bin Wy | aon in en 1 th cla ocnh sles _Usefil heat g iestions Py which states that | co) ere oy zangle of incidence, her mangle of refraction, iso refractive indices ofthe two media _ gs bee iene S269) hate earn Seg es ee fay Ls go eat ld m gpa reat i cin cin he et he nine cof two Media v £ 9.41 Rotleton and Reaction at the Inerace104 Soler Energy at Pate Cory og eect OP ODP oh ot ea piOrstefs.y ‘the vefltivity (=D) 8 rebated Wo Ue an refration by the equations p= hors pn) sin 95) sin? Wy 94) tan? 6) . elt tan? by $6) " goo” ad py bing the reletivities of te tora components of yy om pu War the special ease of normal incidence (y=), i a be ready eee Wx eh if WW, ica het ent ot that : ax which beat is lost from the tp, 1 le heat trom he ton, 7 eat which eat i lst rom the side ot losses is also expressed in terms of ese Ios 8 of coefcients calls och of cient he bottom loss cefient and the se rad ge 7 defined by the equations FAT pm ~ Te) 48) Ad pm Ta) 419) UAsT mT) (420) “pe noted that the definition ofeach ofthe onficients is based Il ad he tmperture deren Ta Ty Ts ne ig. 4S. Abworpion and Rallecton atthe Absorber Plato ietciente and hon in ving te simple auiitive equation U=U,+U,+U, 421) ‘Thus, the met fraction abworbed (114) tui += epg + 1 af 9+ Pape Py reprenenta the diffuse reflectivity of the cover system: id hy determining the value 14(1 — rs aio "(lt forthe cover nytem sytem Similarly fr aon an that pa = 024 for three gle cover a can be sown tbe O16 and 0.2 eapoeteely ne ne alae of ! (4.16) The nymbol Tecan be foun for an From sen ean alo be pictured in terms of thermal resins 2 od II loss coefficient is an important in Fig. 46. The overall aemee it ix a measure of all the losses. Typical values range 2 to 10 Wim?-K. ‘Top Loss Coefficient Tos coefficient U; is evaluated by considering cometion end ion losses from the absorber plate in the upward dietion of calculation, it is assumed that the transparent covers10. Solar Ene" Ligue atte Colac 11 fa 1 h 1 re (WA) (yy i (WA) Euivalent to 1 Tm in % Jo (rAd) “ee Bee cece Te ig.'4.7_ Celeulation of the Top Loss Coefficient fq, 46 Thermal Resistance Network Showing Collector Lose, | (TT) | hes Pen ~Ta and the absorber plate constitute a system of infinite parallel suf, haa ta Tat ao 208 elke fl of heat is one-dimensional and stead:* Its farthe ecere saad thatthe temperature drop across the thickness ofthe corey ehg(Tea~ Tad + ATE ~ Th) 42) SSegiable and that the interaction bétween the incoming solg Fidaton absorbed by the covers and the outgoing loss may be ‘The outgoing re radiation sof arge wavelengths. For thes ‘Fevelongths, the transparent cover will be assumed tobe opaque. This a very good assumption ifthe material i glass ‘Stebematic diagram fora two-coer system is shown in Fig 7. ln fa sendy state, the heat transferred hy oomvection and radiation tenreen (the absorber plate and the frst cover, i) the first cover and the second cover, and (i) the seco cover and the surroundings rust be equal. Hence, tT mT) a2) a eoby- an -T 116. Hae and 8. Went, Pertrmanc of Peale - eee San erent nara veetive heat transfer coefcient between the absor- com sphere hye Per ate and the first cover, ber piv eat transfer afc! tween te stand aa Second covers Sen ond toe heat transfor coefiient betwen the 1 geet Ghia the end) and he sure te wes attained by the two covert ‘ta, Ta temperatures ata ae 7 fete ogee ans nS radi ce “orber plate for long wavseneth egcemissivity of the abe fadiation, : une covers for Tong wavelength rai cecum cn emg ani 4.2 onsen ee rich ave abe jlved for the unknowns. Taste ‘which have to be sol which rg can be done i wl be =e ‘equations et However, bne so Eom the sanvestive how convene fo cab I ant ace th hy tomperature 18% len net Nanate Coote! Between Meth Parangy a“ Pacman convection Dat tae oof fr thy ree arte nate and he int over of hg SSSR Bana fhe grea oS, retin are based yy ta, lata an all previous corrtauon ay / Nin Ray owe 3 108 . 1708). an Sot 1446 [1 gE OSG) 1708 eco 8 Sy Nac + 022 (Ra 0B 5000 Rago 89.25 te Nu 0015 ago BY 9.21% 10< Ra cob e1og xd fa ar the Nast and Rayleigh numbers repecng charaterst dimension isthe spacing betwee b dems see rl ee nn ak ‘Heat Transter Coefficient at the Top Cover The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) at the tp cover has ben rzcrally calculated co far fom the following empirical corrlace, A, 7+38v. (425 = — 4, is in Wim K and V. is the wind speed in m/s. This gzreatn is band m the experiments perfored fo urge for ferw of ir at room ed ver nse oom inatatione jMore recently, Spectow and hie co-workerst have suggested the Sherwin. Pimensimeae corr dation ae Se aihett flan 8 YK. tdntte, “Maenl Coreen ia a fee i fe Yani, Nand 0 Ht wn Haat anaton Bone ante va (ete ha Yocry tito wh YM Tetvenionn Heh why Metnven HAN, Ho Wor 9 A Abe. ge AK Nn, Peed arstaen Hort Tranter at nda ood ees Sentero" aed with tae gn a, vec ec ust inet perforated tora wala x ne atk an eee a nel Yor the dette aa Beer rca, San ate ete nie ty = scm aes the convective los fom te tp Shae Pa ate unsafe ae obtaing? appears desirable tou Rin pees er ions, imtne from which it elfen e Waar we ay Maton. Aa such, i 6 Wkly te underestimate tenet mere, ono velosses when theatre ceveton mpm, ost ie re, | Fe important ‘apes? =. perature of the sky 1s sual eaesite from the | green ha ce | pemetin Retin Tag=Ta-6 am atom Lose Cooticint 1 oeecent Us eae ying nti, mo stom the aor ite 9 ie reel toma ‘bottom of the collector. Pan —— Aetion throu inal nd aay (i 48). Soo Baton oto ion proved in he ems es - /ith conduction ‘dominates. Thus, neglecting —s ‘tthe ‘bottom surface of the: collector easing, le i mcr, AW Aen ad B.A Maa Ale eT Pid Pu lot wine aca MaLosses from a Flat-plate Colleoy Fig, 48 Botlom and Sic 453. Side Loss Coefficient sin the case ofthe bottom les enefcent, it will be assumed the conduction resistance dominates and that the flow of heat one-dimensional and steady. The one-dimensional approximation gg be justified onthe grounds thatthe side oss coefficient is always mas oo ‘than the top loss coefficie rer lata are ZL andthe ect ler ening Es tee te es aS ne Sse is sLale The emperors ovens chon een for rs ars fom ye~T.) a the bore lt evel fase ‘ch ate pad tte. Asuning hr a the ee cate parte etn ee ickness of this insulation is §,, we have bea ati ym ~T.) ently ih, TD Thus, ftom Ea, 4.20), (430 (430 wr Lui tpl Coleco: yp 42 07 all oss coticient for a Nat-pate alla with twp fe gate 2 fan the following date: ce per plate $0.90 mx1.90 absorb Pate and fist las cover” = em eon Fist and second lass covers em 92 ity rn issiity perature emperature Ty = 2972-6 = 291.2 K zg value and the given values of Tym, Ty fp and fe in hy (gi8.2= Ta) 46380. 10138796 10") (4.32) a7 sors 10s -7 Seta atta-T* a (as ea eelTen ~ Tea) + 4455 wn- TH (433) * 4,291.2 Wo hy( Tea ~ 297.2) + BT X 10° x 0.88(2¢3 = 291.2) Behe + gh 2972)+490010TE=TASNGT IO 8 yuations (452) to (4.34) have to be seed the unkown or this, the values of pcre te tq) and Tex For te upon Tad Taare needed. Since these values depen' Assume16 Soler E707 reations (425) to ealeulate Iy-et and oo ea cit he . correlation Cabeuation oot ture of air between Pi 18249) 29941 K ten i late and first cover this temperature, i. 0.0291 Wim-K r= 19.06 x 10% ms 1 = 0.696 943.2 - 995) x0.08 mace Be981% 47 ag nGtn 10) ~ for aes on ‘Therefore, oe EGF yea Calculation of hs ‘Mean temperature of air between first and second cover Nu, =0. 229(61544)°" = 3.6873 2587091 553 Wi 525008 6K Proceeding in a similar manner, we obtain ey -ea= 2.808 Wi? K Caleulation of hy ‘Mean temperature of air between second cover and ambient At this temperature, 173 kg/m? 005 kg K = 15.80 «10°? mis Preo.701 ee nmr “Properties cf air and water ae give in Append r a SP -aensin yori Ae _ 4% (1.90 pot Ae 440.80 +0,08)0.80 4.0.99) i ee oo 42m on "= 0,86 x (0.2074 x 108! Zeon see aBE at pot = 0.0 51178 % 1,005 «2.5 x 102 om eg (oon 2 27.06 Wim? a syringe ass B55 42) 4430 song ch sai he ie a er cin stn 3 2 Ta®) a 2 Be be 9) — Be nL 2 ms "ma Bm ST tate oe Cog oa ld) inthelast in of he abe aro renal The vaiee herefore the average valu of 1609 Wm acepite values of Tei = 326.5 K and T.2= 307.6 K are close to the the vimptions of 025 K and 305 Kit wl ot be necessary to ns for hy -c1, her ce and fy, with these new values. ___1609 i U= Gaga DTD” BO WK Eq, (4.29), bottom loss coefficient Using = 2-05 _ 0,63 Wim? K From Eq, (4.31), side loss coefficient __ ell (0.90 + 1.90) 6.16% 0.05 Ue=" 090% =0.33 Wim? K8 Soar Ere coefficient 1, 2950+ 0.63 + 0.88 24.46 Wim? K sterefre, oval oss a Empien Banton fr Top Lose Coecent is clear that a tedious ite 1 Banple 42, itis lear dl ce From Bx ptaning the value ofthe top loss Tac, ei Feira large numberof eases covering the ey, cali ally expected for Maple colectars, gy canons loving convenient empirical equation for ga” it " ef ote x u Oley fa E yp fe M+f [athe 22a) 5 OM+F-D y| arming 1-004, + 0.000582 (1+ 0.091 34) = 3651 ~ 0.0088 B + 0.000 1298 pi) M= numberof glass covers While sing Eq, (4.85), Toy and 7, . 1 | Tam and Ty are expressed in Ky Walk cin Wm x and lin degrees. The value of Ui mee se Wak The rng of conditions over which Eq (4.5) has he + 220s Ta5420K + 28057, s310K + Ol se 5095 10 <¥, wil, ‘The term Fp is called the collector heat-removal facto, smpotant design parameter since it is a measure of si cs Sr mi Coletor fid. From Eq, (448), it can be seen that Fy reprost 8 tatio ofthe actual usefl heat gain rate to the gain which yong ifthe clactor absorber plato was a the tomperature Ty, even As such its value ranges betwoen 0 and 1 = Equation (448) is avery convenient expression for calculating y wel energy gain because the inlet id temperature a ue | nown quantity. Iti offen referred to as the Hote! Whillons | equation ie Me 4.8 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE evs ow iustrate the usaf the equations derived inthe prec sets trough a detailed numerical example, he Freeing Example 4.3, A flatpatecolesors made up of «GI ab on the underside and tn glass covers. sie and to glas cove - Fenath of eallector + Width of cteeter + Lenath of ateorer plate + Width of absorber te Plate to cover spec + Spacing between cone + Thermal om + Plate thick orber plate, GI tubes fixed ‘The following data is given: ductivity of plate material ‘ait Fat late Conectos a5 switylemisnvity 995 ecae ts See inte “yjamneter Up tube =14m 1 Pier Sietyeter of HME =Mom onte giometCncontre distance = 12em 5 3006 contre Criasvityabeorptvity = 0.88 er = Biss 0.0524 per plate ox of glass relative air 1.525 1 Active ctor ne 08 Wray . jector 198 * ots of col May 15 B «pote 1 ie gop ik + Siedtor BY oth angle + Sostace oY = 665 Win? 1 ee acd ti 14 0% osistance 1 nabesiie nbe heat ‘transfer coefficient id Mow ate 1 ate ee temperature :. oa en : + Wind 2028 oo thickness + Back insula einal conductivity = 0.04 Wim 1 Iomlation Sod less coefficient is 10 por eat ofthe baton e pater Galea: op jmcidence of beam radiation on the cllestor, 1 the soy Safi incident on the coleta, 2 the d (Oe 3, (co)s and (Fux absorbed by the absorber plate, ae aor jheat-removal factor and overall loss coefficient, 5. the cee temperate and $ the instantaneous efficiency 4, Angle of Incidence of Beam Radiation gn ay 15,2 #395. From Bq, 2), 360 in| 382 ona +158) soos S.a4+ a8 18.79 From Eq. (3.12), : ae EAP 2h 4(62.50 ~ 73.85) minutes + (+26 inate) 1h = 32.0 min : = 10h 28.0 min.Be (tens 1859") (1nees 18.59"| 5 cose 7202/9 ‘Therefore, from Eq, (3-35), ‘ "press 02a4 + 20 0574) +(685%0.005 = 850.7 Wim? 3 (ttle anid (tthe Angle of incidence = 29.37" ee ‘Therefore, angle of refraction = sin" (sin 29.37°1.526) : 218.12" rom Eqs (4.6), (4.7), (4.10), (4.11) and (4.9), pratt (29.31 — 18.72 sin® 29.37 18.127 = 00818 usta 037-187 tan* (29,37° + 18.72%) 2200615 _ T+@x 0.0615) 9-799 tae 500088 +(x 0.0285) = 0-896 10283 us 1 700785 +0806) = 0.8445 ya +0998) 07 iene 24.58") 668 absorbed by Absorber Plate fix absorbed by the absorber plate is siren "5 = (685 » 0.9884 % 0.727) + (220 "0 TAL x 0.642) “+ (895 % 0.0052 % 0.642) = 600.4 Wim? tor Heat removal Factor and Overal Loss t il in i 1d U; cannot rative procedure will be required since both Fz and Ur aiermi .d and the value of one is dependent on! oe Ey ce Assume Ui= 40 Win °C. TMS, reasonable 2° jase covers and nenec® for a collector with two surface.4 587x 10% genset? ee 35x1.3x 107 m(W-D,) _ 9.38(0.12 - 0.018 2 2 o(eitany im, FF = 0.4769 = Teg) + 4.455 «10°75 _afa eha-d : ssn) Be it~ 298294 56710" 0888 aon bp = 298.2) + 4.990% 107 ~ 72.6 aa S-TR80B I) Ay ont cand Ta=310K any Ta? 1987 gn of Bre ‘i ati" 48.6 991 iG oe! $186 +59) ss08 K 6550 Ay 715% 3600 9418 Win*=¢ (0295 Wim-K Therefor, fom Bq, (4.49) the collector heat-removalfaetg (= 19.68 «10 ms Fa Sao ee] Pr=0.695 i: ; 1, (818.6-331)x0025' oss poner ba page etenase and from Bq, (4.48), the useful heat gain | F 90" Fr&glS~ UlCy;~ T=) | a 866 x 1.51600.4 4.0(60 ~ 25)) oy = 0.909% 195957 22517 pc one 2517 0.02850.025 yea ; 22971 Win? ptetation of at E 3814910 _ 999.5 K= 473°C ature = 3205 K= ean tempera! * k= 0.0281 Wim-K 7.68 x 10° mis From Eq. (4.17), = 4.0% 15x (Tn ~ 25) Thus, Ty = 50.42 + 25 = 75.42°C = 348.6 K Wo wil calculate the val of Tye = 34 value ofthe top loss coefficient using the value 102 986 Palloving the same procedure as in Exaile ne Pr=0.698 : Tay = 2982-6 = 1_,, 210.0257 0.696 ens 1888 292.2 Rey, cos B= 9.81% 39955" 17,688 x 10 = 21264 Nu = 0.229 x (21264) = 2821 2,821 x 0.0281 _ 3 171 Wim K ha-a? 0005 % Hy ho -e1 848.6 ~ 7, 4 587 10 (848.6 - 74) 095 * 088 248.6 — (648.6- Tu) + 4.7687 x 10%047.676x10"-T4) (4.50) eiFis 304 m + _ 31% 1.304 : = peat 02812 10 j= 0.86% (02512 109" =0.001 716 hg = 0.001 716 x 1.162 x 1.005 x 3.1 « 10? =7.889 Win? K Atrial and error method involving small adjustments in ef Tz and Tq will now be required such that the values calculated from Eqs (4.50), (451) and (4.52) agree with each o 4s shown in the following table: *(O.70y5, the ra, ian ther Te ai S287 131.81 =18410 5348-19457 155.05 asia 408-0 = 18992 0.16 9151-9585 = 15740 wes was (Git bey = 187.74 Wien? i : = Bag = agi p= 9-725 Wim" K Now, from Eq. (4.23), p28 08 Wim? U,=0.08 Wim?K )=9:75+08+ 0.06 = 4.605 Wim*K r gin poco! io ad i ation 4.605 «0.88 1-e| As tl 208801 .s501 x 15160) 0.4 = 4.605160 - arse axl = 600 251050 24605 x 15(T p= 274290 = S47 5 K 0.1 -25) Ten it therefore be necessary 2 ps vale Ta oe om il ot here be afer he Bt ory and he vars cused fF FS perm, 20 ain eration a be ae beg o 4. Water out Terperate re water outlet temperate i cist ‘equation. ‘Substituting, 70x4.18(T 5-60) from the heat balance Hence T= 65.59"a 132 Solar Energy 7. Instantaneous Efficiency {cote $34 a, 43), the instantaneous effcieney Using Ba. 48) th | plate area is given by In long o 560.1 27x 15 ‘ol 7 0:38, 10. 49.8 por gy Considering theft that the wate inlet tempera theefceny ofthe given collector irate ow. Tha class covers used are of poor quality and have a Ig ‘As the thermal conductivity of the absorber plate similar collector having a coer oF aluminium absorb fitted with better glass covers having a lower extingge” Ps sould, under comparable conditions, yield a highes cin me ent, iy Ea mies, § votes, § rt materia 1 2 @ 4 S68 n Sand per eat eve prbln 7) However itaould pete gk g_10 Ist) such a collestor would cost mare than the GH clleion "ty of instantaneous Eisieey ola Clear vera Performance Over a Day ait ee ‘Based on Absorber Plate Area) Ics of interet to study the perfarmance ofa callctar ogy 4 FAO be approximately calculated if tis assumed say. This dane fr the same GI colector by using rag lc ee dar radsinereal aaa ee eer ake of simpli te wags | qe of sta ar te ang rate, water inet temperature, ambient temperature and windy tat on hour on ciency averaged over 10 hours from 0730 to are all assumed to be constant atthe values given eater fhll 0 the of be 37-4 percent. Theraiaton data sed andthe results obtained ae pve in aig, appr orks out to Ics sen that the values of the useful heat gain and the eee’ ERS {Fg £1)ineease sharply fom 060 to 1000, tach a pea OF VARIOUS PARAMET! : c eon and then drop sharply after 1500 h. The variation obtnmee e ANCE ‘ypical fora atplate collector and indicates the stro te | 4g (ON PERFORM! 43 that ng dependence sections and from Example 43 tt Sareea tradi indent he colt tm aneey | YOO gg he cing eis an ine Tem oe ‘hat the value ofthe top loss coefficient does not vary much, tis oe iaber of ae rameters could be anil eee lange fe collector. These Pare eteorological parameten We TEA Pefomarce of «Fate CotectorOrera whol Day | nine coset, Th avers etn, he eects sme Dest O08 Wor iano Tin (i20) 100 10 T6or raw ew | MENT arametetramelers discussed are th eevee te 1G) 2339067668 Ts Gis ae aT Tes wb consi number FAS CE a Wm’) 49 192 210 230 290 233 239 221 18541 ‘absorber surface, ‘the fluid inlet ofthe collector, Trim!) 3192 535.5 Ee dust setlement flux, an top glass covet 24 8527 914.7 9082 6148 6582 482.8 2909 eee Frit | S41 ING 945.1 475 349.1 948.9 3466 9429 aga 5587 Win K) 355 362 366 3:22 279/372 4.70 nes 360 498 1 Selective Surfaces wit the characteris 8 ME gi) 811 2825 4273 6604 e10d 6135 6240 s782 2099 298 prbor plate surfaces which exhibit Om and al alee Tet) 3506 3063 34 240.1 yios a40.7 306 SITAR 4967 aot MT cbsorptivity for incom ng called selective swt RG) 17 314 400 408 age 450 429 33 290 aa rong raion en ee o they desirable because they The aver zat we efficiency over the whole peri, during whieh upofilals BOHM gs 5a BO yA wine “ gun eoliecir Fis Bie ssi a0 a8 The ya ity ehh Rory adler 4 fe — sa plte lec Wes 8 7 vi tty fh caf eget DV User alt Mh sition fexraterestrie] ear raigg nny pprenimatly to the temperature 0 rer sperm 12a) and its immediately obvious tt then eS a tee the wo, Unlike solar radiation, which jag wavelength region up 0 4 um, the radiation ke eae abenrber plate is ofange wavelengths With a may, se wanission 1 the radi i cies than sre has a high it follows therefore that ifa surface that has a high a Fata eng Jes than 4 um and a low emissivity for yaya, treater that 4m can be prepared, it would have the charac ‘sirable for un absorber plate surface to act in a selective Characteristics desired for an ideal selective surface ( : for i> 4 um) are shown in Fig, 4.12 fone of the earliest sung? jeu and = comparison, the variation obtained fo synthesised by Tabor is also shown. ‘The development of selective surfaces u has been the subject of intensive work for many umber of forfiees having eracerstics app ideal surface_have_beeh synthesised and a fe been comme’ so enfacer the deletivity ‘achieved by having cialised_In most of these surfaces the sel 4a polished and cleaned metal base and depositing on it a thin surface layer which is transparent to large wavelengths, but highly absorbing for small wavelength solar radiation. The surface layer is less thay ‘1m in thickness and is dlaposived by a varity of methods. ‘These inelude electroplating, chemical vapour deposition, chemical conver. sion, anodic oxidation and rfinagetron sputtering. Some of the sus cessful developments in this field will now be described. ‘Surface layers of copper oxide and “nickel black” were the first selective surfaces found tobe suitable from a practical standpoint. The copper oxide layer was formed by chemical conversion, by treating 2 cleaned and polished copper plate in a hot solution of sodium hydroxide and ‘Sodium chlorite for a specified time. Values of absorptivity (a) and emissivity () obtained for this surface were 0.89 and 0.17 respectively, Lh, “ci aati’ alin, ack, td Bi Dann "Sc Spal Concer 8 ria th Eien of Slr Cae ee ace Paha tno, Pan Caton he Uf Str re ° eee! sete cute aor nce ste [ tcnrieawestretton ao | eae ais Otsu c EE aie um) w spectral Distribution of Extraterestial Solar Raia pg 12) Sree ebody Radiation from a Source at 250 K and Elepenromatic. Emissivity/Absorpivty Varian Desie p Motgeal ‘Selective Surface and Vafaton Obtained fr Selective Surtace by Tabor the sal sng the average value of 03, Over ee eing the average value of for larke Wier range and 77, surface was commercialised in Austria ike solar water heatin raiprable for low temperature applications ke lar water ee rion and Testing sr Absorbers The Prat be ate Sol he Pr ee pe ‘sbeorber ‘Plates’, Report ED. 7, CSLRO» en lar radiation waveleng for large waveleng let aoevs sree — jack” surface was developed ang ol Uguid Fa The “ache Wee involved the careful cleaning Mn, "0 Cotaces sy ssracl®. The P lating of a pals jdored again and its perform, sheet and — oe Pd ais, conte at 1200 IST cae Lhe eS Witoa immersion Se aie Gann tea NN re See gata are a5 follows: W changes made ickel sulphate, zine $v! Iphate, ammonium syjy, ity) ee ved now that the tubes are ¢ ot pnate and cite acid. Values of a = 0.81 ang , te, Ong 86 per plate instead of being Tampa on the underside a 2016 Shae seis peor ber is hn ths elective surface. Subsequently “cg 28tgs Mg) Sr a aication Dit rents nana rng OP tip procedures for electroplating “nicke) Black? eat Settee ope 0.15 m°C1W in this cage MOSAIC which is satel In these cases, a bright nickel plating eas 9 csummetan flows rate is taken as 60 yh oh : Ring Was fg a desoormoane feel Iie lei iekel black”. Value fata oy TH Neabient at temperate une tbe a ar Le veh 3c able etve surface, tW0 ease are con Paar the mast successful selective surfaces devel," ©) withthe —e Singer nonce, “black chrome". Tis coating is a metal-dilectric corps ay O gis ae ‘that a= 0.85 and ¢,= 0.1, cer, it fa Cr0s layer over a Cr particleCr203 composite, Ip jg fq is stone are fepeated iN a MANNE sma to that ape Shetroplating on a nickel plated copper oF steel base alta) gue MANN results obtained are indicated in Table 4.2 reported values of a= 0868 and t= 0.088 for “black, cng? he and serently with further refinements, values of @ as high oon™®.& ir tales fe alow as 0.04 to 0.06 have been reported 22, to its excellent selective properties, “black chrome” has been ts, be very durable. No degradation in performance has beer even ater prolonged exposure toa humid atmosphere anda 2 tures upto 400°C tea “Andersson et al.++ have reported the development ofa very ametaldiletrie composite coating formed by anodic oxidase ‘ating consists of grains of nickel embedded ina 0.7 yum thi, = Inyor of A,0,, Values of absorptivity in the range of 0.92 to of cissvity inthe range of 0.1 to 0.26 have been obtained. ween 7 2 and the efficiency is 493 p e given in Table 4 vad n= 45:2 per cent, The differences are due tothe a8 Wi te the an ith he it ate su ge (1) to jue of is Unchanged while the value off is 12 ia which thr Torences are observed. The tp ls cefisen dos any wile the efficiency increases by 66 pe cent 0498 Win Mre second selective surface in whch the value of 9 cat ig obecrved that while the value of Usis the same 9 se selective surface the eciency it much owe 28 ot theres forthe non-selective surface. This primary 0:8 Tia the value of S decreases with lower Iti 1 Pest oth the selective surfaces, the value of (4) is eet mans fhe frst, itis 7.9 and forthe second 77. Th Oo tn ef (aie,) is not adequate for obtaining © ae oe Tekectize surface. Along.with the high value of 25> eves thatthe value of a should also be bith Effect on Collector Performance Theft fav sure th fcbt Sis ee tote tated by tanga specication os CLES RO Retreat» pee tetera as Z ings UN Conference on Ne isa ae pereteaess Se geren versie dees arbor, Meeting tions of Sclar Energy Research and Developmest S65 Madea Sette Cong, Sate Battie Properties of Black Chreme for Uae ata Se Beers, 19 ts TEE ESSE era, Masa DN, Maton “Properties and Compostion of Elctroploted Back a Se Por “Ta Regge en sch Sere Oats aa Co crap aS SASS ed teeal >) rn two covers has been 43: ings) used in en : covers (ang) us . Lp i ‘The number Ody the effet of the number F covery May petite Point of view f the beat yt fo. We wi te example ofthe Gl elletor won?" bat, oi pacing eh ag in taking ith ome, Pet, gi jents are minimized, ty jo Me theo, ty al fis assumed thatthe changes (1) 1003) indies g pur ofthe eoralating wang ti, re agnin made. : en the varitin ta gd Gurves for two temperature a ven in Table 4.3 a ‘The results obtained are given 3 and shy sae perature and th St being an tion sued the efcioncy goes through a may pee for the case of two covers. This can be explaineg tas the number of covers increases, the valuat (ey decrease, Thus, the Bux absorbed in the gl decease The atin of more covers also causes he ta hence the heat ss, to decease However, the amount tt notte ae in both cases. For this reason theese en 2 maximum, This Kind of result is ebained with tt maximum eficieny being usually obtained with ne rls fa for he Gl eolector under stay, the efceny i 0 en maximum with only one cover if a Selective absorber suse", This is seen from Table 4.4 i Table 43. Etfect of Number of Covers on Performance of GI Collector (Non-selective Surface) Number of covers i 2 (a ——O88I8 07305 Dea — (rae 07567 064245634 Ui) 6.39 387 272 oe me) 406 433 418 My ee ing Variation of Heat Transer Coeficient Table 44. Effect of Number of Covers on Pertomance of Gl 70°C, = 20° Collector (Selective Surface, «c= 0.85, 0.11) Plot of Eq, 4.25 Show FAS ith Spacing. Tm tis seen that for a particular tempura decreases and reaches 2 mininU TH onaetion roe ie way cos = 108, Tere =e ‘Number of cavers Z 2 ie a3 >, — difference, the valu of is variation corresponds aed 0.6882 0.5891 lin then os fo. oe Sees the vali ‘of A increase a dually does f= ie a on ma et value drops aoe b large values of spacing, the ae ’ oe Jings at which the mi ‘The proper ‘Spacing to be kept between the absorber plate and the first ea wae ad that the spacing ‘ ih gi a acai flues oceur vary with the tempLid Fate Cotes 14s st Since collectors are desi ified the problem by assuming that san the tilt. Since cl ined samp it that entrar aio ay vi varying 7 sim alling on the elector. Toy caleulated the tilts and under varying © hy, bo ie di ery jt tion WS ‘ 7 3 oat is difficult tog ation “pnit area by integrating the expression fr the ier mu Value of Saag nn Peek at eis) eran Pe ge spacing away from the logy cia rface first over the day length and then summing up ently Ia ; ies ee sulizenty have be nih 05 8th sr TT raking 7=0, 80 thatthe daily insolation i iti ans om {Sem VE Dn ge ae of he Sear pension blind tie by Buc ad the eft Be Sine Es im i Pave alo studied the effet of apaggg | Berga MENS | {2+00% 0) oct at eo, Tey have doe cleulationy ty Sas agin =, 2 rns oor wh 2 nal ase gh Sg be gTFeon Sexe TZfite and dole coves Sih a soective absorber plate. Wih xin sin > snl cover eles apacngs have been tried ayy yea hi resin the formf rate inion erating conc It has been shown that by using ya yo plotted ti for given values of @ and f tothe annua inset Fa eae ea spac atte higher redetion being obtained with theca! oS fers ae shor a Fi 414 and ine a uo oa having the selective absorber Pl se a tec of Shading ste ain 2 srvin problem associated with the use of larger spacings i inde ot Oe cahedngaaye cours in every eallector andnaatl 40 ae ee eaiy npr Se en ee need bat en Cee nce eon aan eee |g SE i cere tie mito ee ee eee oneal ‘a multiplying factor of 0.97. With larger spacings of 5 cm, it would iy | teat tues smlr mliyng fcr seal O98 Tree | met came een ny ard 036 Toa | 'S. For this reason, spacings of 2 or 3 em are generally used by al | aeaecumer Tt may Be noted thet ‘in some collectors the inside of | © SEUSS vlna oa 494° coli tor Tt 2” 2 Latud ¢(e08) insolation with Lattude for Collec 4 Vatison of Relate Annual r ie tors Tilted at Various Values ‘of B and with 7: —_—. ton SpsessA ove of ne Tene ASME, seo a hn Bsn nck SRN Morse and J, Crarnecks, "Plata Aer Tenia Bein | lien ef Lsination and Orientation’ ‘CSIRO, Mabaarn (158) SDK Rivas, tral Gavetin in Ean? hn Bosrey Calc’ Jeena of at Rr Baa. Soar Energy thatthe optimum tit which will result ig, inacaton is given by = 09 6. It is Alsi sey that, 4, smal deviations of degree or te from yt fa i . cause much change inthe relative inslating, “Mig ‘The ee of having surface azimuth any), 4, thy’ calles hich do nt slope precisely ards ye yy heise (or the north in the southern, bern p ing considered by Morse and Crarnecki. In this ang) ha {tom their results that surface azimuth angles yp 1th small reductions (less than 1 per cent) in the slave or optimum it ean be gra that it considers only beam radiation fa “lon Hing the it to have the extraterrestrial value, Onn analyse radiation data for specigy Wilh’ been performed. One such simple analysis isda * They have considered a callectr oriented ies Bs angle snd having a tilt and used the monthly ae oan beam and die radiation measured at a leat the situs existing a solr oon has been weet stampa ti factor for beam radiation, while tr {het aorta toe unty Thus the mea the ery fling on the elctor page ‘Approximatelyt to be : ae ae rea is dete Has B) aa sing, +e where Gi the monthly average altitude angh ei the altitude angle at noon, The tl Nx fling on the eal sa summing over ll the months fens i, 8+ By +H tha han fan hws by it T2men-off a ems. ang, srg, Har tn Opin 1A more accra avian of beam over the da, um Tilt of Solar Collector”, Solar Beene Me | would be to consider. monthly ave + | "ad rape a tt Ne Proare 0d die st the value of the optim ty ot me the location and that ipa Rist mall deities ry beat a Foe arto tit af Moe eat mde hoe tat 1 he enerzy de a mace he nd may Hf December, Jantar a Fe st ep were be wel fr rug a O8 i ay mht a mn ambien temperatures, [neh eee ee to use a tilt gre ld cial te den and the re for a winter soph wo recommend Valves of (6+ 17g eat TH aa ge oor (0 ~ 15" fr the ater or the tomer #48 on (4.59) has Den ved thesia ya avira solar noon for all months ofthe . We shall eal this Situation (1) would generally ace. pave the ™ situation videg) “nldeg) @ areal situations (2) and (3), we would have to substiue yy or saimie sen ar enema tt a Be Ge ecllector plane while for situation 4, the expression ie heeane oe Cain (IL Ths te crprenionEriheaneen te oa wie tataly modi and the optimum tts now heey ei Nae fees tan {\ £ 27h,tanie ai i En Th plus sign before Hi is valid forthe mnths in which situations (1) and (4) exist, while the negative sign is valid for the months in shih situations (2) and (2) exist Example 4.4 at late alector array isto be installed in New Dai 28.58%) Calculate the optimum tilt for the following three situations: ok Slaton falling on the array over the whole sears to be maxnised 8) Inslation for the months of Apri, May and June it be Sune, (i) insolation for the month of December, anny sd February isto be maximized. The following radiation data a144 Solar Energy aus [sa ‘Mest Heh 544 33415.053) m'day} aw ay. 20140 19922 {New Delhi, 7,=0° atsolar noon throughout the year, Wy wa ass) under the assumption® that situation (D) exis 7™y Fear array is facing due south with 7=0°. For part 20 i! Ti -DaeBs * za] in the stcond ese, thro is no term inv resistance beeause tent term involvi = ing the bond (adhesive) tse the tubes are usual absorber plate ly fabri ieated integral with the 4.11 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS, The analysis done sofa hs assumed tie a quast-staad uid Fat plat Cotes 149 ix avail ssmptin 6 ost stan, te ar a is ire a transient analysis, Surpeny ppt cn ecm a ey sreider one 6 of transient problem. On any dy, covey hours in the moming ta reach its operate 4 aetna prt ua seal ol =r Whalysis is needed for these hours (am ay 7p et ans heating ofthe collector from its overnight low oe yo consiae™ operating temperature. Following Duffie and Soi tore 12 an approximate limped parameter analyse for petty ve Will 4° or this situation. We assume that the absorber oor collects rand side insulation, andthe watar in the fe Ae a Beat oe eat eapacity (nC) and isa temperate fle the Ore eral heat gain during this period, we obtain the Fee enka paca 1, Seng enerey ma ie Tym - § -| hy - 15000 1 Tana eon 438, Thombre and SP. Sukhatme, Turbulent Fl Hest Tans ot Tt acu Charatriatis of Shred in Arrays with Unter acs ym 888 1088)y ena sot sat bn insnan- tpt nore < 1500 e005 yor Re > 15009 gi. ~ Cl | 0H jo an ne characorate dimension, sat feton Face i fant diame 7 ’ example 52 ver again an solar ir ender of EAMETS 52. With gy atadinal ins fixed to Ue betiom ‘side ofthe absorber sane | Towing additional date: the allowing naMeenre distance between fins = 2.5, . Fin height “is Fin thickness ‘ 23S ake te value ofthe raditive heat transfor coeticog same. Caleulate A (0) air outlet temperature, {Q) instantaneous efficiency, and (@) pressure drop. ‘Weill fist use Eq, (6.41) to ealoulate the values of the con heat transfer eoefiients. Assuming a mean fluid tempergyt® pest for the purpose of evaluating the properties of air, we hays” € p= 1.060 kg/m’ 005 kilkgK odo SPSXIS~08 21.3) Equivalent diameter d, = OO 413.36 76 = 1.768 em aaa) 6007 1.060 » 40 2,900 mis pew Ve 2.9007 1.1087 10° : vgs 10" ulation into Kay 44), Average ir velocity = 16385 No 9028 7 8" 0.90 <0 81 Hota hyphae Va oe 2 Wa yi relate the Hn liven gy we fetes Wr 6 tat th tn an en | ge f . mly=|59 403x102) *13%10% <9) sane 9 mb oh ‘the affective heat tr: 53,6400 a raster cote 4, 0 21100 9890 293.02 25x10 252.05 Wim?K sepoint in the calculation, the equations frag som are applicable. From Exe.) a ono “a 142) 088 : P= 5205 ie aCp _ 200. 1.008 1000 Thy "3600" 0x 1x2 = 9988 rq = 9.988(1 — 9882 = 9.7909 7909 x 1x 21950 0.85 ~ 7.0860 20) =945.1W she air outlet temperature is obtained from the equation 200-1005 x (Tp —50) = 454 ON. 1 1,005 x (Ty -50) = SHB Hence (1), ~ 50) = 16.93°C and Tj, = 66.93°C 1 Instantaneous efficiency n, 498 air heater is ealeulated from Eq (6.4). ‘The pressure drop across th We have eau, w-o040[zosn-((4) soar of 3} m=o0ns[s4o-{75) |oxseoxo ee so ad 005006 1009 ref? wast» 1.060 23 9008 - pe AON 001768 reer esissnm ; jah those of Example 6,1 vets with tO Wt «yas increase iiicanthy jy Uy auc} percent abst ayy 8 4) siso anereased BY a fatetoy ln ory a tos’ on finned solar air heaton, wf tania AmprOveMent fy Ey the adton of Fs ing here san optinnum spacing befyt' ‘number of fins because ofthe ra ease the wy eosare oP ‘two-pass Solar Air Heater | not have suggested the use ofa fy veers and DE Samant er tee the i fm the slr tin whi the awa is passed eben th | ccosrnettase cover eater and then under the absorber | o£ 2 SSPE hon operated, ope SOM With int ge (Pa gomporatare it was found thatthe outer glass cover temp | antic arene by 3t08°C and that it operated nearer the ani {awa oe ava cl, the oss were reduced and he aicggy seareetar was measured to be 10 to 19 per cent higher thay yi ‘coventional heater : Sent Wijeysunderae a.¢ have studied the two-pass con so seater det both analytically and experimentally. TWwo twoyny Toe arrangements were considered. One arrangement was the sta, te the one sted by Sateunanathan and Deonarine (Fig. 5 (a) wie tothe ther the inlet air lowed fist above the absorber plate and tha funder it Fy 5.4 (b). For open systems, with inlet air at ambint temperature, both the two-pass arrangements gave an efcene ¢ lst 10-15 per cent more than the conventional single pass arrange viol Hoty BAS. asd KL. Hore, Solar Callers of Salar One “hg Sir Caen Hang Coin Dads, 99 1918 reg eannthn snl S Denarae, “9 Twos Solar Air Heater’ Siar Bo NE Wiad, sak Wonder Anand ral Performance Stuy of P Si sis yrs ” pete sn Fig. 5.4 Two-pass Solar Air Heater range of operating conditions. How arora wide range of operating conditions, Howere, fr deed air pentover 8 Maystems, the two-pass arrangements yielded a beset rate only up toa certain value ofthe difeene betwen hear gerformantrature to the collector and the ambien temperature. With ie egementehown in Fg. Bt (athe tworpas dv wa ad ah ae dan the single pas dsin up to an ines teperatae eee of 20°C, while withthe arrangement shoe ia Fig 540, aiwpass design was better up toan inlet airtemperaturediiene 150°C. 582 Some Novel Designs ‘Anumber of novel designs have also beon suggested fom time totime fy many investigators. Some of these will naw be briely described ‘They are (i) the overlapped glass plate air heater, i) the matrix ait eater, Gi) the honeycomb porous-bed air heater, (jv) the alllastic tit henter, and (v) the jet plate air heater. Inthe frst four desis the air flows through the absorbing surface. For this reason, they ar teforrd to as collectors with porous absorbers. Such eller ene Ty yield higher efficiencies than conventional designs, In aden, Hecate of larger flow areas, they have smaller pressure drops. 9 af these advantages, they have not been used extensively A possible Seterrent could be the fat that te ar flows direlly under tecape corer 6 HDS Ba, gn eating sve Tb Pg Be ge yk ae we ws oak < Hester peep 0 eater was ist Wed in 1g pe nerd Oe system in a Th heater 21 Boe pet Hele Baral glass plates, the lover my, of oreigPP? lows parallel to the lass playa Fae, 95% cos cll passage i Use at the inked fenren tem, A BAP gure that ts velocity is uniform, Tye thane the ar and soja has analysed the heater py jig, of the unit 8 inset foreach glass plate and airstream, gM ae perc techniques and compeey bean, i prom these itis seen that good effing, sprint a amperatre rises, For example, an eigen ime oe a oem out 60 por con it BLN avantage of having @ low press air beter required is excessive, bet @ dite other band, the area of glass reat dis excess being et four times the collector face area. Clear glass a Cover Flow straightener Blackened glass‘ Insulation Fig. 55. Overlapped Glass Plate Solar Air Heater Matix Air Heater {In the matrix air heste, the fluid flows through a porous matrix ‘which solar radiation is directly incident. ‘The radiation thas wep ue sone St ME at 14D, “the Peon of Cn i "hi a eee eure AF 9 ate ese i ieee range i egg iy are in contact with he neang oe Ete op sn npertres Reasen aaear ale jor = cover Mare — Te reduted, Fig. 5.6 Matrix Air Heater triges used have been made by stacking wire sere she mate anded metallic els, Hamid and Beckman’ have sted aqaitand characteristics and temperatare pales in mato th aborting copper wire screns. Heat transfer and peste op madeby Tsties of such matrices are available in Kays and London * adores of a number of sitand-spanded alinium fl aracefiave been obtained by Chiou, El Wall an Dufe Based on saairpudies, they find a matrix depth of about 4 em to be adequate trap inlet air temperature of 21°C itis estimated that an efiency Wi oor cent would be obtained with the matrix ar heater as opposed wee rige of 58 per cont obtained with a conventinal solar aiheate. the pressure drop in the matrix is also very small, Is estimated to teenly (1200)-times that in the passage of a conventional heater YH, Hamid and W.A, Beckman, “Peefrmane of Aircon Rainey Hest Sern Matrices’, J. Eng fr Power, Trans. ASME, 8822 (81 SM aysd Ak Lan, Compact He Bangers Mei Yok Dau, *A Sian Expanded Alumni 73.0965) $1 Chiou, M.M. BLWakil ant J Collector”, Solar Bnergy,390 Solar Eneoy voted that the above esti ’ to be not € estima, : Meters toy However, itis foe ouch the mal Ths rather dieu ig rentte | jade and i8 covered by th ed Air lieve joride a” fered by them fro tO “| te roe te les ig a ihe honeycomb porous-bed air heater was sy, oceans fabricated and testo esters itis a variation on the matrix Beested 5, ped 50 me and the third having an ar wo havin Bork rie Fie 5.2), Becawne eater, x 2 fb ego about 1 m Wie Diet fait 2 a being laced ek duced, Mane? the peg 7 eet Ss being obtained with 6 em Tac islet were Fei amb, the tp lsses are reduced. Measure, Dre ts being ted ih 6 ek ay wn test module havi ‘rectangular honeycomb yieldeg"'® t mh fn salar ge an of ion of eran fiefs, between 78 and 67 per cent, corr very 100" nd incident radiation of ond, —7,)lr equal to 18 and 63 °C-n7kW. The resting "comb felectively reflecting, the ratio of the depth of the jy ‘Sualler side of the rectangle Was 7.1, while that of the po" at of the tr ae rectangle was 34. KEES a Textile absorber pvceover Fig. 5.8 All-plastic Air Heater WN Fis. eee Jet Plate Solar Air Heater 3.5.7 Honeycomb Porous-bed Ar Heater ‘hoje plate solar ar heater was suageated 9 hoary an ar ‘et Ro the conventional air heater in this eave =f onal Allplastic late is introduced between the absorber and de peace bottom pl the heater flows in between heaters capable capable of handling large volumes ofa | ines drilled in it, The air ener wel a between the et late Ihave been developed flexible place Pet by Bansal et al+ See plac ets and tain al4 The heaters are tbat oe | str plate and heft plate (i) 38 eth A Hown thrvugh them, The abvarbes na teocs hecrea | eke pitts plate (ny). Tho flow nn impinges oa ofthe hts is anastpam The absorber isa porous lack ttt | the jet plate and hts the boom Of the absorber plate befor mixing Ce | the wm Thun thew rate a) om eter “Rbsorber plate and the jt pte from the space between the he vale ofthe convective Beal TS pate a f the absorber plate. Th 10. tate sel HB Sar Beant Dein ae impinging air jets increase teeffcient from the bottom of Choudhury and HLP. Garg, “Bratuaton of ibis Ae teter me plate called a jot hig. 59). The jet plate has a numberof equally sews eng, 46,199 1999).cot inthe sei eat in ang, ant improvemen’ age of «spacing of 10 ey So For the soto plate and ow la vee plate ant oa aleulated tobe 26.5 per cont ig ene increase eT oF 60 kgm’. However, the auth, t wh rate per unt tonal pressure drop associated with vf ena ee This ls Hil 0 be sinicany fion of the jet Pate Absorber plate Fig. 5:9. Jet Plate Solar Air Heater 5.4 TESTING PROCEDURES 3 standard procedures suggested for testing Solar air hens 2 ‘arin most respects to those described in See. 4.12 for testing vit TatpltecletrsAachmati diagram showing theessntal eat ofthe test sotupis shown in Fig. 5.10 Its a closed loop consis the solar air heater to be tested, a blower and an apparatus reconditioning the air which ensures thatthe air enters the air eas at the desired temperature Tj. Provision is made for measuring 4, same quantities specified earlier. Some precautions are, hovers, necessary. Since the fluids ai, thas tobe ensured that tis wel mg atthe at from the air heater before its temperature is measured. Te ‘ing is achieved with the help of vanes. As an additional preeatin, the temperature both atthe inlet and exit of the air heater is measud at a numberof locations across the duct eross section. Measurements are made under the conditions specified earlier so the results are also presented in the same manner. A typical set ‘esults given by Gupla and Garg*is shown in Fig. 5.11, [twill be itd ‘hat the European practice of plotting the parameter (Tj. ly.n t —_—_ a cL. i 1,25 Gab 81? Gare, “Performanen Stes of Solar Air Heaters, Sole Bret ressute di reasurement Ait reconditioning ‘apparatus 40 Schematic Diagram of Setup for Testing Sola ir Heaters 0-54 co = | RI 2a e q + : 7 eto F511 Typical Performance Curves ‘0800 1200 46002000 2400 800 ai0 sto) nD Hm (o-ent-stea) ic Heats Used oe ecru Utd Whs aoe sor E7097 Tt has bar gs, chan sativel¥ ‘The efficiency cur eater (Ly = 1.2m, varying from 25 fall Js eon oe ln Tare oned in See 4.12 that for conven, (he) om on a solr ait hen io be seen that the ye, pve, til a sahe value off donot appr epighvatues ofthe Figuid side vis, therefore, generally qq ay, le eg each collectors. 1 the cane ugh ; Sto values of Ft appeciny fly air side heat transtey clit ft wet gis reso, OPT 0 by t becomes NECESSArY to eqn ates with each flow rate yielding lo, performance curves is hata iy "i ‘ia iy veause of yh ves shown in Fig 5.12 are obtained for a gy TE, = 09 m) which is tested over a range, id & e200 kg/h. Find the efficiency which wou 37h ° 0 » © i a er bande Co-mt 5.2 (nj.i8:Based.on Absorber Plate Area) F Solar i Haars orresponding, 886 So rate ify a xf the Or conditions: and OO ing CO jot lloy yemporature Be cule tamper iF ig temperature Ser fnux incident on collector face eae pee -raite=l aie jons, the x-axis parameter 3-2 Jos condi = 40°Cm kW cedure will be i - and-erTor Prod ‘necessary ino tities ‘of ni, and m der to find the ed VN = 25 keh. 2 per ean. 2429501209 =48aW 19g MOD ine Guo "WOOT 15 ~ 55; walue ofr caloulated from the ; ince the valde ef heat gain ye hehe auc valu, we asa = 0 gh Tsyaie 506", the value of = (9 prom PF geful heat gain rate q, for® oes ood {gp Assume m= 51.4 keh. ‘his yields 1, = 28.09 per cent 94 = 2883 W eI mn =515 kgh ‘We accept these values as the solution to the problem. PROBLEMS 1 The following data is given for a conventional slat Heater wih ne Gt Length of absorber plate ‘Width of absorber plate Spacing between absorber plate and a ateafs Mi 195 eit ake epee =s1s'¢ Typ he etic 2450 te as eoicent 55 Wink ay Sue te tontaneot fey, the ext air tenoea Cota 6 fue tn tb Bet transfer ssh re ston gy eadantageus ahve iw igh al of nis Oe tbe nace othe asi paet stow destin in Pr 1 change ifthe Bet tease Sete ee maghconl forme tha bran of the ght tt Bec a onrreficet ceases 40 per eel le a Fors doubled — tow 6 he rss shined in Polen 1 change if gti estat ar felt te ttm side of the sorer place (fst) ae fa eee fh ster Calo of the radiative heat transfer coefficient doesnot change becatse oe fren ie te Calle prfrmanc os lara ater of the type sho nF Sctutecirensa isin tare args Spacing betwen abn and cove Tp encent 127 Wine rons Dla ering the spain boon the sorter plate nd tom ph a She isi the itm plate maybe dled as isnot appizablein ti sed ag Sem Dei pring , evening wry alan gan rth ssi sie om Fig. 5.1 (c) in which the air flows bet ye abstr pe a iene tt oe nd he sar ‘well as betwoen the absorber plate and the bottom plate. oe a concentrating collectors 4 and 5, we have considered flatplate collectors for ia ChaPjds and gases to temperatures up to and around 1000 rating Makeup the description and ana of sume types of Me rating collectors, These are needed when higher temperatures cneigured. Typical thermal applications requiring the vse of ox sees are medium or high temperature energy cnversion es cet pumerous systems for supplying industrial process beat at inter- sate temperatures from 100 to 400°C or at high temperatures shove 400°C. “Prief descriptions of a few concentrating collectors have been given in See. 2.1. We bogin this chapter by mentioning briely the charac teristics associated with concentrating collectors (Sec. 6.1). After this, varios terms are defined and typical collector geometries decribed. Ht-plate collectors with reflectors are considered in Sec. 6.2, andthe Gjlndrical parabolie collector in Sec. 6.9. The tracking modes aepte vith it are listed and compared, and a performance analysis oft adlector is given. ‘The compound parabolic collector is anaysl it See. 64. The chapter conclu with deseriptons of the pareoli! dish callector in See. 6.5 and the central receiver elletar in Sejon is achieved by w radition #8 sing solar rag refracting arrangement of jy ior iation onto an absorbs ite un solar radia onber of Beal stem dre surrounded by a transparent cow sich is osu tosses (in addition Lo those ele the radian or absorption losses in the mirrony eto geometrical imperfections 1 the optical sya ue 0 Eat losses is indicated through the intact My ined effect of al su ‘The introducti ia Tied the optical ficiency. The 00 Of more iy et sa for bythe fat that the Hx ince Ip compen eoncentrated a smaller ea, A a rege mao ton eeey i sully higher. °°, colette arin that some ofthe attractive fay, oi tector ae simply of design and e28¢ of manag fatto be said ofa concentrating ellector. Becaue ye To an opie aytem, «concentrating clletor uly rset race the sun s0 that the beam radiation is direc {norte surface. The method of tracking adopted and the pr arate it has to be done varies considerably. In collectors gi® Te egre of concentration, itis often adequate to make one gr ‘ujpatment ofthe ealector orientation every day. These canbe ma, aimally On the other hand, with collectors giving a high degre ‘Sncentration it is necessary to make continuous adjustments of ty Selector orientation. The need for some form of tracking introdvey, tertan amount of complexity in the desiga. Maintenance requtemens fe alo increased. All these factors add to the cost. An aide disadvantage is the fact that much of the diffuse radiation fs lat because it does not get focussed Ta the lat few years, significant advances ave been made inte development of concentrating collectors and a number of types he been commercalsed abroad. Almost all of them are line-ocusiag oxlndrcal parabolic eolletors, and yield temperatures up to 400°, 6.12 Definitions In order to be consistent in the eee sistent in the use of terms, we will use the phrase ntrating collect” to denote the whole system, ‘The term “ca fhe cea llbe used ony for the optical subsystem which drets iation onto the absorber, while the term “receiver” will Via. Concentrating G "Coley % js the plane opening of the con wes. For a cylindee ed by the width, hi marteyerized by the diameter of hy entrar th al OF line heh ac (0) : ti ae ai st e ean eich is the limiting came ey weusand for a parabolic dish,” * “tate Gp Py a be te (2.8 the angle over which beam radi ance ANE al to the aperture plane and yet rear tt an yet each he Fee ne ncepanes anes eg arse aes, ile cole wth Small me Se a conti be a ods of cisitioaton et cllectore are of warns sand an be il in ay be of the reflecting type utlizn ey may 3 mires oro oman hp tilzing Fresno lenses, The reeing suas 2 gaint, spherical of Nak Thy may be stimu or me Fiay be Parenti is also posible from the point of view oth ad Case rage, the concentrator beng ether imaging or teat soon fasion, her, he ging cnentaar may few ane Hapett aeration ratio is also use as a measure for casing in cng coletors. Sine this ato approximately determines te scoring temperature, this method of classification is equivalent to cgeating or ollector by its operating temperature range. si Ceiblty i to describe concentrating electors by the ype ceetpadopted, Depending upon the aceptance angle, the trace siraty be intermittent (one adjustment daly or every few dys or aaepus. Further, the tracking may be required about one axis or to aes. 6414 Types of Concentrating Collectors Anumber of concentrating collector geometries are shovn in Fig. 61 se cove nevi sfored 1 as the ata iSCy Fa. 61 Types of Concentrating Colectrs: (a) Flat plate Collects Plane Relectrs, (0) Compound Parabolic Collector c) ying cal Parabolic Collector, (4) Colector with Fixed Citus Go, Centaor and Moving Feeiver,(e) Fresnel Lens Concerta, cor ithe first type shown in Fig. 6.1 (a) wa in (a) is a flat-plate collector wih suetatle mirtors atthe edges to reflet radiation auto the eons Unity and a wee eg has a concentration ratio litle ane Mi 1or giving temperatures about 20 or 30°C hight ~~, pained WA A AED hay “tos am Osc 82. oo rat = A arabolic CONCENtatng ei Bo pa rte te ay ). TMeabolas. Like the fiat yr"! men ae Bly 09? re concentration ratios mado cee sh Se ye main advantage of the equree e2 Reeraly 30.7 nigh acceptance angle and eonset cence fing. I addition its concentrating et tequnes oe pat) UOC Eble for agian seen ei sec. 6-4 in Spe of calletor Fg. 6.1 (0) 5 oy ne eh the age isfrmel nth foal eel 7 0 eT versions of this type are abo. tra ond asd ac rae en i decal prac nie ae order to track the sun, the type ne aoe we eonalor and 3 moving rca Te P66 ong, marr fat miCTOr Srps Raed lng naib an ce ior SDs Drolute a nar lie ime ya Path asthe SoD MOVES. This path eon Meee em coelay Perr strips are fixed. Thus, the receiver aac oD oie mi i be moved far path in order to track the sun sung the ration is also achieved by using lenses, The mos ‘commonly Gomer the Fresnel ons shown in Big 6 Treas ee ia thin sheet, lat on oe side and wth fin aan te fea the other. The angles of these gros areal goren is brought to a line focus. The lens is usually what of od acrylic plastic sheets, Line fussing eallectos ie te Sn Figs 6.1 (0, (@,(c) usually have concentration rate ae oid 60 and yield temperatures between 150 and 400°C ip order to achieve higher concentration ratios and tempertre, ithesomes necessary to have point focussing rather than line using The point focussing paraboloid dish collector has been mentions tater in Chapter 2 (Fig. 24), Such collectors can have eancetation ralios ranging from 100 to a few thousand and have yielded tempera {ures up to 2000°C. However, from the point of view ofthe mechanical design, there are limitations to the size ofthe conentratar nd ene, the amount of energy which can be cllete by one dish. Comneral versions have been built with dish diameters up to 17 m.Inarero calet larger amounts of energy at one point, the cent! reecer {ert (se Fig. 2.16) has been adopted. In this case, beam ion ‘Sreflected from a number of independently controlled mimo al Tlostats to a central receiver located at the top of toreso Eo we ae COLLECTORS WITH 62 FANE REFLECTORS with plane reflectors i simple rp and represents an effet concentra eyporatures than are obtainable slightly Pie a wingle collector, iis possible ta uy si en ya two array of efector on of Which fa th (Fig. 6.2) The reectors used y ration ered normally range FFOM OMe Lo fouy (i te a i HO ane alin, ya feet th thi type f concentrating lector i thy "Bey a athe naming soar radintion i not entirely yay ily soutefacig Y). rotoctor North ‘oft Fig, 6.2 Flatplato Collector with Retlectors, With an array of flat-plate collectors, the usual practic into une ay tray rtf altars ons, sno the » handle and adjust than south-facing reflectors, ‘The inelin the rfestors x usually adjusted once every few day, or the ated ajtorth fing pecular refletor aay whose dimensions are eal ing the alate eller array, it ean be shown (Chapter 3 hat the inclination y ofthe reflectors should be Y= (n= 25-425) 6 where b= slope of tisurpto ,@,te eollectors. Hq. (6.1) is derived under te 1¢ reflector mirrors are adjusted in such a way that Concerta a suing the top edge ofthe mi Coan any vt ope ofthe tn oe gy oe und 0 yt 2 a As va of BLA hm te i a at a tne roflectery eflected usefully anid tO Faiatigg ning falling on the sides of 0 the comaitit nd Sheridant have piven a the two cases of specular and qi tat specular reflectors are my % fee St than diffe reflector, dite og tii, Me reflection, refit in augue cyLINDRICAL PARABOLIC COLLECTOR 9 © poset n 8 die parabolic collector is also reerr to ag ict dar parabolic collector (tor Phin Noe fri er «et anes aking op yeni ee es, pee tube located a Une foes hough ch sg ie to i) the concentric tranpareat em nf a Pie era. samen cir ans of cmmerily vale ag fam pert “tne length being larger than the apr ata fonction ratio range fom 10 0 nd rim ange Fi 64 fon 7 rr wbe in usally made of mil leo cer nd basa saat 2 a6 em. I. is coated wih heat rian ak pt dm erlly surround by aconcunrc lscvr ithan lr Hee zen In Uheeane of high-perfomance calli te aber Bet cote ith a selective surface like black chrome ad the spe stots tho tube and the glass cover is evacuated, In some allio, semetmontri cover is replaced by a glass or plastic sheet covering the ae aperture area of the collector, Such an arrangement bel in prteding the reflecting. surface from the weather, ‘the liquid heated in the collector depends upon the temperature Hy organie heat transfor quis rferret to as hermi fra ce DIL Lowndes, H. Mathes, 4, Reypalds and RG. ‘hae Roecry Collection wing Refletor-solar Trial Color Cro 217 0975), raase and Nils She ye Use of Pana Nee en ncn 1.66 (107.co oftheir low thermal condye used. Beant jofer coefficients. Au ivi, ) are transfer © ementati ie, ss el Om reat apes or central IES (Which eS aN of iste sed to increase the value of ie = — ered gia passages) ae her foot: surface is generally curved back sity ‘The et annie aluminium sheets and silver sas, tetra igo been used Fe tacd on a light-weight structure usyy ‘ Se Th ecm, The groper design ofthis suppor Ma, coy ihe system for its movement is important, since i apa aon eetation the elcig surface Some Sg th ta een Ssigring he struct are tha it shy tobeeay ae toi own weight and that it shag pda withstand wind loads. ay Compared to Mavpate calla there ae very fev many ctonetatingcalctor al over the wor The volume gfe, {1 Steyn india, many experimental collectors have began, tested. However, commercial manufacture has not yet beg lt 632 Orientation and Tracking Modes indrical parabolic collector is oriented with its foal agg ant ne Dasywect o the north-south directioe, te the eat arientation, the foeal axis is horizontal, while in the noc orientation, the focal axis may be horizontal or inclined. Thee 2% tracking modes, which can be adopted, are as follows: Yang Mode 1 ‘Tho cal axisis east-west and horizontal. The collector is rotated aby a horizontal BAW axis and adjusted once every day so that the si, beam is normal o the collector aperture plane at solar noon ona ay. In this modo, the aperture plane is an imaginary surface with ithe =O" or 7= 180°, The case of y= 0° occurs when (6 ~6)>0, while te case of y= 180" oceurs when ($—5)<0, In order to find the slope Bet the aperture plane, we substitute the condition at solar noon, vi =O, 6=0" in Eq, (3.8) This yields, B=@-8) B= 6-9) for y=0° (620 s fory= 180° 62 e angle of incidence ofthe beam radiat a the beam radiation on the aperture ple Bay nthe Gays obtained by putting Eqs (62a) and (62) ‘or both eases, =O" and'7= 180°, we obtain the samereltin £08 8=sin® 5 + 05? § cos w 6 and Coreen “a8 Coke, | __ east-west and horizontal, th, 1 ise aad adjusted conte Sorry 1 ee erie of neidenes ne) th te im angle of incidence with the arnt the: oye ® oe Seas peta ea Jo, the aperture plane is an Be N= 180". Ba. (3.3) i applicable wnt? Stace ih fp 0" OT condition to be saisid for 9 yyy! =” 180 nd Oe ght hand sie ofthe reautng eye Mtinun, ye Ge Bate ey zero, Thus, We get on with ite eit Spd oo @-B)=ltan 80080) forge ie (64a) (6a) and (6.4b) can be used for A gions OAD dn) corresponding to nat Sette Sige Pe solar azimuth ange sles than ane gist nding © 1~180 is wed he mop ee op cee greater than 90 i eth a8 forthe corresponding minimam e exPre™ substituting Eqs (6.4a) and (6.45) oe S aotsined PY 65), For both cases, we obtain « cos angle of incidenee {inthe appropriate an of A ~ os? Bin? !® : Pe a w : eax is north-south and horizontal. The clr tated se eal Sontal N-S axis and adjusted continuously co that the ler saute the minimum ange of inden wth he pers stall tine ade, the surface azimuth angle ¥=+ 90° before noon and anblat lemperatare ‘The first term on the right hand side in Bq, (6.13) represents te | erating and using the inlet condition at x=0, 1;=T, we have the incident beam radiation absorbed inthe absorber tube ater rfl, | gayerature distribution while the sco term represents the aborbed incident beam aaa cs ‘hich falls directly onthe abeorber tube, The second term is anal (a abn rn ht ft cnt gr wn ct f wf Fame) an on ratios snl. The third term represent the loo by cone and reradiation.+ 7 eae “ @ +n)- Th mr The uid outlet temperature is obtained by putting 7/=Tp. hee i883. (621), Making this substitution and subtracting bth sds ae tint diac in th appt of edo | ating equation from unity, we have ime authors take (W~ Dqy) L as the offective aperture area int | "4 eure, rae EHS] om ee ive to conduction at the ends through the support the recive o vere a er ¢ —_= FxW-DOL [s ere Fp isthe heat removal foctr defined by i tiCy aalt-wol s gation (29) is the equivalent of the Hota for a flat-plate collector. : a Grr lara WE i ation is negleted. The instantaneous off sfground-rflectd radiation is ne sak te bealaated on the Basis of beam radiation alone in why? on irs (ay Wiliny of y na cy 624 Overall Loss Coefficient and Heat Transfer Corelations In this section, we will give the procedure for calculating the oy loss cceffciont U; and the correlations required for ealeata individual heat transfer coefficients. The calculation of the overall cent based on convection and reradation lasses alone pases, in a manner similar to that adopted in Sec. 4.5.1 for the up ke coafcen. We consider the absorber tube and the glass caver sragt it to constitute a system of long, concentric tubes. Making the esr ‘assumptions, we have on = lalTe Te )tDyy + ODegbATS ~ Thy) Ga heat loss rate per unit length, Convective heat transfer coefficient between the absortst tube and the glass cover, m= avorage temperature of the absorber tube, Tex temperature attained by the navee Ty shave been defined cary ont nonlinear equations whic Nation (27 ani pia JE) and Te after substituting the . eee Values Ned foe sth ce ent between the Absorber Tube we ost, FP cts Dot reas tin 1 ON te th ya tr Fa sagan oe eet Sosa oo hat a oe “te o.sriRa’) thermal conductivity defined jective “fined as ps se ity that th motores eae onder the same acute ‘the enclosed 8 ena and Holand: (6.29) the thermal fp mut have ‘moving ai, ‘to the usual Rayleigh ae ified Rayleigh number related ber by the following equation In (Dui) and + modi Re’ * pom (Ray (630) eparacteriste dimension used forthe caleulatin othe Raleigh Tue ehe‘gne radial gap 6 = (D,\~D,)2. Properties are evaluceh ng er is rmperature (Tym +T.)2 Its to be noted thatthe eft, Bema nductvity ar Cannot be less than the thermal cndusity atch Chat) 8 put equal to nity if the use of Ba. (629) ye unity. ‘he uonhip Between the heat tranfe xeficient, ye and the dative thermal conductivity can be found by equating expressions frie heat exchange rate per unit length. We have = hy -DiTpm~T) a” °* Din DalD) ‘he limitations on using Eq, (6.29) are that Ra" should be less than Wand b should be less than 0.3D,, Ths, hy, an . Jie 1G. Raithby and K.G.7, Hollands, “A Gen Stns fBiTaninen <> mene otha of Otiing Anpeie ena Aden tHe1 Soler Ere Transfer Secor ‘Te ccavective heat © coetteent on the Outside Surtace oy race cee he 09 he oy st ijed the wind heat transfer gute es Feel known correlation Bagg’ Senn cd exernents 0 i Moving eS jcted exper r various diameters at Low levels gp Het ( the equa’ Nu=Cy Re™ oN crostanta having the fNOWiNg vlog, secant pe cont iin the ODWIg vag, NocRe< 4000,Ci= 0615,n=0.466 FE ooo cRee $0000. aan >. isthe characteristic dimension to be used in Bg, (6, cag BS ttooted at the mean temperature (7 hg fe noed earlier Eq. (632) has been obtained at toy? esblence intensity. In practic, the turbulence intensity fg owing over the cover may not be insignificant As a reg ss uncertainty in the value of and the value predicted by pe Ry be lower than the actual value by 10 oF 15 per cent, Reet 82 Bis uncertainty affects the value of the overall loss coefficient or 2 percent a, Heat Transter Coefficient on the Inside Surface of the Absorber Tube The eanvectve heat transfer coefficient hy on the inside sure ey absorber tube can be ealculated under the assumption that the fally developed. This assumption is justified because the engin diameter ratio (L/D, is large, usually greater than 20. Por a Reyna, ‘umber less than 2000, the flow is laminar and the heat tranie coefficient may be calculated from the equation Nu=3.66 ex On the other hand, for a Reynolds number greater than 200, flow is turbulent and the heat transfer coefficient may be calcul from the well-known Dittus-Boelter equation (028 Re Pr om ‘The characteristic dimension used for calculating Nu and Reit Eqs (6.38) and (6.34) is D,, Properties are evaluated at the mest farmesbyabe von gehizen Desh und) Raven’. Fach “e Tpy2 TeshoUld be Dt pa use Te ealeintng the vale hE wie De vali 8 Tiguig' tt 634) ee Stat (6.98) is therefore ued. yg l 8 th tg cone pn Be pavstiO’ so small as to adversely ager MRC, tat” jot onetime when the liquid used i Mate te ralue vig omely eat orly Peiling points, but are charac =Rsfer oi, sie a ONE, Prandtl umber ee by lw ee hi " sua Semi find of evementatve wcnig a cote soe ccent. One ofthe simplest techni 10 econ inserted all along the inside of the ee nave soguested the lig ca ig pe a sx72Il + 0.008484 Pe anyenpsg ‘pst ratio = HDD, over which the tape is ised through, (6.35) ye tape se elength over W istic dimension used fr calculating Nu an Rei, te avvith Ba. (6.95) show that the use ofa twisted nes se tac onde waa ive teri high. At the same tine, the press prsdtl Oe same proportion. The pressure drop may hevatalny inst owing correlations based on the work of Date aod * fe amt ee for 6.1 s (ReXX)< 100 for (ReXX) > 100 Ro =38.4 (Rex) = C2 (RelX)* (636) here f= friction factor, (C,= 8.8201 X ~ 2.1193 X* + 0.2108 X*— 0.0069 x" Example 6.2 i india Calalate the overall loss coefficient U; forthe receiver ofa rarabolic concentrating collector system. The receiver consists of « ‘eldively-coated absorber tube with one glass cover around it. The fdllowing data is given: ar Pt a 8 “SY. Hong and A. Berl, Augen Lani Fat Tae ‘hy Meno Trini ap ser, Je of Hea let se a rte mano. salt ‘A Dts and 3. Singham Noma Poin ie we, Charactriticn of Fully Devalanad Laminar Flow in 1!th an ais solr Ene oes tube, inner diame outer ¢ ‘ameter 30), ea er ameter 144, Over at y pa 2 x3.6349 x 0.059 Emissivity Eee tube surface sorte oP (0.081 In 0148/0 0355 jssivity of glass "0, 5.036 Wim? Eoitpemperaare of absorber tube ross i ‘Ambient temperature nae iw eee, i 4s ne of air between the en sgubttating the given dat into Bas (627) and (629) \* oF nn ase er and abn * 810 + 298.4 5.67x 10% xnx 3 = 904.1 K = 39.9% 0, j,_ 448.2 TORX0.081+ OPK RX 0.081645 9¢ ye 2 K=209¢ ee exmpor0t 02 BA 09268 Wim tie = 0.2545iy (449.2 ~ 7.) + 0.2140 x 10°(985.8 x 10% 7 y=26.09 x10 m4 the wind velo ith agent ea 6, jng that Bah lfe—B882)0 018 +567 X10 ROIS x O¢r5 4 ses using Ba (6.32), we have, tia | ole po =—4¥ 915 57599 = O.ATI2h g(T.— 298.2) + 2.9513 x 10° ~ 72.90 x 108 16.09 x 10 Ipestinen (037) and (228) have to be solved for tha ‘oy. Nu= 0.174730" = 1164 (qu and For hy he values yc adh ae need ia he 1164x288 2900 Yinka = 0.5 ms values depend upon Te, a trial-and-error method is necessary. Assume ‘ K Tsay the values offic and hy in Egg (637) and (68 we Qi Calculation off. subatnges of and (QL) by tril anderror ‘Mean temperature of air between tube and cover (qu) from oO I __ 443.2 + 310 ne Equation (6.37) Equation (6.38) ig) fe Bguaton 620 Feat fa) a0 235 161 At this temperature, this temperature, 216 2259 a7 = 00828 Wm-K 2154 2356 260 v= 23.52 x 10 mis Pea nse ‘the values of qu/L) in the last line are reasonably clos to eachother. ‘he average value of 225.8 Wim will therefore be accepted. Since the valves of fp and fy, will not change much if the initial uss of 1.2810 Kis changed to 315.1 K, it will not be necessary to repeat the talulation. Raw 98x) 1482= 910) x 0.00157 eG page? vipt — *0688= 194077 From Eq, (6.20), ha Beience aoe 1 ee = In (0.14410. 1 ‘x (170 = 25) “fis 0a17 x—_ 081) xqsaern" x 0.081 x (170 25) = 6.12 Wim? K. ai Equation for the Overall Loss Coon! | all umber ofcaroscoveringabrndring eal parabola Melis210 sour da? have de oped a nemi-erpivical og hil tons cootticiont, This equa lation, + tion mb n Mn, My bi an + for VTC yy 4) /| 1b, ( , } 2 D, 1 Do [ut OnE + PCL, op, ] a 4 Mion gp ony iy, cy ‘Tho cover temporature 7 + ‘ Dy wnt} yg (fects eooue (pe) “soma 8 Ty «619 K, and by m1 TT (Po) a0 fa Ag oxss{} worl W518 yy < 62K. While ning Ea (6:39-0:42), Tym Tad ar expr 1,,D, and Day in m0 i Wins ad gin Win? Ie The ges U; in obtained in Win? K. Eq. (6330) bin boom develupad in Sollowing range: (ren, + {6 Oe, 100") 64, O16 5095 0.0126 ¢ Dy 0.15 m 15 5 hy 5 60 Win 1 mgs, sak Ep. (641) ane (6,42) estimate the glans cover temper 3 4 (6.42) extima cover temperature twin £ 10°C. This estimate in good enough to obtain U; from Bq, (6:31 an accuracy of 1 por cont fr 388¢ Ty, «619, nnd toa tee ALD per cont fo BY < Ty 628K : ? —_ 80, Mallick and 4. tno cto of x"Tubulae Almorber” Satan * Imprred Techniqu for Comppating eet Bir, 42,1 0A, Concer : 0 Coto foal Exarnt . Proce for eal collector Uheough fee ysl © m ouler diamiter) yeti Ie yo et ae tri os yd em Pee doin Pareles he cee Mee pct anmisivity for volar ru ne ‘mn ce eae 5 ia er en iavilyalor lily i Oeeeint tube emitivityfabnorptivity ‘09 op flor 0. nlerer rational and moterologiea pur othe Pe ea paramitry ane ay value se Apri {time 1z.0 any oh 105 Wim ol 949 Win? Bsa op see | Mind speod mie 2 Mam flow rate of thermic fluid (0556s 0c + Inlet temperature Calelate, 1. the slope of the ‘aperture plane, 2 the absorbed flux 8, 4, the convective heat transfer cooiient on the inside surf of ‘the absorber tube, = 4 the collector heat-removal factor and overall loss eeficient, 5, the exit tomperature of the thermic fui, 6 the instantaneous efficiency, jure plane and the angle of incidence on the 11 the pressure drop.x0 sow Ene ager Plane and Ang Of rcdengy fe I the slope of the aperture Bags (64) and ( Plane a, " §=2845 sin [= (284+ 25] =9415° ‘Therefore, substituting 8= 9.415%, 0= wwe have TS adem tory, i In ~ cos" 9.415° sin? (7.5572 398° and 0.9917 2, Absorbed Flux S From Eq. (8.30), 0.9917 1e= Gp ISD sin 9.415" + c0s 19.12° cos 9.415" ‘Therefore, substituting in Eq. 6.14) and taking (za), 0.85 x ¢ 0, Reba 0.95 x 005356 5 - 0.08135, + 10148| 085 «095 x0.85x085 + =45603 Win? Convective Heat Transter Coefficient hy ‘We wil use Ba, (6.35) for calolating fy. The properties of the fix ‘gre in Fig. 65. Keeping in mind that the rise of temperature fi: fiuid will oaly be a few degrees in this case, properties willbe tax ‘# a mean fluid temperature of 152°C. 7503 kgm’, C,=2.49 kShke-K, ves 0.0986 Foiy Ex ones? 7503 #01158 mis Reynolds number Re= CNP _ 2449 x 2.42% 10 x 750: Pra 75031000 pranatl number Pere eee Gere 4, Collector Heat-removal Factor and Overall Loss Coefficient Asin the ease of the flat-plate collector, an iterative procedure wil be required since the values of Fy and U; cannot be diet determine! sd the value of one depends on the other. : Assume Uj = 13.28 Wim?-K*. From Bq. (6.19), the collector eens ficor as ; ag bie a this case, the corect value of Us has ben dant ro ton uuwa Sot EN) P—— 1 0.04135 Og iG, 0.0986 x 2.449 x 10" SDL” BK 0.04135 « 13.28 x 3.657 ~ 98.275 (6.24), heat-removal factor ‘Therefore, from Eq. Fa_= 38.275 (1 - exp(-0.9304/38.275) = 09192 (1.25 - 0.04135) Concentration ratio C= OT ETD g aay ‘Thus from Eq, (6.23), cel heat gain rate q, = 0.9192(1.25 ~ 0.04135) x 3,657 ‘ae fae 2B -a.) Tsay ‘Therefore, rate of heat loss (W-DALS ~ gy = (1.25 - 0.04135) x 3.657 x 486,03. =858.46W = 2DLU(T pm ~Ts) Hence (Tym ~ To) $58.46 Tym = 167.97" = 441.13 K We will now calculate the value of U; corresponding to this valued Tym and shorw that it is equal to the assumed value. The procedure, Example 6.2 will be followed. Assume T= 6029 Fronm Bas (6.29) and (6.23), we get Mig = 5.118 Wire K 3.39 K From Ba, hy = ANG Win? K Satatitnting these values of enn To hig» 108 Ny is Kags (6.27) and (6:2, ) = x 0.04185 x 3.657 x 13.28 = 36.00 2234.5 Wim a 2 $ = 84.119828.59— 205.067 64, 456710 0.068 0.9 22345 Wim a. 00 5 of (gull) match with each les other. The 0 0 ie ven bY oorepning salt 234.5 O1= Sx OOHISS x (4113 —aB 219.27 Wim? atches the original guess, ai aso «pa Toner unng te heat gained bythe uid tothe wet eat ping e 1289.8 0986 « 2.449 (Ty 0.09% (T1548 Hence Tpp= 155.340 6. Instantaneous Efficiency ring Bq. (6.25), 12898 TV> (HOB x 1.0148 + 244 x 0.9930)1.25 x3.651 Using Eq. 6.26 1289.8 = 1289.8 __-0 35, MW FOB LOLA x 1.35 %3.657 1. Pressure Drop We use Bq. (6.36) to get2s Solar EY C= 18.0964 {Re = 19.0964 x (458.75)"* = 82.069 f= 0.0852 = pLv? POD, Hence 4 x 0.0452 x 750.8 «3.657 x a 2x 0.0381 = 86.6 Nim? = 0.88 cm of water js is a reasonable value. ‘Tepe values oft and Ty obtained in this example are éierence between them i sgificant. The low values gt™ ney tothe fact hat the inlet uid temperatare i rather hgh’ Fay coosentration ratio, while the diference between the tg tothe bigh diffuse component in the global radiation, "MMs Te order to cbtain a break-up ofthe losses occurring in th, we disinguish between optical losses and thermal loa” Misty losses are those which oocur in the path ofthe incident sof Ped ‘before # is absorbed at the surface of the absorber tube, while te Jones are due ta convection and reradiation from the abyrottt and omdartion through the ends. On this basis, we defines ficiency Wy 28 the fraction of the solar radiation incident 2% sense of te clicur whichis aborted at the ms 9 S.uasge fh Del lyse DL. TWh "ln W i Sctatinating the mamerical values ofthis exemple, we get EG (1.25 — 0.041 £38 Parametric Study of Collector Performance’ ‘4a ta the cave of the fat-plate collector, Sec. 4.8, we now study te ee eee EM, Relea, Petcance heals of Circa Parabolic Calle’, BIE ‘is, Metal Pinning Drearat 1 nee important parameters of ector. This has been dont Peter, igo over & Day With Ditfereny cy "ame ga Moot performance of the cect ty le ish eee the pron by og a tng 1 data for solar radiation race e Role days, April 15 and Dezember pie 64 is gal wing et, aro RE ety os . bint A fe ro whacking modes deat 1th a tat ee hehe vid a a I pdt Tae rad ht Md and hy 2 ene OT 8 aya gens Bae gong 88 YA Ee O13 O58 WORD Via) aH TH GH) IS ure 9,65 Variation of Angle of Incidence in Dire acing Mote— Data of Example 6.3 — oa "Its ansumed that the heat transfor corelatins (629 ee ‘lu ofp. are valid for all the five tracking modes. Stritly speaking Men og ‘et necensary in view of the fet that corcelatins fo 9te % Se os om omit Se ea weak onAT««OREL_—«ORET_—OETT_— ORO 090 rw OF pay A peeeg, ‘eawon suons2o7 CREE tea sous ro o}o409 onocaiea aURUIK Bo SSUEUNOHed 9 SIaeL ‘oor “Geet "eet “hae fe ret 78908 re 6a sw poe Le em ste zo ee re oe oro sre heer Fogo jo osu eT UH Z9 age galFig, 6.7 Variation of Efiiency of a Cylindical Parabolic Coy Ditforent Tracking Modas—Data of Example 6,3 Mate ey with time on one day, viz, Desemy jp 6.6 and 6.7. 1 will be noted from Fig 6:7 tha pattern of efficiency variation over a day in the anne for ni ‘The value of efficiency firut increases, re ak value ara oon and then deerennen. Thin in due tothe fact. tht th eff Mrongly influenced hy the incident beam radiation and thang follow ita variation, On any day and at any timo, the performance of the collector unky ade V hav to be the bent, Hence an aswensment of the eats under the other modes can be made by comparison wih the bent pousible porformanee, Modes | and tt u, a tthe yey {In mode II, the collector is rotated about a horizontal B-W axis, his, the tracking takes caro of the swing in the altitude of the sun, but mt the swing in the azimuthal direction, Hence, the angle of incidence a {times away from solar noon is high as seen in Fig, 6.6, In addition, sto the insolation is also less at these times of the day, the ellen «ficiency is poor. However, at noon, the sun's rays are incident normaly fand the performance is the same as that obtained with mode V. jg similar 10 mode TI, Thy, joe ouely matches that gen’ loa y ceever, sin vedo pt Mies are a ite ge oops aE ipereore, slighly age aye ofthe IMEC factor ge eaions. This may no ete on te for axis, wo 9 se, the collector is rotated aba g be is te ges care of the azimuth oma It erica. On bath the 4 aa ill ery : jaximum 2 non. How So 8 ra Oa) i Tot as lage aa peti erormance we he ma aso, the Frcantly better than the pert, fa 8 SEL On the other hand, ato eS mode is not eaual to that obeal gar dence is not 2210. Thus, as ean i sath on curve for mode IH intersects the efiee, in Sith modes and Hand tends to beta iy This results in a fairly uniform gang eet aay. Thi etl heat ga Fe parformance tect is no quite wast aay Teas Une day of poration, Thus nt emp ta folattule of Bombay is 19.12°N and since on April the detinatioe oly +94", the angle of incidence though the wine dog is i i fares from a minimum of 18° at O70 toa mains esa fon. The performance of the caller in mode lata Gace diy on April 15 is therefore very near to that obtained ite gels {a the other hand, on Dee. 15 the dedinaton i -233" melt firmance deviates significantly from that obtained in mode ¥ af Sanis 1, Modo 1V Inthis mode, the collector is rotated about « NS axis parallel tothe tarts axis of rotation and the angle of incidence is alvays eal to the delination angle. As a result, the performance ofthe ela is idpendent of the latte, Sine the detain vrs ny tree the limits of -23.45° and + 23.45", the performance in this a always close to that obtained in mode V. On the two equinox af ch 21 and September 21, when the declination i 2, Feriormance is the same as in mote V.| | co soir Ere eet of net Temperature rp id inlet tmperatre INTENSE, thy | ase being slightly Cane " Ton-lnear, "0 Cac, © on Flow Rate surface also increases, A; er, crease value of the ea absorber tube ection to the surrounding etl, ite po dee ahe valve ofthe overall oy yt Mani i red eri ie apparent mane erent en ty | teases, THe value ofthe once inge ay di ney. Thi i apparent fom eee (4 | ett: mera a rate a Fate for the collect 23 ouatet| pe aoe in BY hi aN the wl tons ae forthe case of there to hg ate a, st ia mete gee The gs ht “ielations are don of the pan gh va Convection. Bedi fest gs oporating under the same condger sbi ten | tigtio® tomes Pammratre varying from 120°C to 180°C. The ren th og ich oN : is scen that the value of ny decreages wi are iit Fig, 68. Iti 8 "tw decreases sigue Ma ty 100 0 Ostia 0%) |-Non- selective non - evacuated (¢ = 0.95) Selective, non evacuated (¢p = 0.15) -Selctne, evacuated (= 0.15) 1 oy 180 180 ‘Fis inlet temperature (°C) Fig. 68 Variation of Eticir eceiver Design "I 's—Data of Example 6.3 ney with Fluid Inlet Temperature for Thee the mass flow rate of the peo de heat transfer coffin fm be ian the collector heaton! Dt ee te creases. This effect is llustrated jt ane ge ieoc3 re varied from 0.0329 kyr gg SFE 69, 00 a eliciency Curve foes oy foe) REM ¢ efficiency curve goes on Gore KEK Sore oo thatthe valu ths ia gre in Bae fe the Pressure drop inereany 08 oe pumping power. Fortunately this inca’ sing the Sat fe igh Prandtl nombre the puget Ha wai#e Se, Thus, an optimum value ofa would bees eR fa wat HOPS alue Of nip has almost been stained sme rhih he 570 ce drop. In the present case, this optima i Uy ih Around 0.12 kes alu Would see, Mie Jectivity of Absorber Tube Surtace ste ton of Annus 7 is evident that loses du Fig. 68, itis evident t eto eration and convection Jetje hi. Any means to rele of spre the eo rely help in significant improving thecoletion eis cies ny Losses eto reradiation are reduced by the use ofa seleive sure, re {Gass dueto convection are reduced by having vacaumin the sonclr Mave between the absorber tube and the glass cove. The eft of inrotucing these measures is also shown in Fig. 68 in which te fariation of tig with Ty, is shown for (i) a selective suace with 45 and a non-evacuated annulus, and (i) asletive surface with ‘and an evacuated annulus. It wil be seen tht there is a amatic improvement in efficiency and that the rte of decreas ‘swith 7, is also reduced. The increase in nis ofcourse det the decease in the value of U;. For example, at T= 2, the val of U decreases from 12.28 Wim?-K to 6.34 Win? and 155 repectively for the above two cases. fect of Concentration Ratio these The eect of increasing the concentration ratio by decreasing [cs beorber tub is shown in Fig. 610 It seen tha he fs?‘0. Solar Eneroy 240) 14} 44a} 70) 120}, ,60) iz ao (emo) 1.0} 100" 50| aa} 40} 30 TW Tint s “oh 20 o2f 20h 10} ee 0002 004 0.05 008 030 O12 on Mass flow rate (kgs) Fig. 69 Variation of Performance with Mass Fi peer low Rate—Data jpareases. This result is evident from Bq, (6.23). When the conest= ef the opie cree thou a decrease in the intercept facta, cal efficiency ver rwever, the los the acres abe which ae invent Corer cr desea ch are inver jecrease and bene theclecen een ane a ee Oe Ohne aia rae Concentration ato Fg. 610 Variation of Efficiency with Concentration Ratio~Data of Example 6.3 647 The Luz Collector Before concluding this section on the cylindrical parabolic allt, it vill be of interest to note the dimensions and characteris ofthe talector modules used in the 80 MW solar thermal electric powerplant set up by Luz in California. This would enable the reader to git an Apmeciaton of the state-of the-art achieved ths fa. Th data is 08 . : at 5.76 m 1 Leneth 95.2 m E ating surface 204 curved mirrors panelsa sore ies oat ¢ Reber transmissivity 0.965 2 Ges im annular space 10" torr : 0.070 m z os {ube sue emissivity 015 1 Opeeal ficiency ov {Peak collection efficiency (based on beam radiation) 0.68, + Annual colletion efficiency ‘based on beam radiation) 0.53, 6.4 COMPOUND PARABOLIC COLLECTOR (CPC) Like the flatplate collector with plane reflectors, parabolic concentrating collector is also a nonimaging eq Py a lang acceptance angle and requires ony intermittent re hit anes ofthe geometry ofthe CPC fo solar energy coc SBt A, ote by Winston" anditas been the subject ofeonsderye th However, no significant commercial development has taken plage 644 Geometry ‘The geomety ofan ideal two-dimensional CPC is shown in yg The eoncentrator consis of two segments AB and DC whisy of two parabolas 1 and 2. AD is the aperture of width W, ng the absorber surface of width b. The axes of two parabolas are ones to each other at an angle in such a manner thatthe pint Cin focus of parabola 1 and point B is the foeus of parabola 2. angst drawn tothe parabolas at points A and D are parallel to the sec the CPC. The acceptance angle of the CPC is the angle AED (24, mate the lies abtained by joining each focus tothe opposite aperture ey ‘The concentration ratio is given by C=(Wib). It can be shown tht (Wb) (isin 6,) and that this concentration ratio is the matimin possible for the acceptance angle 28, Using the xy coordinate system shown in Fig 6.11, with origin Ox the vertex of parabola 2, it is easy to show that the equation fe parabola 2 is sebeeauiaaiaaaeaitiat auaeitsne, “Principles of Solar Concentrator of « Novel Design’, Solr Be 18 9.084). ls of Solar Concentrator of Novel Design’. b azo the focal length OB =5 (1+ sing wht ast Geom of #COMEOUY Pani Coens Gay : 2 28+ sin ey 2) Th tines ft nt a ofthe sent CD ae ofall, Si Pat C x=be0sQ Point D: ‘The height-to-aperture ratio of the concentrator is given by Haft } W iframe | The surface area ofthe concentrator is bind by integrating lng li ratio of the surface aren of the parabolic arc. Rabl* has shown that the rati 7 the concentrator to the area of the aperture is given bythe expres se ro Pate Com “A Rab), “Optca-and Thermal Properties o Cam Ser Energy, 18,497 (1976).= 8 ‘solar Energy ea (sin gf eee 8a se oanaosne ry” *{saaiartS ee " oat) BS ~Gesin a)”, i or values of encentration ratio greater than 3, i fy, an he lowing simple expression (which predicts valuer Sho, te than 5 percent) may be used in place of Bq, Gaga Ace, WL Rabl has also shown that the average number of +c undergone by all radiation falling within the acceptange on eq, oe “i een tar en hen ; in @,)(1+2 sin 2sin? o, ‘where the value of (Aza,/WL) is to be calculated from x the effective reflectivity of the concentrator surface is 1 ©8). De=p ‘where p,= effective reflectivity, and p=reflectivity value for a single reflection, Example 6.4 Acompound parabolic collector, 1 m long, has an acee lance an, 20". The absorber surface of the collector is flat and , has width 10 em, Calculate the concentration ratio, the aperture, they the surface area of the concentrator. Concentration ratio C Hy 1 , Belfeata}me and fem 145760: ‘Therefore, Height H = 9.928 x 57.6 =191.7em Pa fy ‘ given by ay, et eight ang cof concentrator, . Au a Example 6.4 show th, ese en GPC is very get sf lt aren apes fe? ie fren for 9 given aperture. Fortunate lage se eg ron ona ee emo aa performance, Thu, y pore 8 eal adele Weguced in height) by about 5 pyr ce 2 vit Der cent gi Bee ei ead 1008 00 the ects fg entra ost Soy Rabl. ion al Bom iu by 9 be, saoung Reauirements 42 Tr ional CPC is usually oriented wi Wend Sastovet direction and pean eh sera ete ot fp aajustment dependingupintheeonen et a cmcanttin or fet a sim ry tea eure cllection for To 8 hot every = owe ener ra on et a weacking austen maybe edly ae sont. a tw or a calelate the racking requirement, wel eth ie onetry equations of Chapter 3. The apparent plane satin ath gonies nik conse with the east-west lane yay tena with CPC. Hence the sun “rises” and “li wih ope so Gn etree bg tied flr nm ary to eateulate the solar swing” fr the tine pra fie ech ealloction is to be done. Relerrng a Fig 61, asus fet Go's a vertical stick whose shadow in the horizntl plan Gi AGH is a rectangle in the horizontal plane, with BF and GH beng tastvest lines. ‘Thus angle OBG is the soar alte angle, The ition of this angle in a vertical north-soith plane, ie, ange FG, may be called the solar elevation angle, We wll dete it bythe syne «,. The change in the angle a, over the sped tine perio, isthe solar swing. From Fig. 6.12, tan a, =26 = (09) (BH). “= "RG =| OE] [OB cos 08H a AR ii,2. We, Fig. 6:12 Calculation of Solar Swing Substituting expressions for sin a, a ind cos OEH from (G.7) respectively, we have : POS ay in 9 sin B+ c0s 6.c08 8 cos w ~ sin @ c08 8 c05 w ~ cos @ sin & 6% At noon, when w= 0, we have, 2080-8) ay tan 04 = Fg) 7 (O~8) Therefore, (y= 5-0-8) 6m ‘The solar swing angle over a time period corresponding to an bay angle + to ~ ays the change in 0, from the time corresponding tots angle £ @; to solar noon. Thus the magnitude of the solar swing ange =| [co ay) tant] Sin @sin 8 + cos 6 co 8 \[s ® 3] = [seperti Equation (6.52) has been expressed in a neater form by Rabl* It defines a solar elevation angle measured with reference to th 6a eee sea se [A Bebl “Comparison of Solar Concentrators, Solar Energy, 18, 9 (1576. cs jane rather th the horn Satan ay iit ion Mane, ge va &e ot a (653) ra gig ve xeon fn fom yg wut he vil eet Fe an" (an Boggy 6g monite ofthe soar wing ag (654 ri =H 0~ (yh 15 ~ tan’? (tan Bie ‘ 55) give 55) (652) and (655) give the same vals ep st er, Ba (6.55) has the advantage op tM i Je jtly that the solar swing angle ig i Dlr and of soft explicitly % ove is ingen of jad ample 65 1 parabolic collector is lead in Bomay gp Fi afr Sh ofealletion on December 21 wit nkagees ent during the dey. Caleulte the minim naan se oct enn nt we calculate the solar swing ange on Deenber 2 teen ip 200 h (LAT). Substituting 5=-28.45, «60 in By oa, Solar swing angle = |-23.45° - tan” {tan(-2345°jeos 60" = 1-23.45" - 40.99%) fs 15" ‘he minimum acceptance angle required forthe eller is abviowly equal to the solar swing angle. Thus, 20,=175° and concentration rato C= (isin 8.75°) = 6.57 The slope ofthe collector aperture plane weld havea be aed such that the sun's rays enter parallel tothe axis ofthe per ral Semen at 0800 h. This will ensure that the sun's rays st eis furallel to the axis of the lower parabolic segment. Now from Ea. (39.12 +23.459 ci ci A7.ASee pr E07 ste made by the axis of the lower para, 24748" 7 orc Cpe with the horizontal =4T49°~ = 38.68" ‘hat the solar swing angle is may rea be aad Oo Spd December 21, and equal dae Vi chad September 2. Ths gq equino da¥e angle of 173° would give 8 oF more hour gp sa ee ihe yor woot Te 2 dag gt i i Sarat range at wth ven ACEPENED ANC OF Fr aa My ver day BF tment Feud ia Year fOr 2 CPG wag nt angle and a Feqired minimum election ine pep By ‘ulation has been done by Rabl The procedure adonteg 2, ] H ‘i a{Eeorwer} brs 55} yaHtan® 4, ieee eee eer [igerore| [tong ae ty, zor suitably dished mirrors, in which the spread o¢ to mirar span i eliminated, the concentration ratio ela ty sat (610). Expressions similar tog ee 4 reed for other absorber shapes. Ba. (610) cay, ‘Thos, ce ample 6.7 ina central receiver collector, the height of the tower is 159 vegan 5° andthe diameter ofthe mirrors is 4.5m, Fina est the image formed by the outermost mirror at the receiver, these the absorber (if itis as shown in Fig. 6.18) and the Sethe aay <=; _Eeentration ratio. Assume that mirrors are (i) flat, and, (ij qa ‘Take y= 0.38 and @= 0.002 radians. ithe, (@) From Eqs (6.67) and (6.68), 150 32x oe rena Mm “hetielasiano 2250 ak ( sinr— 84 15.67 m> 0.38 xn x 150° x tan? 50° 115.67, =390 54 soir E107 pla + sin g,— 284’ bp? ifn sin 6, ) apo mivors ate dished, yo SOL (tee os 50 cm) tee, o* Fre sae = 15.82 m? = 28822 10 p iy oe =2412 PROBLEMS pe oxen oo yo twe eh 2-258 exe inition stn pe fo plate eallecor (as shown fn Fig Gea ie fa late lector ot eer the ales of the tr for beam ri a. Ganpste Yhe factors obtained fer aor and te Sle he aime i ese ot Gien the flloing dae edna ete fd rt ben of collector reel aeray Made of allector ma 1 Shve 18 fag + Dae Si, 2a De 2 Tine oman Fee a nner os ett a So oa < Path asaty a errr rs Acti pa let ee aa arnt eee Soon a Fee ae etm ead ahaa sh mt an tage ya cl oere et nent ne ee ocak jen nie mee nin id aa + Glass ewer: Apert * Length of concentratori goer Ene! 1 tube surface vty of ass rave of absorber tube = 022 =Oa8 2006 =20°¢ =15 my pwn “a Brett «ree tb 2 a aret 1 fred vet ea ase bana caeaate he IAS COE epg es pe data of Example 03, Take he = tig yy i ls iad Fe arcs ink, 7 the ensitviy ofthe overall loss exe, lee ene raien 6 hale cthe opal, “t fia rt tare witha temperatures Mating Ate Sh maith enparte«g (GE pee of 18 mad eth fT ah Dat 1 ak ern 9.2m a ar Me ie Given hat: coi aN gr rey aR Ble % 1 eer fear + os , atin ine ermal) 09 APY pan ton dati incident on aperture plane 1 nr seni 2 seven ba anaer concent 09 inside of aang” 9 Way, tale habit peta hy Non ae 8 c Se lhe ein ae th exit 0, ase Beaten rate, aati gh (tat fein ig (aeat t prtrmancs ofthe lirica parabolic ett Fins ont or an Pg nln ivevacuated, a (i the Suid inlet temperature is tages eit, resin the sao, Aleta, pon atl tis slat feo Se ta Beane 63, he ag shane mtr en ad tint nme dimension of the iner glass cover are unchanged. All other dat net se erin nope a tet the vation. I shoul be noted that the curve cbtain with emg will intersect the eurve with one glas cover (Fig, 6.8, curve) ™ ‘Stay theft of varying the annular gap between the nbsorber tbe ede ‘er on the pecfrmance ofthe cylindrical parabolic collector of Exampest Heep all data the same and caleulate the elfcieney for two stotin: (i1Do=55 cm, Du=4.8.em, and (i) Dey 7.1 em, Da =64em. Compa te ‘enuls with those cbtained in Example 6:3. Is there an optimum anaule gy Derive an expression forthe useful heat gain rate of a parabolic dish alede ‘ering oliniical absorber at its oes. The diameter and length ofthe (he outside are D, ad and on the insite, Dy and Ly, Assume ta the at \antr idchanges its phase as it passes through the absorber an ‘uray remains a a constant temperature Tp PC hs bn ty ona te the ann eg My Pep em Oe concentrator pr, eC ag i 30 ise et Sa ta scpane sage po ts won ag Thy ASSN thatthe aa yer colle ye cms tt fey a he antl ner femage formed by the outemgy 2 he eal nes whe # remieranithe ome 8 oft eth the heliostats docy yy SS Assan ee * en Soest uty dnd oa‘This chapter deals with the deseription and analysis ofy energy storage systems, The chapter commences with fection in which various situations requiring the uso of © sytem are described and the basic methods of storing therm 2% are discussed. This is followed by a detailed description of 4° heat storage systems. Various materials, their properties and hes oftemperatres over which they ean be used for storage aremen ‘Analyses of a few situations are given and testing promi. described. Finally, latent heat storage systems and thermacheniay storage systems are briefly described. arious 2 intro 7.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The intermittent, variable and unpredictable nature of solar radiata generally leads to a mismatch between the rate and time of collection ofsolar energy and the load needs of a thermal application. As a reit itis often necessary to use a storage system in between. The strat system stores energy when the collected amount is in excess of Tequirement of the application and discharges energy when the colected amount is inadequate. The sizeof a storage system isl? by the specific purpose fy a itt gg sown oF iat wa a weeion® * eh tg & & an i. Seen ® 1 2 % — Ey Oo 1 ant fig. 7.1. Different Situations for Using a Themal Energy Stage {@) Butfer Storage, (b) Diurnal Storage, (c) Anal Strage In Fig. 7.1 (a) the time interval during the day over which the nergy is required is essentially the same as the tne of ealletn. However, a storage system is needed becauses theres some mismatch Tebreen the amount of energy required and the amount called at any instant. The storage system in such situation hs to ste ery «aly for short intervals of time and is relatively small in sis, called a buffer storage’. In Fig. 7.1(b, te load demand stom EO overall 24 hours, whereas the collection takes pase ob TE sunshine hours. As a result, a system larger than & Pea ig capac inal storage’. Figs 7, r bacng call SS In contrast, Fig. Sana \ as " storage SY tem stores: ©) ity yrt-term’ StOEY . storage syst energy duriy lug? tution ain xcs ofthe demand, ang ge thy eae hen the collection is Tess than gh pte is equi fo such a ig Teen ertrd ovr opel of months, Sug Sg Maal trae’ " — asie methods for storing thera iy on " ting aliquid or & solid — does not ¢} "ee, (enna sensible heat storage. The amount of ison the temperature change of the. °°°%y sak Mater be expressed in the form Mal ay 8 the mass and C,, the specific ty 9 spore m is the mass and C,, ic he, Yepresent the lower and upper temperature fea to as the temperature swing. ating a material which undergoes a phase ch i relia. This is called latent heat storage, ‘The ® “ay, tnerty stored inthis case depends upon the masgangnt ¢ heat of fusion of the material, Thus, chine E=mh where 2s the latent heat of fusion. Tn this ease, th ga” operates isthermally at the melting point of the matsst isothermal operation atthe phase change temperature ca ficult, the system operates over a range of tem to, which includes the melting point. ‘Then sen contributions have to be considered and the amount stored is given by Ty ve goran f Ben{{ J Guat} sae{ J cyar}] ag n r where C,, and C,, represent the specific heats of the soi at liquid phases and 7” is the melting point. Using heat to produce a certain chemical reaction and tha Storing the products, ‘The heat is released when the ree® reaction is made to occur. In this ease also, the storage oper! an inch the storage operates. The difference (7, nb! Vise ¢ Pera, sible bet of energy @) sei ea Ce a et er ate sal dite en. \igh temperature “ peices "Bis talon a me are range over wi vempora eh the 0 capacity of the storage hag get 1) Ton ofthe rest of the yaa ay ge cpiersorage nit operates at gyal) hg, Hectons, 4 ae olts in a reduced cles Mean a ‘alg having 8 arger storage yt," comps oases from the storage have «lst ees are of particular a losses are of particalarimpartanc qe & tin Hott of the storage unit. This includes "Sm sere sy os ea it te © Sorage medion, he containers adn ty jng cost ert ‘considerations include th stay of anes, the means adopted for ansfegg a sgeceup, and the POWCT Tebirements ir es lon 19 SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE inthe case of sensible heat storage systems, piracted by heating or cooling a liquid ora solid iisphase during the process. A variety of substances have ben wel ja such systems. These include liquids like water, heat tramfe as and certain inorganic molten salts, and solids like reeks, pebtles and refractories. In the case of solids, the material is invariably inthe prous form and heat is stored or extracted by the fw ofa gas ora liquid through the pores or voids. ‘The choice of the substance used largely depends on the temperature ‘wel of the application, water being used for temperatures below 4O/C and refractory bricks being used for temperatures around 000°C. Sensible heat storage systems are simpler in design than Intent heat or thermochemical storage systems. However, they Leia ffm the disadvantage of being bigger in ste. For this ris ‘portant criterion in selecting a material for sensible hest Sura energy is stored or hich does nat ehangeoe wt eens Wish Wteitan jn ie ley cance MUR Ta yg he grt al tana ay fame a worl ev amanly used Iesinin i a y ts te ali Hace eg, ve, BM, ae eter ii as Tag My sre sone Op thie ADS EN rary gd vse Te a es thee. BD aoprigin,* ky fares “a for ting the wines We abt Tt, yy Mt hee Agee h ONCE Be Me a a apse ie ST 8 Yate of jane, The wits are suitshly oa ce ee pyuretbane, The thickness we ed rants fora 10 v0 20 em. Because of i age resets sgn part of the alg ina mt ave Ube explore, Shelton hay yt ta re von tank, the inslating value of the earth gor’ te wee ateguate ond this Od provide the bull ot qty einer required. However, it may take as much ay ggg Mey fark avid a large sorage tank to reach a neady gt fr, Sed ding, anda cmsierble amount of enrzy may 9 ; = ve ihe eater is at atmospheric pressure, the tempera to 100°C. It is possible to store water at temperatures « 12, several aT pa ‘Storage Concent POS Raat tisha, YOO-C by using pressurized tanks. This has been done in 2 instances. 7 In order to reduce the cost of water storage systems, an al way, which has been examined for very large systems, is to maies of naturally ecurring underground aquifers which already soxt ‘rater. In such systems, the need for building a storage iat eliminated. For storing energy, hot water is pumped into the aye through an injection well. At the same time, cold ground wate | displaced through another well For withdrawing energy te wes Procedure is followed. Since the investment required is a series ¢ openings for injecting and withdrawing water, the storage coss ie Sch systems are low (Fig. 7.2). Heat transfer oils are used in sensible heat storage systems ft te temperatures ranging from 100 to 5: ee ‘which are used for this purpose are Cass nol T66. One of the Indian brands which woah beryerm. The main problem associated with th. 3 is that they tend to degrade with time. Th ly serious if they are used above ther A femperature limit. The use of oils also presents safety pets dase fuereis a possibility of ignition above their fash pest For iisrecommended that they be used in system with aniner gs. Afurther limitation to the use of heat transfer ols istics, wich ranges from Rs 15 to Rs 300 per litre. For this reason, the cn be casidered for use only in small storage systems Afew molten inorganic salts have been considered farkih tempers {ures (300°C and above). One is an eutectic mixture of 40 per cet NaNO», 7 per cent NaNOs and 53 per cent KNOs (by weight) and i ‘walable under the trade name of Hite. Hite has ao: meting ps 45°C and can be used up to a temperature of 425°C: Above lenperature, decomposition and oxidation begin to take pase PPO Pr "Shelton, Undergrou 4 % cue 11, Lap cape Under OUNE Storage of Heat in Solar Heating Systems’ SEA tedar Cnargy Apart Sonn wen salt, Ni ebots jy vn dertsic best ag I high Wengert, Lid sed nny gy ha oo te ent aloo 4 ay wud So Bird 0h the 5 MW ser ten ; A he, iden, LE purine Wh ie on, jo i sed thy ae na 4 0 binge in the vealeal weiter omens i He ea Abe ty oy in, eo at A be st th the ot Hh Mme A me the sate men ls Clete Ahan thine og Mk rt ty ; Meh fe. cn he 8 Ang 8 ya ‘Tobie "tn Gt, ge fo ns Table 7A Prgasttion of Coens Gersitle Hoag Son ane Properios of g ace las HIS YHrt6 tae Her thenge ae Wer hem et a Sith Medium, "ites zy Hihect temperature i -, teh * marr m0 wy aye . Sersisy Cees A yy ty ™% est (OT1-4 92) pete beat Cy v0) tay as Att 4h a9 iy Celio Ky MH, one Ms ‘Thertcah cnducivy Mies fy t ius Oa “Fegerion HG ——— engerion MUE. agen a 80 142 Golide ysis of a Liquid Storage Tank d Situation the insulated liquid-storaq tank som in ig 13 ing nen available) from an stray of elt adhe Honben needed) toa lal for us inn apaton ee Petigud in the tank in alvaye walled aed ones ifr temperature T, which varus ly tine fe aa ‘on the tank yields the following equation an at Vp represents the heat capacity fh ain he heat capacity of the tank mat her id from the collectors, dina a ‘he overall beat anit d to the load, (UA), the product et mand marae eet nan, yi wie ound the tank. The heat capacity term (1 to tape, 8, jn design ang ively inexpunnive. Typically, the characteriatie nian of se tive faruck used varies from to fem. An approximate thureh cok follows {or sizing. is to une 200 Us 600 ky of cock per aquare men of cllictor ‘rea for spnce-heating applications, Undisturbed earth or processed earth haw aluo heating oyplicationy, bat for long term worago, the heat transfer with the air taken place thre ‘eat exchange tubes buried in the earth, Refractory materials like maymesiuin oxide (alumina) and i used in apace. In such storage aystems, ugh a network of plastic (PVC, (PVC d= du~ Guat ANT Te) (14)‘286 Solar Enery portance for small-sized tanks only For lap, im be eglgible in comparison to (pV), Denogt tk, , to Le aga that gi , tomy NB the yi vy ae eg Mn 7 itis by the etl OVE, ani tm se laghd De sn aed py ce ok ton ate eee 1s, we get, Subject to the inital condiig’ oon ae Sy 5 eae re ES Be 6 Qiat ~ WAYT = T,) = P| ~ Ae) oe pers a eT) (Vc, on water storage tank, 17 The assumption that g, duns Ad T, are consays orp ist ad MF tel late (p= 78 gn vate aig $M pom the mass of steel renee?” OM Ly _ From cokectors Totcag He | de rom th ‘ined ) ean be used to determi temperature 7; with time ifthe variation of 4, ‘Alternatively, the values of ¢, and gis may inlet and outlet temperatures and flow rates as Gee tC To ~ Th) = iC y(T ~ 7) pt reasonably small (say 1 howe ine the variation ofthe and gio is given, bbe calculated from the 6 pst 1500 ke of steel is required yr 2 jirional ona be tank, which i oul, Be ge cn thick = OO Wm K) The nk i 50.0°C aL 0700 hina theta er i ate ne variation of @. and 7, up to 2569 « em the Soy a Serna! ie ta prtinine 28 sh, a 78 Ste eaan i OT ap ap iaio tO we 2038 9a 49 te jremment is such that energy is cotiunaywitdean 1.0500 hh. Assuming that the water in te an is aheays oes on ofits temperature seed, caleulate the variat feamixed, cl e values of (p¥C,) and (Al, determine the values of pC) We shall first Internal volume of the tank 5) {nvea.tve2a + 2 E17) 0.006 T+ 20 and oe Fas C(T)~T,) (721 | aust steet used =r 17 i Equation (74) then becomes acipede Ve) a7 ; . (9¥C,4= 987.0% OMEN Ge MONT) fT )=T) = (UAYT)=T) (8 Bae (vty nee ee =19868 ae ee He bel by teers eg snr se ued in Example 72, reba268 Soler Energy calculating the value of (UA), we shay a through the cylindrical surface and three fay, btm i oedinensiona: Ws shal also agul?® th resistance offered by the insulation domingyge™® hat rt gy thermal resistances tothe low of heat atthe int tha can be neglected by comparison. The overall hear, out oh Y; (based on the inner diameter of the tani) fear aSen a through the cylindrical surface is given by the ger patn® ky j where 7; is the radius of the tank, 7p i added on, and &; is the thermal is the radius wi Therma é clear sunt day) exceiy MS gh E reault, the tank water ga tery, Peratury whi ofc, ves Tak rnd gay ny Ugh dW oro and since enung’ ara in Vig) 008? orature decreases, From iz , : e Seger Mrstations WEre continu gt al de," Pp fe treare Would bs arin 52 pe oP that there is an apprein pica en and the energy Withdrawn thing at : . teen ‘hy bea fo storage tank in the presen qo" 8 day and sige oamatch sce pay te mand oft te conductivity of ty inay,. | ia Net oe i Substituting, we have, Fast r 1 0.85 | 1.05 T," 004 og5 = 449 ‘Therefore, Uy = 0.223 Wim? K vy the overall heat transfer coffent Us forthe ; ‘through the flat surfaces is given by Othe e t= 9 0a Wim ee 2 3 7 RXLTx hg i" Hence, (UA).= (0.298 x mx 7 22+ (09% 2F x1 i =3, z 409 WK Econ ln} ‘Wenow apply Bq. (7.5) over a one hour interval of time, Substity 2 i the given values, we have from 0700 to 0800 h, oa } : 18660-27000 - 3.409 x 3.6(7,~ 17.8) 3.409 o e 8860-271 iq a x1 "S850 -27000- 949 xssen00-anay~e[- EO LxtH |S Hence (Tioseoy, = 49.56°C : 20000} t/ a ie Tye meine same way, we obtain the following variation fr up * lo Tew @ a "ye 9 0 11 te Eueer woe Tee) 4956 som suas 5 a a S| gt4 example 7.1—Vattion of Temperate in Webs Yt Storage Tank it ativn een ‘huinates by about 12°C. The magne of his tat i aaa aly upon the volume of water in the tank. If = oe ae filet were to be doubled, the fluctuation would be arr ‘ae,| : ‘the preceding anal The fq flowing through the collector that the li rmed 8 nthe tank is the same, and that gn stor oy and uty the gd few ope Dle, jeg th dl sary from the point of view ofeongn in e g ‘emay eater mixed with chemical inhibitor nal a et Se may ao bo nectar toad anttragag WRN ten Gitar passing through the collectors if temperatycaoan aly fo be encountered. In such cases, the fhyiy Sty Poy ‘ teparated and heat has to be transferred from ma het liquid to the storage tank quid through a heat eqajeileg iy excimer maybe a separate unit eternal tothe gt be in the form of a coil immersed in the storage tank tg analyae the second situation shown schematically We ly . From collectors Fig 7 mm Teloag To Make-up liquid Fa. 75 Anaiyss of a Weltixed Sensible Heat Liquid Strap tox with an Immersed Heat Exchanger Coil For an immersed coil, it is B toa | Ea. (7.10) for 4, an le st ie Iq in aay nt always be the case, For nq ttm 2 hy easy to show from heat exchange thay that To- Th Tag t ep + WA, Hic as Wwe Wal is the product ofthe overall heat transfer coffe ratte forth het exchanger col Thus, the expresion fr het of useful heat gun becomes Ga =iGy (Op ~14) = MCT — TNL ~ exp {UAL nC cm hema g | esti ve est ny in aM ay 3! ™ 5 BD nC y(Te~ evo Tha TH exp ~ frstCo(T)~ 2) — cy, "AM tion, the spec » spove ea heats of a re gene peep be distinguished in an are diag ts ve ed lize that then Ppa at, Wigd ROS tant to realize that the we gg Manag ty itty not only re evel of aoe of get es: Since alstor eeny dene Haag or aan" ‘more collector area ig with “ety ety Adi fc stratification ally stratified situation, the temper 18 aries from the bottom tothe top, beng ee en ‘ontained 1 Oe ap. This Shaaton i in cone ta ee oa imped tank in which tho Tigi tempera an ‘engeraare significant, Ifthe oad at the required temperature 7)slocatog coetkeg tad big storage tank, then only the San top of the storage a ly the liquid near this ext port has be atthe temperature 7, The rest of the liquid in the trea fan bo ata lower temperature at all ines, Ava a nat fom the tank are reduced, A second advange is tate gpeate at a lower temperature lovel and deliver a higher alte, Be steanan tral stdin nanny amatter of course. An example is a natural circulation water heating system (Fig. 2.6). Tn such a system, the flow rates are low and a eertain degree of thermal stratification is always abtained. Thermal statifca- tion can also be obtained in a forced circulation water heating system {te Mid inlet and outlet configurations are aly etl and shaped. Ring distributors are used so that the velocities pies ving the tank are Tow and are in suh dst ing thing. In some eases, a floating inlet, made ofa wit, Bera Aible plastic hose connected to the inlet pot ie eal inlet delivers hot ‘liquid from the collectors at a SL liquid temperature is equal to that in the — dy eit ‘analysis of a thermally stratified tankisi ae sor En0ray profile has tobe solved fr gg Tham, the temperature nese for a ag, = 7 Ta ne ely ie oc nen A ag a Sonal jin nature cea tank. nf the heat eh, poo 1. This en TT wee gh the wl ai is posable by assumin 7 “nit | aces leo provide OT catty Asin yf well mined sections at den 8 ty, Hage te resis exist wan neg ists of 0 caations at lilferen, con ring down enerEy balancer ewatons silt ph, pe ener BAKE LP fet an nthe sein, Coir famed sections Fg. Bate anaes] Ai jn enters Bebveen eons 1 gy 2 hy, jst of two well-mixed sect ™PCratye yn] glow yw, and conser > teeing energy balances on each ofthe sen 2 a jg no flow, and consequent ny, Motes : ati 5 WN) 5, Bee Te tre, (VC Gy = HCE = Ta) ~Fraalyy, ~ Ny as (7.12) 208 (7.12) cn easly ma, 7 he, e ~ (WA)a(Tn ~ Ta) oan fe 8 0. d4-T oy a Ae Bes Dh 8 ures ina Bot water rate tag -WAlgTe-T,) 1 that the tank Consist of two cual egg e top and in-between the ie Oy) yeti the top ad inten ea ai nis em To fh Fa. 78 Analysis of a Thermally Staified Sensible Heat Liquid Sa Tank Differential Eqs (7.12) and (7.13) have to be solved simultane) forthe unknowns 7 and Tip. One way of solving them isto exes Wi in ite difference form and to choose a suitable time intr alts of i and Tip are then ne obtained from one time interval toh quations (7.12) and (718) have been written under the assumptia he fling a mie) Tat s_ fy Sa 80 ER 0 oe 100 2000 16 2 400-3500 = 2 Je mass of water in the tank = 5000 kg (@) (UA = (UA) = 30 ihc ake up water enters at 20°C at the same nie the © Maiharawal tothe loa, ame (4) at 1200 b, Th = 70°C, Tr =65°0 Caleulate the values of T), and Tip at 1500 b Neglecting the value ofthe heat cpsciy term (VC), Bye (72) and (718) ean be written in a finite difference form as fellows: Tay¥Tag Pe ao 7 facts) (Tat Tai Tas +i ~infise 2 z : won + aose equations, Ty and Th, represent the Oy Feet the time interval Af. A similar mean ang 4 Etheertele 7a and ins Thsymbls 7, 7, gg. 8 ate erage values over the time interval Af if “We take Jf= 1h and note the presence of the inlet in ty to sections while substituting the given data from on wet Fone intervel 1200-1900 h: Th,,= 70°C; Ti ,= 6550, & ‘Substituting into Eq. (7.14), we get 2500 x 4.19 x (Th, ~ 70) = 2000 x tasfe - or 9628.67,,/~ 1257p = 264.282 Similarly, substite into Eq, (7.15), we get ~ 1007p, + 9628.67 2, = 164300 (5 (un Solving Bqs (7.16) and (7.17), T,s=15.10°C; Tiz,p= 65.98°C Time interoal 1300-1400 h: Now T'y,;=75.10°C; Tiz,,=65, Substituting into Eqs (7.14) and (7.15), we et 3628.67, ,~ 120 n,¢= 271 457 98°C and ~ 10007, + 3628.67)9 = 170 682 Solving Th y=T118°C; Ty ,= 68.46°C. ‘Time interoa 140 4 00h: Now Ty,,=77.18°C; Typ, = 68.46°C. ma 7847 To> Trai the Now from the collectors will bye! ‘ton 1and enter in betweon agctions 1 and 2,'Thu, the fist 8 ema nd side of Ba. (7.14) yyy Sen st pad 46 OF Ah Bg, (75 My gg a f | substituting, we get Put n, int 5 ¢ 2613.67 /- Non, 0 11 ag 361367 apy ’ Tas TOHEC Taragasye aii yyts of a Packedbed Storag, A up for anal a packet ¢ vi rage oa take iis packed with rocks, pay 8 it ae alg BBs it Shy 5 fer cine Hot sete a beter Beeb whe Som bat ihe tle sh the oid at from the Toa is cireunge in the pl scold ai From aed peed fle o wai from the slid Unlike yg ghey a foes anal be exe simalneyudy SM ay -ae sur e0 Y coat heat transfer analysis which fp No sw transient Me packed-bed wnit of length 0S ig cnamann® Conse T eauivalent spherical git dig The mass flow rate of the air is rn ang ae, wd tn ature Te Forte PONS Of analy siti - infinit (Xt)= = 0 yea tra bw iii ermal nding ne | MiOO= 2 Tg on and confit does not vary wig’ teary | OM og ct Ty In the rt eye Tater 9 | peter 1.504 ile in the second eat, the pa ; ; to , the revere here fis the volumetric heat-transfer coefficient (in Winn Soerey i SORT, drop across a packed-bed storages ala oe re ume ofthe bed, and rare the densities of haat | TD eh . Storage’ als ofimprtane al Srumes of fluid are being handle ry Cy and Cy are the respective specific heats. In driest | ge ae ame and Saree } Reactr [a i ety 5 Heat released for application 7.41 Schematic Representation of Thermoctemicay FT ons i tion occurs because of the solar heat input hi Te neatalyst. The products X and Y are generay ey ‘ temperature. This is an advantage since the storage tanks fu tobe insulated, However, in case a catalyst is not nee ofthe farvard reaction must be separated atthe temperature? the reaction occurs in order to prevent the reverse reaehie Whi products must then be stored separately. In ease acatalygt gc Me separation may not be required. iv ‘When energy is tobe extracted, the reverse reaction is made This takes place at a lower temperature, with produety i recombining to form A and B. During the reaction, heat is Iie! ‘he eritri to be used for judging the suitability ofa thermo. cal reaction for a solar application are as follows; a (1) The forward reaction should occur in the temperature rang the solar collectors used. (2) The reverse reaction should occur in the temperature range in which heat is to be extracted, (8) The two reaetions should occur at temperatures which aredae to cach other. In this way, the collector temperature is niti nized and its efficiency maximized. (4) In order to minimize the size of the storage tanks, the ee atorbed pet unit volume of the products stored should bes ‘He #8 Possible and the products should be inthe lig fe. ie reactions in both directions should be fast and complet "eversible with no side reactions which may produce ont 6) Pry son it i8 preferable that yy ing teh at 10 cost and shag iy vam of chemical react aay, in avr oer oe suitability hace 88 eee a ¥ 1 the af tay D oint 9 be suitable and haye py. Above ote 5, pif ions The dais of yet Pop A Be pe apt rye first, reaction referra “Mth reac, te yy 2, 75: og place in the presence of & the my Sng iPfjom tr anberest because the techn) kel Caan ge ei Fyyarse Feaction (called the gf "ire i ben weehe My used for the manufacture op sétin preg itle h ily re of. 8) ig et me y jem is that the prado ei pel at 4 resU Ahoy 0M, Thermochemical Storage Reasons ‘Tempera offorvand, SS Dane oo Fraction Sgt Feu we, Cas etl a pe00+ SH 7) i a i 91+ 402 1025 erp sre ST Ry +10+S0s 498 5430 “ 2U8 10 ation 5 nd reaction in Table 7.6 inves the She ef ulphor tcoxie to sulphur dnd tep and the exothermic recombination of ‘deter on- ‘and oxygen in the ot : sulphur din sew fon Sulphur roid inthe eer st inthe pena , After a detailed study*of various chenicl eons et seat tem as been Suggested for usin In ea it sor eer Plant operating onthe Brayton ele with hun forking fluid. The system components have been sized and cst wGinates have been given. A disadvantage ascitd whi yum eatat although SO» can be stored as aliquid, 0; has tested as ge under a pressure of about 100 bars, Problems ef ren sn ‘aby may also require careful attention, ‘The third reaction involves the decomposition of ammasium hi fensuiphate into ammonia, water and sulphur tii tem fiction, The reaction does not require a catalyst, Wentworth 2 soa sat “Be over Resear nae, et ee Change and Thermochemical Advanced Therma 285, Final Report, 1, Project 7381 De. 1970this ronction after studying itjona since it satisfies most of th nee i. cia ' ng cate ions which have been suggesteg " one oir re psition of VarioUN metal ig ep, angd f nO 20 +50 a 2Pb0, 2 2PbO +0, : Ca(OH), 2 C20 + 1,0 ny fact that the energy stored per uni 4 Desi th high i apparent that thers ing 4 pod eld be ory for shorter storage Al 8 a ie Mave eet pay ony where Long-term gop PHS ‘round the ambient temperature and the locations Where et Ny sees reaction our ae separated by some in en a PROBLEMS mee 1 nda cme eae eee atin beat biel tenpeature and rte of wee fe oOo HO hae a low Aa Toor ei) i) = ae a 5 0400-0500 0 6 a eas ° FA = worst Q % 2 cow 4008 z 2 rT) a = corn nan % = ‘rong sot % = Truss oot % 2 a a arom Th sling beste vices on when the emprtasi {ie 4 Makeap water a 240 enter a the se ees rae she dl) Uy 8H gh Metron an. Che, st Sdhr Theol Ene’, Sar Brey, 18,205 (2578) Pr aes anit, Reese Oniaton of Metal Oxides for Thermal Energy St a anetig, Manip, 8 2191876) si Tesdina X Shikakura and MS. Murthy, “Thermal Decmpi ¢ TL 26 Gemnt® Peles fx Energy Storage, “Trons. ASME, J. Solar Ene P Simple Thermal Decomposition Reactions orSua From oolectors gaa To collectors i hep wate, Fig. 712 Problemy caelatethe hourly variation of om GARE C0 At what te des he et i Soe te aay ter mg ae well-mixed liquid storage tank, it is Pesad yore ea tt ER; be approximated by 2 hafsin wave gy gan nt ea Bl te sete Gloa ont oa en cmt 0, the stored liuid sat temperature sient, a nthe tank pen by 711 Sera heap, toe Pats s OT ech AL ge Sal VCR OVER cr epee eae Se a ean frie ths tor SSereneeataces SS War, where 61 TG hic the we ate ates OC te sit A ten ee est iy ened O37 eeess ba leo 2 age te std oii pcre. Thee the Siew in perenne Tp Test Pett ne ene, Cite, hat th eae 3 SA WHE ad tht the sh mr zo nt 6 thi wir 3 a et atl fi EATER CY Wt tha ie fete nap cance A OE. “Aa iag Eight : solar Pond i INTRODUCTION to reduce the cost of large solar thermal insta ‘to devise more economical ways of ellstng sign. In this context, attention bas ten fee Sing say ofusng lange expanses of water of small deth fa sherk, egoring solar radiation instead of wing fat late ton nel a ater storage tanks. However, experince shor tht th ae ban usally heats up ony afew degrees, beast sted satjedion currents which are set into motion as som s bat i Sforbed at the bottom. One would obtain a significant rein the ‘Ger temperature only if the convection could be prevented. An vfally constructed pond in which significant temperature rss re ‘aud to occur in the lower regions by preventing veto seed ‘lar pond”, ‘The usual method adopted to prevent convection stds 2st inthe water and to maintain a concentration gradient, Forsch ds themore specific term ‘salt-gradient solar pond'is se. In thisch revi essentially discuss ony thes raient slapd ses ‘wacept has made good progress. Other concepts Hike te gl sero tbehoneyeomb solar pond and the equilibrium slr pond order ‘described briefly. yin. Tale act Recen years, many salterain sh she ftom a few hundred. ‘thousand squareot soe 10 een area tal basis. THe Oring low temperature process jy.” Pe appt a int they will be used me up tn It is therefore jotare, 3 eres: ‘The Cae ° alt tera 40 (0 50 the fact aks, i hotter than the and heat is tration gradient in uch lakes is maintain en fal epi atthe boom ote inna Se : c ft rs enertations inthe lowe ke, hee arora which fw acres the top °%™ ang Ey "The working of a solar pond ean be explained | Fig. 81. Consider a pond of depth having salts disso ine, ee ey Fi. 81 Principle of Working of a Solar Pond We assume thatthe eoncen the bottom (Cand that a tthe bottom. The vara concentrations is ag shy Aensity ofthe top layer puilt in a number of countries, mg, hems connected With their opera Securing lakes, a significant WC) does occur in the lower reg dhat there is @ natural salt concentratign Tis aa cae water atthe bottom remai ey jst fam the hot water only by gq — i ications are that they appear 4. Mag Plate 7 7008 fon ag a solar pond is derived from the g % temperat ins densa water at the top. Thus, convection ™ Sey" 8 Me h9,6m, Apertura 1.25, heya : 3 : | 2 : i 3382 g a “op—Coneenaten Cy 58 Temperate Ty o2|- z Density og u aE 25 Battom—Concentation Cs Temperate T, Th Density og Temperature T tration at the top (Ci) is less than tats concentration gradient exists from the! ion of density with temperature for thet jou. Let Ty and py be the temperature a!a Se hmong oP are located for the ingen In jar Pon rg the vari ae ayer, ‘ahowing the Variation of denne layers soa i obvious that no congas 82% mange Ape 0 ve AB is positive, 8” Mil xr got ‘oft ly, the cond ep =p1C: Tit flows that the cnditon fay PleMalie. ‘ir de] [at fae? dc _ffa ‘ 2, B) (ar) EE) ae from a slightly more sophisticated analpie tic ena al ca i et ne EAE v0} a)| 33) De=difusivity of salt in water or solutions of slt in water under the eeditins exacted in plat pons, the valun ofthe tm (v=, is abant 115. Tass, {be erteron for seatlity given by Ea (62) Ie mare me (an the criterion given by Bq, (21 Equa 02 (65) can be ‘aloulating the minimum cacmtrtia gad re incaining a given temgeratre rth at pace ler pond Tn actoal prac,» tain margin aly & rem “and the actual cmceeraion rie matic 28 ect96 str E07 “alamos National Laboratory, scoand 08 ; ee exo ang Le surg, Ohio to provide ht 8 Dong cf 2000 1 8 em? at Bl Paso, Texas ty er gin, | jum ebloride, sodium 9 Sie, and oe Solar Pond Dull sofaris tue weve paw, | gasPee water the connate oF gyiy nt 8 clone The pnt. The heat collested in thig po0000 NN ipod pottom t0allost ery seq Sing ae Ha Arar of eet Power Using an organ Noy) Pee gradient wil app ge Penh Pak 43 nt solar pond havi Dui "ah irate ysion of the salt. In order ind Pe tt an ott A te ttn wa it and Marine Chemicals slighty apt it, rege ote Cn erie research pon Ik ne Se eon inna nagar jn 1978.) ‘operated for Ving ay tity AS ‘of salt required for this 1 bation eA respectively were operated for a few yogn Ateqa Ue, 2 unt ity wh Purpose ig 2 ofthe 240 mitts of Science n Bangalore a Pa et arge aUABETY When considered gag © hu git Inte of Sees 9 Bangalore, wi Peale acces tot aa matt aa senate anno Ang\| Breen nee man as been ed at Masur (gst caer Megtrack the energy sans” cent POG te Eee a mn) et ar 300 ee at Hubli Karmetaig oe Stages gto the bottom. Alternativly eatin qge, change tnenpcring lle a Hubli Karatala, he gts yy int exchanger cil amend tel ya inne frist a Bh (lara, (efor ps8 gan | gh 8M ingot tae og fas reno 100 Tas been operating sate NO Oye ett Saree hy the ee 8 ae tod supplies he process heat needs of a nearby gee *eanghy | Sgr B28 ve concentration grater ¢ SH cna ea Wy] Foe Dy The surface convective son. recat & lower eonece? Joe Fie Pend 10 to 20.cm. It has's ore Stl has saat 82 DESCRIPTION os, lov, frm sn ge to 20F0, a well as a fairy unin ete, } abet jbient air temperature, emperature, whi A schema dagram of solar pond i shown in Fig. gy pce ore an nat i Ay deker and occupies more than halt fee NCD yuch thicker anc mn half the depth igetncentation and temperatre increas wih gee et es viniplly a8 an isulting ayer and eee feupward direction. Some ofthe hest collection als tke pag te and it serves alo a8 part ofthe thera surat Ms aie tave zone (LCZ) is comparable in thickness atheros, oapoth the concentration andthe temperature arenas ih ane. It serves as the main heatellection at well eat setoge medium, The lower convective zone i een ered ese Sfroge zone or a8 the bottom layer, || Surface convective zone SCZ ‘Typically, the temperature in the lower convective zone of a well 1 —Concanaton gradint zone NCzZ seined lange, pond operating in nda might fate cxey —Lower convective zone. Lo; letweon a maximum value of 85° to 95°C in summer and a minimum ‘ «{50"to 60°C in winter. This is shown in Fg. 83 in which the variation Fig. 82 Schematic Diagram of a Solar Pond ofthe ambient air temperature is also indicated, It willbe noted that iti Saree a phase ference of month ore bia he one hit combines the functions of heat coll ‘The annual collection efficiency generally ranges between 15 an aoa an provide sufficient heat forthe enti bie — Tet cent, These values are lower than those obtained for « fatale fy a deep with a thick durable plastic liner its Polyethylene DPEe yest, fF the liner inelude low deste | Prljester yarn (KB.5y gif density polyethylene (HDPE), w } and hypalon reinforced with nylon mesh S#* ante ores to acount or nes det earn, tt anes t ‘ed bottom is greater than the amount wihlroes‘Tormprato ul ding Testyea of operation Time (months) ‘apa! Annual Gye Variton of Daly tan en 3 Fe. 8 ‘a Solar Pond colector, Nevertheless, solar ponds are more eost-ffec, cost pe quae mete i. much less than that for g eee callsor system. This is particdlarly true when the araattd Wyse 2 ofthe, ‘of 1000 m" or more. thea 8.3 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS In order to analyse the performance of a solar pond, the ‘to determine the manner in which the radiation. ‘basen : pnd is reflected, absorbed and transmitted through the wate 831 Transmissivity Based on Reflection-Refraction atthe Ait-Water Interface The transmissivity (s,) based on reflection and refraction at te air-water interface is calculated in a manner similar to that indice RRS ft Bauations (4.5) to (4.9) are again valid withthe reat cist ear ative to air being taken equal to 1.9. Vales: —2 i diferent angles of incidence are given in Table 81. ts is emall se ct incidence from 0 to 60°, the loss due to refi. ranges from 2 to 6 per cent. For larger angles, the losis emissivity Based on Sy TebwaterIeace oa Sia oot of gefraction (boc? 6, (S05ree) 0 = Pond: St Rekacn, a Pu Fa (46) Baan) 98 6 22.08 Oo 0 522052, gggg 6 4063 Ogg, 887 im @ 4687 O82 gy, Ot 6 48.75 1 1 On 0799 eee the transmis) bao 3% single exponential even by By On hg HY eted Me glass but not for water bees, (610. pn ale eprint uat i fan jadeTtseo that the extinction coeficient kee ae jndica! ‘Keeping this dependence in ming, al or ue ae Nese ae Bg, (4-14) into the fllowing form veh theo ote ental ee Ae ke ma eo = depth of water. The constants 4 and Kae ering ves after Sting the aval expen age” Ay= 0.287, Kr =0.082 "for 02 <2.<05 ym, Ay =0.193, Ky=045 m™for06 <2.<025um, Ag=0.167,Kg=3 mt" for 0.75<2<09 um, Ay=0.179,K,=85 mM for09 <2¢12 um. fauaton (84) is stated to be accurate to within 8 per ent ‘The four values of A in Bq. (8.4) correspond to the wavelength range 02 to 1.2 pm and add up to 0.776. Thus, only 77.6 per cent ofthe ‘adiation is accounted for. The balance of 22.4 per cent corresponds to radiation of wavelengths greater than 1.2 ym, whichis abril tar the surface within the first 1 or 2 em. Thus, Bq. (84) is alldepths excepting the first 1 or 2 em. «gia Bees Ted $4: Rab and CE, Nilsen Solar Pode for Spar Hess Se FSiple equation for cal, from the water sur | Sea, 036-008 ing eee = cs 27 038-008 In NS of water in metres. Equat, ‘ © (0.964~ 0.210) 0.995 where £2400 andisaleovalidforx > 0.01% 85 ay a! on a +2004 incident, it is recommended, for pol cases thy, 20027) sont normaly %y by (eos), where Gis thy cet Eqs cheng entering the water dhat be repli le ote oe aati-00m Example 8.1 "ta I 20.987 kWim? , 1.5 m deep, is built in Pondicp, (35) i8 used fo ealeaatng ty, A a Petje of global and ifuse radiation ™Y (gy sotto Sis 0088 oS iret prranometer placed beside the pong gang »| Sone 15 bed og aan: 5 a arte | 57 O cam radiation as) = 0.36 - 0995, 1, =0.964 kWim' wt] fo cosa Ott, = 0.210 kWim? 1e radiation (tai) = 0.36 le ira a 8 tess Calelate the variation of the solar radiation uy =0:7063 through the pond. ‘itp ce, solar flux (D at a depth of 101 m, On April 20, n=110 = Wista heeg i 360 = 0964 -0210)0- a9 From Bg. (35), the angle of incidence ofthe beam radiation SIT Win? os 0,=sin 1.9" sin 1.28" +6 11.89" cos 11.25 o sonar, we obtain the flowing vl ar ae he (15, i 0.9672 ee Oi ny ens Solar flux (2) 0.541, 0.384, 0.332, a0! Win There the variation of solar radiation fox with depths plated in. 84 fre fn Ba (40), the large amount of energy absorbed near the surface is cay ion 6) = sin“} Sin 14.71°| deioos.In the present case, assuming that the surface cmvestive ae ee { 133 } $10 em thick, it is seen that 0.396 kWim, amounting toa per ceat = ‘the incident energy, is absorbed in it*. This energy is almost entirely ale alee a the surroundings and is one of the main reasons accounting for ee ait radialion, we take the angle of incidence tobe 6 ae | telow cletion efficiency ofa solar pnd Iis so sen Fig 84 Sec. 43.3).Hence, from Table 8,1, ttat the flux penetrating to the bottom of the pond is 0301 kin’, sich amounts to 31 per cent of the incident energy angle of refraction = 40.63° Finally, is worth oting ‘that Bqs (8.4) and (8.5) fr clelating the = a= 0.059 Bee Sih cine wget ert iicchea demas |e sation absorbed in the srt cree MwWoe ai on) ei 62 03 04 05 Of OF o8 a lar aan at Fig 84 Example B1—Aetlecton and Absorption of Setar PERN Seer Pond oe Fay, aloe clare valid for water. Some values for the salt sh 2 selar ponds are available These ar lower than the vlog Frows i and Oat te Stace Cana ete er Convective Zone tree peter (-elids) secant fr the lar ain sche te . = : Eeceretial oqetins tbe stl psd hema £53. Tenpenture Citron and Collection Ce pot ar cae yuk cory ting Efficiency ‘The calclation of the temperature distribution in a solar pad 5 rather involved since the pond consists of three zones. For an me solution, one has to solve the appropriate differential equation fr eat bine, use matching coaditions at the interfaces between the 2:0 at satisfy the boundary conditions at the top and bottom surfaces dt pred. Because of the eomplerity, the usual practice is to make sxe ‘SSmplifications. We shall give here a formulation leading to cee xt ¢ epsations. In this formulation, the surface convective ne and & lower convective tone are assumed to be perfecty-mixed len * ‘soihem temperatures which change only with time. ‘Assoming thatthe lateral dimensions of the pond are large eae ‘0 8s deh L (so that the temperature varies only in the = ee Sutece Conectve Zone paced change of eneray contain! i he tien sarin nr ‘Seiees |; T tpate at which heat is conducted in from the secrete soe | +(Golar radiation absorbed in thethcknest) = + (Rate at which heat is lst from the tp srt by oS. | evaporation and radiation). a aus so 081 , one sr 7 tr tower 2” ve Ze at 8 equal to the solar radiation, Pond agg rate contained in the lowe pants SHOWN It Fp 5 yp hing pea Me mf 21 140 ki day 7 nics ia eat i conducted in fom the no, en te on emporatans Ee" en pl terge eats tie Ae eed inthe thickness 2) ay, TW Hoa can be obtained lame Sent the + Salar dh peat i conducted oUt to the gro Mea. | Wi Miiien ger’ analysis overestimate eae) = (ate af ful heat extraction). nd ung,» | Heetipat Wercan be wed for approximate 3 these value = (Rate ‘% rs 86 Srjons having similar anna tating lar, puss | Aes Pin !ortobal radiation. hual values of ay fem od any rao og and BO ambi 1) +Orey-[-2,{ pte at lor (a © jet rf yor 0 100 6) to (88) oF simi tins to the sot of Bas similar ‘ sans © inpeations) have been band £2 ld ti malig They have been slved for the situation Whey iagl 6 ise a retraction rm the pond (d= 0) as well te g ’ ja heat extraction, These solutions will now be discusgeq’ "tae 3 aba nate te fest analytical solution f the ug, : en yn cupepsion technique in which the ees Litre 3 : a (0) tp surface, in the dy of water and atthe yea Fa 50 § abso trata He also simplified the problem by neg 3 i fansite of the convective zones and assuming ating a & thcknses ebe temperature of the pond surface is equ 3 5 cain enperature, The need for correlations for easy : i ambien ad, om the surface was thus eliminated. Wate Bs st deste fet tosine series for the solar radiation falling on Ge" ‘Shc anda sine series for the ambient temperature vari sve the first estimates of the temperature rise which want expetted in a solar pond. For a pond one metre deep ee endian in Israel, he predicted a temperature rise of around iy ° 0 Ton heat was extracted. Slrting in spring (Apel it was soins, o 30 7080 th i tenpertire wale aand in ate ser augue Pond dept en) Meena fer] 46 Annual Collection Eiiency and Optimum Exar Tepe inital period in which the pond is all pane g Function of Pond Depth, From Weisberg Use wth « pond is allowed toh ergy required for utilization is extr ee Permissi temperate in th extracted and as a result ermission {EpPetize nthe ito layer des not keep on increasing Wes ce {eee bain the interesting result that for a given mean extrin abl and Nielsen* have also given an analytical sluion Ot ‘epbertue theres particular pond depth at which the rated | Steger tho hy ‘variation in a solar pond wed fi space ae im He furthe chose thee accacated | Mication. They have considered pond several metres Se = eae Hegone of finite thickness, but. « over eonvestve cs, Diurnal variations gyi e cpa 8) where Co annua ay Stag jible hi meas neg 19°F gay and the annual ay 8 day Eo of magia ofthe awe cel © 2006 abtanga ca, | gM that the depth of ye ami iy temp Tn= Tin + Pr 0s (ax gy Ihe a | G6 ss ne is 0.95 m, in ar geet i Ma KY pig sect? . A _ annual average temperature in the j, Hg oe the values of the effea ™ oy re Tin Seve fequeny and 5= phase oy yyy, te a cate obtained onthe atte etn * Ta ame enue verge tempertare yj eye | uf Sie nO day tt ng ei retail quite easily by solving the heat cong, ™® k i sro” cos 0) = aT an the falowing solution is tang san pe the steat 4 " 1 a les Am, my Tobey EK ) . Eq. fu cannua average ambient temperature, yd ge OP Hoe ae aircon 0,= sin Fi, zannual average global radiation, pol - = (Gos 8), where is the angle of refraction g naa cairns "aie angle of nsdence. This is taken gy MPM, incidence onthe equinox day at 1400 h (Lap, °° teat $0 ple 8.1, the valve oft, corresponding tan, ‘under consideration, the jee seo, We Wil We alec thea dates Tash othe pnd atthe batom ofthe nonconsaing| ding the SETS ONS Sg ODE eh, ‘yaa annval average heat extraction rate, 2, gl average daily global raatin WK ‘The other symbols tA Kj and A, have been defined eax iy Fi, = 19600 ksi? day Equation (89) is a simple and useful equation for caer isan average performance or for estimating the area of a splay at a Sere given requirement. : fy x ‘The time dependent component of Ta, via. 08 0t—) i = 226.9 Win? dificult to calculate. The procedure for doing so will not be gin ext abl and Nielsen have used their solution to carry eet gros: | annual average heat extraction rte calculations for many locations in the USA having widely ite Qod = 5 x 10" kalyeur climates. They find that the solar pond performs well fr al ae 5x10 x10 locations and can supply adequate heating even in regions near 365 x 24% 3600 ‘Arctic cree. For latitudes around 40°, they find that the pond shat W be approximately comparable in surface area and volume to the spax oe it . ‘to heat. Calculations also show that for a given location, heatlosi | substituting into Eq. (8.9), we have i and annual mean extraction temperature, there is an optimum vie 4 0.89654, : 095, 158549 of ly corresponding to which the pond area is a minimum. w-t59=0978..296.9. 2 ea -aY | yer & Paanple 02, gtk vals ofA and K; ite in B64, fe 232. Estimate the area of a solar pond required for supplying 5x10 kd 10 26.3 = 141.85--F— senuy Bet year at an annual mean temperature of 70 fi : Process heat application. The pond is located in Nast | qr Ay = 2368 0"oe solr Eno sion efficiency = 1585. ‘Anourt collection ve =295%, 8% «jas also analysed the solar pond as a 5 oo tos in terms of the annual ayers’? State outing ont. For a stay tate situatgg® Yahi Soy, time indjve zone reduces to ea non-converti tnd pia pa Bae = ag Hate) = Her, Se vehere the values of t, and ty are taken at y idence. Integrating bwiee, we get wuz tt | tedeterxso, h whore cy and cp are constants of integration, Substituting the conditions, sts, T= F(a constany j at z=h, Tu =P (a constant) J and solving fore, and ca, we obtain the following expe, f temperature distribution and the temperature gradient qa | thenon-convecive ze stra atta) T= As, rede + ‘4, 4 whim Bis | cae A ay -h) ‘The rate at which energy flows at the interface x= Ip into the ler xvii me =A [list ofo() J) Substituting Eq. (8.13) with x=1y into Eq. (8.14) and regis eu eee "OF Kon The Steady tate Sl Gradient Slar Pon’, Star Bry. 2370°% be eta, . ‘ thy state situation, they Seay 08080 the Tower cinvete Mig 8 fo aon rate rom ee ge peat TE PO, yea if a ee eae pa? Ael lh yas. 3 4 Coney ge effciengy ofthe so ‘aay ae 5) by H, "It pond 99081 fq. (8.15) by Hep, We got, i obangy thoes 4 rg A, 815) are Eq, (8.16) wi _ geful to comP’ hea a 2B ait a State colt ee pM le E ! fe 4) e290 Ea, (6.16) is equivalent thy \ es he ‘toresion nity. hie the tem pen Y ; fem tis rua and Nielsen's equation (84) fr, ant fan? dey term UFx(C@rAyfA in Ba, in Bq. (8-16) is equivalent to the to ssbtitig am (6.15) and (8.16) become * Bg ¢ Ay my ail get | ees Eee "ay | a8) Gl fy ‘uation (8.18) is similar in structure to Ba 69 Lit Ea BAL tm also be used for calculating the average pevfrmanit ‘rnd or for estimating the area of @ pond for = Ee thould be noted that Eq, (8.18) reduces to Ea. alot thidness of the surface convective zone (=) ee andthe ain iS emperature difference between ‘the pond surface and Ty=T,.0, Solr Ene” 83 i ysis for aged on Kooi analysis for cay ee Ba 6.1 Header the same conditions ty he jar pond Wo convective zone to by Pe te eno he oan gone is equal to theanae Mange ay, the temperate ont aie tg Substituting into Ba- (6.18), we get “e 2269x0976 5 0.89654, i 188549 =45]}"(9,95- 0.10) jo KX (%04gy, —06i8 (0.95 ~ 0.10) * (70~ a5 5 ain the values ofA andj vent E48.) we gy 158549 =A,[226.9% 0.412~ 0.76 45.9 Ap = 2639 m*, ese Therefore igs tus toed eng 4 is valu is slightly higher than the value of 2368 1? oy, achatand ‘Nielsen formula. Iti likely to be a better coma, finite thickness ofthe surface convective zone has been consi beau From Eq, (6.20), itis seen that for the solar pond unget tion, the equivalent transmissivity absorptivity term ig ey Fortanatly the value of the enuivalent loss term jg ag ft 76 Wim? K. a OTAnalytcl treatments like those due to Weinberg Nielsen require a number of simplifying assumptions, and any cnly for obtaining reasonably good estimates of pond periomass ter to obtain more correct answers, it becomes notessary se the basic equations numerically, using finite difference prosiaes Numerical methods give greater freedom to incorporate approgiay initial and boundary conditions and permit a more realists zyx. sentation of climatic conditions as well as load variations ev ef al.* obtained finite difference solutions for the tenpas ture distribution in ponds varying in depth from 10 to 80 cm, The climatic data of Tashkent was used for the purpose. They negleted the presence of the surface convective zone and therefore use le following boundary condition at the surface instead of By. 87), (an 1 eat |, tara) However, they considered the variation of properties like density =o Bee lta, oF OF Ral a ith the concentration eat erature in the bot sp MO gemperat tom ; Pe a 2 up with no heat exragn He ie NTN ae fl pie Meth i rece that gy ty 10 Sore around 80°C in only Gy pd wi iemPe eat up t0 2 temperate si atter tOmperature would ofeoyra Ci a5 Me, nonce at 8 Lover tempera an uation in temperature oceirrng fA sen te et. 62C forthe 80 cm deep pt te a et abotth increasing depth sad ha rt ont study, Hawleder and Brinks itu 10 8 Tejotions for a solar pond whieh might Mie pry pif Be glved the set of Eas (86) nag yin hed Mijon of solar radiation in the pond, they fags lai the tant of the radiation exrespndng {om completely absorbed in the ret en yt re 098 ee of shorler wavelengths sabe gt! Mi et Gia} decay term. The valu ofthe extinct aE oe representation is found to vary fom pay at the $08 ed to various data for fresh and salt wate, 2 vo tial temperature build-up in @25-m dep ped tty san) with no Ton is shown in ig. 87 fr tw ns aie rion coeficient. Tt is sten that a maxinun tps ¢ aegis reached with a reasonable value of K=10m Rivest prssible to have a value of K=032 "th maxim tapes ‘h the lower convective zone would aprcach IC. ‘mye eect of varying only the thickness ofthe lore omvectie ne snthe maximum temperature is shown in Fig 88. As expe tis Soon that higher temperatures are attined in a shure ine wih fuller thicknesses. A different trend is observed whe the this tie non-convective zone is varied rom $2 23m. a i ste naximum temperature obtained at fis inee then ts? decease as Less ofthe solr radiation reaches he baton oo Optimum values of oom to range fom 1 1m TS temperature under various Jad conto hae 9 Overall, the investigation shows that wl mT og dane in a solar pond even in the mer Tt ‘where the mean annual global radiation is om” 0 cn neting SEpenMeEnTAl STUDIES M8 4 verte emir ob ro beg he USA and Ili, MMe, gt Nata” bv sive at ar vente tig te unk of 1 rit Hoan I 0 vd at SMD 198257 i entered rete he strated layer on 1, vetimenty " yg we add Ves 0 pee as emit, te ont 8 BP ye 1 veh linc concentration gpa 2% bad de 000 rene pre itt re of I “ tu eratorivontvelly discontinued beowpan By enforced walls was rata the ee Days staring Ag 14 i and a7 Vatain in Temperature of Lower Convective pi mis over the 0 Fig. 87 tion Coaficient. From Hawlader and Brnncsane With oe ind pond at Atlith pa ad ial Permission 1 Used i, Ae ground level by building up gsr Gn as incrprte i ed, aon the ground and walls to permit cae oe nd hence heat flows; fined sampling es of solution at various de aoa the solution; radiometers form agi face and at various depts; etapa mation rates; a wind veloi were installed to permit ‘°C at the bottom and that heat eoul ‘wer layer. However, this could not be pear at 2 bottom temperature of 65°C. We fated THC, the effects of these be ‘Teeause they disturbed the cone: ‘elieved that the bubbles were bei ‘Hesition of organic material under’ the pond. ‘ms found that the gassing wes due & fm nearby underground waterae a 1d could not be: x the pond could notbe made : it aie Prior tothe onset of apg inaemation ag was obtained. From this ie ya Ateg hy, vf 18 fue solar radition wasbeing cs Se about Cae “x 70°C even though the pond was not gi atl * rompers jn Israel was restarted in 1974 ang yy at The work M ucted, Detals are not available, buy "n units were ond built in Yawne was used for gp haga, a a, while a 7000 m* pond built at in pte aM {ar of pak power. Operating temperatures in boy ek : the Mic Ohio, USA and has given details about its wor. ody min depth and had an estimated effective gg They’ War planned asa prototype pond for space heating and yaa "2a ves Bnimum ent oS 7500 compatible wit reliability Me™ calculated to provide about 1.8 x 10° kJ of thermal energy NN ‘ile operating between a maximum temperature of 9ps¢y Peg SES nimum temperature of 95°C in winter, The hea 8aq ‘as estimated to be $ 0.015 per kWh thermal. This, values mgt) than what woul be cbaind ina conventional Mat plate qt Pm storage system. ‘a angrandot has described the working of a solar pond a University of New Mexico. The pond had the following dimen diameter, 15 m; depth, 2.5 m; bank angle, 34° with horizmas surface area, 1751. Since the walls were sloping al the raja” falling on the surface did not reach the bottom. The average edlltg area was, therfore, less than the surface area and was estinatl be 105 m?, Sodium chloride was used as the salt. During operiin ‘the concentration gradient zone extended for about 1 m, while the lower convective zone was about 1.4 m deep. The convective lye the surface was much smaller, being only a few centimetres i thickness, Extensive measurements of temperature, insolation, heat extraction and density distribution were made and analysed. The pond was fist filled in November 1975 with water at 20°C. Figure 8.9 shows severs temperature profiles taken between January 1976 and August 1917 ‘The temperature of 93°C attained on August 8, 1977 ‘represents tht era ace aee ae | 20 ne, 1076 Jan 27,1978 fe o 9 a ry Toners) a 89 Temperature Profies ina Sokr Por, Fun Zgais ses value attained in 1977 This valu was ting with ont jon. sat prraction began on November 4 197 and cried gh ‘es The pond supplied the full heating and hot water lal 1m? house from 1977 to 1979. This load was approximately 1 bd fer year. Measurements also indicated thatthe annua eliza Asency of the pond was about 9 per cent. Patel and Gupta* constructed and operated snail lr pod i Fediherry in 1980. The pond had a diameter of 15 mes 2 fp of? m, thus giving an effective area of 100m) hs Hang mud was reinforced concrete, while the wall was 00° ‘wate awater-tight surface, bath the far andthe Waly "tha waterproofing compound mixed in edie ‘asain blackened by adding black coment rr oa it if and the side wall was paintedsaken with the intention of. vere a few month of Operating wer mer faces andi esame ya 6 lee 7 ghey fled with water at 20°C, Mey as hd temperature of 70°C was attains, bea seas aie OP cakage whieh began when the temperay #7 use ofthe len pected temperature of 80°C was ture pty crf lowest temperature during tye Miga't nua 59'Cin ent an economic evaluation and hay root delivered by the pond is about Re Datel, iitle more than the estimate of $914 Mt ket we years earlier. ont fcr as dnowssed Dis exprions of operat rihtiar pond in Bangalore over @ Pers Of 5 Years stare othe Fr recanglr nse with iensn 1864 The mand aside slope of 45”. The nig onsite tonic low density polyethylene. third layer gat Inyo esd wal, During the experimentation, the thie sep limited to Om, the thickness of the NCZ way aye the UCT Om ad the thickness of the SCZ varied fom frm OF raph the five year period, the temperatures atsing i Y 88 Tet oem a minimum of 50°C to a maximum ame sora his studies, Srinivasan obtained a number of useful remy Baw ant of view of heat extraction, he showed that it asa Fram an immersed copper heat exchanger in preference to an extemal heat exchanger. For maintaining the salt concentration gradient, imple passive method was found to be adequate for a small pont polyvinl chloride pipe (25 em in dia and 4 m long) was ‘suspended ‘ertically at the centre of the pond. The bottom of the pipe was 10ea from the bottom of the pond. 8 holes (5 cm diameter) were drill ‘around the circumference about 30 cm from the bottom. About 100g of salt was dumped into the tube daily. This salt dissolved within s dey an eanremens showed that it helped to maintain the require = Ghia, Lene without causing any local problems. actitiasn also developed a simple two-20ne ‘model for preisig i tal engerture variations in the pond. The prediction inamall pe well with the measurements made and showed th maximum temperatures in excess of about 70°C wo! og because of high side wis ciealar shape ae He argued that no oe oo yore small ponds, they hag athe ee eos eat needs of & numer tt Oe Wind RATIONAL PROBLEMS oP 1 problems associated with 2 sot pnd af 2c wee hoe tf Seaining the salt eetatn ge fr effect of dilfusion on the sale concentrating, £784 aad ene “aow occurring in the upper and Irper cane Te Gettin We wil also describe the eflectof wind nds Sie al growth fouling dveto dit andere eed wae od piolofitt of bottom reflectivity o ling te 5 tof ty onthe perfomance fe aie fen to counteract these pols al alo vad. # etined, ing the Salt Concentration Gradient me obtain the salt concentration gradi Foe an i to fil up the pond sucmneoee Peace rc on tap of the other. Bach lyris 2h ce om ome ration lower than ie prdceser Aco si bate obably adequate for establishing ‘oped consuming and expensive for a large pond, and requires itis time 1 ivreion of an external mixing tank. Zangrando* has described fhe proviso a which was first tried out atthe Universi cf Nex jnpler 1 a pnd and subsequently applied success to essbsh be Mifent at Une 2000 m° solar pond at Minis, The rion satis of filing the pond parilly with water thing a sek ‘tation equal to that desired in the CZ) oa depth ppxinatly alto that of the LCZ plus half the NCZ, Fresh wateristhen pune thoogh a horizontal diffuser which is immerse in the vrrer Posie dually raised 38 the wate like existing solution. The diffuser is gr strtes evel rises in such a way that it reaches the sure o Ptistoreined final level of the pond. The uprard notin Ht fuser may be continuous ot in small discrete steps of Efect of Diffusion on Concentration Profile near linest Assiated earlier, one of the methods used for profecing ame"19 solar Ener” tration eradiont in ae Pend =u fill the bong concent solutions» oe ive layer a od ig layers of salt fs, immediately after filling, a ant a = ty eta deus of aioion ofc oe sen etd int aien role An abiog eye raul te egied fer the prfle to acqing Stn, tre is HO ontian which arse isthe time," ‘form, if diffusion continu ir come uniform i san gk Gontol the values of the concentration at the upper wt rt ie te eee. lanl oe oul Ie pe eh na bea age 3 PIs hep ie a sre a sion fr the conentration prof jy st ansteady state difusion equation °Y Sy eee & wa ‘p= diffusivity of salt in water. a2) is solved subject to the bounda thatz=Oand=L, ie. thereisno transferq} ging ass in which i) Brustion (ace) = Ob the top an candtin assumed is yate=0and C= Md bottom surfaces of the non-conveetive zone a steplike concentration profile with fd at x=L. The following solution ons obi 72RD ger m= xexp [+ (2m ~1)°x" DHL] esl showing the development of concentration profiles within, have been plotted for various values of M. A typical plot obtained fe 10 is shown is Fig. 8.10. Profiles are shown only for the upper haf of the pond since there is symmetry about x = L/2. In all casts, it's seen that the step-like profile disappears with the passage of time and ‘nearly linear profile is obtained over the whole depth ofthe non-convestve zone excepting the regions near the top and totton. For the case of Mf=10, a smooth linear profile js oblaine te (Dit?) =0.01. Substituting typical values of 1.5 x 10 m‘lst and 1» forD and L respectively, we get t= 77 days. This value ison the hight side and indiates the need fora larger value of M. With M=20, obtains (DUL*) =0.001 and ¢=8 days, which is quite satisfactory. .N.Ctepuriy and 88, Savage, “Bet of Diffusion on Concentration Profi? Sek Pd Slr Bae 17 30 sr, Mera st : bebe ted of adm cori in water ot ° C-cnitee-o) 49 Development of Salt Corcentation Pra : gg 810 Porm Chepuriy and Savage. Used wih Pemasne ot ure of the time required for the profi oheome wf Ames i ibiained by finding out the tine fr the emomintin H SGylCa—Ci) at the top to reach half the val at hemi! p-ECa Cot nin to Pg B10. eon 1 ae sar O05, which vee =8 tas Tare Iifidently large. One therefore arrives at the important emcluioe thatit is not necessary to control the concentration ‘values at the top at acne rom day-o-ay. eos epg ‘yaler across the top and removing saline water, or injecting ; salt at PAR tlhe cari ut only at ina ofr i tate maintain the concentration en ‘Suface Layer Flow and Lower Layer Flow ae JaSec 82, it has been stated that inorder to maison 2° tozera concentration atthe top, fresh water is uahed ot il slightly saline water formed by upward Af Similarly in order to maintain the eauied mm and to extract the stored heat, hot Nate" ved in and retur it addedxehange: In both these situa ion ee ae veloties are sma. an external heat a wis orzo tigations have bun conducted a xpertnen itis possible to cause these layer, Hh thoy mh ascertainin " attom of the pond without distur ‘ surface and te Dov inbetween Experimenty the ue the neem aneentraton gradient, have qf hgh the presene® ed possible up to distances of severy) inet gh veahing iments on Tower layer Hows have hy ry ee ‘tow at the bottom of the pond is possipjy Bat ri at and gata toextend to any length. an iy NN ‘ _ ied Waves ends ving oe sla pnd BONE ayy ce mixing beeause of which a surface ooo, its, These thon the presence of this zone cane, ese Seairable however to keep its thickness as small ag Powgiet it reasons. isly, solar radiation absorbed in this zone je fy {othe surounding air and secondly, the thicker the yy ey zone, th smaller vl be the non-convective 2one which Mae insulating effect. Hence, the efficiency of the pong ae jnereasing thickness of the surface convective zone, CS vig in practice, keeping in mind the usual depths of range fom 1 to 2m, iis found to be desirable to rests ye canveetive zone to a thickness of 10 to 20 em. Experiments waves having amplitndes of cm can cause mixing upiog qt cm, Hence, efforts are generally made to see thatthe wave ang? do not exceed this value, The usual technique adopted ig ce wind-wave breakers on the surface ofthe pond. Small diametarsist pipes spaced a few metres apart and making a squ: laste are grid have used. The spacing depends upon the location of the solar pont ranges between 5 and 10 m. LBM Rain ‘The effect of rain falling on a solar pond depends upon the natures ‘the rain. Light rain helps to maintain the salt concentration atte Pond surface at a very low level and removes the need for fushig with fresh water across the top. On the other hand, heavy rain hata Penetrating effect and causes an increase in the thiekness ofthe SCZ {thas therefore been suggested that the SCZ be maintained a hight thickness of 40 to 50 cm during the rainy season. \ Biotigea! Growth Growth of algae is observed in most solar ponds beeause the water 8 iy Solar ponds ant oF moves with, yl gpoonish colour and yeyy a Wy OY Ait 2 Fee owt 8 there see pHi" ne water to some form of Seni ta oot and the addition of gray gr ™Al toate "al pity ete very eleven this eg jue oe pve to Dirt and Leaves aha sissivity of the water is ly 4, = Teaves which Tease irt OF are by by ge, Wit the passage oi’ hy Be i where the effect on perfyy Ue ihe Bote to remove such debris ede gins to sel {of Bottom Reflectivity ie of the reflectivity ofthe bottom fe of the pond has been satan by Sr Pt on th find that an increase inthe baton re Gah he ation of dir OF xcESS unsaved al qn) ond performance. Inthe casei heim ote ton very high. As a result, the Performance ofthe ponign io ray. However in the cs of unahe rsem vty i quite high leading a santa ace performance of the pont. a anc ig mete "ining tc tc a6 OTHER SOLAR POND CONCEPTS Jsstated carlier, a numberof other cncops have als ben mated forbuilding solar ponds. Some of these will now be described ‘he Solar Gel Pond ‘The concept of any solar pond hinges on the pesene of none fivezone to trap the solar energy collected inthe lover conveive me Jnaslar gel pond, a thick layer of oye gl ts he er caavetive zone and acts as the nonconvetve ze. The lbs optical and thermal insulating properties. Wikist has demons ey be Pra 41, Srinivasan and A. Guha, “The Bis Bates eet Ata Soiar Pond, Solar Energy, 98,2615 i sr Bora SEWitkins, “Operation of Commerc $1 aie “Pecept by constructing a gel pon, ey Mexico. The pond constr 2a albaquetaen'5 m_deop: The lover convecting pa gy Seno #0" 204° erent salt solution andyay 3 apy rade UP Of ation was necessary in Order thatthe gt" deep“ a al cone the gel 2898. percent yo! Mou My he ami, was kept in thin transparent blastic ue cet ae ed onthe salt solution. The tity, Bs fm eda ad Pod ws designed to supply ars te ier as 06 atemperata oF 70°: However of ener on the O ptsined Os f scaly te th saree 08 Fond, tho aay, ig re as flo¥s: “a lpn pore Toses from the surféce are eliminated yo losses are smaller in magnitude. i, ie (2) Since salt water is used only tofloat the Bel, a salt con, Sinetrnnt requ t be maintained. Th ety requirements are ried, ai ‘et gy tm environmental hazards associated with hands ctiinate. fii Nag car aisadvantage with constructing a gel pond isthe athe chemicals required for making the gel ich The Honeycomb Solar Pond ‘The concept of @ honeycomb solar pond is similar to th rneseat collector described earlier in Sec. 4.13.2 In the eas Moen acheeycoml srr is Rated on gh voter in thelower convective zone, No salt i required. The honeys, is designed have good transmission characteristics for ina sear radiation, along with good insulating properties to reduce haz Insts. Schaefer and Lowrey” have recommended an optiized ban. conb 6-9em thick having 1.25-1.5 cm diameter cells. Once agai, ie the gel pond, the main disadvantage is the cost of the honeycomb panels ‘The Equilibrium Solar Pond ‘The equilibrium solar pond is a special type of salt-gradient pond It ‘uses salts whose solubility in water increases strongly with temper ——_— a cu Sats a Lewes, The Opti Design of Honeycomb Soar Pe apiaion with Sa Gradient Ponds, Solar Brgy, 48,69 (1982) oft J Tinny and A. Teincber "The Equiv Solar Pood: A abet Oradet Lay, J of Slr Berg Eng, Trans, ASME, 115, 32089 # pe. temPertne solar pond, the i Ti Sh i fan 0 einen in wad fluxes are mass made toby oie ee js zero. Thus the need fps i solutions, thermal diy: ature zones in the ques st dire ct ew that ce — i hay ce maintaining the salt cong’ re fend is eliminated Harel 2 nm sola ond by conde age Mieeate solution. some ax PROBLEMS ord is used the salt aa tag 1, soit ron Og of salt per hg of wate) rr Etna nation at the top is 0.02 and a tampecaioe ett Oe bien ae ata gsoue thatthe cncenetin a ee sitio the average values a Fae one ee end, 25 exp 8 pelt be 1 Ast Ponte the sl th a 1B ean IS for which the fleving we 3 tease ee Gre obe-asignte a Boras nib red ee riots fey oom amo ay see at am ce ae Fe psn in 0 neces race ¢ 1B), Caleulte (the ad ee cre deems ey mec ft dl epee se ilvig ere ed Det he mony ean vs ial tr nan Pr pete {Arron eatin Nev Di SIS NTH elie Arpanet fro npr Rane oso ao ei Toe unt Sey moe oF mem tanya 90 pro lente em se care f°. U th fae a erect a er ale fhe do vari fn Sy Be SLATS hs paren ve of lm Ba ‘ana average daly a eae Basar 5 tah ata ptm an te we a Ce Eg or wet ferumstht exapurtar nS re Gane a the quis oie vse ‘and the loss term for this pond. ba aston = 19690 oi 50 ueNing Economic Analysis syalue ofa solar thermal application must ultimately bo Tee basis af ts coonomy. In this chapter, we define some tunis and desribe some ofthe methods used for making conn valuations. As is evident by now, solar thermal devices and sytem, fre characterised by high initial costs. However they bring long pi benefits in the form of lower annual operating costs. An economy valuation of a solar system has to consider both these aspect, ged 9.1 INITIAL AND ANNUAL COSTS Initial Cost ‘The initial cost of a solar thermal system is the cost of buying te equipment and installing i, Solar collectors contribute signi the intial eos. Thus from the point of view of optimization, to recognize that the initial eost (C) is the sum of two components one component being proportional to the total eollector area and the othet being independent ofthe collector area. We have, C=0.46, hates en) where C,= component of cost proportional to collector area (Rs), Cy component independent of collector area (Rs), ‘t= proportionality constant (Rsim?), Acs collector aren fm’ guce the initial cost, to f08olar devices ang ithe per ‘Ystens i ental GOVEMMMENY In aga iy ‘them from sales tax, ‘on, ted fry ives of a solar system ing Ya mber of fet, ye 8 tO9 Named by the auxiliary eng Te nl a 0) natal the System, maintenanes te 2 0 ed by SUbSIRTY equipment can ey oe fe, Certain types of tax deduaior® PUM ang ge or installing the System. The ay ieee q 8 oe ee at year They ae of vanu j ine 728% ted 10 the intrest payee one + reiation permitted on the system, in rjc € he po lar systems, Toans at lover inter t” ! u e en ett lion at a higher rate. Thus, the annual enseapett Pets eet follows: i pe stated 05 + Maintenance charges + letra ene bi + Local taxes ~Tax dedutions on aeriters. 29. (9.2)has been stated by keeping a solar thermal energy mm in mind. However, it is a general equation appiabl to ty ‘ost a see ort e sum of a number of fst on : ofthe gee te at ie, oe fr year only ifthe indvitual si Fore rca eB hy ote rate ss¢ Onatitutions. Further, the Central Gg’ Merl by sar pen Fonval ost = Fuel expense + Repayment on an fuel expense, repayment on lan and tax deduns at fe sing conventional ora nor-n "itis any ifj> (rg = (tig “hy + spcedvction on depreciation annual solar savings in the yeerj 1 aC = iy) FE -——*" ____ i-1 yc f= wasayg Ot Me ‘Tos Orde) ane Gedjren |Milerrre 10 1 (810) is valid for j $m and js (Ure. Ifj>m, the second and fourth terms on the righthand side of (410) are zero, while ifj> (ira), the fith termi ea. ‘The present worth of the annual solar savings is obtaine by fing the right hand side by (1-+4), where dis he dict rate 86 CUMULATIVE SOLAR SAVINGS AND UFE CYCLE SAVINGS 4 ners forthe se Peomulative solar savings over period ee hatte agiven in Sec, 9.5 is obtained by su 3t Thos obtai Joon game ‘nual solar savings and considering’ ‘the initialfi a ‘solar Energy . rary ate, gage Or? 2, Gay Ata sap ME a+ay eH 3 fee erate 2, Gaal A+ay-1 ‘on summing te progressions, we Bet oft osse-0-fi0+ a alt ae apy a award el asap walt (3)] asdy" (esate aed" @fasaraa L+i,f ra) i + va it defy (Leah iavay—u @-@ [ea i reel naa fh war 9 Gy ey Eqs (9.11) and (9.12) are valid for n 2 my, n> (Lr, dip. d ig and ded, Ifnmy and > (lrg). Also d=010, 4-016, 42008 ee ipe05. Thus d+ ip d ig and d +d. Consequety 12 sa fevalues of the other quantities are C=Rs. 150000 fi=08 Initial down payment = Re (1-08) x 10000 Bs300 Loan = Rs 120000 cjPB =Rs 21000 M=Rs 660019.12), we Bet sein ints FA- nl (aay 58-109 5530 - 0.04) 10) | 67 120000. fy ~gs0 =~ WLIO | 1.198) e500 fy -{ 1,05)" ~ oo 9.05) |! “1.10 0.55 1025 4 150000 4 pam: Lg! = D000 + 199104 ~ 152855 66:15 Ro 16618 sry owl indicat that by investing in the given yy sould nave Rs 165 618 (in tvlays rupee) over a time, Ths reomnabe ming in nntructive to gat te doe yeaa. vl fy (012) or tw equivalent aplienble for the numbor of your in plot Fig, 9.1, Tei four yonrs, the C88 incronmen rapidly because of the dlpreciation nnd! bocomen punitive nt the end of four yearn, till ne 1, it decronnon because tho fucl navinge ate offuet by ropayment and annual expenditure on maint cance the Joan i pid off, th roam rapidly gpg tnd atin the vals of Rw 16618 after 15 yearn, ang olar, on Period of gst Wi yuan from ane le lois q of CSS, wof'n ran Examplo 9.2 ‘An industrial olor enorgy aystom is installed at a eoxt of Rs 400000 for preseating bilo feed wator, Ansan (0) The cost of fuel naved in the first your in Rx 66.000, This ot increases wb the rate of 10 por cent in subsequent yours (ii ‘Tho entice initial coat of Kx 400.000 is financed through alan Sorrowed atthe rate of 125 por cent, (id) In order to encourage the use of solar energy, the Government Hermite depreciation wl the high rato of 7 por cont in the fist yee tn tho reniaining 26 per een in the seeonel year, ‘The eorrospning ta 0 par ent ms 1) he annual repayment of the loan is not in equal instalment in, Aduated every year to much a value that the annual solar seine ‘re aero, This in done until the loan in fully paid. Number otyors" 3 Fg. 8.1 Examplo 9.1—Variaton of Cumulative Soa i Savings with Tino * Pei. saving is allowed on tho interest companent ofthe las papment, {he annual expense assorntod with maintenance and alr ‘items is Rs 11 000 in the first year. This expense increases af 6 per cont every year. Inte the cumulative solar savings over « period of 8 yeas 4 discount rate of 10 per ent the loan is not repaid in equal instalment Auniform rate, it is not possible to use Ea 3 and depeeiaton (9.42) The presetot Sor EVO Fuel savin Maintenane Least as cit " forcing Bereng Ea i ar om in i loan Rs (56000+ 180000) (1 my =Rs 175000 200, Rs (400000 ~ 175 099) ‘ty, 225000 in Table 9.1. It alcoations are given in east ste y paid back after 5 years. Thereafter the oo Bh ag enirlyi e OSS ineeases rapidly becuse th a0 an aaa Targer than the maintenance costs, At the end = Rs 130847. ‘Thus Joan remainit fuel saying Saving 8a 9,7 PAYBACK PERIOD We now drive expressions for the payback period using the den. thet the payback period is the time needed for the eumuystiie sovings t equal the total intial investment ve a Without diseounting, the fuel saving in the j* year (1+ ip) FE ‘Thus ifthe payback period = np years, it follows that E q(l +iy FE im FE os o TPlatigh-u=c § oe(spe may ow With discounting, sige yee. jar (1+dy od -ip)|, f1tif n,=n|1~ a4) foriged inf SEP gH] i and _CUti ut "= pe sforip=d ass, Part payment, ‘on loan, a4 it ge 3 El ¢ ii le a] 58 i) 2 i Bie Fl = 225 000 “11000 180000 50000-17500 156 000 1 143 185 11660 60000-28125 81815 61.600 = 7502 105683, -17 898 12360 67 760 = 49225 57.458 -13 210 -13 101, 74.536 2150 2150 9463 - 57.458 — maa -19 887 44 760 42.600 75.469 14720 90 389 99 605 sis 190807See 5 Solr E07 93 oe : example sasha per, with and without in, calla ert water aston of Example gy ny rat seonting ro Fa (OD) . “ican th discounting, from Eq (9.14) wit 150000(0.10 ~ 0.04 bot ial eon a including associatad heat exchange equipment is Rs 5 apy oft ya ing an anaval collection eficieney of 20 percent, caleatay Aeon collected in the pond in one year. ‘he cae Ira conventional system using oll is used for the sam, calealte the amount fel required per year. Assume a net Pi, 95000 kilitre and an effcieney of 80 per cent for then ti Yale Calealte also the payback period forthe pond assuming «Rte of Rs 5.0 per litre and a fuel inflation rate of 6 per cent atl ont discount rate of 9 per cent. sume g From the radiation data available for Delhi Table AB.), global radiation incident on the pond | ee my, =(2.987 31) + (6.001 x28) + (6.198 %31) + (6995 90) + (7287 x 31) + (6.544% 30) + (5.934 % 31) + (6.053331) + (502 30) + (5.855% 81) + (4.523 x30) + (8.849%31) 1995.1 kWhim? Thus energy collected in the pond in one year 1995.1 x 0.20 x 3600 x 5000 = 7.1824 x 10° ky Equivalent amount of oil saved = 7.1824 x 10° sare = 35000 cog 7256 513 litres Saving in the frst year = Rs 256 5135.50 =Rs1410821 poyoack peri wit 3), 1M dis, oF (096% 5.0000n 1 *tteg aie ratoe Nig 23.6 year. cae wo payback period with diy @ 1-550 0006.5 gop a Taina) 08 te dais 45 years ite concLUDING REMARKS ‘a based on the solar e lat sans epee Je ese the fist obviously svete ma ed eis to be preferred. This is because ityia a micors lke fuel costs, loan repayments ee Be Pe eons, inflation rates, ete. On the oth nat oat, aren of payback period takes alinied es e222 eng eee fuel savings views tele eae PROBLEMS I i stuns shh dno cardia, Site expressions forthe second, fears aod th tase aie 1 Galt the ie cyle saving forthe sear sum fan ite tlie ystems taken tobe 20 years and he er soo 4 ee data given forthe solar hot water stn Eases ae TCS fr discount rates of 15,175 and 20 ye ost Ps teas SS soit the discount rae and hee oan he een wo ‘ Gaaier the solar pond of Examgle 4, Asune at i et inal om of 40000 te pu ik zee els srr period of 8 years and that the interes ce BEE ‘Eanal recurring expenditure on the pod 8 2 2000 2 Salo stent at the rate of 6 per ent per ya. Deets tp ea ah earn 1 yn Permissible only on the deprsiatin and e ORAS yy Becmpany he pond ie making pros 28 ; ‘ovmning the pond is making BOB 288 “MSA preva wor ft nl =| | \ tem described in Ry Mle 9 jue war 49 APE 39g: 2 vet al oF 20 pe ent of Ba aie eh annually in ona Ee te fuel cot ale) est Ting the SO system is Rg 91 y"tin y'y 3 instant per Year: The cost EN ear and this increases at the cata a he ease is 5 per cent and tan ‘The COP onent of the annual repayment ug corat the rate of 395 Per cent per Wee nt fone matket discount rate g(a ay 0 Mey for the ® 4.000 and supplies 70 per cent costs ‘ig bought with a 20 oft | It is boue! er cent doy."® 3000 ate of 6 er cen The Toa it neg yen. Fel cst are Rs 11 ons pee up at the rate of 6 per cent everyting es arees ‘are Rs 20 000 in the first year and ine, ir. ane ea nena ae re Meciation allowed atthe rate eae mii pet Jee aie is 50 Pet cent, and (ii) tax dedig et * hd on te interest component f° ue of the equipment at the mn ‘the LOS if the discount rate 86 riod with and without discounting Bly tem is given by the equation ctor sy 0 Ae + 25.000) 2 guch a system with an area of 9.1 C Se. Call i: oor fat pate a, Thecostof® c= Rs (2504 va in collector ar ; era in be location and Supplies 67 per cent ofthe annual eer ei ims 000 MA. The ober Hails ofthe system are as follows We = 20! Initial down payment = ce retreat rate on ask 1080 = Peri for repayment of Joan in equal annual instalments = 5 years Fuel eos in the 1st Year = Rs 110 per GI Fate of increase in fuel cost eve year =9% Maintenance charges = Negligible Depreciation rate = 20% Taxrate = 55% cama he cumulative soar savings over a prio 1 Ys ian dein Cae le nth depreiation and on the interes component of th anid fra repayment. Assume that the market discount rate is 11 per cet A se erate payback period with and without discounting aoe ‘fied in Problem 8 for: 2 Given that the solar faa tem out of the annual \g manner: 4, Repeat the calculation of CSS for the system spec ofvalues of collector area ranging from 10 to 50 m fe. the fraction of energy supplied by the solar sys ‘eauirement, varies with the collector area in the followin oy wee 0” Collector area Ac (m") 080 086 nd coe A = fraction 043067 3 variation of solar fraction and CSS wit Hector area, # tn the nature ofthe Variations obtained ee