Optics: Interference

OPTICS

INTERFERENCE

Syllabus : Interference in thin films, wedge shaped films and Newton’s ring, applications of
Interference.

INTRODUCTION:-
Light is a wave motion of electromagnetic waves. Light plus Light will not always be more
light, but under certain circumstances it may give darkness.
When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude (or Intensity) in the region of
superimposition is different than the amplitude (or intensity) of individual waves. This modification
in the distribution of intensity in the region of superimposition is called Interference.
If two light waves of identical frequency meet at a point on a screen , the resultant will depend upon
the phase difference and amplitude of two waves. If the waves reach at a point on the screen with
zero phase difference then resultant amplitude is the sum of amplitudes. When the resultant amplitude
is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves, the Interference is known as Constructive Interference.
On the other hand if the waves meet in opposite phases the resultant will be subtraction of the two
amplitudes and it will produce the darkness at meeting point, means when the resultant amplitude is
equal to the difference of two amplitudes, the Interference is known as Destructive Interference.
Methods Of Producing Interference:
For producing Interference at least two waves are required and the two waves should have identical
frequency and infinite extension and they must be coherent. But they do not exist in nature. There are
following method to produce coherent waves and of course to produce an Interference pattern.
(a) Division of Wavefront:
The incident wavefront is divided into two secondary wavefronts by using slits, pinholes etc. These
two parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and reunite at some angle to produce
interference bands.

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 Optics: Interference

(b) Division of amplitude

The amplitude of the incoming beam is divided into two parts either by parallel reflection or
refraction. These divided parts reunite after traversing different paths and produce interference. In
this case it is not essential to employ a point or a narrow line source but a broad light source may be
employed to produce brighter bands.
Change of Phase on Reflection (Stoke’s Relation):
According to Stokes, When a light wave is reflected at the surface of an optically denser medium,
it suffers a phase change of  i.e. a path difference of /2. It should be remembered that no such
phase change is introduced if the reflection takes place from the surface of rarer medium.
Let us consider a wave OA of light of amplitude a (Figure 3(a)) be incident at a point on the boundary
of M1M2 of two media 1 and 2. Medium 2 is optically denser than medium 1. The wave is partly
reflected along OB and partly transmitted along OC. Let r be the reflection coefficient and t be the
transmission coefficient. Now the amplitude of reflected wave will be ar while that of transmitted
wave as at. Now suppose that the directions of reflected waves and transmitted wave rays are reversed
as shown in Figure 3(B). By doing so, we should have OA of original amplitude a. Let us see the
effect of this reversibility.
On reversing OB, we get a reflected wave with amplitude ar2 and transmitted wave with amplitude
art.

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 Optics: Interference

A
B
A B att’
ar2 ar
2
Medium I
M1 O M2
M1 M2 art
O at
atr’
Medium II
D C
C
Figure: 3 (b)
Figure: 3 (a)

Let r and t be the fractions of amplitude reflected and transmitted when the ray is traveling from
denser to rarer medium. Now on reversing CO, we get a reflected wave OD of amplitude atr and
transmitted wave OA of amplitude att. As there was no wave originally along OD, hence OD should
be zero, i.e.
art  ar t  0 ---------------------------------(1)

Along OA , there should be a wave of amplitude a i.e.,

ar 2  at t  a ----------------------------------(2)
from equation (1), we get, r   r -----------------------------------------(3)
and from equation (2), we get , t t  1  r 2 -------------------------------(4)
The negative sign in equation (3) indicates a phase change of  either at reflection from rarer to
denser medium or at reflection from denser to rarer medium.
In Lloyd’s mirror experiment, where the interference takes place between direct waves from the
source and reflected waves from optically denser medium (glass), it is observed that central fringe is
dark instead of bright. This is possible only when light suffers a phase change of  on reflection at
the mirror. This shows that a phase change of  is introduced when the reflection takes place at the
surface of denser medium.
These equations (eq.(3) and (4)) are known as Stokes Relation.
After the several reflections at the surface of the denser medium shown in Figure (3) , the amplitudes
of reflected waves are ar , atrt, atr3t , atr5t,…. etc. The ray 1 is reflected at the surface of a denser
medium. It undergoes a phase change of . The rays 2, 3, 4 etc. are all in phase but out of phase with
ray 1 by . The resultant of 2, 3, 4 etc. is given by
A  atrt   atr 3 t + atr5 t +………………

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 Optics: Interference
A = attr [1 + r + r +………]
2 4

As r is less than one, the terms inside the brackets form a geometric series.
 1   att r 
A  att r  
1  r  1  r 
2 2

ar2 1 atrt’ 2 atr3t’ 3 Medium I

ar 1
att’

art atr2 2
atr' Medium II
at
atr atr3

Figure: 4
att’ atr2t’

a(1  r 2 )r
From Eq. (4) we get, A  ar
(1  r 2 )
Thus, the resultant amplitude of 2, 3, 4,… etc. is equal in magnitude of the amplitude of ray 1 but out
of phase with it. Therefore, the minima of all reflected system will be of zero intensity.
Thin Film:
A film is said to be thin when its thickness is about the order of one wavelength of visible light which
is taken to be 5500 Ao . A thin film may be a thin sheet of transparent material such as glass, mica,
an air film enclosed between two transparent sheets or soap bubbles. When light is incident on such
a thin film, a small portion gets reflected from upper surface and a major portion is transmitted into
the film. Again, a small portion of the transmitted light is reflected back into the film by the lower
surface and the rest of it emerges out of the film. A small portion of light thus gets partially reflected
in succession several times within the film as illustrated in following figure.

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 Optics: Interference
Reflected ray

Incident ray 100%

4% 3.65% 0.005%

Thin
Film

92%
Figure 5
Transmitted ray

Interference in Thin Films of Uniform Thickness:

(a) Interference due to reflected light:

R1
A R2
i M
i i
G N i H
i B D i
t r
r r
G1 E H1
i
C N"
i i
L
i T2

Figure 6 T1

Let GH and G1H1 be the two the two surfaces to a transparent thin film of uniform thickness t and
refractive index  as shown in Figure 6. Suppose a ray AB (of monochromatic light) be incident on
its upper surface. This ray is partly reflected along BR1 and refracted along BC. At C, it is again partly
reflected along CD and partly refracted at an angle r along CT1. Similarly partial reflections and
refractions occur at points D, E etc.
Thus we get a set of parallel reflected rays BR1, DR2 etc. and parallel transmitted rays CT1, ET2, etc.
Our aim is to find out the effective path difference between the rays BR1 and DR2. For this purpose,
draw normal DM on BR1. The paths traveled by the beams beyond DM are equal.

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In the figure ABN = i, angle of incidence and QBC = r , angle of refraction. From the geometry
of the figure BDE = i .
The optical path difference between the two reflected light rays (BR1 and DR2) is given by
 = Path (BC+CD) in film - path BE in air
  ( BC  CD)  BM
t
From Figure 6 we have BC  CD 
cos r
2t
  ( BC  CD)  ……………………………………(1)
cos r
and BM  BD  sin i  2BN  sin i ( BD  2 BN )
 2t  tan r  sin i ( BN   CN  tan r  t  tan r )
sin r
 BM  2t  sin i
cos r
2 t sin i
  sin 2 r (   )……………..(2)
cos r sin r
Therefore the optical path difference between the ray is
2 t 2 t 2 t
  sin 2 r  (1  sin 2 r )
cos r cos r cos r

  2 t cos r ………………………………………(3)

It should be remembered that a ray reflected at a surface backed by a denser medium suffers an
abrupt phase change of  which is equivalent to a path difference /2.
Thus the effective path difference between the two reflected rays is 2t cos r   2 .
CASE I: When the film is exceedingly thin as compared to wavelength of light, 2t cos r can be
neglected and the net path difference is /2. The two rays will produce destructive interference and
the film will appear dark.
CASE II : When the thickness is increased so that 2t cos r can not be neglected, the film will
appear bright if the path difference
2t cos r   2  n

2t cos r  n  
2

 (2n  1)  (4)
2

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 Optics: Interference
The film will appear dark if the path difference

2t cos r   2  (2n  1)  2

2 t cos r  n ……………….(5)

(b) Interference due to transmitted light:

The transmitted rays CT1 and ET2 are also derived from the same incident ray AB (Figure 5).
When they interfere, they can give interference pattern in transmitted system.
To find the path difference between CT1 and ET2. Draw a perpendicular EL on CT1.
 Path difference  = (CD+DE) – CL
It can be calculated by the same way as in reflected system and it is found that path difference,
  2 t cos r .
It should be remember that inside the film, the reflection at different points take place at the surface
backed by rarer medium (air) thus no abrupt change of  takes place in this case.
Therefore the effective path difference is   2t cos r .
Case I: When the thickness of the film is very small compared to wavelength so that 2t cos r can be
neglected and the path difference between two rays will be zero i.e.
The two rays will be in the same phase and they will reinforce on each other. This will be the case of
constructive interference and so the pattern will appear bright.
CASE II: If t can not be neglected as compared to  , We will have
(a) (Maxima)The condition for brightness as
Path difference = 2t cos r = n

(b) (Minima)The condition for darkness will be


Path Difference = 2 t cos r  (2n  1)
2

Origin of Colours in Thin Film:

We know that when oil is spread over water, then different colours will be seen, i.e., the thin film will
appear as coloured and those colours also will change according to the angle of vision. Now the
question arises Why???????
(1) When sunlight which consists of seven colours is incident on the thin film, then some of them
will satisfy constructive condition and some of them will satisfy destructive condition in interference

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 Optics: Interference
after repeated reflection from the thin film. Since all seven colours cannot satisfy the constructive
condition at a time for a particular thin film of particular thickness t and refractive index  , so as a
result the thin film will appear as coloured, due to missing of some wavelengths out of seven.
(2) Now at a particular point of the thin film and for a particular position of the eye, the angle
of refraction r will be also fixed, so for that particular r ( the angle of vision), thickness t and R.I. ,
a particular wavelength () will satisfy the constructive condition and only that colour will be seen in
that angle of vision. If the angle of vision, i.e. r is changed, then some other () will be seen. Hence,
colour will change with angle of vision, and due to the different position of eye one can see different
colours.
(3) The condition for minima and maxima is reverse in the case of transmitted light. So those colours
which are absent or suppressed in reflected light appear as intense colours in transmitted light, so they
are complementary to each other.
Conditions for getting colours in thin film:
(1) For getting colours in thin films, a broad source of light is necessary.
(2) Thin film is necessary for seeing colours because if a thick film is used then the path difference
between pairs of interfering beams will be quite large as compared to wavelength of light used and
so will not get steady interference pattern.
Necessity of an extended source:

Figure 7(a)

Consider thin uniform film which is illuminated by a point source S.

It can be observed from the figure that for different angles of incidence, different pairs of interfering
rays are obtained, of course, in a pair the interfering rays are parallel. If the film is viewed by keeping
the eye in a particular position, the whole film cannot be viewed. In order to observe the whole film
the eye will have to shift from one position to another position.
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 Optics: Interference

Extended S3 Eye
Source
S2

S1

Figure 7(b)

Let an extended source of light (which may be thought to be made up of large number of point source
S1, S2, S3,…………….) is used to illuminate the thin uniform film. The light reflected from every point
of the film reaches the eye (Figure 7 (b)).
Hence by placing the eye in a suitable position, one can see the entire film simultaneously. Due to
this reason an extended source of light is used to view a film.
Interference in Non-uniform Thickness Film:
Wedge Shaped Film:
Consider a film of non-uniform thickness. It is bounded by two surfaces OX and OX inclined at an
angle . The thickness of the two film gradually increases from O to X. Such a film of non–uniform
thickness is called wedge shaped film and O is called angle of edge. Let  be the refractive index of
the material. When this thin film is illuminated by sodium light, then the interference between two
systems of rays, one reflected from the front surface and other obtained by internal reflection at the
back surface and consequent transmission at the first surface, takes place.
The interfering rays BR1 and DR2 are not parallel but diverge from each other. To calculate the path
difference between two interfering rays, draw DF perpendicular to BR1. The optical path difference
 given by,
   ( BC  CD)  BF

  ( BE  EC  CD)  BF ……………………………………………(1)

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 Optics: Interference

R1
R2
F

900 X
i D
r

N
A i t
r +
B
rE

O  X
C I

r +

Figure 8

P
Draw a perpendicular to the surface OX at point C which meets the perpendicular to surface OX at
point B in Q.
 BQC = XOX = 
Extend BC further to point P such that CP = CD. Draw a perpendicular DE to BC such that BE =
EC is also a perpendicular DP to OX at I .
We have  CBQ = BDE = r
We can rewrite Eq.(1) as follows;
sin i BF
   ( BE  EC  CP)  BE (    )
sin r BE
  ( EC  CP)    EP

In DEP , EP  DP  cos( r   )

And DP = 2 DI = 2t
EP  2t  cos( r   )

  2 t  cos( r   ) ……………………………………(2)

Due to the reflection at B, an additional path change of /2 occurs for the ray BR1. Hence the total

path difference between the interfering rays is   2t  cos( r   )  

2

Here we are using   2t  cos( r   )  

2
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 Optics: Interference
For maxima we have the condition for constructive interference,

2t  cos( r   )    n
2

2t  cos( r   )  (2n  1) 

2
For minima we have the condition for destructive interference,

2t  cos( r   )    (2n  1) 

2 2
2 t  cos( r   )  n

Spacing between two consecutive bright bands:-

Pn+1

Pn


Qn Qn+1
xn

xn+1
Figure 9

For the wedge shaped film, we have for the nth minima.
2 t  cos( r   )  n …………………………..(3)

For normal incidence and air film

r = 0 and  = 1,
 2t  cos  n ………………………………………….(4)
Consider the nth bright band produced at a distance xn from the edge of the wedge.
t  xn  tan 
Putting the value of t in Eq.(4), we get,
2 xn  sin   n
Let (n+1) th maxima be obtained at a distance xn+1 from the thin edge.
 we have
2 xn 1  sin   (n  1) ………………….(5)
From Eq.(4) and (5) we have,
2( xn1  xn )  sin   

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The spacing between two consecutive bright bands is
  xn1  xn (β = fringe width)



2 sin 

 (since sin   is small)
2

For a film of R.I. , the fringes spacing is   .
2
Newton’s Rings:
Circular interference fringes can be observed if a very thin film of air or some other transparent
medium of varying thickness is enclosed between a plane glass plate and a plano-convex lens of large
focal length. Such fringes were first observed by Newton and so are called Newton’s Rings.
Newton’s rings are formed due to interference between the waves reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces of air film.

1
2 A

Air Film

Figure 10

AB is a monochromatic ray of light falling on the system. A part is reflected at B which goes out in
the form of ray (1) without any phase reversal .
The other part is refracted at B which when reflected goes out in the form of ray (2) with phase
reversal of  or  /2.
The reflected rays (1) and (2) are in position producing interference fringes which are derived from
same ray AB.
For Constructive Interference, the path difference between them should be

2t  cos( r   )    n
2
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Where  = RI of the film
t = thickness at a point under consideration
r = angel of refraction
 = angle of wedge
For the air film  = 1, for normal incidence r = 0, For a lens of large radius of curvature, practically
 = 0.

The path difference between 1 and 2 = 2t   ………….(1)

2
Case 1: At point of contact of the lens and the plate, t = 0;
The path Difference = /2
This is condition for minimum intensity. Hence the central spot is dark.
Case 2: When t  0 the path difference

2t    n
2

2t    (2n  1)
2 2

Determination of the Diameter of Dark and Bright Rings:

2R
H E P
t
J O Q

r
Figure 11

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Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens. Let ‘t’ be the thickness of airfilm at a radial
distance of distance of ‘r’ as shown. Then by the Pythagoras theorem,
R2 = (R-t)2 + r2
R2 = R2 – 2Rt + t2 + r2
2 R t = t2 + r2
As ‘t’ is very small, t2 can be neglected in comparison with r2.
 2 R t = r2
2 t = r2 / R………….(where ‘r’ is the radius of the circle for which thickness is ‘t’)
If ‘D’ is the diameter of this circle,
r = D/2  r2 = D2/4
 2 t = D2/4R …………….(2)
Substituting eqn (2) in (1) we get
Path difference  = D2/4R ± /2 …………(3)
Diameter of bright rings: For bright rings, the condition for constructive interference is
satisfied i.e.,
=n
If D = Dn is the diameter of the nth bright ring,
D2/4R ± /2 = n 
Dn2 = 2(2n-1)  R ……..where n = 1, 2, 3….
 Dn  (2n-1)
i.e. diameters of bright rings are proportional to squareroot of odd natural numbers.
Diameters of dark rings: For dark rings, the condition for destructive interference is satisfied
i.e.,
 = (2n±1) /2
If D = Dn is the diameter of the nth dark ring,
D2/4R ± /2 = (2n±1) /2
Dn2 = 4 n  R ……..where n = 0,1, 2, 3….
 Dn  n
i.e. diameters of dark rings are proportional to squareroot of natural numbers.

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Determination of the Wavelength of Source:
Experimental Arrangement:
The experimental arrangement of obtaining Newton’s rings is shown in Fig. (12)

Microscope

G
450

Sodium
Lamp

L
P
Figure 12

A cleaned plano-convex lens surface of a convex lens L of large radius of curvature is placed on a
plane glass plate P.
Light from an extended monochromatic source such as sodium lamp falls on a glass plate G held at
an angle of 450 with the vertical.
The glass plate G reflects normally a part of the incident light towards the air film enclosed by the
lens L and the glass plate P.
A part of the incident light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens L and a part is transmitted
which is reflected back from the plane surface of the plate.
These two reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of circular rings.
Let R be the radius of the surface in contact with the plate,  the wavelength of used and Dn and D(n+p)
the diameters of nth and (n+p)th dark rings respectively.

Dn  4nR ----------------------------(1)
2
We have ,
For (n+p) th ring,

Dn  P  4(n  p)R -----------------------(2)

2

Subtracting Eq.(1) from (2), we get ,

Dn  P  Dn  4 pR
2 2

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Dn  P  Dn
2 2

 ----------------------(3)
4 pR
Or

 Dn
2 2
D
R  n P ……………………(4)
4 p
Using this relation  and R can be determined.
Determination of Refractive Index of a liquid :
If the gap between the lens and and plane glass sheet is filled with a liquid the air film is substituted
by the liquid film. The condition for interference is now given by
2t  cos r  n ……………………..(1)

For normal Incidence Eq.(1) becomes

2 t  n ………………………(2)

 = Refractive Index of Liquid

But the radius of nth ring is given by,

rn  2Rt ………………………(3)
2

Putting value of (2) in (3),

n R
rn 
2


4nR
[ Dn ] L 
2
In liquid …………………………….(4)

If (n+ m)th ring then
4(n  m)R
[ Dn  m ] L 
2
……………… ……….(5)

(4)-(5)=
4mR
 [ Dn ] L 
2 2
D( n  m ) L ………………………...…..(6)

As We know the difference of diameters in air
= D( n  m ) A 2  [ Dn 2 ] A  4mR ………..(7)

From (6) and (7) we get

 [ Dn ] A
2 2
D( n  m ) A

 [ Dn ] L
2 2
D( n  m ) L

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INTERFERENCE APPLICATIONS :
Testing the optical flatness of surfaces:
The phenomenon of interference is used in testing the flatness of the surfaces.

Fringes of Equal
thickness
B

O Figure 13 A

If two surfaces OA and OB (Fig. 12) are perfectly plane the air film between them gradually varies
in thickness from O to A. The fringes are of equal thickness.
If the fringes are not of equal thickness, it means that the surfaces are not plane.
To test the optical flatness of a surface, the specimen surface to be tested (OB) is placed over an
optically plane surface (OA). The fringes are observed in the field of view. If they are of equal
thickness the surface OB is plane. The surface OB is polished and the process is repeated. When
fringes observed are of equal width, it means the surface OB is plane.

Anti- reflecting Films:

Let us consider a ray of light traveling in a medium of refractive index 1 is incident normally on a
substance of refractive index 2. Let I be the intensity of incident light and Ir the intensity of reflected
light. Then according to Fresnel’s equations
2
   1 
Ir   2  I
  2   1 
2
I r   2  1 
 
I   2  1 

For air-glass surface [1=1 and 2=1.5], Ir/I =4%. This shows that 96% of the incident light is
transmitted. In order to reduce the reflection loss from the surface, a transparent film of proper
thickness, is deposited on the surface. This film is known as ‘Antireflecting film’. The magnesium
fluoride ( =1.38 ), cryolite ( =1.36) are found to be the suitable coating material.

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Incident R1
ray R2

Air

Film
Glass

Figure 14

In general the thickness of the coating material should be /4, where  is the wavelength of light
used and  is the refractive index of the coated material.
Let us consider that a normal ray of light is incident on the film. This ray is reflected from the upper
surface as well as from the lower surface of thin film. These reflected rays interfere with each other.
The path difference  in thin film is given by Eq.
  2t cos  ……………………….……………..(1)

For normal incidence of monochromatic light the path difference  becomes,

  2 t ……………………………………...(2)
The phase reversal takes place when the reflection is from rarer medium to denser medium.
  
  2t  2  ( t  )…………..(3)
4 2 4
If path difference is equal to (2n+1) /2, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …., destructive interference will take
place, means it will appear dark.
Here it is to be noted that there is no loss of energy i.e. energy lost in the reflected beam appears in
the transmitted beam.
This principle of ‘non-reflecting ’lenses used in good camera lens, optical instruments such as
microscope, telescope. When light is incident on a camera lens, some of light is lost by a partial
reflection at the two surfaces of the lens and so the image formed by the lens is less bright. A
comparatively long exposure would, therefore be required to photograph the object. To reduce this
surfaces of the lenses are coated with a very thin layer of transparent material and its thickness is so
chosen that the light reflected from the two faces of the coated material produces destructive
interference.
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 Optics: Interference
A pair of reflected rays have the wave trains which are opposite in phase at each point. Hence
destructive interference will be produced (reflection almost zero). Thus, the reflection from the lens
surfaces is almost eliminated and the images formed by the transmitted light are brighter.

NOTE : The below section notes for antireflecting film conditions are directly taken
from the book Avadhanalulu & Kshirsagar.

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 Optics: Interference

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 Optics: Interference

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 Optics: Interference

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