INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

INDUS VALLEY ARCHITECTURE

At the same time as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, Indus valley civilisation developed along river
Indus in India.

Even though many standing examples were available like that of Egypt and Babylonia, from
whatever that is found indicates that Indus Valley civilisation was matured and one of the
perfect examples as for as town planning is concerned. All the areas in this region have similar
town planning concepts. Even though Mohenjodaro and Harappa were as distant as 640km the
similarities exist. The matured town was not developed from a basic village but developed
directly as urban centres with help of a master plan. It is a coincidence that cities like
Chandigarh [India], Islamabad [Pakistan], Gandhinagar [India], the planned urban centres, are
located in this region only.

The citadel of both the cities had fortified walls with palatial royal buildings, major public
buildings, religious and assembly buildings. Most of the buildings were rested over huge mud
platforms. Towards east was Lower City with streets in gridiron pattern. The main streets were
along north - south and east- west directions. These were contrasting to the town plans of west
Asia i.e. at Ur where the streets were meandering. The lower city had commercial areas,
dwellings, factories etc. There was hierarchy of roads and the minor roads normally serving as
entry to the residential buildings.
As for as the building material was concerned kiln burnt bricks were used for important
buildings like defence, palatial buildings etc. Sun dried or mud bricks were used for raising
platforms, filling of floors, flooring of courtyards etc. It is an astonishing fact that English bond
i.e. alternate header and stretcher courses were adopted for brick masonry with mud mortar.
The exteriors were decorated with plaster or decorative bonds. Most of the buildings were
more than one floor with ground floor. The principle of true arch was not known but corbelling
was adopted frequently. Lintels were common for openings.

The drainage and water supply system was very greatly advanced at such an early age. At
Mohenjodaro all the houses had individual bathrooms and privies, provided with soakage jar
and pipe drains to dispose waste. The floors of bathrooms were paved with burnt bricks,
sloped to one corner to take out the wastewater to the house drain. This house drain was
connected to street conduits, which were thirty to sixty CMS deep and covered with bricks or
stone slabs. At regular intervals inspection chambers and manholes were also provided for
cleaning purposes. These street channels were opened out to bigger corbel - vaulted sewers,
which were in turn emptied into the river. This beautiful system of drainage was unparalleled
and unapproached by the non-westernised world of today. Each house was provided with tube
wells for drinking water and there were public wells also in the street.

All the above aspects, i.e. town planning, drainage and water supply system make the Indus
valley civilisation an outstanding one when compared to all the contemporary civilisations.
This system was found not only in large cities but also in distant outposts.

CULTURE:
In the whole of Harappan region a standardised system of weights and measures were
followed. The linear units were the foot (330 – 335mm) and the cubit (515 – 528mm). Thus
there was a cultural uniformity in the whole region. The size of granary in Harappa was 10
cubits wide and 30 cubits long. This system of measuring seems to have been based on
multiples of 16.
Writing was pictographic which was used commercially for identifying goods. Writing was not
used for only literary purpose but pictographs are not deciphered completely. Seals and
stamps were used for mundane works. These were delicately carved. The seals were normally
square in shape with 20 to 45mm sides with provision for hanging and handling. Along with
pictograph we also see carving of men, animals and grotesques as seals.
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

The jewellery design mainly bangles and nose ornaments were also very decorative and
delicate. The pottery was wheel turned and pink in colour. They were also decorated with
geometric designs and stylised designs in red and black colour. Stone sculptures were also
made out only to represent men or God. These were normally in squatting posture. The bronze
sculptures recovered were dancing girl and buffalo. Terracotta sculptures were more popular,
some such were, standing female heavily ornamented with jewellery, a toy cart, human &
animal grotesque etc. The Harappans were very efficient in craft industry. They mass-produced
famous artefacts. Temples were never built. Burial was done in cemeteries.

THE DWELLING HOUSES:

The houses had an air of comfort, with rooms of good sizes. The rooms were arranged around
an open cou rtyard. All the doors and windows opened out to the courtyard and there were no
windows on the street side. Only one door opened out to the side lane and never to the main
street. The exterior walls were thick and monotonously plain without any painting or
decoration. Most of the houses had an upper storey with light screens for windows and reed
mats. This regular planning of dwellings speaks about the well-ordered civic administration.

HARAPPA is a small village near the old bed of Ravi, presently. The citadel formed a rough
rectangle 415x193m, with axis on north south. The remainings show battered walls 14m thick
with defensive bastions at intervals. The main entrance was to the north. To the north of
citadel was coolie-lane with oblong divisions of 18x8m each containing a two-roomed house,
courtyard and partly brick paved floors. In addition to this there were granaries and furnaces.

MOHENJO-DARO means the place of the dead lies in the Larkhan district of Sind. The general
plan is almost similar to Harappa. The citadel rises on the west and Lower City on the east,
may be separated by canal or branch of Indus in those days. The citadel measured roughly
360x180m.

The chief building of Mohenjodaro citadel is the ‘great bath', a complex containing verandas
and rooms arranged around the rectangular pool measuring almost 12x7m with depth of
2.44m, laid on a north-south axis. Flights of steps on the shorter sides of pool were leading to
a platform, which was 30cm high. The steps, floors, and walls of the pool were made
waterproof with bitumen of 2cms thick. In addition to this the bricks, which were specially
shaped, were laid on end and were set in gypsum mortar. The floor was sloped towards the
drain hole, which in turn was connected to a corbelled channel, which measured 60 CMS wide
and high enough to walk inside. There was provision for blocking the drain hole.

Another feature, which is worth mentioning, is the manhole, which was 60x105 cm accessible
both from the pool and the corbelled drain. The water supply to this pool was from a well in a
room to the east. There was a pillared veranda on all four sides except on west. To the north of
great bath was two rows of bathrooms with brick floors and staircase which were used by the
priests on ritual occasions who were living in the rooms upstairs. The main pool was used by
laymen for daily bathing.

VEDIC ARCHITECTURE
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

It is believed that the Harappan culture has come to an end due to some natural catastrophe.
Indus valley
suddenly went dry due to the change in river course as a result of earthquakes. This made the
inhabitants to
abandon the city, where as in Mohenjodaro the end was very sudden which is due to attack by
warriors from North west India who captured unarmed people of Indus Valley, killing men,
women and children in the street and left them there lying dead. These are believed to be the
Aryans originally from Central Europe. Indus Valley civilisation is believed to have collapsed
between 2000-1500 BC

These Aryans also captured nose-less dark people called Dasyus of Himalayan foothills, which
marks the beginning of Aryan culture. The Aryans were fire worshippers and offerings were
made to the Fire God in an open altar by the priest king who chanted hymns from Rigveda.
There was vedic rite called Homa where in food, butter, milk and soma, a spirituous drink,
were offered to the gods to please them. This can be considered as the beginning of vedic
period or culture dating from 1500 to 1000 BC.

A typical Aryan village was made timber and thatch roof. Three or four huts were grouped
around an open courtyard, which was further protected by a timber fence consisting of
rectangular posts at regular intervals and connected by three horizontal bamboo bars. The
entrance was projected to form a gateway, high enough for cattle to pass through with two
vertical wooden posts and horizontal bamboo bars. This entrance gateway style was later
developed and converted to an ornamental gateway during the Buddhist period under the
name toranas.

Aryans did not worship images as a part of vedic religious ritual and hence the temples were
not built. They worshipped sun god (Surya), Wind god (Vayu), earth god (Prithvi), fire god
(Agni), water god (Varuna) etc. and heading all these gods was Indra the most powerful of all
gods.

Aryans when came to India, encountered Dravidians who were for superior than Aryans in
culture. They were highly civilised people. The Aryans, 'aryanised' the myths and practices of
Dravidians and claimed their own. Hence they stopped worshipping god Indra and started
worshipping Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. The temples were also built for these gods.

EARLY MOURYAN PERIOD:

Emperor Chandragupta Mourya was one of the powerful rulers of Mourya dynasty. Pataliputra
was the capital for Magadha kingdom of mouryas. Chanakya was his chief minister who wrote
'Arthashastra'. Megasthenese ambassador of Selecus, has given a complete picture of this
empire in his book.

Teakwood was used for most of the constructions during this period. It was carefully trimmed
to the required shape. Most of the constructions had vaulted roof with wooden ribs at close
intervals. They were filled with thick plaster and painted white. This white paint resembled
white clouds as said in ancient manuscript of 'pali' language. a cloud. The arched windows,
which were rich in tracery work, admitted light into the hall. Facades were very attractive.
There are evidences to show Pataliputra was a very well planned city. They had an advanced
knowledge of Town-planning. The capital city had 16 sectors laid in gridiron pattern. Gardens
with water were carried to river Ganges through underground drainage. The city was 16km
long and 3.5km wide, surrounded by a deep moat 180m wide. The city was protected by fort
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

wall with the gates and 570 towers. There were four main gates facing four cardinal points of
the compass. They were wide and high enough for the elephants to pass through. The gates
were small buildings of two storeys containing custom offices and guardrooms. Pataliputra, in
those days of Indian history was considered as a gem in the crown.

This period of Mouryan dynasty can be considered as the transition period, i.e. end of Vedic
and beginning of Buddhist period.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Buddhism was started in India by Siddhartha son of the king Shuddhodhana, belonging to
kshatriaya caste. He was also known as Gautham. He was born in 563bc. in Lumbini at
Kapilavastu. He led princely life till his 29th year. This 29th year brought a revolution in his
life. He was riding on a chariot when he saw a dead body, an old man, crippled young man
and a person suffering from a disease. These scenes of grim realities of life made him to give
up his princely life and went in search of moksha. He attained enlightenment by meditating
under Bodhi tree- there he came to known as Buddha. He then started preaching non-violence,
humanity etc.

The religion is divided in to two broad schools, the Hinayana (small vehicle) and Mahayana
(big vehicle).

Even though Buddhism declined in 7th century in India, it was carried over to other parts like
Srilanka, Burma, Kampuchea, Java and Far East up to Japan.

INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON ARCHITECTURE:

Original Buddhism rejected any form of image worship. They represented Buddha by using
symbols like, stupa, Bodhi tree indicating enlightenment, wheel of law, as first sermon and
bodily representation of Buddha and his footprints. They also used other sculptures like
Yakshas, yakshis beautifully ornamented. This style of representation spread in north India,
Srilanka, China, Japan etc.

STUPAS OR TOPES
The monument itself propagates 'Doctrine' and construction is a praiseworthy work. These
stupas are circular mound or tumuli of earth, faced with stone or brick. The plan, elevation and
section are all, forms, derived circle- one of powerful architectural form of Buddhism. These
mounds are called as "stupas" in Prakrit language. They are nothing but tombs erected over
sacred relics of monks and worshipped by Buddhist as 'Relic-shrines'.

The stupa was planned like a Vedic village on the lines of divine order. The spherical dome was
the symbol of infinite space of the sky, abode of God. The dome is also called 'Anda' or 'womb'
as it contains the seed namely relics of the monk. The stupa planning was more like a vedic
village than a funeral mound. At the top of the dome, is a pedestal enclosed by small square
balcony in decorative form called 'Harmika'. Over the pedestal, a three-tiered stone or wooden
umbrella, supported on shaft was raised, which was the vedic altar of burnt sacrifice and
represented village shrine. This umbrella over the reliquary, originally the insignia of the
young prince siddharth, was once considered as a symbol for the mystic tree of Lord Vishnu.
Later the Harmika was covered into an inverted stepped pyramid. This was covered by an
umbrella forming the finial. Over its top, was a rain vase to receive rain or dew.
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

The stupas were built with brickwork plastered with thick layer of lime mortar. In some stupas
the dome was coloured and even gilded. Sometimes recesses were made at intervals to light
small lamps at time of festivals. It appeared like a beacon.
A wooden or stone railing called 'vedica' surrounded the whole stupa leaving an ambulatory or
passage. These were originally based on timber gateways of Aryan village and are unique
architectural features of Buddhist style. Sometimes at the base of the dome one more terrace
around for 'pradakshina' was added called 'Medhi', perhaps a separate way for monks. This
had access to climb from a double staircase or 'sopana' with high balustrade on the south
side. The traditional 'pradakshina' path at ground level was for the public devotees.

Some stupas had rectangular projections at the base of the dome, which had staircase
internally leading to the upper pradakshina path. These were just opposite the four gateways
at cardinal points resembling cosmic arms. At the top of this projection were five pillars
representing five episodes of life of Buddha and also five 'Dhyana Buddhas'.

THE GREAT STUPA OF SANCHI: 250 BC.

Currently it is located 40km from Bhopal, the capital of Madhya pradesh. This was first
constructed during Mouryan period as brick tumulus surrounded by a wooden railing. The
Sugas enlarged the size to twice its size after a century and added a terrace around it. They
built even a stone vedika encircling both the stupa and the terrace. Later Andhras or
Shatavahanas, constructed the beautiful carved toranas.

The dome 'anda' or 'egg' is solid brickwork 32.32m in diameter and 12.8m high, the size of the
present day. The dome was a flat portion on the top. It is mounted by Hermika with central
triple umbrella. The dome consists dry masonry facing with hammer dressed stones laid in
even courses. The terrace or upper ambulatory passage, which was, added later was 1.8m
wide, accessed from a double staircase or sopana on the south side. The four toranas, one at
each of the cardinal point of the compass, were slightly staggered from the entrance of the
vedika. These toranas or the gateways are copied from the traditional type of ceremonial
portals. These toranas are nothing but a pair of high posts or columns with lion or elephant
heads denoting strength. These posts at the top were crossed with three horizontals but
slightly arched. The capital of the columns which is just below the three panels, are supported
by dwarf figures on the western portal, lions on the south portal and elephants on the northern
and eastern portal. On the outer side of the capitals were brackets with sculptures. The
horizontal curved panels are ended with volutes and with animal figures on top. The top panel
in line with the two vertical posts are two small wheels with trishul like sculpture on top and in
the centre a big wheel representing the wheel of justice. It is resting over an elephant shaped
platform. All these three together represents 'Tri-rathna', the three jewels, the symbols
Buddhist trinity. The torana is 10.30m height and 3m wide. (refer figure).

The vedika is 3.5m high alround the stupa. This vedica consists of vertical posts called
'urdhva-pathas' octagonal in plan 45cm in diameter with a spacing of 60 to 90cm. These
verticals are tied with 3 horizontal bars called 'suchi' or needles. These are pierced in to the
verticals through holes. Connecting the top of all these are the coping for easy drainage of
water and for easy maintenance. Remaining of the Ashoka pillar can be seen outside the
railings to the right side of southern torana.

EVOLUTION OF STUPA:
After learning about all the stupas, it is quite interesting to know that how stupas are
developed during different periods. The origin of stupa or dome was nothing but the earthen
mound in which Buddha's ashes were enshrined. Today most of the stupas before Ashoka's
period do not remain. The worship of the stupa was

probably instituted by Ashoka for his policy of propagating Buddhism. During his time the
stupa constituted of a dome or anda resting on a simple medhi. This was further elaborated
during classical times for which the stupa at Sanchi can be considered as a typical. Here the
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

simple dome top was made elaborate by adding chitravali and Hermica and the lower portion
was added with upper and lower vedikas, sopanas and entrance toranas. With all these, still
the dome was prominent and the horizontality was maintained while hermica, chitravali,
vedikas etc. were proportionately subordinated to make the structure impressive.

The stupas at Gandhara had certain deviation from that of Sanchi. Here Chitravali and hermica
dominated and the dome was subdued which resulted in verticality. Also, the base was made
high with two square blocks forming terraces for ambulatory path. The surfaces of the base
were ornamented elaborately with richly carved sculptures, omitting the vedikas, toranas etc.
In general this structure maintained verticality with the chitravali and hermica making the top-
heavy proportion.

Later the stupa at Karli was on the similar lines of that of sanchi but again verticality was
emphasised, the hermica was tapering upwards with chitravali resembling an umbrella. The
lower and upper pradakshina patha was predominant and vedica railing and toranas were
missing.

The next stage of development can be traced at the rock cut stupa in chaitya no. 19 at Ajanta.
Here the lower part was made ornamental like a pedestal, and just below the egg shaped
stupa was supported by the columns. The hermica and chitravali were almost combined
together and was dominating, giving emphasis on verticality. Thus it looks like an ornamental
tower.

The last stages of development of stupa can be seen south Asian countries like Burma, Java,
Indonesia etc.. These stupas were completely contrasting the original stupa both aesthetically
and structurally. They contained terraces tapering upwards to a point. The verticality was so
much given importance that the actual stupa itself became insignificant. The best example for
this was the Tawyagyaung stupa in Mandalay at Java. The lower three terraces were dominant
with elaborate sculpture. Here also the hermica and chitravali were not significant but
together appear like a tapering tower with metal umbrella at top.

In contrast to the above the stupa at Barobudhur at Java had six grand terraces at the lower
part, square in shape. Above this three circular terraces were added later, with each terrace
containing small stupas along the periphery almost resembling but smaller version of the
main stupa at the top. Thus there were 72 stupas over these terraces. The central main stupa
becomes the main focal point like a pinnacle of the whole structure. The steep sloped flight of
steps, ornate arched openings etc. of the lower terraces makes the impressive and pleasing.
Even though it is located outside India, there are more similarities of Indian stupa than those
in this region. Thus here horizontality was maintained like that of Sanchi in contrast to the
vertical stupas.

Finally we can conclude here that architecturally the stupa produces its effect by the balance
of square and round shapes. It perfectly expresses its function of enclosing and guarding the
relic.

STHAMBHAS OR PILLARS
As the name indicates, it is a free standing pillar with vertical shaft and a capital holding a
statue. Even though a sthambha or pillars characterise all the ages and styles of Indian
architecture here we are more particular about the pillars of Buddhist period. It was emperor
Ashoka who set up about 30 sthambhas with edicts engraved over them.
The shaft of the sthambha is circular or octagonal in sectional plan and tapers slightly towards
the top. In general these shafts were monolithic. The gracefulness of these sturdy pillars are
due to careful proportions considered with reference to the height and tapering width from
lower to upper part.
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

The basic parts of the sthambha are the shaft, capital, abacus and the finial. Most of the
sthambhas of Buddhist period consists of smooth circular shaft and occasionally octagon as in
Sanchi, with an inverted lotus bud capital. This gently curved lotus capital has a graceful
combination of Egyptian as well as Persepolis of Persia. This capital along with the abacus and
finial were carved out of single stone. Relief sculpture adorns the sides of the shaft and the
abacus. The finial consisted of animal figures normally lion, elephant, bull or four lions sitting
back to back.

If we trace the evolution of the sthambhas, it can be seen that all the sthambhas are graceful
and well proportioned. The sthambha with a single lion capital at Basarh Bakhira has an ill-
proportioned shaft with a crude lion capital. The sthambha at Laurya Nandagarh, Nepal is 10m
high with the shaft 90cm dia at base and 56cm dia at top. The inverted lotus capital bears a
round abacus and supports a seated lion. Out of the two sthambhas at Rampura, one had lion
and the other had a bull finial.

The sthambha at Saranath well known as Ashokan pillar is the finest and grandest of all the
types mainly due to the proportion, capital, the four lion finial supporting a wheel with 24
spokes known as 'wheel of law' and with the symbolic meaning behind it. The inverted lotus
capital supports a circular abacus with sculpture of a wheel 4 in number and the figures of an
elephant, lion, bull and horse in between them. These four animals are symbols of 4 principal
directions of the universe. The capital was elegant and its height itself was more than 2m in
height. The stone shaft was polished to shine like a mirror. This Ashokan pillar is adopted as
the national emblem with some minor variations and without the wheel. The Ashoka pillar at
Sanchi was similar to the one at Saranath and only the broken shaft exists near the eastern
torana of the stupa. The broken capital is now exhibited at Sanchi museum.

The capital and finial Besnagar is unique because of an unusual finial. It had inverted lotus
bud capital and a square abacus above supporting circular lotus base with finial consisting of
few leaves and fruits.

Here it is worth mentioning about the iron pillar located in the complex of Qutubminar. This
famous iron pillar belongs to Gupta period and was earlier situated in Bihar. Even after many
centuries this pillar remained smooth and non-rusted. Here the base of the capital resembles
the original Buddhist capital but there are variations above this part.

CHAITYAS
Initially Buddhists assembled for worshipping in open palaces in the forest clearings. Later
after Buddha’s death his followers needed some covered place for their assembly, as open-air
assembly was impractical due to unfavourable climate, weather conditions etc. Also since they
did not believe in mage worship and needed some symbolic representation of Buddha’s
image. The use of shrine or ‘dagoba’ was symbolic representation of Buddha’s nirvana and
was known as Hinayana Buddhism. In this period image worship was not done. As stupas were
already used for worship, a miniature stupa was represented in side the Chaitya hall. During
the initial period it was circular in shape for easy circumambulation.

Later the circular chamber became semicircular and it was part of the rectangular hall, known
as apse. The abbey churches of medieval Christian churches resembled this.

INFLUENCE OF WOODEN STRUCTURES:

As the earliest form of structures were predominantly out of wood i.e. even before Buddhism
like Vedic period etc. The imitation of this wooden construction in stone can be seen in all the
chaityas like, arches, ribs in ceilings, railings etc. The numerous rock cut chaityas of Western
Ghats and other parts gives us a complete picture of development of chaityas.
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

ROCK CUT CHAITYAS:

All the rock cut chaityas posed the sculptural problems rather than structural problems. The
reasons for opting rock cut buildings rather than independent buildings and the method of
construction were as below.

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE:
Initially a perpendicular rock was selected and was smoothened and over this the façade out
line was marked. Then a window was cut and through which the tunnel begins from front to
rear. In some cases the carving was done from upper part of the façade i.e. from the ceiling.
This helped to remove debris from the façade opening and also saved the scaffolding i.e. the
supports and working was also easy as it was from top to bottom. The debris was also used for
outer court walls etc. After completion the opening was normally covered with a wooden
frame.

ADVANTAGES:
The main reason for rock cut option was that it saved the workmanship involved in wooden
construction, saved wood which was also not permanent like stone. Even to this day the rock
cut buildings are existing. This rock cut architecture was also cost effective, as there was no
need of supply of stone, other building materials, saved in transportation of materials, stone
dressing, column construction, slabs, beams, capitals etc. Also the debris after carving could
be reused for some other purpose.

CONCLUSION:
Thus the rock cut architecture developed gradually and with trial and error methods. In most
of the cases the walls were straight, with perfect angles and smooth finish. All the wooden
imitations like ribs, pillars, decorative motifs etc were purely aesthetical rather than functional
or structural. For this a broken pillar hanging from the roof with out any base still exists.

DEVELOPMENT OF CHAITYAS

CAVES OF ASHOKA PERIOD:

The earliest Chaityas can be traces during Ashokan period and they were of Hinayana type
and rock cut Chatyas. These were also the earliest forms of rock cut caves. This experiment
lead to the development of the Chaityas. The Chaityas of Ashokan period, which are worth
mentioning, are the Loma-Rishi, Sudhama (Barabar hill), Sita mahi (Nagarjuna hill). These
were not the real Chaityas but cave built for Ajivaka Jains for the purpose of meditation. But
these caves were considered as model for the later Chaityas.

The peculiarity of Sudhama cave was its entrance from the side, off centred. The plan
consisted of a rectangular hall with barrel shaped roof and this connected to a circular cell 19’
diameter, 12’ high with a dome. The exterior of circular chamber has grooves imitating
wooden planks or bamboo.

The façade of Lomas Rishi resemble imitation of wooden construction with following features.
 The two tapering vertical posts in stone.
 The arching beam at the top.
 Curved rafters.
 Subsidiary rafters to form lunettes one with trellis pattern and other with elephants.
 Rafters in the vaulted ceiling to resemble thatch roof.
A finial crowns at top. It is mainly a rectangular hall with a circular chamber, which originally
had the object of worship but now empty.

Even though Emperor Ashoka attributed these earliest caves to Ajivaka sect of Jain monks they
became the prototypes of the later sophisticated rock cut chaityas.
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

STRUCTURAL CHAITYAS:

Structural chaityas are those chaityas built independently unlike rock cut chaityas. Even
though rock cut architecture became well known due to various reasons it is the structural
chaitya which gets the credit of being the earliest chaitya. The chaitya Bijak ki pahadi in Bariat
Rajasthan* believed to be built during Ashoka’s period was probably one of the earliest
chaitya.

These earliest chaityas were circular in shape resembled the round stupa and also for easy
circumambulation.

The chaitya at Bariat was circular in shape with a central stupa, surrounded by circular wall
with wedge shaped bricks and octagonal wooden pillars in between. Outer to this was
‘Pradakshina patha’ enclosed by an outer wall. The entrance was from the east through a
portico connecting the hall. Even though the building has no superstructure existing, the bas-
relief in the railings of Bahurat stupa gives the picture of this chaitya*. Thus it has a
rectangular vaulted hall connected to a circular dome roofed chamber.

The other structural chaitya worth mentioning is the one at Guntupalle* which is circular in
plan. It has very thick wall made out of mud and mortar without wooden pillars in between.
The thickness almost equivalent to circumambulation width. It was plastered on both sides.
The entrance was from west with the projection of a porch.

The temple no. 40 at Sanchi* was rectangular with apsidal end. The outer wall was completely
rectangular. The super structure out of wood does not exist now.

The original structure of this chaitya belonged to Mauryan period and later during Sungas
period, the pillars were built over the foundation.

The other chaitya at Gandhara near Sircap has a circular cella connected to oblong hall in the
front resembling the plan of Sudhama cave.

Similar structural chaityas with minor difference in shapes were found in large group at
Deccan, Nagarjuna, Kondane etc. Since no superstructure are available the brick temple at
Ter*, Maharashtra and Cherjala,* now a Hindu temple serves as an example that how these
chaityas appeared. Gabled front, arched motif above were the salient features.

ROCK CUT CHAITYAS:

The earliest of rock cut, chaitya like caves of Sudhama, Lomas rishi, Sita mahi etc, and the
structural chaityas lead to thinking further development. The advantages of rock cut caves as
already mentioned; the perishable quality of wood, uniqueness of rock cut caves gained
momentum for rock cut chaitya development.

During mahayana period many hinayana chaityas were face lifted with Buddha’s images and
at Ajantha and Ellora many mahayana rock cut chaityas were also built. Here for the purpose
of study of chaitya development, only selected chaityas are considered as examples.

EARLY HINAYANA PERIOD: Kondavite, Guntupalle, and Junar.

LATER HINAYANA PERIOD: Bhaja, Kondane, Ajantha, Nasik, Bedsa, and Karla.
MAHAYANA PERIOD: Ajantha and Ellora.

EARLY HINAYANA PERIOD:

INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

KONDAVITE: ROCK CUT It is located near Mumbai and resembles Sudhama cave. It has flat
ceiling with the circular chamber without columns. The doorway is flanked by two jali windows
which, connects the outer hall and inner circular cell.

GUNTUPALLE: * BRICK This too contains a rectangular hall with a circular chamber at one end.
The circular chamber was elaborate compared to Kondavite with a domical ceiling with a net
work of wooden or bamboo rafter similar to a hut. It has over hanging eaves. The doorway of
the narrow porch has horse shoe shaped arch.

JUNNAR*: ROCK CUT This comparatively later date compared to the earlier two. Unlike the
earlier it has more resemblance towards structural chaitya especially of that of Bairat. The
circular chamber has a central stupa with 12 octagonal columns surrounding it. The section of
the dome i.e. the ceiling has variation compared to the octagonal pillars carry architrave over
which the dome rests. The aisle part around these pillars have arch shaped ceiling but at lower
height i.e. from the top of the columns. The wooden rafters over the ceiling are missing. The
column had pot shaped base as well as capital. The pillar has stepped base.

LATER HINAYANA PERIOD:

BHAJA*: The chaitya is more elaborate, rectangular in plan with an apsidal end. The columns
are placed parallel to plan shape, dividing the plan in to nave and aisles. The columns were
octagonal and simple without any base or capital. Imitation of wooden construction can be
observed in this. The use of timber in the cave also can be traced but now none of them
exists. The vaulted ceiling too contained wooden ribs. The mortise holes in the façade indicate
the existence of a wooden gate.

The relief from the façade decoration* indicates a balcony or balustrade resting on a beam, a
parapet for the balcony, resembling the vedika or railing of the stupa, and Jali like covering
resembling a door to the balcony and a typical chaitya horse shoe arch above. The horseshoe
shaped chaitya arch flanked on both sides with well-decorated huge chaitya arched entrance
was the main feature of the exterior façade. This rock cut chaitya has timber work freely used
and thus we can see the skill and merit combined together to form an architectural as well as
sculptural beauty.

NASIK*: The name is Pandulena chaitya. The façade is elaborate and unlike the earlier chaitya
here traces of timber in nil, but imitation of wood technique can be seen. The columns had pot
shaped base and capital.

The façade or the main entrance has a rectangular opening with a horseshoe shaped chaitya
arch above. The arch had decorative motifs. Above this is the huge chaitya window with
horseshoe shaped arch. Flanking this window is octagonal columns with animal capitals.
Between these columns are small chaitya arches in horse shape, with trellises and stupa figure
in front. Below them were railing resembling the vedika of stupa. Above the main chaitya
windows has some more similar but smaller windows. Thus the chaitya façade is nothing but
repetition of horseshoe shaped arches with hierarchy as one of the feature.

Hence we can see all the design principles like repetition, rhythm, hierarchy, gradation,
emphasis etc combined together so that the composition is best known for achieving
harmony, unity etc.

AJANTHA* –Cave no. 9: It is rectangular in plan with a stupa at the end. Octagonal columns
surround this to define it as apse. Wooden ribs can be seen in the nave where as the aisle
contains only stone ribs. There are no wooden attachments in the façade of the cave. The
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

usual chaitya windows, railings, chaitya arch above the rectangular door are the aesthetic
features of the façade.

BEDSA*: This chaitya is also rectangular with apse. The unique feature is the beautifully
proportioned columns in the entrance vestibule. The column had pot base, fluted shaft,
Ashokan percepolitan bell capital over which amalakas in box like coffers and abaci in the form
of inverted steps. The capital consists of animal pairs. The chaitya window, rhythmic patterns
of big and small chaitya arches, vedika etc make the façade impressive. There is no trace of
woodwork in the façade. This interior is simple and plain and the nave ceiling has wooden ribs.
The columns are octagonal with out the base.

KARLI*: It is the best example as a typical chaitya. It is also known as an architectural gem.
It is rectangular in plan with an apsidal end containing a stupa. Most of the chaityas studied till
now, except Bedsa has direct entrance to the chaitya hall. But in this case the entrance was
more elaborate and pronounced.

Before the chaitya hall there was a vestibule with two octagonal columns in the centre with
attached pillars on both sides. These columns and pillars are multifaced but without base and
capital. In front of the porch two lion pillars or Simha sthambha are standing. Now only one of
this exists and resembles the lion pillar of Saranath.

The lion pillar has features like, multyfaced shaft, no base, inverted lotus capital and a figure
with four lion and a wheel above the capital.

The internal columns have features like, steps at base, pot shaped base, multifaced shaft,
inverted pot capital and sculpture above the capital.

On top of the porch columns, a plain lintel like element exists in two tiers was the plain
multifaced columns. These columns were simple with out any base or capital. The real chaitya
elevation can be only behind the porch. There are three horseshoe shaped arches in centre
line of axis between the four porch columns. The central one lead to the nave where as the
other two leads to the aisle, a feature unique to this chaitya. The solid portions of wall
between these entrances were once painted with scenarios of Buddha’s life, with a railing
below. Above this entrance portion with three arches, is the dominating great chaitya arch
window. This window is the main source of light to the chaitya hall. The bright sunlight
diminishes and filters gradually by the time it reaches stupa and aisles, which, produces
impressive and beautiful effect.

The chaitya hall is rectangular in plan with an apsidal end. In total there are 37 columns out of
which, 7 are behind the stupa with multifaced shaft, without base and capital. The other thirty
columns have pot base with steps (the vedic origin), multifaced shaft and inverted lotus
capital. Above the capital has inverted steps serving as base to the sculptured group of figures
mounted on elephants and horses.

The roof of the nave is barrel shape with separate pieces of wood. The stupa has ornamental
base with railing motifs. A massive harmika with wooden umbrella crowns stupa. The ribs of
the barrel ceiling of nave forms a semidome shaped ceiling.

The overall visualisation of the interior, the façade, the filtered light with respect to the
columns, screens etc, the space inside with the stupa as focal point is unique, marvellous and
certainly stands out from the other chaityas to call it the best chaitya.

KANHERI: The last chaitya of the Hinayana period. This can be considered as an example to
learn how the standard of the chaitya was deteriorated in the last stages. Timber was used
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

more than stone reverting to earlier practices. The two lion pillars were not free standing but
attached. The columns inside were plain and without any ornamentation.

DHAMNER*, CAVE NO. 12: Located at the border of Rajasthan and Madhyapradesh and is one
of the latest phase of the Hinayana period. Here the stupa was retained but Buddhists images
were set up around pradakshina patha. The unique feature of this chaitya is a Vihara attached.
Many cells were carved out around the vihara hall.

MAHAYANA PERIOD:
The plan almost remains same as that of Hinayana period but the treatment of façade, pillar
varied. Use of sculpture and adoption of idols and figure of Buddha became a feature.
Imitation of wooden construction features came down drastically and importance was given to
stone for its quality, strength and mass.

AJANTHA*, CAVE NO. 19: Belongs to 6 th century AD. It has a porch in the front with two
ornamental pillars supporting massive entablature. In line with this and slightly behind was
the big chaitya window. Flanking this window were the two figures of Yaksha. Here we can see
the change in the chaitya window shape. Even though basically it was horseshoe in shape,
ornamental curves can be seen at springing level and at finial.

The pillars inside the chaitya were 15 in number with square base; octagonal or circular fluted
bands. The capital was cushion shaped with heavy brackets. Above the capital was the
triforium, which was divided into panels. The ribs were out of stone unlike the Hinayana
chaitya. The roof above aisle portion of the chaitya was flat unlike Hinayana chaitya.

The stupa inside has a very low pedestal and an elongated drum*. The elongated drum was
richly ornamented. In front a pair of columns supported an arch and a standing figure of
Buddha was enclosed within this. The stupa was elliptical in shape with tiers of Hermika and
chatri, giving vertical effect.

AJANTHA*, CAVE NO. 26: The plan is typical with chaitya shape. The chaitya shaped plan
indicates a rectangular plan with apsidal end or Gajaprishtakriti. Its porch was more elaborate
with four columns in the entrance. This porch was destroyed during a landslide and now only
the base part exists.

The chaitya arch window is bigger and almost similar to that of cave no 19 flanked by
numerous panels with figures of Buddha. Vaulted floral motifs decorate the finial. The central
door leads to nave where as there are two more side doors, which leads to aisles. The frames
of all these doors are decorated with figures and sculptures.

The interior measures 20x11x9.3m and architecturally resembles cave no 19 but is more
ornate. The triforium panels above the columns are filled panels of Buddha’s figures. The front
of Stupa has a frame of pillar with a seated figure of Buddha. The wall of the left aisle has
sculpture about 7m long depicting ‘Mahaparinirvana’ of Buddha. This shows the artistic work
of stone mason eliminating the imitation of wooden sculpture.

ELLORA, CAVE NO 10: This is the only Mahayana chaitya at Ellora. It is known as Vishwakarma
cave also. In this typical chaitya window has been reduced in size and the ornamentation at
springing point is very elaborate. Thus the entire façade appears different when compared to
other chaityas.

The plan is typical i.e. chaitya shape but the entrance part is very elaborate. The entrance has
a courtyard with corridors, which opens to various cells on both sides for shrines. One of the
corridors ends up with a stairs to reach upper gallery. Multifaced pillars separate nave and
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

aisles. The roof is covered with stone ribs. The stupa is insignificant but Buddha’s figure in
front of the stupa is dominating.

CHAITYA WINDOWS*:

The façade of the Loma Rishi cave in 250BC shows two slightly standing vertical posts to
counter act the thrust of the arch. About a century later at Bhaja in 150BC, the characteristic
horses shoe arch appeared first. Here the horseshoe shape was not much pronounced. But
later at Kondane the horseshoe shape was pronounced by giving an inward turn at springing
level of the arch. Then at Bedsa Karli in 50BC it took a definite shape and became a typical
chaitya window.

Later in Mahayana period i.e. after a long gap of more than 500 year the Hinayana caves were
face lifted and when the new caves were constructed like that of cave no. 19 of Ajantha
500AD, the outer part of the arch near springing point, there was an improvement. Later at
Vishwakarma cane in 600AD this additional ornament became more dominant and
pronounced. The various and some of these were also adopted in brahmanical temples of
south India as a typical ornament. The gable end of many temples too adopted the chaitya
arch window shape.

‘Kudu’ which has developed from this horseshoe arch of chaitya window became regular
feature of Dravidian temples*.

‘Kutas’ and ‘Salas’ of South Indian temple shikhara are almost miniature of chaityas. Their
gable end resembles the horseshoe shaped chaitya windows. This can be seen in ‘Gopuram’
also. The top most part of the Gopura is almost miniature of chaitya roof with finials. These
clearly indicate how Buddhist architectural features are carried for further development. But, it
is worth remembering that the horseshoe shaped gable end is the timber origin of Vedic
period structures.

BUDDHIST VIHARAS
Most part of the life of a Buddhist Bhikshu was spent out side. They needed a proper shelter
during the rainy season. But gradually this shelter was extended to the other parts of the year
also. This was the first phase in the development of viharas.

In the beginning viharas were built as separate building with timber or stone as the material.
None of these wooden structures are existing and even among those out of stone, only the
foundation exists, as at Sanchi, Gandhara etc. These viharas are cells built around a courtyard
entered through a gateway in the vestibule. Since these viharas were built detached and
independently unlike rock cut structures they are termed as structural viharas.

The structural viharas were basically developed from thatched huts but developed to bigger
scale, The location of these vihara were based on two basic needs i.e. 1) close to a village so
that Bhikshus can gather alms from the village and 2) At the same time a secluded area for
their peaceful meditation etc. There was no place for luxury in viharas.

The viharas included living rooms, private dwellings, halls, service corridors, halls with fire
places, porches, promenades, room with promenades, store houses,

toilets, wells tanks etc. At later stage the viharas are developed, as educational centres for
Buddhist learning, like Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura etc. The vihara no. 45 at Sanchi* is
the perfect example for this.

Rock cut viharas: -

INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

Since Chaityas were the worshipping places, at the same time located in a secluded area, the
rock cut viharas were developed near these chaityas. This new method of construction
resulted in some modifications from the structural viharas i.e. the courtyard was eliminated
(as it is not possible to make open courtyard in rock cut buildings) and instead an open hall
was provided with cells around it. The drawback due to this change was the shortage of light
and ventilation to the inner parts. Built in stone beds were provided inside these cells for
sleeping.

HINAYANA VIHARAS:
Most of these viharas were concentrated in the Western Ghats around Bombay (Mumbai), with
few exceptions like Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa. The viharas at Nasik, cave no. 3,8 & 15
at Bedsa, Kondane, Pitalkhara of 1 st century AD are the examples for Hinayana viharas. They
all had highly decorative facades, pillared porticoes and cells with built in stone beds. Most of
the pillars had octagonal shafts, step and potted base, inverted pot capital with cased
amalaka on top supporting inverted steps and animal figures.

BEDSA*: The unique feature of this is, it had chaitya shaped plan with vaulted roof. The hall
was 5.45x9.73m with 9cells around with chaitya arch shaped door. The door had railing motif
in between and the inclined doorposts indicate the influence of wood. The cells have twin built
in stone beds.

KONDANE*: This had square central hall with columns, which influenced the later Mahayana
viharas. There is a portico in the entrance with 5 pillars but now does not exist. The hall is
6.9x8.7m and 2.5m high. Beams, rafters adorn ceiling indicating the influence of wood. The
cell doorways had chaitya arches with railing pattern in between. The wall of the cells are
badly damaged and consisted of stone beds.

UDAYAGIRI & KHANDAGIRI*: These viharas too belonged to Hinayana period but are Jain caves.
Here the caves are ‘u’ shaped overlooking the open yard. The facades are not as delicate as in
Western Ghats, which may be due to hard sand stone rocks. There are pillared passage behind
which are the cells. The pillars are square with brackets at top. (Refer capitals of cave no 3 at
Badami.) The arch is semicircular resting over pilasters. The cells are rectangular with varied
sizes indicating that some sere even used as dormitories. The floor itself was made sloping
upward to form a couch instead of a bed.

The Rani Gumpha* cave was double storeyed so that the open yard was also serving as an
open-air theatre. This probability was further enhanced by a throne located over the terrace of
the passage. This served as a seat for the head of monastery.

MAHAYANA VIHARAS:
During Mahayana period, Buddha’s image was worshipped. During the initial stages the cells
of Hinayana chaityas were converted as cells for the Buddha shrine. During this period the
vihara was served not only a ‘sangharama’(community habitation) but also a chaitya. Also
Buddha’s image replaced the stupa, which are nothing but the influence of Hindu temples.
Ajantha, Ellora, and Bagh were well known for the viharas of Mahayana.

AJANTHA*, Cave no 1: It consists of a square central pillared hall surrounded by passage with
cells behind. There was a front portico parallel to the passage with a central entrance, which
do not exist now. The pillars of the façade had square pedestal, octagonal and 16 sided shaft
with beautiful tracery pattern. Each pillar upholds a ribbed cushion like member above which
the bracket with capital divided into 3 parts with the centre having the figure of Buddha.

ELLORA*, Cave no 5: This stands out because of its rectangular hall when compared to the
squarish halls. The hall size is 17.55x35.10m, almost comparable to the rectangular chaitya
with out apsidal end. It had nave, aisle with 24 cushion capital pillars. At the rear end of the
hall there was a transverse passage or vestibule leading to a central shrine and 2 cells at the
INDUS VALLEY, VEDIC AND BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Prof. B S Jagadeesha Chandra & N S Nalini, School of Architecture, MSRIT

ends. The aisles lead to cells directly as well as through vestibule. In the nave there are two
low platform served as seating for the monks.

ELLORA*, Tin Tal (3 storeyed) cave: It is one of the unique vihara of this period because it is
three storeyed. The total height is about 15m with a veranda in each floor supported by 8
columns. The ground floor consists of a hall with 3 rows of 8 pillars. The hall leads to another
small central hall with 6 pillars which further leads to the shrine and two small cells on both
sides. The main hall further leads to 10 more cells and one of the cells further leads to a stair
to go to the upper level. The exterior is simple and plain when compared to ornate interior.

BAGH*, Cave no 4: It belongs to 5 th and 6th century AD and located in Madhyapradesh. It has a
square central hall served as ‘Dharmashala’ with 8 pillars all round. Centrally, there were 4
square pillars and 3 pairs of circular pillars. Around this hall on all four sides are the corridors.
In line with main central axis is the big cell containing the shrine and there are similar small
cells facing the corridors on all other sides except the front. This cave is also known as
‘Rangamahal’ because of its beautiful paintings in the interior.

SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA*, Paharpur: This is the best example for a fully developed vihara or
‘Sangharama’. The big square enclosure measures 246.6m and with continuos rows of cells on
all sides overlooking the courtyard except the entrance gates. The main entrance is from north
with elaborate arrangements. In the axis of the gate is the temple in the centre of courtyard
rising in three tiers and ‘pancharatha’ in plan. The other space of the courtyard occupies many
other structures.