(A80235) EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE AC TRANSMISSION

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION

Necessity of EHVAC Transmission

 Advantages & Problems

Plant Hanling Capacity & Line Losses

Mechanical Consideration

Resistance of Conductors

Properties of Bundled Conductors

Bundle Spacing & Bundle Radius

Examples

LINE AND GROUND REACTIVE PARAMETERS:

Line Inductance and Capacitances

Sequence Inductance and Capacitances

Modes of Proparation

Ground Return

Examples
DESCRIPTION OF SUBJECT MATTER in UNIT I

Extra High Voltage (EHV) ac transmission can be assumed to have seen its development since
the end of the Second World War, with the installation of 345 kV in North America and 400 kV
in Europe. The distance between generating stations and load centres as well as the amount of
power to be handled increased to such an extent that 220 kV was inadequate to handle the
problem. In these nearly 50 years, the highest commercial voltage has increased to 1150 kV
(1200 kV maximum) and research is under way at 1500 kV by the AEP-ASEA group. In India,
the highest voltage used is 400 kV ac, but will be increased after 1990 to higher levels. The
problems posed in using such high voltages are different from those encountered at lower
voltages. These are:
(a) Increased Current Density because of increase in line loading by using series capacitors.
(b) Use of bundled conductors.
(c) High surface voltage gradient on conductors.
(d) Corona problems: Audible Noise, Radio Interference, Corona Energy Loss, Carrier
Interference, and TV Interference.
(e) High electrostatic field under the line.
(f) Switching Surge Overvoltages which cause more havoc to air-gap insulation than lightning or
power frequency voltages.
(g) Increased Short-Circuit currents and possibility of ferro resonance conditions.
(h) Use of gapless metal-oxide arresters replacing the conventional gap-type Silicon Carbide
arresters, for both lightning and switching-surge duty.
(i) Shunt reactor compensation and use of series capcitors, resulting in possible subsynchronous
resonance conditions and high shortcircuit currents.
(j) Insulation coordination based upon switching impulse levels.
(k) Single-pole reclosing to improve stability, but causing problems with arcing.
The subject is so vast that no one single book can hope to handle with a description, analysis, and
discussion of all topics. The book has been limited to the transmission line only and has not dealt
with transient and dynamic stability, load flow, and circuit breaking.
Overvoltages and characteristics of long airgaps to withstand them have been discussed at length
which can be classified as transient problems. Items (a) to (e) are steady-state problems and a
line must be designed to stay within specified limits for interference problems, corona loss,
electrostatic field, and voltages at the sending end and receiving end buses through proper
reactive-power compensation.
LINE AND GROUND REACTIVE PARAMETERS is devoted to an introduction to the e.h.v.
problem, such as choice of voltage for transmission, line losses and power-handling capacity for
a given line length between source and load and bulk power required to be transmitted. The
problem of vibration of bundled conductors is touched upon since this is the main mechanical
problem in e.h.v lines.

Instructional Learning Outcomes

Unit -1: Introduction:

 Student shall be able to understand the Necessity of EHV AC transmission line.

 Student shall be able to identify advantages and problems in EHV AC transmission line
 Student shall be able to know how power handling capacity and line losses occur in EHV
AC transmission line.
 Student shall be able to understand various Mechanical considerations.
 Student shall be able to calculate resistance of conductors
 Student shall be able to identify various properties of bundled conductors
 Student shall be able to understand bundle spacing and bundle radius with design
examples.

Line and Ground Reactive Parameters:

 Student shall be able to calculate Line inductance.

 Student shall be able to calculate Line capacitances.
 Student shall be able to understand what is sequence inductances
 Student shall be able to understand what is sequence capacitances
 Student shall be able to understand different modes of propagation and ground return.
 Student shall be able to solve various design examples.
 INTRODUCTION

ROLE OF EHV AC TRANSMISSION

 Industrial-minded countries of the world require a vast amount of energy of which

electrical energy forms a major fraction.
 There are other types of energy such as oil for transportation and industry, natural gas for
domestic and industrial consumption, which form a considerable proportion of the total
energy consumption.
 Thus, electrical energy does not represent the only form in which energy is consumed but
an important part nevertheless.
 It is only 150 years since the invention of the dynamo by Faraday and 120 years since the
installation of the first central station by Edison using dc.
 But the world has already consumed major portion of its natural resources in this short
period and is looking for sources of energy other than hydro and thermal to cater for the
rapid rate of consumption which is outpacing the discovery of new resources.
 This will not slow down with time and therefore there exists a need to reduce the rate of
annual increase in energy consumption by any intelligent society if resources have to be
preserved for posterity.
 After the end of the Second World War, countries all over the world have become
independent and are showing a tremendous rate of industrial development, mostly on the
lines of North-American and European countries, the U.S.S.R. and Japan.
 Therefore, the need for energy is very urgent in these developing countries, and national
policies and their relation to other countries are sometimes based on energy requirements,
chiefly nuclear.
 Hydro-electric and coal or oil-fired stations are located very far from load centres for
various reasons which requires the transmission of the generated electric power over very
long distances.
 This requires very high voltages for transmission. The very rapid strides taken by
development of DC transmission since 1950 is playing a major role in extra-long-distance
transmission, complementing or supplementing e.h.v. ac transmission.
 They have their roles to play and a country must make intelligent assessment of both in
order to decide which is best suited for the country's economy.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT

Any engineer interested in electrical power transmission must concern himself or herself with
energy problems.
Electrical energy sources for industrial and domestic use can be divided into
two broad categories: (1) Transportable; and (2) Locally Usable.
Transportable type is obviously hydro-electric and conventional thermal power. But locally
generated and usable power is by far more numerous and exotic.
Several countries, including India, have adopted national policies to investigate and develop
them, earmarking vast sums of money in their multi-year plans to accelerate the rate of
development. These are also called 'Alternative Sources of Power'.
Twelve such sources of electric power are listed here, but there are others also which the reader
will do well to research.

Locally Usable Power

(1) Conventional thermal power in urban load centres;

(2) Micro-hydel power stations;
(3) Nuclear Thermal: Fission and Fusion;
(4) Wind Energy;
(5) Ocean Energy: (a) Tidal Power, (b) Wave Power, and (c) Ocean thermal gradient power;
(6) Solar thermal;
(7) Solar cells, or photo-voltaic power;
(8) Geo-thermal;
(9) Magneto hydro-dynamic or fluid dynamic;
(10) Coal gasification and liquefaction;
(11) Hydrogen power; and last but not least,
(12) Biomass Energy: (a) Forests; (b) Vegetation; and (c) Animal refuse.
To these can also be added bacterial energy sources where bacteria are cultured to decompose
forests and vegetation to evolve methane gas.
The water hyacinth is a very rich source of this gas and grows wildly in waterlogged ponds and
lakes in India. A brief description of these energy sources and their limitation as far as India is
concerned is given below, with some geographical points.
1. Hydro-Electric Power: The known potential in India is 50,000 MW (50 GW) with 10 GW in
Nepal and Bhutan and the rest within the borders of India. Of this potential, almost 30% or 12
GW lies in the north-eastern part in the Brahmaputra Valley which has not been tapped. When
this power is developed it will necessitate transmission lines of 1000 to 1500 kilometres in length
so that the obvious choice is extra high voltage, ac or dc. The hydel power in India can be
categorized as (a) high-head (26% of total potential), (b) medium-head (47%), (c) low-head (7%,
less then 30 metres head), and (d) run-of-the-river (20%). Thus, micro-hydel plants and run-of-
the-river plants (using may be bulb turbines) have a great future for remote loads in hilly tracts.

2. Coal: The five broad categories of coal available in India are Peat (4500 BTU/LB*), Lignite
(6500), Sub-Bituminous (7000-12000), Bituminous (14,000), and Anthracite (15,500 BTU/LB).
Only non-coking coal of the sub-bituminous type is available for electric power production
whose deposit is estimated at 50 giga tonnes in the Central Indian coal fields, With 50% of this
allocated for thermal stations, it is estimated that the life of coal deposits will be 140 years if the
rate of annual increase in installed capacity is 5%. Thus, the country cannot rely on this source of
power to be perennial. Nuclear thermal power must be developed rapidly to replace conventional
thermal power.

3. Oil and Natural Gas: At present, all oil is used for transportation and none is available for
electric power generation. Natural gas deposits are very meager at the oil fields in the North-
Eastern region and only a few gas-turbine stations are installed to provide the electric power for
the oil operations.

4. Coal Liquefaction and Gasification: Indian coal contains 45% ash and the efficiency of a
conventional thermal station rarely exceeds 25% to 30%. Also transportation of coal from mines
to urban load centres is impossible because of the 45% ash, pilferage of coal at stations where
coal-hauling trains stop, and more importantly the lack of availability of railway wagons for coal
transportation. These are needed for food transportation only. Therefore, the national policy is to
generate electric power in super thermal stations of 2100 MW capacity located at the mine
mouths and transmit the power by e.h.v. transmission lines. If coal is liquified and pumped to
load centres, power up to 7 times its weight in coal can be generated in high efficiency internal
cumbustion engines.

5. Nuclear Energy: The recent advances made in Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors (LMFBR)
are helping many developing countries, including India, to install large nuclear thermal plants.
Although India has very limited Uranium deposits, it does possess nearly 50% of the world's
Thorium deposits. The use of this material for LMFBR is still in infant stages and is being
developed rapidly.
6. Wind Energy: It is estimated that 20% of India's power requirement can be met with
development of wind energy. There are areas in the Deccan Plateau in South-Central India where
winds of 30 km/hour blow nearly constantly. Wind power is intermittent and storage facilities are
required which can take the form of storage batteries or compressed air. For an electrical
engineer, the challenge lies in devising control circuitry to generate a constant magnitude
constant-frequency voltage from the variable-speed generator and to make the generator operate
in synchronism with an existing grid system.

7. Solar-Cell Energy: Photo-voltaic power is very expensive, being nearly the same as nuclear
power costing U.S.$ 1000/kW of peak power. (At the time of writing, 1 U.S$ = Rs. 35). Solar
cells are being manufactured to some extent in India, but the U.S.A. is the largest supplier still.
Indian insolation level is 600 calories/ sq. cm/day on the average which will generate 1.5kW, and
solar energy is renewable as compared to some other sources of energy.

8. Magneto Hydro-Dynamic: The largest MHD generator successfully completed in the world is
a 500 kW unit of AVCO in the U.S.A. Thus, this type of generation of electric energy has very
local applications.

9. Fuel-Cell Energy: The fuel-cell uses H-O interaction through a Phosphoric Acid catalyzer to
yield a flow of electrons in a load connected externally. The most recent installation is by the
Consolidated Edison Co. of New York which uses a module operating at 190°C. Each cell
develops 0.7 V and there are sufficient modules in series to yield an output voltage of 13.8 kV,
the same as a conventional central-station generator. The power output is expected to reach
1MW.

10. Ocean Energy: Energy from the vast oceans of the earth can be developed in 3 different
ways: (i) Tidal; (ii) Wave; and (iii) Thermal Gradient.

(i) Tidal Power: The highest tides in the world occur at 40 to 50° latitudes with tides up to 12 m
existing twice daily. Therefore, Indian tides are low being about 3.5 m in the Western Coast and
Eastern rivers in estuaries. France has successfully operated a 240 MW station at the Rance-
River estuary using bulb turbines. Several installations in the world have followed suit. The
development of Indian tidal power at the Gujarat Coast in the West is very ambitious and is
taking shape very well. Like wind power, tidal power is intermittent in nature. The seawater
during high tides is allowed to run in the same or different passage through the turbine-
generators to fill a reservoir whose retaining walls may be up to 30 km long. At low-tide periods,
the stored water flows back to the sea through the turbines and power is generated.
(ii) Wave Energy: An average power of 25 to 75 kW can be developed per metre of wave length
depending on the wave height. The scheme uses air turbines coupled to generators located in
chambers open to the sea at the bottom and closed at the top. There may be as many as 200-300
such chambers connected together at the top through pipes. A wave crest underneath some
chambers will compress the air which will flow into other chambers underneath which the wave-
trough is passing resulting in lower pressure. This runs the air turbines and generates power.
Others are Salter's Ducks and Cockerrel's 3-part ship.

(iii) Ocean Thermal Power: This scheme utilizes the natural temperature difference between the
warm surface water (20°-25°C) and the cooler oceanbed water at 5°C. The turbine uses NH3 as
the working fluid in one type of installation which is vaporized in a heat-exchanger by the warm
water. The condenser uses the cooler ocean-bed water and the cycle is complete as in a
conventional power station. The cost of such an installation is nearly the same as a nuclear power
station. This brief description of 'alternative' sources of electric power should provide the reader
with an interest to delve deeper into modern energy sources and their development.

Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries

STANDARD TRANSMISSION VOLTAGES
Voltages adopted for transmission of bulk power have to conform to standard specifications
formulated in all countries and internationally. They are necessary in view of import, export, and
domestic manufacture and use. The following voltage levels are recognized in India as per IS-
2026 for line-to-line voltages of 132 kV and higher.
Nominal System
Voltage kV 132 220 275 345 400 500 750
Maximum Operating
Voltage, kV 145 245 300 362 420 525 765
There exist two further voltage classes which have found use in the world but have not been
accepted as standard. They are: 1000 kV (1050 kV maximum) and 1150 kV (1200 kV
maximum). The maximum operating voltages specified above should in no case be exceeded in
any part of the system, since insulation levels of all equipment are based upon them. It is
therefore the primary responsibility of a design engineer to provide sufficient and proper type of
reactive power at suitable places in the system. For voltage rises, inductive compensation and for
voltage drops, capacitive compensation must usually be provided. As example, consider the
following cases.
Problem: A single-circuit 3-phase 50 Hz 400 kV line has a series reactance per phase of 0.327
ohm/km. Neglect line resistance. The line is 400 km long and the receiving-end load is 600 MW
at 0.9 p.f. lag. The positive-sequence line capacitance is 7.27 nF/km. In the absence of any
compensating equipment connected to ends of line, calculate the sending-end voltage. Work with
and without considering line capacitance. The base quantities for calculation are 400 kV, 1000
MVA.

Solution. Load voltage V = 1.0 per unit. Load current I = 0.6 (1 – j0.483) = 0.6 – j0.29 p.u.
Base impedance Zb = 4002/1000 = 160 ohms. Base admittance Yb = 1/160 mho.
Total series reactance of line
X = j0.327 × 400 = j130.8 ohms = j 0.8175 p.u.
Total shunt admittance of line
Y = j 314 × 7.27 × 10–9 × 400
= j 0.9136 × 10– 3 mho = j 0.146 p.u.

When considering the line capacitance, one half will be concentrated at load end across the load
and the other half at the entrance to the line at the sending end, as shown in Figure. Then, the
receiving-end current is
Ir = 0.6 – j0.29 + j0.073 = 0.6 – j0.217 p.u.
\The sending-end voltage will be
Es = 1 + j (0.6 – j0.217) 0.8175 = 1.1774 + j0.49
= 1.2753 Ð22.6° = 510 Ð22.6°, kV.
When line capacitance is omitted, the sending-end voltage is
Es = 1 + j (0.6 – j0.29) 0.8175 = 1.33 Ð21.6° = 532 Ð21.6°, kV.
Note that in both cases, the sending-end voltage, that is, the generating station h.v. bus voltage
exceeds the IS limit of 420 kV.
Problem: In the previous example, suggest suitable reactive compensation equipment to be
provided at the load end to maintain 400 kV (1 p.u. voltage) at both ends of line.
Solution. Since the load is drawing lagging (inductive) current, obviously we have to provide
capacitive compensating equipment across the load in order to reduce the line current.
Figure shows the overall arrangement. If Ic is the current drawn by this compensating
equipment, considering line capacitance, the total receiving-end line current will be
Ir = 0.6 – j0.217 + j Ic, p.u., and the resulting sending-end voltage will be
Es = 1 + j (0.6 – j0.217 + j Ic) 0.8175 = (1.1774 – 0.8175 Ic) + j0.49.

Now, since |Es| = 1 p.u. also, there results Ic = 0.374 p.u. The resulting rating of the
compensating capacitor is 374 MVAR.
When the presence of line capacitance is neglected, Ic = 0.447 p.u. and the required
compensation is 447 MVAR, which is of course higher than 374 MVAR by 73 MVAR.
Detailed discussion of line compensation for voltage control at the sending- and receivingend
busses will be considered. We note in passing that voltage control in e.h.v. systems is a very
expensive proposition. In addition to switched capacitors which provide variable capacitive
reactive power to suit variation of load from no load to full load, variable inductive
compensation will be required which takes the form of thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR) which
are also known as Static VAR Systems. Unfortunately, these give rise to undesirable harmonics
which are injected into the line and may cause maloperation of signalling and some
communication equipment.

2.2 AVERAGE VALUES OF LINE PARAMETERS

Detailed calculation of line parameters will be described in Chapter 3. In order to be able
to estimate how much power a single-circuit at a given voltage can handle, we need to know the
value of positive-sequence line inductance and its reactance at power frequency. Furthermore, in
modern practice, line losses caused by I2R heating of the conductors is gaining in importance
because of the need to conserve energy. Therefore, the use of higher voltages than may be
dictated by purely economic consideration might be found in order not only to lower the current
I to be transmitted but also the conductor resistance R by using bundled conductors comprising
of several sub-conductors in parallel. We will utilize average values of parameters for lines with
horizontal configuration as shown in Table 2.1 for preliminary estimates.
When line resistance is neglected, the power that can be transmitted depends upon (a) the
magnitudes of voltages at the ends (Es, Er), (b) their phase difference d, and (c) the total
positivesequence reactance X per phase, when the shunt caspacitive admittance is neglected.
Thus, P = Es Er sin d /(L.x) ...(2.1)
where P = power in MW, 3-phase, Es, Er = voltages at the sending-end and receiving end,
respectively, in kV line-line, d = phase difference between Es and Er, x = positive-sequence
reactance per phase, ohm/km, and L = line length, km.
Table 2.1. Average Values of Line Parameters

*At 20°C. Increase by 12.5% for 50°C.

From consideration of stability, d is limited to about 30°, and for a preliminary estimate of P, we
will take Es = Er = E.

2.3 POWER-HANDLING CAPACITY AND LINE LOSS

According to the above criteria, the power-handling capacity of a single circuit is
P = E2 sin d /Lx. At unity power factor, at the load P, the current flowing is
I = E sin d / 3 Lx
and the total power loss in the 3-phases will amount to
p = 3I2rL = E2. sin2 d .r/Lx2 ...(2.3)
Therefore, the percentage power loss is
%p = 100 p/P = 100. sin d .(r/x) ...(2.4)
Table 2.2. shows the percentage power loss and power-handling capacity of lines at various
voltage levels shown in Table 2.1, for d = 30° and without series-capacitor compensation.

Table 2.2. Percent Power Loss and Power-Handling Capacity

The following important and useful conclusions can be drawn for preliminary understanding of
trends relating to power-handling capacity of a.c. transmission lines and line losses.
(1) One 750-kV line can normally carry as much power as four 400-kV circuits for equal
distance of transmission.
(2) One 1200-kV circuit can carry the power of three 750-kV circuits and twelve 400-kV circuits
for the same transmission distance.
(3) Similar such relations can be found from the table.
(4) The power-handling capacity of line at a given voltage level decreases with line length, being
inversely proportional to line length L. From equation (2.2) the same holds for current to be
carried.
(5) From the above property, we observe that if the conductor size is based on current rating, as
line length increases, smaller sizes of conductor will be necessary. This will increase the danger
of high voltage effects caused by smaller diameter of conductor giving rise to corona on the
conductors and intensifying radio interference levels and audible noise as well as corona loss.
(6) However, the percentage power loss in transmission remains independent of line length since
it depends on the ratio of conductor resistance to the positive-sequence reactance per unit length,
and the phase difference d between Es and Er.
(7) From the values of % p given in Table 2.2, it is evident that it decreases as the system voltage
is increased. This is very strongly in favour of using higher voltages if energy is to be conserved.
With the enormous increase in world oil prices and the need for conserving natural resources,
this could sometimes become the governing criterion
for selection of voltage for transmission. The Bonneville Power Administration (B.P.A.) in the
U.S.A. has based the choice of 1150 kV for transmission over only 280 km length of line since
the power is enormous (10,000 MW over one circuit).
(8) In comparison to the % power loss at 400 kV, we observe that if the same power is
transmitted at 750 kV, the line loss is reduced to (2.5/4.76) = 0.525, at 1000 kV it is 0.78/4.76 =
0.165, and at 1200 kV it is reduced further to 0.124.
Some examples will serve to illustrate the benefits accrued by using very high transmission
voltages.
Problem. A power of 12,000 MW is required to be transmitted over a distance of 1000km. At
voltage levels of 400 kV, 750 kV, 1000 kV, and 1200 kV, determine:
(1) Possible number of circuits required with equal magnitudes for sending and receivingend
voltages with 30° phase difference;
(2) The currents transmitted; and
(3) The total line losses.
Assume the values of x given in Table 2.1. Omit series-capacitor compensation.
Solution. This is carried out in tabular form.

The above situation might occur when the power potential of the Brahmaputra River in North-
East India will be harnessed and the power transmitted to West Bengal and Bihar. Note that the
total power loss incurred by using 1200 kV ac transmission is almost one-eighth that for 400 kV.
The width of land required is far less while using higher voltages, as will be detailed later on.

Problem: A power of 2000 MW is to be transmitted from a super thermal power station in

Central India over 800 km to Delhi. Use 400 kV and 750 kV alternatives. Suggest the number of
circuits required with 50% series capacitor compensation, and calculate the total power loss and
loss per km.
Solution. With 50% of line reactance compensated, the total reactance will be half of the
positive-sequence reactance of the 800-km line.
Therefore P = 0.5 × 4002/400 × 0.327 = 670 MW/Circuit at 400 kV
and P = 0.5 × 7502/400 × 0.272 = 2860 MW/Circuit at 750 kV
EXAMPLES OF GIANT POWER POOLS AND NUMBER OF LINES
From the discussion of the previous section it becomes apparent that the choice of
transmission voltage depends upon (a) the total power transmitted, (b) the distance of
transmission, (c) the % power loss allowed, and (d) the number of circuits permissible from the
point of view of land acquisition for the line corridor. For example, a single circuit 1200 kV line
requires a width of 56 m, 3 – 765 kV require 300 m, while 6 single-circuit 500 kV lines for
transmitting the same power require 220 m-of-right-of-way (R-O-W). An additional factor is the
technological know how in the country. Two examples of similar situations with regard to
available hydro-electric power will be described in order to draw a parallel for deciding upon the
transmission voltage selection. The first is from Canada and the second from India. These ideas
will then be extended to thermal generation stations situated at mine mouths requiring long
transmission lines for evacuating the bulk power to load centres.

 2.4.1 Canadian Experience

The power situation in the province of Quebec comes closest to the power situation in
India, in that nearly equal amounts of power will be developed eventually and transmitted over
nearly the same distances. Hence the Canadian experience might prove of some use in making
decisions in India also. The power to be developed from the La Grande River located in the
James Bay area of Northern Quebec is as follows : Total 11,340 MW split into 4 stations [LG–1:
1140, LG–2 : 5300, LG–3 : 2300, and LG–4: 2600 MW]. The distance to load centres at
Montreal and Quebec cities is 1100 km. The Hydro-Quebec company has vast ecperience with
their existing 735 kV system from the earlier hydroelectric development at Manicouagan-
Outardes Rivers so that the choice of transmission voltage fell between the existing 735 kV or a
future 1200 kV. However, on account of the vast experience accumulated at the 735 kV level,
this voltage was finally chosen. The number of circuits required from Table 2.2 can be seen to be
10–11 for 735kV and 3–4 for 1200 kV. The lines run practically in wilderness and land
acquisition is not as difficult a problem as in more thickly populated areas. Plans might however
change as the development proceeds. The 1200 kV level is new to the industry and equipment
manufacture is in the infant stages for this level. As an alternative, the company could have
investigated the possibility of using e.h.v. dc transmission. But the final decision was to use 735
kV, ac. In 1987, a ± 450 kV h.v. d.c. link has been decided for James Bay-New England Hydro
line (U.S.A.) for a power of 6000 MW.

 Indian Requirement
The giant hydro-electric power pools are located in the northern border of the country on
the Himalayan Mountain valleys. These are in Kashmir, Upper Ganga on the Alakhananda and
Bhagirathi Rivers, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Brahmaputra River. Power surveys indicate the
following power generation and distances of transmission:
(1) 2500 MW, 250 km, (2) 3000 MW, 300 km, (3) 4000 MW, 400 km, (4) 5000 MW, 300 km,
(5) 12000 MW over distances of (a) 250 km, (b) 450 km, and (c) 1000-1200 km.
Using the power-handling capacities given in Table 2.2 we can construct a table showing the
possible number of circuits required at differenct voltage levels (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3: Voltage Levels and Number of Circuits for Evacuating from Hydro-Electric
Power Pools in India

One can draw certain conclusions from the above table. For example, for powers up to 5000
MW, 400 kV transmission might be adequate. For 12000 MW, we observe that 750 kV level for
distances up to 450 km and 1200 kV for 1000 km might be used, although even for this distance
750 kV might serve the purpose. It is the duty of a design engineer to work out such alternatives
in order that final decisions might be taken. For the sake of reliability, it is usual to have at least 2
circuits. While the previous discussion is limited to ac lines, the dc alternatives must also be
worked out based upon 2000 Amperes per pole. The usual voltages used are ± 400 kV (1600
MW/bipole), ± 500 kV (2000 MW) and ± 600 kV (2400 MW). These power-handling capacities
do not depend on distances of transmission. It is left as an exercise at the end of the chapter for
the reader to work out the dc alternatives for powers and distances given in Table 2.3.

 COSTS OF TRANSMISSION LINES AND EQUIPMENT

It is universally accepted that cost of equipment all over the world is escalating every year.
Therefore, a designer must ascertain current prices from manufacturer of equipment and line
materials. These include conductors, hardware, towers, transformers, shunt reactors, capacitors,
synchronous condensers, land for switchyards and line corridor, and so on. Generating station
costs are not considered here, since we are only dealing with transmission in this book. In this
section, some idea of costs of important equipment is given (which may be current in 2005) for
comparison purposes only. These are not to be used for decision-making purposes.
(1US$ = Rs.50; 1 Lakh = 100, 000; 1 Crore = 100 Lakhs = 10 Million = 107).
(a) High Voltage DC ± 400 kV Bipole
Back-to-back terminals : Rs. 50 Lakhs/MVA for 150 MVA
Rs. 40 Lakhs/MVA for 300 MVA
Cost of 2 terminals : Rs. 40 Lakhs/MVA
Transmission line: Rs. 26.5 Lakhs/Circuit (cct) km
Switchyards : Rs. 3000 Lakhs/bay
(b) 400 kV AC
Transformers : 400/220 kV Autotransformers
Rs. 3.7 Lakhs/MVA for 200 MVA 3-phase unit
to Rs. 3 Lakhs/MVA for 500 MVA 3-phase unit
400 kV/13.8 kV Generator Transformers
Rs. 2 Lakhs/MVA for 250 MVA 3-phase unit
to Rs. 1.5 Lakh/MVA for 550 MVA 3-phase unit.
(c) Shunt Reactors
Non-switchable Rs. 2.6 Lakhs/MVA for 50 MVA unit to
Rs. 2 Lakhs/MVA for 80 MVA unit
Switchable Rs. 9 to 6.5 Lakhs/MVA for 50 to 80 MVA units.
Shunt Capacitors Rs. 1 Lakh/MVA
Synchronous Condensers (Including transformers) :
Rs. 13 Lakhs/MVA for 70 MVA to
Rs. 7 Lakhs/MVA for 300 MVA
Transmission Line Cost:
400 kV Single Circuit: Rs. 25 Lakhs/cct km
220 kV: S/C: Rs. 13 Lakhs/cct km; D/C: Rs. 22 Lakhs/cct km.

Problem: A power of 900 MW is to be transmitted over a length of 875 km. Estimate the cost
difference when using ± 400 kV dc line and 400 kV ac lines.
Solution. Power carried by a single circuit dc line = 1600 MW. Therefore, 1 Circuit is sufficient
and it allows for future expansion.
Power carried by ac line = 0.5 E 2/xL = 0.5 × 4002/ (0.32 × 875) = 285 MW/cct.
... 3 circuits will be necessary to carry 900 MW.
DC Alternative: cost of
(a) Terminal Stations Rs. 33.5 × 103 Lakhs
(b) Transmission Line Rs. 23 × 103 Lakhs
(c) 2 Switchyard Bays Rs. 5.8 × 103 Lakhs
Total Rs. 62.3 × 103 Lakhs = Rs. 623 Crores
AC Alternative: Cost of
(a) 6 Switchyard Bays Rs. 17.5 × 103 Lakhs
(b) Shunt reactors 500 MVA Rs. 1 × 103 Lakhs
(c) Shunt capacitors 500 MVA Rs. 0.5 × 103 Lakhs
(d) Line cost: (3 × 875 × 25 Lakhs) Rs. 65 × 103 Lakhs
 Total Rs. 84 × 103 Lakhs = Rs. 840 Crores
Difference in cost = Rs. 217 Crores, dc being lower than ac.
(Certain items common to both dc and ac transmission have been omitted. Also, series capacitor
compensation has not been considered).

Problem: Repeat the above problem if the transmission distance is 600 km.
Solution. The reader can calculate that the dc alternative costs about 55 x 103 Lakhs or Rs. 550
Crores.
For the ac alternative, the power-handling capacity per circuit is increased to 285 × 875/600
= 420 MW. This requires 2 circuits for handling 900 MW.
The reactive powers will also be reduced to 120 MVA for each line in shunt reactors and
switched capacitors. The cost estimate will then include:
(a) 4 Switchyard Bays Rs. 11 × 103 Lakhs
(b) Shunt reactors 240 MVA Rs. 0.6 × 103 Lakhs
(c) Shunt capacitors Rs. 0.27 × 103 Lakhs
(d) Line cost: 2 × 600 × 25 Lakhs Rs. 30 × 103 Lakhs
Total Rs. 41. 87 × 103 Lakhs = 418.7 Crores.
The dc alternative has become more expensive than the ac alternative by about Rs.130 Crores. In
between line lengths of 600 km and 875 km for transmitting the same power, the two alternatives
will cost nearly equal. This is called the "Break Even Distance".

MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LINE PERFORMANCE

 Types of Vibrations and Oscillations
In this section a brief description will be given of the enormous importance which
designers place on the problems created by vibrations and oscillations of the very heavy
conductor arrangement required for e.h.v. transmission lines. As the number of sub-conductors
used in a bundle increases, these vibrations and countermeasures and spacings of sub-conductors
will also affect the electrical design, particularly the surface voltage gradient. The mechanical
designer will recommend the tower dimensions, phase spacings, conductor height, sub-conductor
spacings, etc. from which the electrical designer has to commence his calculations of resistance,
inductance, capacitance, electrostatic field, corona effects, and all other performance
characteristics. Thus, the two go hand in hand.
The sub-conductors in a bundle are separated by spacers of suitable type, which bring their own
problems such as fatigue to themselves and to the outer strands of the conductor during
vibrations. The design of spacers will not be described here but manufacturers' catalogues should
be consulted for a variety of spacers available. These spacers are provided at intervals ranging
from 60 to 75 metres between each span which is in the neighbourhood of 300 metres for e.h.v.
lines. Thus, there may be two end spans and two or three subspans in the middle. The spacers
prevent conductors from rubbing or colliding with each other in wind and ice storms, if any.
However, under less severe wind conditions the bundle spacer can damage itself or cause
damage to the conductor under certain critical vibration conditions. Electrically speaking, since
the charges on the sub-conductors are of the same polarity, there exists electrostatic repulsion
among them. On the other hand, since they carry currents in the same direction, there is
electromagnetic attraction. This force is especially severe during short-circuit currents so that the
spacer has a force exerted on it during normal or abnormal electrical operation.
Three types of vibration are recognized as being important for e.h.v. conductors, their degree of
severity depending on many factors, chief among which are: (a) conductor tension, (b) span
length, (c) conductor size, (d) type of conductor, (e) terrain of line, (f) direction of prevailing
winds, (g) type of supporting clamp of conductor-insulator assemblies from the tower, (h) tower
type, (i) height of tower, (j) type of spacers and dampers, and (k) the vegetation in the vicinity
ofline. In general, the most severe vibration conditions are created by winds without turbulence
so that hills, buildings, and trees help in reducing the severity. The types of vibration are:
(1) Aeolian Vibration, (2) Galloping, and (3) Wake-Induced Oscillations. The first two are
present for both single-and multi-conductor bundles, while the wake-induced oscillation is
confined to a bundle only. Standard forms of bundle conductors have sub-conductors ranging
from 2.54 to 5cm diameters with bundle spacing of 40 to 50 cm between adjacent conductors.
For e.h.v.transmission, the number ranges from 2 to 8 sub-conductors for transmission voltages
from 400 kV to 1200 kV, and up to 12 or even 18 for higher voltages which are not yet
commercially in operation. We will briefly describe the mechanism causing these types of
vibrations and the problems created by them.

 Aeolian Vibration
When a conductor is under tension and a comparatively steady wind blows across it,
small vortices are formed on the leeward side called Karman Vortices (which were first observed
on aircraft wings). These vortices detach themselves and when they do alternately from the top
and bottom they cause a minute vertical force on the conductor. The frequency of the forces is
given by the accepted formula
F = 2.065 v/d, Hz ...(2.5)
where v = component of wind velocity normal to the conductor in km/ hour, and d = diameter of
conductor in centimetres. [The constant factor of equation (2.5) becomes 3.26 when v is in mph
and d in inches.]
The resulting oscillation or vibrational forces cause fatigue of conductor and supporting structure
and are known as aeolian vibrations. The frequency of detachment of the Karman vortices might
correspond to one of the natural mechanical frequencies of the span, which if not damped
properly, can build up and destroy individual strands of the conductor at points of restraint such
as at supports or at bundle spacers. They also give rise to wave effects in which the vibration
travels along the conductor suffering reflection at discontinuities at points of different
mechanical characteristics. Thus, there is associated with them a mechanical impedance.
Dampers are designed on this property and provide suitable points of negative reflection to
reduce the wave amplitudes. Aeolian vibrations are not observed at wind velocities in excess of
25 km/hour. They occur principally in terrains which do not disturb the wind so that turbulence
helps to reduce aeolian vibrations.
In a bundle of 2 conductors, the amplitude of vibration is less than for a single conductor due to
some cancellation effect through the bundle spacer. This occurs when the conductors are not
located in a vertical plane which is normally the case in practice. The conductors are located in
nearly a horizontal plane. But with more than 2 conductors in a bundle, conductors are located in
both planes. Dampers such as the Stockbridge type or other types help to damp the vibrations in
the subspans connected to them, namely the end sub-spans, but there are usually two or three
sub-spans in the middle of the span which are not protected by these dampers provided only at
the towers. Flexible spacers are generally provided which may or may not be designed to offer
damping. In cases where they are purposely designed to damp the sub-span oscillations, they are
known as spacer-dampers.
Since the aeolian vibration depends upon the power imparted by the wind to the conductor,
measurements under controlled conditions in the laboratory are carried out in wind tunnels. The
frequency of vibration is usually limited to 20 Hz and the amplitudes less than 2.5 cm.

 Galloping
Galloping of a conductor is a very high amplitude, low-frequency type of conductor motion and
occurs mainly in areas of relatively flat terrain under freezing rain and icing of conductors. The
flat terrain provides winds that are uniform and of a low turbulence. When a conductor is iced, it
presents an unsymmetrical corss-section with the windward side having less ice accumulation
than the leeward side of the conductor. When the wind blows across such a surface, there is an
aerodynamic lift as well as a drag force due to the direct pressure of the wind. the two forces give
rise to torsional modes of oscillation and they combine to oscillate the conductor with very large
amplitudes sufficient to cause contact of two adjacent phases, which may be 10 to 15 metres
apart in the rest position. Galloping is induced by winds ranging from 15 to 50 km/hour,
which may normally be higher than that required for aeolian vibrations but there could be an
overlap. The conductor oscillates at frequencies between 0.1 and 1 Hz. Galloping is controlled by
using "detuning pendulums" which take the form of weights applied at different locations on
the span.
Galloping may not be a problem in a hot country like India where temperatures are normally
above freezing in winter. But in hilly tracts in the North, the temperatures may dip to below the
freezing point. When the ice loosens from the conductor, it brings another oscillatory
motion called Whipping but is not present like galloping during only winds.
  Wake-Induced Oscillation
The wake-induced oscillation is peculiar to a bundle conductor, and similar to aeolian
vibration and galloping occurring principally in flat terrain with winds of steady velocity and low
turbulence. The frequency of the oscillation does not exceed 3 Hz but may be of sufficient
amplitude to cause clashing of adjacent sub-conductors, which are separated by about 50 cm.
Wind speeds for causing wake-induced oscillation must be normally in the range 25 to 65
km/hour. As compared to this, aeolian vibration occurs at wind speeds less than 25 km/hour, has
frequencies less than 20 Hz and amplitudes less than 2.5 cm. Galloping occurs at wind speeds
between 15 and 50 km/hour, has a low frequency of less than 1 Hz, but amplitudes exceeding 10
metres. Fatigue failure to spacers is one of the chief causes for damage to insulators and
conductors. Wake-induced oscillation, also called "flutter instability", is caused when one
conductor on the windward side aerodynamically shields the leeward conductor. To cause this
type of oscillation, the leeward conductor must be positioned at rest towards the limits of the
wake or windshadow of the windward conductor. The oscillation occurs when the bundle tilts 5
to 15° with respect to a flat ground surface. Therefore, a gently sloping ground with this angle
can create conditions favourable to wake-induced oscillations. The conductor spacing to
diameter ratio in the bundle is also critical. If the spacing B is less than 15d, d being the
conductor diameter, a tendency to oscillate is created while for B/d > 15 the bundle is found to be
more stable. As mentioned earlier, the electrical design, such as calculating the surface voltage
gradient on the conductors, will depend upon these mechanical considerations.

 2.6.5 Dampers and Spacers

When the wind energy imparted to the conductor achieves a balance with the energy
dissipated by the vibrating conductor, steady amplitudes for the oscillations occur. A damping
device helps to achieve this balance at smaller amplitudes of aeolian vibrations than an
undamped conductor. The damper controls the intensity of the wave-like properties of travel of
the oscillation and provides an equivalent heavy mass which absorbs the energy in the wave. A
sketch of a Stockbridge damper is shown in Fig.
A simpler form of damper is called the Armour Rod, which is a set of wires twisted around the
line conductor at the insulator supporting conductor and hardware, and extending for about 5
metres on either side. This is used for small conductors to provide a change in mechanical
impedance. But for heavier conductors, weights must be used, such as the Stockbridge, which
range from 5 kg for conductors of 2.5 cm diameter to 14 kg for 4.5 cm. Because of the steel
strands inside them ACSR conductors have better built-in property against oscillations than
ACAR conductors.
 There are a large number of types of spacers which keep the conductors apart. Most
modern spacers have some flexibility built into them to allow rotation of the conductor inside
them such as lining the clamps with high-strength plastic or rubber washers. Some spacers are
specially designed to act as dampers and may also take the form of heavy springs. The selection
of the spacers is also determined by the wind speed in the locality. Fig. 2.3 shows a spacer used
for a bundle conductor.
 Calculation of Line and Ground Parameters
3.1 RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS

Conductors   used   for   e.h.v.   transmission   lines   are   always   stranded.   Most   common
conductors use a steel core for reinforcement of the strength of aluminium, but recently
high tensile strength aluminium is being increasingly used, replacing the steel. The former
is   known   as   ACSR   (Aluminium   Conductor   Steel   Reinforced)   and   the   latter   ACAR
(Aluminium   Conductor   Alloy   Reinforced).   A   recent   development   is   the   AAAC   (All
Aluminium Alloy Conductor) which consists of alloys of Al, Mg, Si. This has 10 to 15% less
loss than ACSR. When a steel core is used, because of its high permeability and inductance,
power­frequency   current   flows   only   in   the   aluminium   strands.   In   ACAR   and   AAAC
conductors, the cross­section is better utilized.
Fig. 3.1 shows an example of a stranded conductor.
3.1.1 Effect of Resistance of Conductor

The effect of conductor resistance of e.h.v. lines is manifested in the following forms:
(1) Power loss in transmission caused by I2R heating;
(2) Reduced current­carrying capacity of conductor in high ambient temperature regions.
This problem is particularly severe in Northern India where summer temperatures in the
plains reach 50°C. The combination of intense solar irradiation of conductor combined with
the   I2R   heating   raises   the   temperature   of   Aluminium   beyond   the   maximum   allowable
temperature which stands at 65°C as per Indian Standards. At an ambient of 48°C, even
the solar irradiation is sufficient to raise the temperature to 65°C for 400 kV line, so that no
current can be carried. If there is improvement in
material and the maximum temperature raised to 75°C, it is estimated that a current of
600 amperes can be transmitted for the same ambient temperature of 48°C.
(3) The conductor resistance affects the attenuation of travelling waves due to lightning and
switching operations, as well as radio­frequency energy generated by corona. In these cases,
the resistance is computed at the  following range of frequencies: Lightning—100  to 200
kHz;   Switching—1000­5000   Hz;   Radio   frequency—0.5   to   2   MHz.   We   shall   consider   the
high­frequency resistance later on.

3.1.2 Power Loss in Transmission

In this topic, average resistance values were given in Table 2.1. For various amounts of
power transmitted at e.h.v. voltage levels, the I2R heating loss in MW are shown in Table
3.1 below. The power factor is taken as unity. In every case the phase angle difference d =
30° between Es and Er.

3.1.3 Skin Effect Resistance in Round Conductors

It was mentioned earlier that the resistance of overhead line conductors must be evaluated
at frequencies ranging from power frequency (50/60 Hz) to radio frequencies up to 2 MHz or
more. With increase in frequency, the current tends to flow nearer the surface resulting in a
decrease in area for current conduction. This gives rise to increase in effective resistance
due to the 'Skin Effect'. The physical mechanism for this effect is based on the fact that the
inner filaments of the conductors link larger amounts of flux as the centre is approached
which causes an increase in reactance. The reactance is proportional to frequency so that
the impedance to current flow is larger in the inside, thus preventing flow of current easily.
The result is a crowding of current at the outer filaments of the conductor. The increase in
resistance of a stranded conductor is more difficult to calculate than that of a single round
solid conductor because of the close proximity of the strands which distort the magnetic
field   still   further.   It   is   easier   to   determine   the   resistance   of   a   stranded   conductor   by
experiment  at  the  manufacturer's premises  for  all  conductor   sizes  manufactured and  at
various frequencies.
3.2 TEMPERATURE RISE OF CONDUCTORS AND CURRENT-CARRYING
CAPACITY
When a conductor is carrying current and its temperature has reached a steady value, heat
balance requires
Let Wi = I2R heating in watts/metre length of conductor
Ws = solar irradiation ,, ,, ,, ,,
Wc = convection loss ,, ,, ,, ,,
and Wr = radiation loss ,, ,, ,, ,,
Then the heat balance equation becomes
Wi + Ws = Wc + Wr ...(3.9)
Each of these four terms depends upon several factors which must be written out in terms
of   temperature,   conductor   dimensions,   wind   velocity,   atmospheric   pressure,   current,
resistance,   conductor   surface   condition,   etc.   It   will   then   be   possible   to   find   a   relation
between the temperature rise and current. The maximum allowable temperature of an Al
conductor is 65°C at present, but will be increased to 75°C . Many countries in the world
have already specified the limit as 75°C above which the metal loses its tensile strength.
The four quantities given above are as follows:

(1) I2R heating. Wi = I2Rm watts/metre where, Rm = resistance of conductor per metre
length at the maximum temperature.
Give ten levels of transmission voltages that are used in the world.
Ans: Locally Usable Power
(1) Conventional thermal power in urban load centres;
(2) Micro-hydel power stations;
(3) Nuclear Thermal: Fission and Fusion;
(4) Wind Energy;
(5) Ocean Energy: (a) Tidal Power, (b) Wave Power, and (c) Ocean thermal gradient
power;
(6) Solar thermal;
(7) Solar cells, or photo-voltaic power;
(8) Geo-thermal;
(9) Magneto hydro-dynamic or fluid dynamic;
(10) Coal gasification and liquefaction;
(11) Hydrogen power; and last but not least,
(12) Biomass Energy: (a) Forests; (b) Vegetation; and (c) Animal refuse.
To these can also be added bacterial energy sources where bacteria are cultured to decompose
forests and vegetation to evolve methane gas. The water hyacinth is a very rich source of this gas
and grows wildly in waterlogged ponds and lakes in India. A brief description of these energy
sources and their limitation as far as India is concerned is given below, with some geographical
points.
1. Hydro-Electric Power: The known potential in India is 50,000 MW (50 GW) with 10 GW in
Nepal and Bhutan and the rest within the borders of India. Of this potential, almost 30% or 12
GW lies in the north-eastern part in the Brahmaputra Valley which has not been tapped. When
this power is developed it will necessitate transmission lines of 1000 to 1500 kilometres in length
so that the obvious choice is extra high voltage, ac or dc. The hydel power in India can be
categorized as (a) high-head (26% of total potential), (b) medium-head (47%), (c) low-head (7%,
less then 30 metres head), and (d) run-of-the-river (20%). Thus, micro-hydel plants and run-of-
the-river plants (using may be bulb turbines) have a great future for remote loads in hilly tracts.

2. Coal: The five broad categories of coal available in India are Peat (4500 BTU/LB*), Lignite
(6500), Sub-Bituminous (7000-12000), Bituminous (14,000), and Anthracite (15,500 BTU/LB).
Only non-coking coal of the sub-bituminous type is available for electric power production
whose deposit is estimated at 50 giga tonnes in the Central Indian coal fields, With 50% of this
allocated for thermal stations, it is estimated that the life of coal deposits will be 140 years if the
rate of annual increase in installed capacity is 5%. Thus, the country cannot rely on this source of
power to be perennial. Nuclear thermal power must be developed rapidly to replace conventional
thermal power.

3. Oil and Natural Gas: At present, all oil is used for transportation and none is available for
electric power generation. Natural gas deposits are very meager at the oil fields in the North-
Eastern region and only a few gas-turbine stations are installed to provide the electric power for
the oil operations.
4. Coal Liquefaction and Gasification: Indian coal contains 45% ash and the efficiency of a
conventional thermal station rarely exceeds 25% to 30%. Also transportation of coal from mines
to urban load centres is impossible because of the 45% ash, pilferage of coal at stations where
coal-hauling trains stop, and more importantly the lack of availability of railway wagons for coal
transportation. These are needed for food transportation only. Therefore, the national policy is to
generate electric power in super thermal stations of 2100 MW capacity located at the mine
mouths and transmit the power by e.h.v. transmission lines. If coal is liquified and pumped to
load centres, power up to 7 times its weight in coal can be generated in high efficiency internal
cumbustion engines.

5. Nuclear Energy: The recent advances made in Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors (LMFBR)
are helping many developing countries, including India, to install large nuclear thermal plants.
Although India has very limited Uranium deposits, it does possess nearly 50% of the world's
Thorium deposits. The use of this material for LMFBR is still in infant stages and is being
developed rapidly.

6. Wind Energy: It is estimated that 20% of India's power requirement can be met with
development of wind energy. There are areas in the Deccan Plateau in South-Central India where
winds of 30 km/hour blow nearly constantly. Wind power is intermittent and storage facilities are
required which can take the form of storage batteries or compressed air. For an electrical
engineer, the challenge lies in devising control circuitry to generate a constant magnitude
constant-frequency voltage from the variable-speed generator and to make the generator operate
in synchronism with an existing grid system.
7. Solar-Cell Energy: Photo-voltaic power is very expensive, being nearly the same as nuclear
power costing U.S.$ 1000/kW of peak power. (At the time of writing, 1 U.S$ = Rs. 35). Solar
cells are being manufactured to some extent in India, but the U.S.A. is the largest supplier still.
Indian insolation level is 600 calories/ sq. cm/day on the average which will generate 1.5 kW,
and solar energy is renewable as compared to some other sources of energy.

8. Magneto Hydro-Dynamic: The largest MHD generator successfully completed in the world is
a 500 kW unit of AVCO in the U.S.A. Thus, this type of generation of electric energy has very
local applications.

9. Fuel-Cell Energy: The fuel-cell uses H-O interaction through a Phosphoric Acid catalyzer to
yield a flow of electrons in a load connected externally. The most recent installation is by the
Consolidated Edison Co. of New York which uses a module operating at 190°C. Each cell
develops 0.7 V and there are sufficient modules in series to yield an output voltage of 13.8 kV,
the same as a conventional central-station generator. The power output is expected to reach 1
MW.

10. Ocean Energy: Energy from the vast oceans of the earth can be developed in 3 different
ways:
(i) Tidal;
(ii) Wave; and
(iii) Thermal Gradient.
(i) Tidal Power: The highest tides in the world occur at 40 to 50° latitudes with tides up to 12 m
existing twice daily. Therefore, Indian tides are low being about 3.5 m in the Western Coast and
Eastern rivers in estuaries.
France has successfully operated a 240 MW station at the Rance River estuary using bulb
turbines. Several installations in the world have followed suit. The development of Indian tidal
power at the Gujarat Coast in the West is very ambitious and is taking shape very well. Like
wind power, tidal power is intermittent in nature.
The seawater during high tides is allowed to run in the same or different passage through the
turbine-generators to fill a reservoir whose retaining walls may be up to 30 km long. At low-tide
periods, the stored water flows back to the sea through the turbines and power is generated.

(ii) Wave Energy: An average power of 25 to 75 kW can be developed per metre of wave length
depending on the wave height. The scheme uses air turbines coupled to generators located in
chambers open to the sea at the bottom and closed at the top. There may be as many as 200-300
such chambers connected together at the top through pipes. A wave crest underneath some
chambers will compress the air which will flow into other chambers underneath which the wave-
trough is passing resulting in lower pressure. This runs the air turbines and generates power.
Others are Salter's Ducks and Cockerrel's 3-part ship.

(iii) Ocean Thermal Power: This scheme utilizes the natural temperature difference between the
warm surface water (20°-25°C) and the cooler oceanbed water at 5°C. The turbine uses NH3 as
the working fluid in one type of installation which is vaporized in a heat-exchanger by the warm
water. The condenser uses the cooler ocean-bed water and the cycle is complete as in a
conventional power station. The cost of such an installation is nearly the same as a nuclear power
station. This brief description of 'alternative' sources of electric power should provide the reader
with an interest to delve deeper into modern energy sources and their development.

Properties of Bundled conductors and explain with neat sketches

Bundled conductors are exclusively used for e.h.v. transmission lines. Only one line in the world,
that of the Bonneville Power Administration in the U.S.A., has used a special expanded ACSR
conductor of 2.5 inch diameter for their 525 kV line. Fig. 3.3 shows examples of conductor
configurations used for each phase of ac lines or each pole of a dc line.

As of now a maximum of 18 sub-conductors have been tried on experimental lines but for
commercial lines the largest number is 8 for 1150-1200 kV lines.

(i) Bundle Spacing and Bundle Radius (or Diameter)

In almost all cases, the sub-conductors of a bundle are uniformly distributed on a circle of radius
R. There are proposals to space them non-uniformly to lower the audible noise generated by the
bundle conductor, but we will develop the relevant geometrical properties of an Nconductor
bundle on the assumption of uniform spacing of the sub-conductors (Fig. 3.4). It is also reported
that the flashover voltage of a long airgap is increased when a non-uniform spacing for sub-
conductors is used for the phase conductor.

Fig. 3.4 Bundle spacing B, and bundle radius R.

The spacing between adjacent sub-conductors is termed 'Bundle Spacing' and denoted by B. The
radius of the pitch circle on which the sub-conductors are located will be called the 'Bundle
Radius', denoted as R. The radius of each sub-conductor is r with diameter d. The angle sub-
tended at the centre by adjacent sub-conductors is (2p/N) radians, and it is readily seen that

B/2 = R sin (p/N) giving R = B/2 sin (p/N) ...(3.11)

For N = 2 to 18, the following table gives (R/B) and (B/R).
N= 2 3 4 6 8 12 18
R/B = 0.5 0.578 0.7071 1 1.308 1.874 2.884
B/R = 2 3 2 1 0.7654 0.5344 0.3472

(ii) Geometric Mean Radius of Bundle (Equivalent Radius)

Except for calculating the surface voltage gradient from the charge of each sub-conductor, for
most other calculations the bundle of N-sub-conductors can be replaced by a single conductor
having an equivalent radius. This is called the 'Geometric Mean Radius' or simply the 'Equivalent
Radius.' It will be shown below that its value is
req = (N.r.RN–1)1/N = r[N.(R/r)N–1]1/N = R(N.r/R)1/N ...(3.12)
It is the Nth root of the product of the sub-conductor radius r', and the distance of this
subconductor from all the other (N – 1) companions in the bundle. Equation (3.12) is derived as
follows:
Referring to Fig. 3.4, the product of (N – 1) mutual distances is

Problem: A single-circuit 3-phase 50 Hz 400 kV line has a series reactance per phase of
0.327 ohm/km. Neglect line resistance. The line is 400 km long and the receiving-end load is
600 MW at 0.9 p.f. lag. The positive-sequence line capacitance is 7.27 nF/km. In the absence
of any compensating equipment connected to ends of line, calculate the sending-end
voltage. Work with and without considering line capacitance. The base quantities for
calculation are 400 kV, 1000 MVA.

Solution. Load voltage V = 1.0 per unit. Load current I = 0.6 (1 – j0.483) = 0.6 – j0.29 p.u.
Base impedance Zb = 4002/1000 = 160 ohms. Base admittance Yb = 1/160 mho.
Total series reactance of line
X = j0.327 × 400 = j130.8 ohms = j 0.8175 p.u.
Total shunt admittance of line
Y = j 314 × 7.27 × 10–9 × 400
= j 0.9136 × 10– 3 mho = j 0.146 p.u.

When considering the line capacitance, one half will be concentrated at load end across the load
and the other half at the entrance to the line at the sending end, as shown in Figure. Then, the
receiving-end current is
Ir = 0.6 – j0.29 + j0.073 = 0.6 – j0.217 p.u.
\The sending-end voltage will be
Es = 1 + j (0.6 – j0.217) 0.8175 = 1.1774 + j0.49
= 1.2753 Ð22.6° = 510 Ð22.6°, kV.
When line capacitance is omitted, the sending-end voltage is
Es = 1 + j (0.6 – j0.29) 0.8175 = 1.33 Ð21.6° = 532 Ð21.6°, kV.
Note that in both cases, the sending-end voltage, that is, the generating station h.v. bus voltage
exceeds the IS limit of 420 kV.

i) Single-phase line for capacitance calculation

Consider two conductors of equal radii r located with their centres 2H apart, as shown in
Fig. 3.11. The charges on each is Q coulombs/metre and of opposite polarity. On a unit positive
test charge located at point F at a distance x from the centre of the conductor on the left with
positive charge Q, the total force exerted will be

(This results from Gauss's Law and the reader is referred to Chapter 4 if it is not already known
from previous courses devoted to Electrostatics.). Consequently, the potential difference between
the two conductors is
Since the factor ln (2H/r) multiplies the charge coefficient (Q/2pe0), which is in volts, it is called
Mawell's Potential coefficient. We encountered the same factor in inductance calculation also.
The mid-plane G–G is an equipotential surface since the electric force is everywhere
perpendicular to it as can be observed from the vector field intensity EF' at a point F', whose
components along G –G are equal and opposite. We again observe that when the ground plane G
– G is considered an equipotential surface for capacitance calculations, its effect can be
considered by using an image conductor with a charge equal to the charge on the aerial
conductor but of opposite polarity. From equation (3.35), we write the self potential coefficient
as
Pii = ln (2H/r) ...(3.36)