MAPÚA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME139L/E02

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

WRITTEN REPORT ON

RELATIVE DENSITY AND VISCOSITY

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

SUBMITTED BY:

SILVA, ETHAN THEODORE S.

2014141326

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. PAULO RAFAEL V. MERIS

November 19, 2019

ABSTRACT

- Determining the density, viscosity and specific gravity is the primary goal in this
experiment. In this experiment the students were able to learn how to use different kinds
of apparatus that could help them determine the physical properties of a fluid. Apparatus
like hydrometer, pycnometer and viscometer are used in this experiment. In this
experiment the students were able to learn and widen their knowledge about fluid
properties and how to determine them easily and accurately. As an engineering student
this experiment helped us and was able to teach us better knowledge for us to use in the
future.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To determine the relative density (specific gravity) of sample liquids, and fuels

2. To be able to determine the viscosity of sample fluid (glycerin)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

ABSTRACT ii

OBJECTIVES ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1-7

DISCUSSION 8-9

FINAL DATA SHEET / SET-UP 10-14

CONCLUSION 15

RECOMMENDATION 15

REFERENCES 15

ATTACHMENTS

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THEORIES AND PRINCIPLE

In order to classify and identify materials of a wide variety, scientists use numbers called
physical constants (e.g. density, melting point, boiling point, index of refraction) which are
characteristic of the material in question. These constants do not vary with the amount or shape
of the material, and are therefore useful in positively identifying unknown materials. Standard
reference works have been complied containing lists of data for a wide variety of substances. The
chemist makes use of this in determining the identity of an unknown substance, by measuring the
appropriate physical constants in the laboratory, consulting the scientific literature, and then
comparing the measured physical constants with the values for known materials.

Density is a measure of the “compactness” of matter within a substance and is defined by

the equation:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Density of a body is mass per unit volume. With SI units, densities are in kilograms per
cubic meter. However, giving densities in grams per cubic centimeter has been common. With
the USCS, densities are given in pounds per mass cubic foot. Density may be calculated from a
separate mass and volume measurement, or, in the case of liquids, may be determined directly by
the use of an instrument called hydrometer.

Volume measurements for liquids or gases are made using graduated containers, for
example, a graduated cylinder. For solids, the volume can be obtained either from the
measurement of the dimensions of the solid or by displacement. The first method can be applied
to solids with regular geometric shapes for which the mathematical formulas can be used to
calculate the volume of the solid from the dimensions of the solid. Alternatively, the volume of
any solid object, irregular or regularly shaped, can be measured by displacement. The solid is
submerged in a liquid in which it is not soluble, and the volume of liquid displaced measured.

The hydrometer measures density directly. An object that is less dense than a liquid will float in
that liquid density to a depth such that the mass of the object submerged equals the mass of the
of the liquid displaced (Archimedes' Principle). Since mass equals density X volume (see
equation 1), an object floated in liquids of different densities will displace different volumes of

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liquid. A hydrometer is a tube of constant mass that has been calibrated to measure density by
floating the hydrometer in liquids of known densities and recording on a scale the fraction of the
hydrometer submerged. Any hydrometer can be used over a limited range of densities because
the hydrometer must float in the liquid being studied and the hydrometer level must be
sufficiently submerged to obtain an on-scale reading. Hydrometers may be calibrated in g/ml or
some other unit of density.

Another instrument used to measure density is the pycnometer. The pycnometer is a flask
with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a fine hole through it, so that a given volume can
be accurately obtained. This enables the density of a fluid to be measured accurately, by
reference to an appropriate working fluid such as water or mercury, using an analytical balance.

Relative density is the ratio of the density of one substance to that of a reference
substance, both at some specified temperature. For solids and liquids water is almost universally
used as the reference substance. The relative density of liquids is usually measured by means of a
hydrometer. In addition to scale reading in relative density as defined, other arbitrary scales of
hydrometers are used in various trades and industries. The most common of these scales are the
API and Baumé.

Relative Density:

𝜌 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

API scale:

141.5
Sp. gr. at 60 / 60  F 
131.5 API at 60  F


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Baumé scale:

140
Sp. gr. at 60 / 60  F 
130 Be at 60  F


Knowing the density of a liquid serves numerous purposes and can provide valuable
information for making decisions. Understanding what density is, what affects density, and how
density affects other physical properties is important in using and translating this information
into an everyday useful tool The American Petroleum Institute (API) came up with their own
gravity term referred to as API gravity. API gravity is simply a measure of how heavy or light a
petroleum liquid is compared to water. By definition, if the petroleum’s API gravity is greater
than 10 then it is lighter than water and will float on water. If the API gravity is less than 10 then
it is heavier than water and will sink. The API gravity scale does not have a unit of measure per
say but is referred to in “degrees” with a scale from 10 to 70. This API gravity scale allows
relative densities of petroleum liquids to be compared. Why is this important? Why do we want
to be able to compare petroleum liquids? Well, the answer has to do with classifying the
petroleum by quality. In the oil industry crude oil is classified as either light, medium or heavy,
according to it’s measured API gravity! The measured API gravity will determine the class of oil
and therefore determine the value of the product.

Viscosity is a fluid property that measures the resistance of a fluid to flow and can simply
be thought of as the “thickness” of a fluid. Fluids that have a high viscosity, such as honey or
molasses, have a high resistance to flow while fluids with a low viscosity, such as a gas, flow
easily. The resistance to deformation within a fluid can be expressed as both absolute (or
dynamic) viscosity, µ [Ns/m2], and kinematic viscosity, υ [m2/s].

Newtonian fluids' type of flow behavior Newton assumed for all fluids is called, not
surprisingly, Newtonian. It is, however, only one of several types of flow behavior you may
encounter. A Newtonian fluid is represented graphically in the figure below. Graph A shows that
the relationship between shear stress (F′) and shear rate (S) is a straight line. Graph B shows that
the fluid's viscosity remains constant as the shear rate is varied. Typical Newtonian fluids include
water and thin motor oils.

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 A non-Newtonian fluid is broadly defined as one for which the relationship F′/S is not a
constant. In other words, when the shear rate is varied, the shear stress doesn't vary in the same
proportion (or even necessarily in the same direction). The viscosity of such fluids will therefore
change as the shear rate is varied. Thus, the experimental parameters of Viscometer model,
spindle and speed all have an effect on the measured viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid. This
measured viscosity is called the apparent viscosity of the fluid and is accurate only when explicit
experimental parameters are furnished and adhered to.

There are several types of non-Newtonian flow behavior, characterized by the way a
fluid's viscosity changes in response to variations in shear rate. The most common types of non-
Newtonian fluids you may encounter include: psuedoplastic, dilatant, and plastic.

Absolute viscosity is determined by the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate of the
fluid. The shear stress is dependent on the fluid’s resistance force to flow over the area of the
plate while the shear rate is the equivalent to the fluid’s gradient.

𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 𝐴
µ= = = 𝛿µ
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝛿𝑦

These relationships shown in the equation above can be seen pictorially in Figure 1.

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 While absolute viscosity is able to quantifiably compare various liquids and gases on the
same scale, it does not account for an important characteristic of fluids – the density (ρ).
Kinematic viscosity (υ) is highly dependent on density and is measured by the time required for a
specific volume of fluid to flow through a capillary or restriction.

µ
𝜐=
𝜌

Viscosity is an important concept that is taken into consideration in a variety of fields

ranging from cooking to oil rigging. Understanding the applications of viscosity can help in both
flow characterization and quality control.

The drag force on an immersed body is in the direction of the flow; thus it works to retard
the motion of a body through a fluid. The diagram below is a schematic of a sphere of radius a

falling freely in a fluid. The weight of the sphere is W   b gV , the buoyancy force is
FB  gV , and D represents the drag force acting on the sphere. Here  is the density of the

fluid, b is the density of the sphere, and V is the volume of the sphere. In the schematic, the
sphere is assumed to have reached its terminal velocity Ut. When it is released into the fluid, it
accelerates to the terminal velocity. Once this velocity is reached, it no longer accelerates and all
the forces on the sphere are in equilibrium.

The drag force on immersed bodies with simple shapes can be correlated to the speed
with which the body moves through the fluid. This is achieved by specifying the drag coefficient
CD defined by

drag D
CD  1
inertial force 2  U 2 S ,

where D is the drag,  is the density of the fluid, U is the speed of the fluid approaching the
body, and S is the projected frontal area, i.e., the maximum area perpendicular to the flow
direction. The  subscript indicates “freestream” quantities, i.e. quantities that are measured in
the undisturbed fluid far upstream of the body. In general, the overall drag force is composed of

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a component purely from friction and another component, called profile drag that results from
the finite size and shape of the body. A number of experiments have been performed to
determine CD for several geometries. These experiments show that the variation of CD depends
primarily on a parameter called the Reynolds number Re, defined by

inertial force  U  L
Re  
viscous force  ,

where L is some characteristic length (diameter in the case of the sphere) and the other quantities
are as defined earlier. A flow with a relatively large value for Re is dominated by inertial forces,
thus appears nearly inviscid. In the case of a very low-Re flow, called creeping flow or Stokes’
flow, the inertial forces can be neglected and Newton’s second law of motion reduces to Stokes’
equation for a sphere, valid for Re < 1,

D  6 Ua .

If the velocityV in this equation is the terminal velocity Ut of the sphere of radius a, it
provides a means for computing the absolute viscosity  by writing the equation for the balance
of forces on the sphere,

D  FB  W .

Or substituting with Stokes’ equation,

W  FB W  FB
 
6 U t a 3 U t d ,

where d is the sphere diameter.

The ball drop experiment uses one of the oldest and easiest ways to measure viscosity:
we will simply see how fast a sphere falls through a fluid. The measurement involves
determining the velocity of the falling sphere. This is accomplished by dropping each sphere

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through a measured distance of fluid and measuring how long it takes to traverse the distance.
Thus, distance and timeare known, which makes velocity known, which is distance divided by
time. Additionally, mass and diameters of the spheres are needed to be measured.

1  d 2   S   F   g 
VT   
  18 
The formula for determining absolute viscosity () is :

Where

d = diameter of sphere

S = density of sphere = m/V = (mass of sphere/volume of sphere)

F = density of fluid = 1367g/m3

g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2

VT = Terminal Velocity = D/t = (distance sphere falls)/(time of it takes to fall)

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DISCUSSION

Specific gravity and density are related in that specific gravity is a ratio based on a
standard density used in science, with water as the base density for liquids and solids, and air or
hydrogen gas as the base density for gasses. Density is the average compactness of a substance,
measured usually as pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3) or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3).
Dividing the density of a known substance by the reference density of water determines its
specific gravity.

Unlike density, which has units of mass per volume, specific gravity is a pure number,
i.e., it has no associated unit of measure. If the densities of the substance of interest and the
reference substance are known in the same units (e.g., both in g/cm3 or lb/ft3), then the specific
gravity of the substance is equal to its density divided by that of the reference substance..

The most widely used reference substance for determining the specific gravities of solids
and liquids is water. Because the density of water is very nearly 1 g/cm3, the density of any
substance in g/cm3 is nearly the same numerically as its specific gravity relative to water. In the
English system of units, the density of water is about 62.4 lb/ft3, so the near equality between
specific gravity and density is not preserved in this system.

Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under extreme pressure often
experience an increase in viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompressible, an increase in
pressure doesn't really bring the molecules significantly closer together. Simple models of
molecular interactions won't work to explain this behavior and, to my knowledge, there is no
generally accepted more complex model that does. The liquid phase is probably the least well
understood of all the phases of matter.

It's important that you do not confuse specific gravity with viscosity which is a
measurement of a fluids resistance to pouring. Thick liquids are said to have a high viscosity and
thin liquids a low viscosity. Like specific gravity, viscosity can be altered by a change in
temperature, but unlike specific gravity it can also be altered by agitation. The really important
thing to keep in mind is that there is no correlation between viscosity and specific gravity.

We measure specific gravity with a hydrometer. It consists of a glass cylinder with a

rubber bulb on top, and a float positioned inside the glass tube. The float is calibrated to float on
fresh water so if the fluid you are testing has a higher specific gravity, the float will raise in the
liquid and at a lower specific gravity it will sink lower in the liquid. This is the same instrument
that we use to tell if your automobile battery is fully charged. Another version will determine the
concentration of ant-freeze in an automobile radiator. You can observe the little balls floating in
the tube. Informally, viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flow. Fluids
resist the relative motion of immersed objects through them as well as to the motion of layers
with differing velocities within them.

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 There are actually two quantities that are called viscosity. The quantity defined above is
sometimes called dynamic viscosity, absolute viscosity, or simple viscosity to distinguish it from
the other quantity, but is usually just called viscosity. The other quantity called kinematic
viscosity (represented by the symbol ν "nu") is the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid to its density.

Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid under the influence of
gravity. It is frequently measured using a device called a capillary viscometer — basically a
graduated can with a narrow tube at the bottom. When two fluids of equal volume are placed in
identical capillary viscometers and allowed to flow under the influence of gravity, a viscous fluid
takes longer than a less viscous fluid to flow through the tube. Capillary viscometers are
discussed in more detail later in this section.

From everyday experience, it should be common knowledge that viscosity varies with
temperature. Honey and syrups can be made to flow more readily when heated. Engine oil and
hydraulic fluids thicken appreciably on cold days and significantly affect the performance of cars
and other machinery during the winter months. In general, the viscosity of a simple liquid
decreases with increasing temperature (and vice versa). As temperature increases, the average
speed of the molecules in a liquid increases and the amount of time they spend "in contact" with
their nearest neighbors decreases. Thus, as temperature increases, the average intermolecular
forces decrease. The exact manner in which the two quantities vary is nonlinear and changes
abruptly when the liquid changes phase.

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FINAL DATA SHEET/ SET-UP

 Pycnometer Set-up
- In this setup it includes the digital balance and of course the pycnometer. This set-up
determines the density of the different kind of fluids that were given to us. For Fig.1 the
pycnometer contains kerosene and for Fig.1.1 diesel.

Fig.1 Fig.1.1

 Hydrometer Setup
- In this set-up it includes a graduated cylinder and of course the hydrometer. This set-up
determines the specific gravity of the different fluids that were given to us. For Fig.2 it
contains kerosene and for Fig.2.1 diesel.

Fig.2 Fig.2.1

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 Falling Sphere Viscometer Set-up
- For this set-up it includes a viscometer tube with a glycerine fluid inside of it. Also in this
setup it also includes steel balls, digital calliper, meter stick, stop watch, digital scale and
thermometer. For Fig.3 it shows the calliper and the measurement of the diameter of the
steel ball. For Fig.3.1 we were able to create a starting point and end point for us to
measure viscosity. In Fig.3.2 before dropping the ball we measure the weight of the steel
ball. For Fig.3.3 shown is the dropping of the steel ball. Lastly for Fig 3.4 is the result
made by the stop watch

Fig.3 Fig.3.1

Fig.3.2 Fig.3.3

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 Fig 3.4

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FINAL DATA SHEET

A. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Pycnometer Hydrometer
Liquid to be %Difference
Tested WP(g) WPW(g) WPO(g) S.G. S.G

Alcohol 23.2 73.43 63.93 0.8109 0.80 1.36

Kerosene 23.2 73.43 62.56 0.7835 0.79 0.82

Gasoline 23.2 73.43 61.4 0.7605 0.75 1.40

Diesel 23.2 73.43 65.31 0.8383 0.85 1.38

SAE 30 23.2 73.43 65.79 0.8479 0.86 1.41

B. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY BY FALLING VISCOMETER

Trial 𝛾𝑆𝐵 t (s) vt DSB DSB/Dt K vo 𝜇 𝜈

(kN/m3) (m/s) (mm) (m/s) (Pa.s) (m2/s)

1 65.134 1.09 0.9174 0.0125 0.1966 1.6380 1.5027 0.3060 2.4677x10-4

2 76.321 0.97 1.0309 0.01188 0.1868 1.5970 1.6463 0.3056 2.4645x10-4

3 77.383 1.56 0.6410 0.00949 0.1492 1.4483 0.9284 0.3015 2.8347x10-4

4 76.460 1.88 0.5319 0.00695 0.1093 1.3064 0.6949 0.2483 2.0024x10-4

5 79.670 3.13 0.3195 0.00473 0.0744 1.1954 0.3819 0.2197 1.7718x10-4

6 79.041 4.10 0.2439 0.00395 0.0621 1.1592 0.2827 0.1957 1.5798x10-4

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C. PLOT VO vs. DSB/DT

Vo vs. Dsb/Dt
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

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CONCLUSION

- In this experiment we were able to determine the specific gravity of the different fluids
that were given to us. We were able to learn the specific gravity with the use of a
hydrometer. We learned that with a hydrometer we could easily determine the specific
gravity of any fluid by just dropping it and then let it float with the fluid. Also we were
able to determine the viscosity of a certain fluid which is glycerine. We were able to
determine the viscosity of glycerine by using the set up of falling sphere viscometer. By
following the procedures we could easily find the viscosity of glycerine.

RECOMMENDATIONS

- In this experiment we were able to experience multiple errors mostly human error. I
recommend that for the first and second set up you should clean the apparatus properly
before using it for another trial to avoid the mixture of different fluids inside an
apparatus. For the last set up in order to reduce errors I recommend that before dropping
the steel ball you should perfectly align it with the starting point that you measured
because it could add a millisecond that could easily affect your data.

REFERENCES

 http://www.ehow.com/info_8127283_four-can-used-specific-gravity.html

 http://www.ehow.com/list_6933877_standard-finding-specific-gravity-
materials.html#ixzz2ZsHllv00

 http://www.ktm950.info/how/Orange%20Garage/gasoline/spec_gravity.html

 http://www.racegas.com/article/26

 http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003579.htm

 http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/pre/density.html

 http://physics.info/viscosity/

 http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1/Unit00/Downloads/s06-
All_Examples_Answers_2up.pdf

 Çengel, Y. A., &Cimbala, J. M. (2006). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals and applications.

Boston: McGraw-HillHigher Education.

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