Alexander Pritchard

Professors Mathias Hanses and Mark D. Hammond

Romanization of the British Isles

Roman economic and cultural influence became a significant part of the southern British

Iron Age following Roman contact made by Emperors Caesar, Claudius, and Agricola.

Romanization of the new British province would come to have lasting effects upon the Celtic

Britons, modernizing urban society with the growth and expansion of towns, trade, and religion.

The first direct Roman contact in Britain during Julius Caesar’s expeditions in 55 and 54

BC, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance during his conquest of Gaul. Although

Gaul may have been conquered, the territory would remain vulnerable by invasion from the Isles.

Under said justification, Caesar landed at Deal an estimated seven miles from the cliffs of Dover.

Unfortunately, due to storms damaging his ships, Caesar would be forced to withdraw both

expedition efforts. Through this venture, Caesar’s limited efforts would begin to draw Britain into

Rome’s sphere of influence developing ties with the Trinovantes, Catuvellauni and Atrebate tribes

after re-installing Commius, king of the Atrebates, on his throne. Reconnaissance would

additionally give light to Britain’s terrain, inhabitants, customs, and available resources for future

endeavors such as: pearls, lead, wool, gold, and tin. As campaigns ensued, the eventual province

of Britannia would come to control what would later be known as England, Wales and parts of

Scotland. Roman forces would not threaten British Isles again until 43 A.D. when Emperor

Claudius mounted an invasion three years after Caligula’s failed campaign.

Following the coup that enabled him to become Emperor, Claudius needed prestige to

consolidate his control. A militaristic achievement would ensure his favour among the senate.
Under the guise of reinstating Commius’s successor Verica to the Atrebatic throne, Claudius sent

senator Aulus Plautius to subdue Britain. After landing at Richborough, thus shielding Roman

ships from heavy winds, Aulus Plautius and his general Vespasian were met by heavy resistance

heading towards the river Midway. As the tribes were pushed back towards the Thames,

Caractacus chieftain of the Catuvallauni tribe fled from Camulodunum (Colchester) to present day

south Wales where until his defeat and capture in 51 A.D. maintained his forces. It would be

another ten years until the Romans were met again by a significant force. Specifically, Boudica’s

revolt. Upon the death of her husband Prasutagus, King of the Iceni tribe, the Romans annexed

Boudicca’s tribal territory under claim of debt owed to the Empire. When reluctant to comply, the

Romans had Boudica flogged and her two daughters raped. Under Boudica’s leadership, the Iceni

together with the Trinovantes revolted, burning to the ground Londinium (London), Verulamium

(St. Albans) and Camulodunum (Colchester) which had now become an Roman settlement. In

response, roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus upon returning with his legions from

Anglesey heavily outnumbered and defeated the Britons at the Battle of Watling Street.

It would then be another twenty years until the Romans controlled most Britain, mainly

due to the campaigns made by Gnaeus Julius Agricola extending Roman control into northern and

western England. Agricola had defeated the Scottish Caledonian tribes at the battle of Mons

Graupius, however the Romans gave up their efforts towards northern expansion after Emperor

Hadrian ordered the construction of what would later become known as Hadrian’s Wall, extending

all the way from Britain’s eastern and western coasts in 122 A.D. thus marking the boundaries of

the Empire and its influence. Construction of the wall not only benefitted the Romans serving as a

defensive barrier, but it would prove to become very valuable for its degree of control it provided.

Organized check-points along Hadrian's Wall provided good opportunities for taxation, and
keeping track of entering and exiting natives and Roman citizens alike, charging customs dues and

checking for smuggling, in turn profiting the Empire.

Although the Romans never conquered all of Britain, most people south of the wall began

to assimilate to Roman ways and customs, resulting in a cultural divide that continues to the

modern day. As the warring tribes north of the Wall, mainly the Caledonians which would later

be known as Scotts, and tribes south of the wall romanized more and more, an idea of resentment

against the counterparts regions began to emerge. Those who kept loyal and alive their sacred

traditions versus those who had become allies with the enemy.

Following Roman conquest of the beginning of the new century, the Romanization of the

indigenous people began to ensue by indirect influence upon the local elite, and Roman

immigration into the territory. Rome kept control of the British Isles by bribing the local elite with

promise of power, wealth, and citizenship on condition that they kept the peace and followed

Roman customs. Stipulations predominantly included adopting a Roman name and spending any

earned or granted money on Roman amenities, in-turn furthering Roman economic trade. Living

a Roman lifestyle involved studying under a Roman education. Before the Romans arrived, very

few of the British populace were literate. Information was transferred solely through oral tradition.

For the Romans, literacy was quintessential for trade and to command militaristic orders. Although

some Britons began to speak the Latin language within Roman towns for correspondence, most

people of the countryside would continue their native tongue.

At first, Roman citizenship was granted very selectively to: council members of towns

ensuring Roman interests, veterans of the military core, and to natives whose citizenship was

granted by a patron. The number of citizens steadily increased, as people inherited citizenship and
more grants were made. Eventually in 212, everybody within the province of Britannia except

slaves and freed slaves were granted citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla. The Britons became

indirectly yet forcefully Romanized as either their leaders agreed to commit loyalty to the Empire,

or a Briton native was installed into power that would ensure allegiance. The Romans were clever

making sure that any compliant replacement instituted would be chosen out of the indigenous

population, instead of a foreign leader from Rome herself. In turn, the Britons having one of their

own ruling over them would believe that their leader would keep the people’s interests in mind

and they would be represented accordingly.

A key part of Rome’s influence upon the British Isles was changing the dynamic of daily

life by introduction public buildings such as an amphitheatres and baths into communities, a prime

example being the colonia of Colchester, Camulodunon and the palace of king Cogidubnus at

Fishbourne. Camulodunon was Rome’s first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain,

constructed on the site of the former capital of the Trinovantes and later the Catuvellauni tribes

following its conquest by the Emperor Claudius in 40 A.D. Despite being destroyed twenty years

later during the Iceni rebellion in 60/1 AD, the settlement rebuilt itself again. After its occupying

legion was withdrawn, the legionary defenses were dismantled and the fortress converted into a

town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. The fortresses two main axial

streets, the Cardo maximus and the Decumanus Maximus were soon fronted with houses and

shops. Many elements and technological advancements had not been by the Britons before. From

well paved streets with drainage channels, to pipes for bringing pressurized water into the

settlement, the Britons may have been baffled by seeing man’s ability to control water flow. The

concept of not only bathing, but the social aspect that came with the public buildings constructed

may have at first been confusing to the average British farmer. And finally, the scale and style of
the architecture present would have also been overwhelming. The Romans built the largest temple

in all of Britain in Camulodunon dedicated to Emperor Claudius upon his death in 54 A.D. The

podium of the temple still survives today incorporated into an Norman castle, representing part of

one of the earliest stone roman buildings in the country. New developing Roman towns would

come to establish the new standard of living amongst the Briton local elite.

The Fishbourne Roman Palace near Chichester provides further evidence of how the

highest of the elite may have lived. The palace had been built for Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus

or Togidubnus, a pro-Roman local chieftain who was installed as king during the Claudian

campaign. Among the palaces many features including an underfloor heating system, baths, and

mosaics, the landscape gardens by far were the most intriguing feature. It was the first creation of

an large extravagant garden meant for leisure within the region, maintained for show instead of

economic provisions. Having a large space simply for leisure and tranquillity instead of being used

as a space for a stable showcases the difference of the Britons and the Romans before the

indigenous became Romanized. Standards and ways of living had been almost opposites, living a

life of leisure versus living a life of survival. It is no surprise that so many Britons assimilated on

their own to the Roman lifestyle to reap the rewards.

To maintain set these new standards of living, increasingly growing towns relied heavily

upon the roads for trade across the region. Prior to Roman arrival, the roads in the British Isles

were more so muddy paths than efficient travel routes. Following Roman campaigns, Legions built

roads that would eventually connect Britannia’s largest cities to one another. The modern A1

motorway still follows along what was known as Watling Street, a key transportation route that

had also been used during the Boudican Revolt. Other than the transport of Legions across the
province to maintain control, these roads serviced for the distribution of Roman luxuries such as

spices, wines, glass brought in from other far regions of the Empire.

The other intricate part of the Romanization process of the British Isles was the assimilation

of religious beliefs between the Britons and the Romans. Both Rome and Britain shared

polytheistic religions, yet their deity beliefs differed on the matter of scale. The Britons believed

that every spring, every river, and every forest inhabited its own local spirit attested by its own

local shrine, like that of the native American belief system. Comparatively, the Romans believed

that their Gods oversaw forces of nature, human emotion and human actions. Their deities could

inhabit inanimate and animate objects under said forces jurisdiction. Over the course of time, the

Romans would come to adopt the most pertinent figures of the British faith to create associations

with its closest counterpart in the Roman faith, mainly nymphs. Pairings of equated British and

Roman Gods included: The God of war Belatucadros with Mars, God of weather Ambisagrus with

Jupiter, Goddess Belisama with Minerva and Athena, and the Goddess of pleasure Dahud-

Ahes/Dahut with Venus. The Roman city of Bath was originally founded on the site of a local

shrine to the water goddess Sul of the hot springs. The Romans connecting the healing

characteristics of Sul decided to also link her to the Goddess Minerva. All of these associations

however would begin to be left behind after Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity into the

Roman Empire in in the year 337 A.D. Before the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 A.D.

Constantine had a vision to inscribe the Chi-Rho symbol on his soldiers’ shields, the symbol of

the one true God. Victorious after the battle, Constantine in thanks declared Christianity the central

religion of the Empire. Basilica’s, whose originally served as a meeting place in Roman towns and

forts, and existing temples would be converted into Roman churches across Britain. Modern day
churches architectural formats of central nave with aisles on either side are a direct result of

Constantine’s proclamation.

During the Roman occupation of Britain, towns began to appear for the first time across

the country, a concept in which had not been heavily experimented with other than Londinium.

The idea and scale of living in large urban communities to that of the Romans had not yet fully

developed within the Province before. Britons had previously lived in farming villages leading

simple lives. Their houses made of wood and mud, with Thatched roofs, and their roads more so

muddy paths. The Romans knew how to choose places which had good defensive positioning,

water supply and fertile farmland around them. These newly established Civitates, or "public

towns" across Britain created crucibles for indigenous people to become Romanized, developing

from mostly from Roman forts.

The army overtime as they occupied Britain served as an indirect force of integration of

the Romans. Soldiers after completing their twenty-five years of service were granted Roman

citizenship and a land grant. Most soldiers would settle in or near the fort where they had

previously served. These settlements resulted in the expansion of a community and its need for

trade to stay supplied, most either flourishing near or directly from an existing Roman fortification.

Retired Roman soldiers who began to settle in their promised land grant after years of service

would also establish said communities. Gradually, these urban settlements outside the fort grew

into towns. The causality of why so many modern day British towns end in 'chester', 'caster' or

'cester' is because the word ‘chester’ derives from the Latin word ‘castrum’ meaning ‘a fort’. The

majority of Britain’s modern-day cities derived from Roman establishments made almost two

thousand years before. Stretches of Roman town walls can be seen at Lincoln and Roman fortress

walls survive at Chester and York. Although evidence for what life was like in these places has
largely been destroyed due to urban growth, in more remote areas, like at Vindolanda evidence of

what an original Roman settlement looked like remains. Vindolanda was an Roman auxiliary fort

just south of the Hadrian Wall. It was here where archaeologists found over two hundred wooden

writing tablets detailing the lives of the garrison living inside the fortress, and that of the

neighbouring vicus, or self-governing village. Tablet 291 has become one of the most popular

recovered texts from Vindolanda, containing a birthday invitation letter. Other texts wrote of the

harsh conditions of living whether it be from Legionary to commoner point of view. These

settlements would eventually rise to become cities so prosperous, that they still exist today such

as: Colchester (Camulodunum), Chester (Deva Victrix), Lincoln (Lindum Colonia), Gloucester

(Glevum Colonia), York (Eboracum), St. Albans (Verulamium), London (Londinium), and Bath

(Aquae Sulis). Additionally, these major centers are still linked today by the same system of

Roman military roads from London such as Ermine Street, Watling Street, and the Fosse Way.

Although these roads may have been repaved or renamed, it doesn’t take away from the lasting

after effect of the success, and beneficial influence of the Romans.

Before taking final analysis, it should be duly noted that the relationship between the

Britons in the Romans was not a one-way street. Both peoples profited from one another's

presence and the British Isles. It was not the case that the Britons were the only ones profiting

from the new technology, architecture, and goods brought by the Romans. The Romans equally

profited from their transactions with the tribes. Taxation along the limites of the Isles also

provided added revenue. In addition, Britain serviced as a proving ground for future leaders of

the Roman Empire. Roman society highly valued militaristic success, no matter how far from

the walls of Rome herself. Every victory not only brought merits to set conqueror, but which is

as well that he could use to fund his own political campaign's back in Rome.
 Even after Rome's legions withdrew from the Isles in 410 A.D. the Britons continued to

mirror the Roman lifestyle. Perhaps it was only after the withdrawal Britons began to realize why

they had assimilated to quickly to Roman custom. Putting aside the incentives of wealth and

power, there were several similarities between the two cultures that allowed for easier

understanding of one another's differences. Social class was almost structured him the same

format; having a ruling elite, the middle class of skilled artisans, lower class of farmers, and

finally slaves that served the upper two most classes. Both societies also highly regarded warfare

and an individual fighting skill and leadership upon the field, despite their differences in fighting

tactics. The Romanization of the British Isles became remarkably successful due to The Roman

elite recognizing similarities with the native people, recognizing the needs of the people between

the tribes, and fulfilling said needs thus creating alliances leading to decreased resistance

overtime. After aiding their new allies, the Romans would decisively showcase the advantages of

adopting a Roman lifestyle instead of ordering the population into submission as a slave

territory. Shown the profitable potential of: new trade, technology, customs of living life of

leisure, and expansion, Romanization set into the region igniting urbanization. Romanization

impacting Britain so greatly, that the Roman presence in the Isles can still be seen today.
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