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Data Communication:- Data communications (DC) is the process of using computing and
communication technologies to transfer data from one place to another, and vice versa. It enables the
movement of electronic or digital data between two or more nodes, regardless of geographical location,
technological medium or data contents.
Datum:-mean the facts information statistics or the like derived by calculation or experimentation. The facts
and information so gathered are processed in accordance with defined systems of procedure. Data can
exist in a variety of forms such as numbers, text, bits and bytes. The Figure is an illustration of a simple
data communication system.

Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:
1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and receiver
depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the
receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless
like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and
receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

A protocol performs the following functions:

1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data
sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets,
and to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet
constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.

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4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow
receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow
of data on communication lines.
5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission
of correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In such a
case, a block having error is discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.

6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to
use the communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned to
them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate with each
other.

8. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication software
packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop log information, which
consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such information may be
used for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the network resources.

The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of data communications

1.Delivery: The data must be deliver in correct order with correct destination.

2. Accuracy: The data must be deliver accurately.

3. Timeliness: The data must be deliver in a timely manner. Late delivered Data useless.

4. Jitter: It is the uneven delay in the packet arrival time that causes uneven quality.

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Some devices/technologies used in data communications are known as data communication equipment (DCE)
and data terminal equipment (DTE). DCE is used at the sending node, and DTE is used at the receiving node.

Data communication usually requires existence of a transportation or communication medium

between the nodes wanting to communicate with each other, such as copper wire, fiber optic cables
or wireless signals.
For example, a common example of data communications is a computer connected to the Internet via
a Wi-Fi connection, which uses a wireless medium to send and receive data from one or more remote
servers.

Transmission:- is the act of transferring something from one spot to another, like a radio or TV broadcast.
The noun transmission comes from the Latin word transmissio, which means “sending over or across, passage.”

Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more digital devices.
This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example, coaxial cable,
fiber optics etc.)

Types of Data Transmission

Defination: Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different subunits
are too short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate wire to
carry each bit of data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is exchanged using
a parallel transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal delays in transferring each word.
• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another i.e. multiple
bits are sent with each clock pulse.
• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to receiver.

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Advantage of parallel transmission

It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a single clock
pulse.

Disadvantage of parallel transmission

It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same time.

Serial Transmission
Defination: When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the
separation is more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single
pair of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval for each bit. This
mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.
• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination. Then
least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits. The most significant bit
(MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.
The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this parallel
data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it can
be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval circuitry
of computer can accept it

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Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as compared to
parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall
transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially one
after the other.

Types of Serial Transmission

There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these transmissions
use 'Bit synchronization'
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of the data
transmission occurs.
Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end during a
transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.

Asynchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is either a letter of
the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.
Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of bits. A
start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more
additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

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Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed in
asynchronous transmission.
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is also known as
Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called Asynchronous, because
at byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream.

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices. The
advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at the terminal or the computer
as transmission takes place character by character.

Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is transmitted in

short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines are
short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will not be
expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is corrupted
during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

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Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of
extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can be
missed or corrupted.

Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver
by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of receiver to
separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock
frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.

Advantage of Synchronous transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop bit)
and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two ends of
line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to
increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.

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Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous.

Concepts and terminology

• Transmission terminology – Transmission from transmitter to receiver goes over some transmission medium using electromagnetic
waves.

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Guided media--Waves are guided along a physical path; twisted pair, optical fiber, coaxial cable.
Unguided media--Waves are not guided; air waves, radio.
Direct link---Signal goes from transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices, other than amplifiers and repeaters.
Point-to-point link---Guided media with direct link between two devices, with those two devices being the only ones sharing the medium
.
Multipoint guided configuration. More than two devices can share the same medium – Simplex, half duplex, and full duplex transmission

Frequency, spectrum, and bandwidth

– Signal is generated by a transmitter and transmitted over a medium
– Signal is a function of time or frequency (components of different frequency)
– Time-domain concepts
Continuous signal--Signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time; no breaks or
discontinuities in signal .
Discrete signal-- Signal intensity can take one of two prespecified values for any
amount of time.
Periodic signal-- Same signal pattern repeats over time; signal is said to be periodic if
s(t +T) = s(t) −∞ < t < ∞ T is the period of the signal; sine wave
A periodic signal--Signal that is not periodic
Peak amplitude-- Maximum signal intensity over time; typically measured in volts.
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Frequency f--Rate at which signal repeats; measured in cycles per second or Hz

Period T--Amount of times required for one repetition of signal
T =1/ f
Phase-- Measure of relative position in time within a single period of a signal.
∗ For a periodic signal f(t), phase is fractional part t p of the period P through which t
has advanced relative to an arbitrary origin
General sine wave can be written as
s(t) = Asin(2πft + φ)
Wavelength λ. Distance occupied by a single cycle
∗ Consider a signal traveling at velocity ν
∗ Wavelength is related to period as λ = νT
∗ Also, λf = ν

– Frequency-domain concepts
∗ A signal can be made up of many components.

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Conversion of PC Input to Digital Signal.

Data and Signals

• Usually use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog data
• Can use analog signal to carry digital data
— Modem
• Can use digital signal to carry analog data
— Compact Disc audio
Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Analog Transmission
• Analog signal transmitted without regard to content
• May be analog or digital data
• Attenuated over distance
• Use amplifiers to boost signal
• Also amplifies noise
Digital Transmission
• Concerned with content
• Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc.
• Repeaters used
• Repeater receives signal
• Extracts bit pattern
• Retransmits
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• Attenuation is overcome
• Noise is not amplified
Advantages of Digital Transmission
• Digital technology
— Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
• Data integrity
— Longer distances over lower quality lines
• Capacity utilization
— High bandwidth links economical
— High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques
• Security & Privacy
— Encryption
• Integration
— Can treat analog and digital data similarly

Transmission Impairments
In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that
received signal is not same as the signal that was send.
Causes of impairment –

• Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known

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as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the
original signal back.
•

Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or
one signal at two different point.

Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
• Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. Every component arrive at different time which leads to delay distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
•
• Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
•
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as
sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna.

Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.

Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.

Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines

SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER

Bandwidth and Channel Capacity

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Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a medium can pass without a loss of one-half of the power (-3dB)
contained in the signal. Figure 2.3.4 shows the bandwidth of a channel. The points Fl and Fh points correspond to –3bB
of the maximum amplitude A.

Bandwidth of a medium decides the quality of the signal at the other end. A digital signal (usually aperiodic) requires a
bandwidth from 0 to infinity. So, it needs a low-pass channel characteristic as shown in Fig. 2.3.5. On the other hand, a
band-pass channel characteristic is required for the transmission of analog signals, as shown in Fig. 2.3.6.

Nyquist Bit Rate

The maximum rate at which data can be correctly communicated over a channel in presence of noise and distortion is
known as its channel capacity. Consider first a noisefree channel of Bandwidth B. Based on Nyquist formulation it is
known that given a bandwidth B of a channel, the maximum data rate that can be carried is 2B. This limitation arises due
to the effect of intersymbol interference caused by the frequency components higher than B. If the signal consists of m
discrete levels, then Nyquist theorem states:

Maximum data rate C = 2 B log2 m bits/sec,

where C is known as the channel capacity, B is the bandwidth of the channel and m is the number of signal levels used.

Baud Rate: The baud rate or signaling rate is defined as the number of distinct symbols transmitted per second,
irrespective of the form of encoding.

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For baseband digital transmission m = 2. So, the maximum baud rate = 1/Element width (in Seconds) = 2B

Bit Rate: The bit rate or information rate I is the actual equivalent number of bits transmitted per second.
I = Baud Rate × Bits per Baud = Baud Rate × N = Baud Rate × log2m For binary encoding,

the bit rate and the baud rate are the same; i.e., I = Baud Rate.

Example: Let us consider the telephone channel having bandwidth B = 4 kHz. Assuming there is no noise, determine
channel capacity for the following encoding levels: (i) 2, and (ii) 128.

Ans: (i) C = 2B = 2×4000 = 8 Kbits/s (ii) C = 2×4000×log2128 = 8000×7 = 56 Kbits/s

Effects of Noise

When there is noise present in the medium, the limitations of both bandwidth and noise must be considered. A noise
spike may cause a given level to be interpreted as a signal of greater level, if it is in positive phase or a smaller level, if it
is negative phase. Noise becomes more problematic as the number of levels increases.

Shannon Capacity (Noisy Channel)

In presence of Gaussian band-limited white noise, Shannon-Hartley theorem gives the maximum data rate capacity C =
B log2 (1 + S/N), where S and N are the signal and noise power, respectively, at the output of the channel. This theorem
gives an upper bound of the data rate which can be reliably transmitted over a thermal-noise limited channel.

Example: Suppose we have a channel of 3000 Hz bandwidth, we need an S/N ratio (i.e. signal to noise ration, SNR) of 30
dB to have an acceptable bit-error rate. Then, the maximum data rate that we can transmit is 30,000 bps. In practice,
because of the presence of different types of noises, attenuation and delay distortions, actual (practical) upper limit will
be much lower.

In case of extremely noisy channel, C = 0

Between the Nyquist Bit Rate and the Shannon limit, the result providing the smallest channel capacity is the one that
establishes the limit.

Example: A channel has B = 4 KHz. Determine the channel capacity for each of the following signal-to-noise ratios: (a) 20
dB, (b) 30 dB, (c) 40 dB.

Answer: (a) C= B log2 (1 + S/N) = 4×103 ×log2 (1+100) = 4×103 ×3.32×2.004 = 26.6 kbits/s b) C= B log2 (1 + S/N) = 4×103
×log2 (1+1000) = 4×103 ×3.32×3.0 = 39.8 kbits/s (c) C= B log2 (1 + S/N) = 4×103 ×log2 (1+10000) = 4×103 ×3.32×4.0 =
53.1 kbits/s

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Example: A channel has B = 4 KHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB. Determine maximum information rate for 4-level
encoding.

Answer: For B = 4 KHz and 4-level encoding the Nyquist Bit Rate is 16 Kbps. Again for B = 4 KHz and S/N of 30 dB the
Shannon capacity is 39.8 Kbps. The smallest of the two values has to be taken as the Information capacity I = 16 Kbps.

Example: A channel has B = 4 kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB. Determine maximum information rate for 128-
level encoding.

Answer: The Nyquist Bit Rate for B = 4 kHz and M = 128 levels is 56 kbits/s. Again the Shannon capacity for B = 4 kHz and
S/N of 30 dB is 39.8 Kbps. The smallest of the two values decides the channel capacity C = 39.8 kbps.

Example: The digital signal is to be designed to permit 160 kbps for a bandwidth of 20 KHz. Determine (a) number of
levels and (b) S/N ratio.

(a) Apply Nyquist Bit Rate to determine number of levels. C = 2B log2 (M), or 160×103 = 2×20×103 log2 (M), or M = 24 ,
which means 4bits/baud.

(b) Apply Shannon capacity to determine the S/N ratio C = B log2 (1+S/N), or 160×103 = 20×103 log2 (1+S/N) ×103 log2
(M) , or S/N = 28 - 1, or S/N = 255, or S/N = 24.07 dB.

Q-1. Distinguish between attenuation distortion and delay distortion.

Ans: Attenuation distortion arises because the attenuation of the signal in the transmitting media. Attenuation
distortion is predominant in case of analog signals. Delay distortion arises because different frequency components of
the signal suffer different delay as the signal passes through the media. This happens because the velocity of the signal
varies with frequency and it is predominant in case of digital signals.

Q-2. How the effect of delay distortion can be minimized?

Ans:Delay distortion can be minimized by using an equalizer (a kind of filter).

Q-3. What is intermodulation noise?

Ans: When a signal (having different frequency components) passes through a transmitting media, then due to non-
linearity, some of the frequency components may combine to generate a different frequency component. This leads to
distortion in the signal, which is known as intermodulation noise. For example, a signal may be having frequency
components f1 and f2, and due to non-linearity of the media they may generate a frequency component (f1+f2). Further
a frequency of (f1+f2) may be already present in the original signal. This causes intermodulation noise.

Q-4. Why does impulse noise have more effect on digital signals rather than on analog signals?

Ans: Impulse noise is random in nature and arises due to random events like lightning, electrical sparks, etc. In case of
digital signal, it makes a significant effect, as ‘0’ may become ‘1’ and vice versa. In analog signal the effect is not that
serious as some portion of the signal gets affected.

Q-5. What is crosstalk?

Ans: Crosstalk refers to the picking up of electromagnetic signals from other adjacent wires by electromagnetic
induction.

Q-6. Let the energy strength at point 2 is 1/50th with respect to the point 1. Find out the attenuation in dB.

Ans: Then attenuation in dB is 10log10(1/50) = - 16.9 dB.

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Q-7. Assuming there is no noise in a medium of B = 4KHz, determine channel capacity for the encoding level 4.

Ans: I = 2×4000×log24 = 16 Kbps Q-8. A channel has B = 10 MHz. Determine the channel capacity for signal-to-noise ratio
60 dB. Ans: C = B ´ log2(1 + S/N) = 10 x log2(1 + 60)

Q-9. The digital signal is to be designed to permit 56 kbps for a bandwidth of 4 KHz. Determine (a) numbers of levels and
(b) S/N ratio.

Other terms:

dB = 10log dB = 10log10P2/P1

P1 - input signal P2 - output signal

Spectrum: range of frequencies contained in signal

• Absolute bandwidth: width of spectrum

• Effective bandwidth ¾ Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy

• DC Component: Component of zero frequency

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