The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.

43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-20.

PHYSICS

Standard XI

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2019
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research, Pune.
 First Edition : © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004.
2019 The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

Illustration
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 The Constitution of India

Preamble

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to
all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith
and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the unity and integrity of the
Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
NATIONAL ANTHEM
 Preface
Dear Students,
It is a matter of pleasure and pride to place this exposition on basic physics in the
hands of the young generation. This is not only textbook of physics for standard XI class , but
embodies material which will be useful for self-study.
This textbook aims to create awareness about Physics. The National Curriculum Framework
(NCF) was formulated in the year 2005, followed by the State Curriculum Framework (SCF)
in 2010. Based on the given two frameworks, reconstruction of the curriculum and preparation
of a revised syllabus has been undertaken which will be introduced from the academic year
2019-20. The textbook incorporating the revised syllabus has been prepared and designed by
the Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, (Balbharati),
Pune.
The purpose of the book is to prepare a solid foundation for further studies in physics at
the standard XII class. Proficiency in science in general and physics in particular is a basic
requirement for the professional courses such as engineering and medicine etc., apart from
the graduation courses in science itself. With this point of view , each chapter is prepared with
elementary level and encompassing the secondary school level physics to the higher secondary
level. Most of the topics are explained lucidly and in sufficient details, so that the students
understand them well. A number of illustrative examples and figures are included to enlighten
the student proficiency .With this background, the student is expected to solve the exercises
given at the end of the chapters. For students who want more, Internet sites for many topics have
been provided. They can enjoy further reading.
After all, physics is a conceptual subject. Knowledge about physical phenomena
is gained as a natural consequence of observation, experience and revelation upon problem
solving.
The book is written with this mind-set. The curriculum and syllabus conforms to the
maxims of teaching such as moving from concrete to abstract, known to unknown and from
part to the whole. For the first time, in this textbook of Physics, various activities have been
introduced. These activities will not only help to develop understanding the content but also
provide scope of the for gaining relevant and additional knowledge on your own efforts. A
detailed information of all concepts is also given for a better understanding of the subject.
QR Codes have been introduced for gaining additional information, abstracts of chapters and
practice questions/ activities.
The efforts taken to prepare the textbook will not only enrich the learning experiences of
the students, but also benefit other stakeholders such as teachers, parents as well as candidates
aspiring for the competitive examinations.
We look forward to a positive response from the teachers and students.
Our best wishes to all!

Pune (Dr. Sunil Magar)

Date : 20 June 2019 Director
Maharashtra State Bureau of
Bhartiya Saur : 30 Jyeshtha 1941
Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research, Pune 4
 - For Teachers -
Dear Teachers,
'Error in measurements' is an important
We are happy to introduce the revised
topic in physics. Please ask the students to
textbook of Physics for Std XI. This book
use this in estimating errors in their
is a sincere attempt to follow the maxims
measurements. This must become an
of teaching as well as develop a
integral part of laboratory practices.
‘constructivist’ approach to enhance the
Major concepts of physics have a scientific
quality of learning. The demand for more
base. Encourage group work, learning
activity based, experiential and innovative
through each other’s help etc. Facilitate
learning opportunities is the need of the
peer learning as much as possible by
hour. The present curriculum has been
reorganizing the class structure frequently.
restructured so as to bridge the credibility
Do not use the boxes titled ‘Do you know?’
gap that exists between what is taught and
for evaluation. However, teachers must
what students learn from direct experience
ensure that students read this extra
in the outside world. Guidelines provided
information.
below will help to enrich the teaching-
For evaluation, equal weightage should be
learning process and achieve the desired
assigned to all the topics. Use different
learning outcomes.
combinations of questions. Stereotype
To begin with, get familiar with the
questions should be avoided.
textbook yourself, and encourage the
Use QR Code given in the textbook. Keep
students to read each chapter carefully.
checking the QR Code for updated
The present book has been prepared for
information. Certain important links, websites
constructivist and activity-based teaching,
have been given for references. Also a list
including problem solving exercises.
of reference books is given. Teachers as well
Use teaching aids as required for proper
as the students can use these references for
understanding of the subject.
extra reading and in-depth understanding of
Do not finish the chapter in short.
the subject.
Follow the order of the chapters strictly as
Best wishes for a wonderful teaching
listed in the contents because the units are
experience!
introduced in a graded manner to facilitate
knowledge building.

References:
1. Fundamentals of Physics - Halliday, Resnick, Walker; John Wiley (sixth ed.).
2. Sears and Zeemansky's University Physics - Young and Freedman, Pearson Education (12th ed.)
3. Physics for Scientists and Engineers - Lawrence S. Lerner; Jones and Bartlett Publishers, UK.

Front Page : Figure shows the LIGO laboratory in the United States of America and the inset shows the trace of
gravity waves detected upon the merger of two black holes. In the background is the artist's impression of planets
and galaxies.
Since ages, mankind is awed by the sheer scale of the universe and is trying to understand the laws governing the
same. Today we observe the events in the universe with highly sophisticated instruments and laboratories such as
the LIGO project seen on the cover. Picture Credit: Caltech/ MIT/ LIGO laboratory.
Figure Credit : B. P. Abott et al. Physical Review letts 116, 061102, 2016
DISCLAIMER Note : All attempts have been made to contact copy right/s (©) but we have not heard from them. We will
be pleased to acknowledge the copy right holder (s) in our next edition if we learn from them.
 Competency Statements
Standard XI
Area/ Unit/ Competency Statements
Lesson After studying the content in Textbook student …
Units and • Distinguish between fundamental and derived quantities.
Mathematical • Distinguish between different system of units and their use.
Tools • Identify methods to be used for measuring lengths and distances of varying magnitudes.
• Check correctness of physical equations using dimensional analysis.
• Establish the relation between related physical quantities using dimensional analysis.
• Find conversion factors between the units of the same physical quantity in two different
sets of units.
• Identify different types of errors in measurement of physical quantities and estimate them.
• Identify the order of magnitude of a given quantity and the significant figures in them.
• Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities.
• Perform addition, subtraction and multiplication (scalar and vector product) of vectors.
• Determine the relative velocity between two objects.
• Obtain derivatives and integrals of simple functions.
• Obtain components of vectors.
• Apply mathematical tools to analyze physics problems.
Motion and • Visualize motions in daily life in one, two and three dimensions.
Gravitation • Explain the necessity of Newton’s first law of motion.
• Categorize various forces of nature into four fundamental forces.
• State various conservation principles and use these in daily life situations.
• Derive expressions and evaluate work done by a constant force and variable force.
• Organize/categorize the common principles between collisions and explosions.
• Explain the necessity of defining impulse and apply it to collisions, etc.
• Elaborate the limitations of Newton’s laws of motion.
• Elaborate different types of mechanical equilibria with suitable examples.
• Apply the Kepler’s laws of planetary motion to solar system.
• Elaborate Newton’s law of gravitation.
• Calculate the values of acceleration due to gravity at any height above and depth below
the earth’s surface.
• Distinguish between different orbits of earth’s satellite.
• Explain how escape velocity varies from planet.
• Explain weightlessness in a satellite.
Properties of • Explain the difference between elasticity and plasticity
Matter • Identify elastic limit for a given material.
• Differentiate between different types of elasticity modules.
• Judge the suitability of materials for specific applications in daily life appliances.
• Identify the role of force of friction in daily life.
• Differentiate between good and bad conductors of heat.
• Relate underlying physics for use of specific materials for use in thermometers for specific
applications.
Sound and Optics • Apply and relate various parameters related to wave motion.
• Compare various types of waves with common features and distinguishing features.
• Analytically relate the factors on which the speed of sound and speed of light depends.
• Explain the essential factor to describe wave propagation and relate it with phase angle.
• Apply the laws of reflection to light.
• Mathematically describe the Doppler effect for sound waves.
• Apply the laws of refraction to common phenomena in daily life like, a mirage or a
rainbow.
• Identify the defects in images obtained by mirrors and lenses, with their cause and ways of
reducing or eliminating them.
• Explain the construction and use of various optical instruments such as a microscope, a
telescope, etc.
• Relate dispersion of light with colour and apply it analytically with the help of prisms.
 • Describe dispersive power as a basic property of transparent materials and relate it with
their refractive indices.
• Analyze the time taken to receive an echo and calculate distance to the reflecting object.
• Explain reverberation and acoustics.
Electricity and • Distinguish between conductors and insulators.
Magnetism • Apply coulomb’s law and obtain the electric field due to a certain distribution of charges.
• Define dipole, obtain the dipolar field.
• Relate the drift of electrons in a conductor to resistivity
• Calculate resistivity at various temperature.
• Connect resistors in series and parallel combination.
• Compare electric and magnetic fields.
• Draw electric and magnetic lines of force.
• Obtain magnetic parameters of the Earth.
• Solve numerical and analytical problems.
Communication • Explain the properties of an electromagnetic wave.
and • Distinguish between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
Semiconductors • Identify different types of electromagnetic radiations from - rays to radio waves.
• Distinguish between different modes of propagation of EM waves through earth’s
atmosphere.
• Identify different elements of a communication system.
• Explain different types of modulation and identify the types of modulation needed in given
situation.
• Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors based on band structure.
• Differentiate between p type and n type semiconductors and their uses.
• Explain working of forward and reverse biased junction.
• Explain the working of semiconductor diode.

CONTENTS

Sr. No Title Page No

1 Units and Measurements 1-15
2 Mathematical Methods 16-29
3 Motion in a Plane 30-46
4 Laws of Motion 47-77
5 Gravitation 78-99
6 Mechanical Properties of Solids 100-113
7 Thermal Properties of Matter 114-141
8 Sound 142-158
9 Optics 159-187
10 Electrostatics 188-206
11 Electric Current Through Conductors 207-220
12 Magnetism 221-228
13 Electromagnetic Waves and Communication System 229-241
14 Semiconductors 242-256
 1. Units and Measurements

Can you recall?

1. What is a unit?
2. Which units have you used in the laboratory for measuring
(i) length (ii) mass (iii) time (iv) temperature?
3. Which system of units have you used?
1.1 Introduction: 1.2.1 Fundamental Quantities and Units:
Physics is a quantitative science, where The physical quantities which do not
we measure various physical quantities depend on any other physical quantities for
during experiments. In our day to day life, we their measurements are known as fundamental
need to measure a number of quantities, e.g., quantities. There are seven fundamental
size of objects, volume of liquids, amount of quantities: length, mass, time, temperature,
matter, weight of vegetables or fruits, body electric current, luminous intensity and amount
temperature, length of cloth, etc. A measurement of substance.
always involves a comparison with a standard Fundamental units: The units used to measure
measuring unit which is internationally fundamental quantities are called fundamental
accepted. For example, for measuring the mass units. The fundamental quantities, their units
of a given fruit we need standard mass units and symbols are shown in the Table 1.1.
of 1 kg, 500 g, etc. These standards are called Table 1.1: Fundamental Quantities with
units. The measured quantity is expressed in their SI Units and Symbols
terms of a number followed by a corresponding
unit, e.g., the length of a wire is written as 5 m Fundamental quantity SI units Symbol
where m (metre) is the unit and 5 is the value of 1) Length metre m
the length in that unit. Different quantities are 2) Mass kilogram kg
measured in different units, e.g. length in metre 3) Time second s
(m), time in seconds (s), mass in kilogram (kg), 4) Temperature kelvin K
etc. The standard measure of any quantity is 5) Electric current ampere A
called the unit of that quantity. 6) Luminous Intensity candela cd
1.2 System of Units: 7) Amount of substance mole mol
In our earlier standards we have come 1.2.2 Derived Quantities and Units:
across various systems of units namely In physics, we come across a large number
(i) CGS: Centimetre Gram Second system of quantities like speed, momentum, resistance,
(ii) MKS: Metre Kilogram Second system conductivity, etc. which depend on some or all
(iii) FPS: Foot Pound Second system. of the seven fundamental quantities and can be
(iv) SI: System International expressed in terms of these quantities. These are
called derived quantities and their units, which
The first three systems namely CGS, MKS
can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
and FPS were used extensively till recently. In
units, are called derived units.
1971, the 14th International general conference
on weights and measures recommended the For example,
use of ‘International system' of units. This SI unit of velocity
international system of units is called the Unit of displacement m
SI units. As the SI units use decimal system,    m s 1
Unit of time s
conversion within the system is very simple and Unit of momentum = (Unit of mass)×(Unit of
convenient. velocity)

1
 = kg m/s = kg m s-1 Area of the disc of the moon
The above two units are derived units. =
(moon - earth distance) 2
Supplementary units : Besides, the seven  × (1.737×103 ) 2
fundamental or basic units, there are two more =
(3.84 ×105 ) 2
units called supplementary units: (i) Plane
angle d and (ii) Solid angle d = 2.045  10-5 sr
(i) Plane angle (d ) : This is the ratio of the Do you know ?
length of an arc of a circle to the radius of
The relation between radian and degree is
the circle as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a). Thus
radians = c = 180
d = ds/r is the angle subtended by the arc
at the centre of the circle. It is measured
in radian (rad). An angle in radian is
denoted as c.
(ii) Solid angle (d ) : This is the 3-dimensional
analogue of d and is defined as the area
of a portion of surface of a sphere to 1.2.3 Conventions for the use of SI Units:
the square of radius of the sphere. Thus (1) Unit of every physical quantity should be
d = dA/r2 is the solid angle subtended by represented by its symbol.
area ds at O as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). It (2) Full name of a unit always starts with
is measured in steradians (sr). A sphere of smaller letter even if the name is after a
radius r has surface area 4 r2. Thus, the person, e.g., 1 newton, 1 joule, etc. But
solid angle subtended by the entire sphere symbol for unit named after a person
at its centre is = 4 r2/r2 = 4 sr. should be in capital letter, e.g., N after
A
scientist Newton, J after scientist Joule,
etc.
ds
(3) Symbols for units do not take plural form
d for example, force of 20 N and not 20
O r B
newtons or not 20 Ns.
Fig 1.1 (a): Plane angle d (4) Symbols for units do not contain any full
stops at the end of recommended letter,
e.g., 25 kg and not 25 kg..
dA (5) The units of physical quantities in
numerator and denominator should be
written as one ratio for example the SI
r unit of acceleration is m/s2 or m s-2 but
not m/s/s.
(6) Use of combination of units and symbols
for units is avoided when physical
O quantity is expressed by combination of
Fig 1.1 (b): Solid angle d two. e.g., The unit J/kg K is correct while
joule/kg K is not correct.
Example 1.1: What is the solid angle subtended (7) A prefix symbol is used before the symbol
by the moon at any point of the Earth, given of the unit.
the diameter of the moon is 3474 km and its Thus prefix symbol and units symbol
distance from the Earth 3.84×108 m. constitute a new symbol for the unit which
Solution: Solid angle subtended by the moon can be raised to a positive or negative
at the Earth power of 10.

2
 1ms = 1 millisecond = 10-3s discussed earlier is length. To measure the
1 s = 1 microsecond = 10-6s length or distance the SI unit used is metre
1ns = 1 nanosecond = 10-9s (m). In 1960, a standard for the metre based
Use of double prefixes is avoided when on the wavelength of orange-red light emitted
single prefix is available by atoms of krypton was adopted. By 1983 a
10-6s =1 s and not 1mms. more precise measurement was developed.
10-9s = 1ns and not 1m s It says that a metre is the length of the path
(8) Space or hyphen must be introduced travelled by light in vacuum during a time
while indicating multiplication of two interval of 1/299792458 second. This was
units e.g., m/s should be written as m s-1 possible as by that time the speed of light
or m-s-1 and Not as ms-1 (because ms will in vacuum could be measured precisely as
be read as millisecond). c = 299792458 m/s
1.3 Measurement of Length: Some typical distances/lengths are given in
One fundamental quantity which we have Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Some Useful Distances

Measurement Length in metre
Distance to Andromeda Galaxy (from Earth) 2×1022 m
Distance to nearest star (after Sun) Proxima Centuari (from Earth) 4×1016 m
Distance to Pluto (from Earth) 6×1012 m
Average Radius of Earth 6×106 m
Height of Mount Everest 9×103 m
Thickness of this paper 1×10-4 m
Length of a typical virus 1×10-8 m
Radius of hydrogen atom 5×10-11 m
Radius of proton 1×10-15 m

1.3.1 Measurements of Large Distance: P

Parallax method
Large distance, such as the distance of O
a planet or a star from the Earth, cannot be
measured directly with a metre scale, so a
parallax method is used for it.
Let us do a simple experiment to understand
what is parallax.
Hold your hand in front of you and look at E1 O E2
it with your left eye closed and then with your
Fig.1.2: Parallax method for determining
right eye closed. You will find that your hand
distance.
appears to move against the background. This
effect is called parallax. Parallax is defined as As the distances of planets from the Earth
the apparent change in position of an object due are very large, we can not use two eyes method
to a change in the position of the observer. By as discussed here. In order to make simultaneous
measuring the parallax angle ( ) and knowing observations of an astronomical object, we
the distance between the eyes E1E2 as shown in select two distant points on the Earth.
Fig. 1.2, we can determine the distance of the Consider two positions A and B on the
object from us, i.e., OP as E1E2/ surface of Earth, separated by a straight line at

3
distance b as shown in Fig. 1.3. Two observers Planet
at these two points observe a distant planet S d
simultaneously. We measure the angle ASB
between the two directions along which the
planet is viewed at these two points This angle,
D
represented by symbol is the parallax angle.
As the planet is far away, i.e., the distance
of the planet from the Earth is very large in
comparison to b, b/D << 1 and, therefore, is
very small.
We can thus consider AB as the arc of Earth
length b of the circle and D its radius.
AB = b and AS = BS = D and AB/ D, Fig. 1.4: Measurement of size of a planet
where is in radian 1.3.4 Measurement of Very Small Distances:
D=b/ When we intend to measure the size of
A the atoms and molecules, the conventional
apparatus like Vernier calliper or screw guage
will not be useful. Therefore, we use electron
microscope or tunnelling electron microscope
to measure the size of atoms.
B
Fig.1.3: Measurement of distances of planets Do you know ?
1.3.2 Measurement of Distance to Stars: For measuring large distances, astronomers
Sun is the star which is closest to the use the following units.
Earth. The next closest star is at a distance of 1 astronomical unit, (AU) = 1.496×1011m
4.29 light years. The parallax measured from 1 light year = 9.46×1015m
two most distance points on the Earth for stars 1 parsec (pc) 3.08×1016m 3.26 light
will be too small to be measured and for this years
purpose we measure the parallax between two A light year is the distance travelled
farthest points (i.e. 2 AU apart, see box below) by light in one year. The astronomical unit
along the orbit of the Earth around the Sun (see (AU) is the mean distance between the centre
figure in example 1.2 below). of the Earth and the centre of the Sun.
1.3.3 Measurement of the Size of a Planet or A parsec (pc) is the distance from where
a Star: 1AU subtends an angle of 1 second of arc.
If d is the diameter of a planet, the angle
subtended by it at any single point on the Earth 1
is called angular diameter of the planet. Let
be the angle between the two directions when 1pc
r
two diametrically opposite points of the planet
are viewed through a telescope as shown in Fig. 1AU
1.4. As the distance D of the planet is large Sun
(assuming it has been already measured), we
can calculate the diameter of the planet as
d
 Example 1.2: A star is 5.5 light years away
D
 d = D from the Earth. How much parallax in arcsec
--- (1.2)
will it subtend when viewed from two opposite

4
points along the orbit of the Earth? Solution: Angle subtended
= 1 54' = 114' = 114×2.91×10-4 rad
= 3.317×10-2 rad
Diameter of the Earth = × distance to the
moon from the Earth
= 3.317×10-2×3.84×108 m
= 1.274×107m
1AU 1AU 1.4 Measurement of Mass:
Since 1889, a kilogram was the mass of a
shiny piece of platinum-iridium alloy kept in a
Solution: Two opposite points A and B along special glass case at the International Bureau
the orbit of the Earth are 2 AU apart. The of weights and measures. This definition of
angle subtended by AB at the position of the mass has been modified on 20th May 2019, the
star is = AB/distance of the star from the Earth reason being that the carefully kept platinum-
2AU 2  1.496  1011 m iridium piece is seen to pick up micro particles
=  15
 5.75  106 rad
5.5 ly 5.5  9.46  10 m of dirt and is also affected by the atmosphere
= 5.75  106  57.297  60  60 arcsec causing its mass to change. The new measure
= 1.186 arcsec of kilogram is defined in terms of magnitude
of electric current. We know that electric
current can be used to make an electromagnet.
Do you know ? An electromagnet attracts magnetic materials
Small distances are measured in units and is thus used in research and in industrial
of (i) fermi = 1F = 10-15 m in SI system. Thus, applications such as cranes to lift heavy
1F is one femtometre (fm) (ii) Angstrom = pieces of iron/steel. Thus the kilogram mass
1 A0 =10-10 m can be described in terms of the amount of
For measuring sizes using a microscope current which has to be passed through an
we need to select the wavelength of light electromagnet so that it can pull down one side
to be used in the microscope such that it of an extremely sensitive balance to balance the
is smaller than the size of the object to be other side which holds one standard kg mass.
measured. Thus visible light (wavelength While dealing with mass of atoms
from 4000 A0 to 7000 A0) can measure and molecules, kg is an inconvenient unit.
sizes upto about 4000 A0 . If we want to Therefore, their mass is measured in atomic
measure even smaller sizes we need to use mass unit. It will be easy to compare mass of
even smaller wavelength and so the use any atom in terms of mass of some standard
of electron microscope is necessary. As atom which has been decided internationally to
you will study in the XIIth standard, each be C12 atom. The (1/12)th mass of an unexcited
material particle corresponds to a wave. The atom of C12 is called atomic mass unit (amu).
approximate wavelength of the electrons in 1 amu = 1.6605402Í10-27 kg with an
an electron microscope is about 0.6 A0 so uncertainty of 10 in the last two decimal places.
that one can measure atomic sizes 1 A0
1.5 Measurement of Time:
using this microscope.
The SI unit of time is the second (s). For
Example 1.3: The moon is at a distance of many years, duration of one mean Solar day
3.84×108 m from the Earth. If viewed from two was considered as reference. A mean Solar day
diametrically opposite points on the Earth, the is the average time interval from one noon to
angle subtended at the moon is 1 54'. What is the next noon. Average duration of a day is
the diameter of the Earth? taken as 24 hours. One hour is of 60 minutes

5
and each minute is of 60 seconds. Thus a mean quantities. For convenience, the basic quantities
Solar day = 24 hours = 24Í60Í60 = 86400 s. are represented by symbols as ‘L’ for length,
Accordingly a second was defined as 1/86400 ‘M’ for mass, ‘T’ for time, ‘K’ For temperature,
of a mean Solar day. ‘I’ for current, ‘C’ for luminous intensity and
It was later observed that the length of a ‘mol’ for amount of mass.
Solar day varies gradually due to the gradual The dimensions of a physical quantity
slowing down of the Earth’s rotation. Hence, are the powers to which the concerned
to get more standard and nonvarying (constant) fundamental units must be raised in order to
unit for measurement of time, a cesium atomic obtain the unit of the given physical quantity.
clock is used. It is based on periodic vibrations When we represent any derived quantity
produced in cesium atom. In cesium atomic with appropriate powers of symbols of the
clock, a second is taken as the time needed fundamental quantities, then such an expression
for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation is called dimensional formula. This dimensional
(wave) emitted during a transition between two formula is expressed by square bracket and no
hyperfine states of Cs133 atom. comma is written in between any of the symbols.
Illustration:
Do you know ?
(i) Dimensional formula of velocity
Why is only carbon used and not any displacment
other element for defining atomic mass unit? Velocity =
time
Carbon 12 (C12) is the most abundant isotope
of carbon and the most stable one. Around [L]
Dimensions of velocity   [L1M 0 T 1 ]
98% of the available carbon is C12 isotope. [T]
Earlier, oxygen and hydrogen were used ii) Dimensional formula of velocity gradient
as the standard atoms. But various isotopes velocity
velocity gradient =
of oxygen and hydrogen are present in higher distance
proportion and therefore it is more accurate
to use C12. Dimensions of velocity gradient
[LT 1 ]
1.6 Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis:   [L0 M 0 T 1 ]
[ L]
As mentioned earlier, a derived physical
iii) Dimensional formula for charge.
quantity can be expressed in terms of some
combination of seven basic or fundamental charge = current Ítime
Dimensions of charge = [I] [T] = [L0M0T1I1]
Table 1.3: Some Common Physical Quantities their, SI Units and Dimensions
S. Physical Formula SI unit Dimensional
No quantity formula
1 Density = M/V kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m )
3
[L M1T ]
-3

2 Acceleration a = /t metre per second square (m/s2) [L1M T-2]

3 Momentum P=m kilogram metre per second (kg m/s) [L1M T-1]
4 Force F = ma kilogram metre per second square [L1M T-2]
(kg m/s2) or newton (N)
5 Impulse J = F. t newton second (Ns) [L1M T-1]
6 Work W = F.s joule (J) [L2M T-2]
7 Kinetic Energy KE = 1/2 m joule (J) [L2M T-2]
8 Pressure P = F/A kilogram per metre second square [L-1M T-2]
(kg/ms )
2

6
 Table 1.3 gives the dimensions of and
various physical quantities commonly used in -2b=1
mechanics. ∴b = -1/2
1.6.1 Uses of Dimensional Analysis: ∴a = -b = -(-1/2)
(i) To check the correctness of physical ∴ a = 1/2
equations: In any equation relating
different physical quantities, if the ∴ T = k l1/2 g -1/2
dimensions of all the terms on both the ∴T = k l / g
sides are the same then that equation is
The value of k is determined experimentally
said to be dimensionally correct. This is
and is found to be 2
called the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions. Consider the first equation of T = 2 l / g
motion.
(iii) To find the conversion factor between
v = u + at the units of the same physical quantity
Dimension of L.H.S = [v] = [LT-1] in two different systems of units: Let us
[u] =[LT-1] use dimensional analysis to determine the
[at] = [LT-2] [T] = [LT-1] conversion factor between joule (SI unit
of work) and erg (CGS unit of work).
Dimension of R.H.S= [LT-1]+ [LT-1]
Let 1 J = x erg
[L.H.S] = [R.H.S]
Dimensional formula for work is [M1L2T-2]
As the dimensions of L.H.S and R.H.S
Substituting in the above equation, we can
are the same, the given equation is
write
dimensionally correct.
[M11L12 T1-2 ] = x [M 21L 2 2 T2 -2 ]
(ii) To establish the relationship between
related physical quantities: The period [M11L12 T1-2 ]
x=
T of oscillation of a simple pendulum [M 21L 2 2 T2 -2 ]
depends on length l and acceleration due 1 2 2
to gravity g. Let us derive the relation  M 1   L1   T1 
or, x       
between T, l, g :  M 2   L 2   T2 
Suppose T la
where suffix 1 indicates SI units and 2
and T gb indicates CGS units.
... T lagb In SI units, L, M, T are expressed in m,
T = k lagb, kg and s and in CGS system L, M, T are
where k is constant of proportionality and represented in cm, g and s respectively.
it is a dimensionless quantity and a and b 1
 kg   m   s 
2 -2

are rational numbers. Equating dimensions  x     

 g   cm   s 
on both sides,
1 2
[M0L0T1] = k [L1]a [LT-2]b  g  cm 
or x   103   (100)  (1)
2

= k [La+b T-2b]  g   cm 
3 4 7
[L0T1] = k [La+bT-2b]  x  (10 ) (10 )  10
Comparing the dimensions of the  1 joule = 107 erg
corresponding quantities on both the sides we
Example 1.4: A calorie is a unit of heat and it
get
equals 4.2 J, where 1 J = kg m2 s-2. A distant
a+b=0 civilisation employs a system of units in which
∴ a = -b the units of mass, length and time are kg, m

7
and s. Also J' is their unit of energy. What will 1
be the magnitude of calorie in their units? standard symbols, the equation S = at 2
2
Solution: Let us write the new units as A, B is dimensionally correct. However, the
1
and C for mass, length and time respectively. complete equation is S = ut + at 2
2
We are given 1.7 Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty in
1 A = kg Measurement:
1B= m Physics is a science based on observations
1C= s and experiments. Observations of various
1 cal = 4.2 J = 4.2 kg m2 s-2 physical quantities are made during an
2
 A  B   C 
-2
experiment. For example, during the
= 4.2       atmospheric study we measure atmospheric
        pressure, wind velocity, humidity, etc. All the
4.2  2 measurements may be accurate, meaning that
= AB2 C-2
 2 the measured values are the same as the true
4.2  2 values. Accuracy is how close a measurement
= J  is to the actual value of that quantity. These
 2
measurements may be precise, meaning that
4.2 2
Thus in the new units, 1 calorie is = J multiple measurements give nearly identical
 2 values (i.e., reproducible results). In actual
1.6.2 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis: measurements, an observation may be both
1) The value of dimensionless constant can accurate and precise or neither accurate nor
be obtained with the help of experiments precise. The goal of the observer should be to
only. get accurate as well as precise measurements.
2) Dimensional analysis can not be used to Possible uncertainties in an observation
derive relations involving trigonometric, may arise due to following reasons:
exponential, and logarithmic functions as
1) Quality of instrument used.
these quantities are dimensionless.
3) This method is not useful if constant of 2) Skill of the person doing the experiment.
proportionality is not a dimensionless 3) The method used for measurement.
quantity.
4) External or internal factors affecting the
Illustration : Gravitational force between result of the experiment.
two point masses is directly proportional
to product of the two masses and inversely Can you tell?
proportional to square of the distance
between the two If ten students are asked to measure the
mm length of a piece of cloth up to a mm, using a
F  12 2
r metre scale, do you think their answers will
m1m 2 be identical? Give reasons.
Let F  G
r2
The constant of proportionality 'G' is NOT 1.8 Errors in Measurements:
dimensionless. Thus earlier method will Faulty measurements of physical quantity
not work. can lead to errors. The errors are broadly divided
4) If the correct equation contains some more into the following two categories :
terms of the same dimension, it is not a) Systematic errors : Systematic errors are
possible to know about their presence using errors that are not determined by chance but
dimensional equation. For example, with are introduced by an inaccuracy (involving

8
either the observation or measurement process) which experiment is performed. For example,
inherent to the system. Sources of systematic the temperature may change during the course
error may be due to imperfect calibration of the of an experiment, pressure of any gas used in
instrument, and sometimes imperfect method of the experiment may change, or the voltage of
observation. the power supply may change randomly, etc.
Each of these errors tends to be in one 1.8.1 Estimation of error:
direction, either positive or negative. The Suppose the readings recorded repeatedly
sources of systematic errors are as follows: for a physical quantity during a measurement
(i) Instrumental error: This type of error are
arises due to defective calibration of an a1, a2, a3, ................an .
instrument, for example an incorrect Arithmetic mean amean is given by
zeroing of an instrument will lead to such
a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ................ + a n
kind of error ('zero' of a thermometer not a mean =
n
graduated at proper place, the pointer
1 n
of weighting balance in the laboratory a mean = ai --- (1.3)
already indicating some value instead of n i=1
showing zero when no load is kept on it, This is the most probable value of the
an ammeter showing a current of 0.5 amp quantity. The magnitude of the difference
even when not connected in circuit, etc). between mean value and each individual value
(ii) Error due to imperfection in is called absolute error in the observations.
experimental technique: This is an error Thus for ‘a1’, the absolute error a1 is
due to defective setting of an instrument. given by
For example the measured volume of a
a1 = | a mean  a 1 |,
liquid in a graduated tube will be inaccurate
if the tube is not held vertical. for a 2 ,
(iii) Personal error: Such errors are a 2  | a mean  a 2 |
introduced due to fault of the observer. and so for a n it will be
Bias of the observer, carelessness in
a n  | a mean  a n |
taking observations etc. could result in
such errors. For example, while measuring The arithmetic mean of all the absolute
the length of an object with a ruler, it is errors is called mean absolute error in the
necessary to look at the ruler from directly measurement of the physical quantity.
above. If the observer looks at it from an
a1  a 2  ........  a n
angle, the measured length will be wrong a mean =
due to parallax. n
1 n
Systematic errors can be minimized by   a i --- (1.4)
using correct instrument, following proper n i=1
experimental procedure and removing The measured value of the physical
personal error. quantity a can then be represented by
b) Random errors: These are the errors which a = amean amean which tells us that
are introduced even after following all the the actual value of ‘a’ could be between
procedures to minimize systematic errors. These amean - amean and amean + amean. The ratio of
type of errors may be positive or negative. These mean absolute error to its arithmetic mean
errors can not be eliminated completely but we value is called relative error.
can minimize them by repeated observations
and then taking their mean (average). Random --- (1.5)
errors occur due to variation in conditions in

9
 When relative error is represented as resistance.
percentage it is called percentage error. a) Errors in sum and in difference:
 a mean Suppose two physical quantities A
Percentage error = 100 --- (1.6)
a mean and B have measured values A A and
B B, respectively, where A and B are
Activity : their mean absolute errors. We wish to find the
absolute error Z in their sum.
Perform an experiment using a Vernier
Z=A+B
callipers of least count 0.01cm to measure
the external diameter of a hollow cylinder. Z Z = (A A)+(B B)
Take 3 readings at different position on the = (A+B) A B
cylinder and find (i) the mean diameter (ii) the Z= A B,
absolute mean error and (iii) the percentage For difference, i.e., if Z = A-B,
error in the measurement of diameter.
Z Z = (A A)-(B B)
Example 1.5: The radius of a sphere measured = (A-B) A B
repeatedly yields values 5.63 m, 5.54 m, 5.44 Z= A B,
m, 5.40 m and 5.35 m. Determine the most There are four possible values for Z,
probable value of radius and the mean absolute, namely ( A - B), (+ A+ B), (- A- B),
relative and percentage errors. (- A+ B). Hence maximum value of absolute
Solution: Most probable value of radius is its error is Z = A+ B in both the cases.
arithmetic mean When two quantities are added or
5.63  5.54  5.44  5.40  5.35 subtracted, the absolute error in the final result
 m
5 is the sum of the absolute errors in the individual
 5.472 m quantities.
Mean absolute error b) Errors in product and in division:
 5.63  5.472  5.54  5.472  Suppose Z=AB and measured values of A
1  and B are (A A) and (B B) Then
  5.44  5.472  5.40  5.472  m Z Z= (A A) (B B)
5 
  5 . 35  5. 47 2  = AB A B B A A B
0.452 Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S. by AB we
  0.0904 m get
5
0.0904  z   B A  A   B  
Relative error 0.017 1  z   1  B  A   A   B  
5.472      
% error = 1.7%
Since A/A and B/B are very small we
1.8.2 Combination of errors: shall neglect their product. Hence maximum
When we do an experiment and measure relative error in Z is
various physical quantities associated with Z A B
the experiment, we must know how the errors   --- (1.7)
Z A B
from individual measurement combine to give
errors in the final result. For example, in the This formula also applies to the division of
measurement of the resistance of a conductor two quantities.
using Ohms law, there will be an error in the Thus, when two quantities are multiplied
measurement of potential difference and that of or divided, the maximum relative error in the
current. It is important to study how these errors result is the sum of relative errors in each
combine to give the error in the measurement of quantity.

10
c) Errors due to the power (index) of Squaring both sides
measured quantity: T 2 = 4 2 l / g
Suppose l
Z = A 3 = A.A.A  g = 4 2 2
T
Z A A A Now l = 0.1, l = 100 cm, T = 0.01s, T = 2 s
  
Z A A A g  100
Percentage error =
from the multiplication rule above. g
Hence the relative error in Z =A3 is three  l 2T 
   100
times the relative error in A. So if Z = An  l T 
Z A
n --- (1.8)  0.l 2  0.01 
   100
Z A
 l00 2 
A p Bq  (0.001  0.01)  100  1.1
In general, if Z =
Cr Percentage error in measurement of g is 1.1%
Z A B C
p q r --- (1.9) 1.9 Significant Figures:
Z A B C
In the previous sections, we have studied
The quantity in the formula which has various types of errors, their origins and the
large power is responsible for maximum error. ways to minimize them. Our accuracy is limited
Example 1.6: In an experiment to determine to the least count of the instrument used during
the volume of an object, mass and density are the measurement. Least count is the smallest
recorded as m = (5 0.15) kg and = (5 0.2) measurement that can be made using the given
kg m-3 respectively. Calculate percentage error instrument. For example with the usual metre
in the measurement of volume. scale, one can measure 0.1 cm as the least value.
Solution : We know, Hence its least count is 0.1cm.
Mass Suppose we measure the length of a metal
Density =
Volume rod using a metre scale of least count 0.1cm.
Mass M The measurement is done three times and the
 Volume =  readings are 15.4, 15.4, and 15.5 cm. The most
Density 
probable length which is the arithmetic mean as
 m   per our earlier discussion is 15.43. Out of this
Percentage error in volume =     100
 m   we are certain about the digits 1 and 5 but are
 0.15 0.2  not certain about the last 2 digits because of the
=    100 least count limitation.
 5 5 
=  0.03  0.04   100 The number of digits in a measurement
about which we are certain, plus one additional
=  0.07   100  7% digit, the first one about which we are not certain
Example 1.7: The acceleration due to gravity is is known as significant figures or significant
determined by using a simple pendulum of length digits.
l = (100 0.1) cm. If its time period is T = (2 Thus in above example, we have 3
0.01) s, find the maximum percentage error in significant digits 1, 5 and 4.
the measurement of g. The larger the number of significant figures
Solution: The time period of oscillation of a obtained in a measurement, the greater is the
simple pendulum is given by accuracy of the measurement. If one uses the
l instrument of smaller least count, the number of
T =2 significant digits increases.
g

11
Rules for determining significant figures
Definitions of SI Units
1) All the nonzero digits are significant, Till May 20, 2019 the kilogram did not have
for example if the volume of an object is a definition; it was mass of the prototype
178.43 cm3, there are five significant digits cylinder kept under controlled conditions
which are 1,7,8,4 and 3. of temperature and pressure at the SI
2) All the zeros between two nonzero digits museum at Paris. A rigorous and meticulous
are significant, eg., m = 165.02 g has 5 experimentation has shown that the mass of
significant digits. the standard prototype for the kilogram has
3) If the number is less than 1, the zero/zeroes changed in the course of time. This shows
on the right of the decimal point and to the acute necessity for standardisation of
the left of the first nonzero digit are not units. The new definitions aim to improve
significant e.g. in 0.001405, the underlined the SI without changing the size of any
zeros are not significant. Thus the above units, thus ensuring continuity with existing
number has four significant digits. measurements. In November 2018, the
4) The zeros on the right hand side of the last 26th General Conference on Weights and
nonzero number are significant (but for Measures (CGPM) unanimously approved
this, the number must be written with a these changes, which the International
decimal point), e.g. 1.500 or 0.01500 have Committee for Weights and Measures
both 4 significant figures each. (CIPM) had proposed earlier that year. These
definitions came in force from 20 May 2019.
On the contrary, if a measurement yields
(i) As per new SI units, each of the seven
length L given as
fundamental units (metre, kilogram, etc.)
L = 125 m = 12500 cm = 125000 mm, it uses one of the following 7 constants
has only three significant digits. which are proposed to be having exact
To avoid the ambiguities in determining the values as given below:
number of significant figures, it is necessary to The Planck constant,
report every measurement in scientific notation h = 6.62607015 × 10−34 joule-second
(i.e., in powers of 10) i.e., by using the concept (J s or kg m2 s-1).
of order of magnitude. The elementary charge,
The magnitude of any physical quantity can e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb (C or
be expressed as A×10n where ‘A’ is a number A s).
such that 0.5 A<5 and ‘n’ is an integer called The Boltzmann constant,
the order of magnitude. k = 1.380649 × 10−23 joule per kelvin
(i) radius of Earth = 6400 km (J K−1 or kg m2 s-2 K-1).
The Avogadro constant (number),
= 0.64×107m
NA = 6.02214076 × 1023 reciprocal mole
The order of magnitude is 7 and the number (mol−1).
of significant figures are 2. The speed of light in vacuum,
(ii) Magnitude of the charge on electron e c = 299792458 metre per second (m s−1).
= 1.6×10-19 C The ground state hyperfine structure
Here the order of magnitude is -19 and the transition frequency of Caesium-133
number of significant digits are 2. atom,
ΔνCs = 9192631770 hertz (Hz or s-1).
Internet my friend The luminous efficacy of monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz, Kcd
1. videolectures.net/mit801f99_lewin_lec01/ = 683 lumen per watt (lm⋅W−1) = 683 cd
2. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ sr s3 kg-1 m-2, where sr is steradian; the SI
hframe.html
unit of solid angle.

12
(ii) Definitions of the units second and mole used). The arrows arriving at that unit
are based only upon their respective refer to the constant and the fundamental
constants, for example (a) the second unit (or units, wherever used) for defining
uses ground state hyperfine structure that unit. The arrows going away from a
transition frequency of Caesium-133 unit indicate other units which use this
atom to be exactly 9192631770 hertz. unit for their definition.
Thus, the second is defined as
9192631770 periods of that transition, For example, as described above, in fig (a)
(b) the mole uses Avogadro’s number i) the arrows directed to metre are from second
to be NA = 6.02214076 × 1023. Thus, one and c. The arrows going away from the metre
mole is that amount of substance which indicate that the metre is used in defining
contains exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 the kilogram the candela and the kelvin,
molecules. (ii) the newly defined unit kilogram uses
(iii) Definitions of all the other fundamental Planck constant, the metre and the second,
units use one constant each and at least while the kilogram itself is used in defining
one other fundamental unit, for example, the kelvin and the candela. This definition
the metre makes use of speed of light in relates the kilogram to the equivalent mass of
vacuum as a constant and second as the energy of a photon given its frequency,
fundamental unit. Thus, metre is defined via the Planck constant.
as the distance traveled by the light in Figure (a) refers to new definitions while
vacuum in exactly 1/299792458 second. the figure (b) refers to the corresponding
(iv) The figures show the dependency of definitions before 20 May 2019. Interested
various units upon their respective students may compare them to know which
constants and other units (wherever definitions are modified and how.

Fig (a) New SI Fig (b) Old SI

13
 Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. 3. Solve numarical examples.
i) [L M T ] is the dimensional formula for i)
1 1 -2
The masses of two bodies are measured
(A) Velocity (B) Acceleration to be 15.7 0.2 kg and 27.3 0.3 kg.
(C) Force (D) Work What is the total mass of the two and the
ii) The error in the measurement of the error in it?
sides of a rectangle is 1%. The error in [Ans : 43 kg, 0.5 kg]
the measurement of its area is ii) The distance travelled by an object in time
(A) 1% (B) 1/2% (100 1) s is (5.2 0.1) m. What is the
(C) 2% (D) None of the above. speed and it's error?
iii) Light year is a unit of [Ans : 0.052 ms-1, 0.029 ms-1]
(A) Time (B) Mass iii) An electron with charge
ur e enters a uniform.
(C) Distance (D) Luminosity magnetic field B with a velocity v . The
iv) Dimensions of kinetic energy are the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic
same as that of field. The force on the charge e is given
(A) Force (B) Acceleration by
(C) Work (D) Pressure ur
| F | Bev Obtain the dimensions of B .
v) Which of the following is not a [Ans: [L M T-2I-1]]
fundamental unit? iv) A large ball 2 m in radius is made up of a
(A) cm (B) kg rope of square cross section with edge
(C) centigrade (D) volt length 4 mm. Neglecting the air gaps in
2. Answer the following questions. the ball, what is the total length of the
i) Star A is farther than star B. Which star rope to the nearest order of magnitude?
will have a large parallax angle? [Ans : 106 m = 103km]
ii) What are the dimensions of the quantity v) Nuclear radius R has a dependence on the
l l / g , l being the length and g the mass number (A) as R =1.3×10-16A1/3 m.
acceleration due to gravity? For a nucleus of mass number A=125,
iii) Define absolute error, mean absolute obtain the order of magnitude of R
error, relative error and mean percentage expressed in metre.
error. [Ans : -15]
iv) Describe what is meant by significant vi) In a workshop a worker measures the length
figures and order of magnitude. of a steel plate with a Vernier callipers
v) If the measured values of two quantities having a least count 0.01 cm. Four such
are A A and B B, A and B measurements of the length yielded the
being the mean absolute errors. What is following values: 3.11 cm, 3.13 cm, 3.14
the maximum possible error in A B? cm, 3.14 cm. Find the mean length, the
Show that if Z A mean absolute error and the percentage
B
Z A B error in the measured value of the
 
Z A B length. [Ans: 3.13 cm,
vi) Derive the formula for kinetic energy of 0.01 cm, 1.3%]
a particle having mass m and velocity v vii) Find the percentage error in kinetic
using dimensional analysis energy of a body having mass 60.0

14
 0.3 g moving with a velocity 25.0 0.1 xii) If the length of a cylinder is l =
cm/s. (4.00±0.001) cm, radius r = (0.0250
[Ans: 1.3%] ±0.001) cm and mass m = (6.25±0.01)
viii) In Ohm's experiments , the values of gm. Calculate the percentage error in the
the unknown resistances were found determination of density.
to be 6.12 , 6.09 , 6.22 , 6.15 . [Ans: 8.185% ]
Calculate the absolute error, relative xiii) When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of
error and percentage error in these 824.7 million kilometers from the Earth,
measurements. its angular diameter is measured to be
[Ans: 0.04 ,0.0065 , 0.65 ] 35.72" of arc. Calculate the diameter of
ix) An object is falling freely under the the Jupiter.
gravitational force. Its velocity after [Ans: 1.428×105 km ]
travelling a distance h is v. If v depends xiv) If the formula for a physical quantity is
upon gravitational acceleration g and a 4 b3 and if the percentage error
X
distance, prove with dimensional c1/ 3d 1/ 2
analysis that v k gh where k is a in the measurements of a, b, c and d
constant. are 2%, 3%, 3% and 4% respectively.
b Calculate percentage error in X.
x) v  at   v 0 is a dimensionally valid [Ans: 20% ]
tc
xv) Write down the number of significant
equation. Obtain the dimensional figures in the following: 0.003 m2,
formula for a, b and c where v is velocity, 0.1250 gm cm-2, 6.4 x 106 m, 1.6 x 10-19
t is time and v0 is initial velocity. C, 9.1 x 10-31 kg.
[Ans: a- [L M T-2], b- [L M T ], [Ans: 1, 4, 2, 2, 2 ]
c- [L M T ] ] xvi) The diameter of a sphere is 2.14 cm.
xi) The length, breadth and thickness of Calculate the volume of the sphere to the
a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 correct number of significant figures.
m, 1.005 m, and 2.01 cm respectively. [Ans: 5.13 cm3 ]
Give the area and volume of the sheet to
correct significant figures. ***
[Ans: 4.255, 8.56×10-2 ]

15
 2. Mathematical Methods
Can you recall?
1. What is the difference between a scalar and a vector?
2. Which of the following are scalars or vectors?
(i) displacements (ii) distance travelled (iii) velocity
(iv) speed (v) force (vi) work done (vii) energy
2.1 Introduction: described by their magnitude are called scalars,
You will need certain mathematical tools i.e. they are specified by a number and a unit.
to understand the topics covered in this book. For example when we say that a given metal
Vector analysis and elementary calculus are rod has a length 2 m, it indicates that the rod
two among these. You will learn calculus in is two times longer than a certain standard unit
details, in mathematics, in the XIIth standard. metre. Thus the number 2 is the magnitude
In this Chapter, you are going to learn about and metre is the unit; together they give us a
vector analysis and will have a preliminary complete idea about the length of the rod. Thus
introduction to calculus which should be length is a scalar quantity. Similarly mass, time,
sufficient for you to understand the physics that temperature, density, etc., are examples of
you will learn in this book. scalars. Scalars can be added or subtracted by
2.2 Vector Analysis: rules of simple algebra.
In the previous Chapter, you have studied 2.2.2 Vectors:
different aspects of physical quantities like Physical quantities which need magnitude
their division into fundamental and derived as well as direction for their complete
quantities and their units and dimensions. description are called vectors. Examples of
You also need to understand that all physical vectors are displacement, velocity, force etc.
quantities may not be fully described by their A vector can be represented by a directed
magnitudes and units alone. For example if you line segment or by an arrow. The length of the
are given the time for which a man has walked line segment drawn to scale gives the magnitude
with a certain speed, you can find the distance of the vector, e.g., displacement of a body from
travelled by the man, but you cannot find out P to Q can be represented as P Q,
where exactly the man has reached unless where the starting point P is called the tail
you know the direction in which the man has and the end point Q (arrow head) is called the
walked. head
uur of the vector. Symbolically we write it as
Therefore, you can say that some physical PQ . Symbolically vectors are also represented
quantities, which are called scalars, can be by a single u ucapital
ur r letter with an arrow above
ur
u
described with magnitude alone, whereas some it, e.g., X , A , etc. Magnitude of a vector X is
ur
u
other physical quantities, which are called written as | X |.
vectors, need to be described with magnitude Let us see a few examples of different
as well as direction. In the above example the types of vectors.
distance travelled by the man is a scalar quantity
(a) Zero vector (Null vector): A vector
while the final position of the man relative to
having zero magnitude with a particular
his initial position, i.e., his displacement can be
direction (arbitrary) is called zero vector.
described by magnitude and direction and is a
vector quantity. In this Chapter you will study Symbolically it is represented as 0 .
different aspects of scalar and vector quantities. (1) Velocity vector of a stationary particle
2.2.1 Scalars: is a zero vector.
Physical quantities which can be completely (2) The acceleration vector of an object

16
 moving with uniform velocity is a zero ur
M is written as u M and is given by
vector. ur
u
(b) Resultant vector: The resultant of two or M = u$ M M --- (2.1)
ur
u
more vectors is that single vector, which M
or, u$ M = --- (2.2)
produces the same effect, as produced by M
all the vectors together.
Hence u M has magnitude unity ur and has the
(c) Negative vector (opposite vector): A
same direction as that of M . We use i , j ,
negative vector of a given vector is a
vector of the same magnitude but opposite and k , respectively, as unit vectors along the
in direction to that of the given vector. x, y and z directions of a rectangular (three
dimensional) coordinate system.
In Fig. 2.1, B is a negative vector to A .
u$ x = $i, u$ y = $j and u$ z = k$
A r r r
$ x $ y $ z
B ∴ i = , j = and k = --- (2.3)
x y z
Fig. 2.1: Negative vector. ur ur
Here X , y and z are vectors along x, y and
(d) Equal vector: Two vectors A and B z axes, respectively.
representing same physical quantity are
2.3 Vector Operations:
said to be equal if and only if they have
the same magnitude and direction. Two 2.3.1 Multiplication of a urVector by a Scalar:
equal vectors are shown in Fig. 2.2. Multiplying a vector P by a scalar quantity,
say s, yields another vector. Let us write
A ur ur
Q = sP --- (2.4)
B ur
Q will be a vector whose direction is the
Fig. 2.2: Equal vectors. ur
same as that ofur P and magnitude is s times the
(e) Position vector: A vector which gives
magnitude of P .
the position of a particle at a point with
respect to the origin of a chosen co- 2.3.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors:
ordinate system is called the position The addition or subtraction of two or more
vector of the particle. vectors of the same type, i.e., describing the
same physical quantity, gives rise to a single
vector, such that the effect of this single vector
is the same as the net effect of the vectors which
have been added or subtracted .
It is important to understand that only
vectors of the same type (describing same
physical quantity)
ur can be
ur added or subtracted
e.g. force F1 and forceurF2 ur can ur
be
u added to give
Fig 2.3: Position vector. the resultant force F = F1 + F2 . But a force
uur vector can not be added to a velocity vector.
In Fig 2.3, = OP is the position vector of uuur
It
u uu is easy to find addition of vectors AB
r
the particle present at P.
and BC having the same or opposite direction
(f) Unit vector: A vector having unit but different magnitudes. If individual vectors
magnitude in a given direction is called ur are parallel (i.e., in the same direction), the
a unit vector in that direction. If M magnitude of their resultant is the addition of
uuur uuur uur
is a non-zero
ur
u vector i.e. its magnitude individual magnitudes, i.e., AC = AB + BC
M =| M | is not zero, the unit vector along

17
and direction of the resultant is the same as
that of the individual vectors as shown in Fig
2.4 (a). However, if the individual vectors are
anti-parallel (i.e., in the opposite direction), the t
ltan
magnitude of their resultant is the difference of ur R esu
the individual magnitudes, and the direction is C B
uuur uuur uur
that of the larger vector i.e., AC = AB - BC
as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b).
A
ur r r
Fig. 2.5 (b): Resultant vector C = A + B .
Fig. 2.4 (a): Resultant of parallel displacements. We can use the triangle law for showing
that
(a) Vector addition is commutative.
ur ur
For any two vectors P and Q ,
Fig 2.4 (b): Resultant of anti-parallel forces. P +Q = Q + P --- (2.5)
2.3.3 Triangle Law for Vector Addition: Figure 2.6ur (a) shows addition of the two
ur
When vectors of a given type do not act vector P and Qr in rtwo rdifferent
u ways. Triangle
ur
in the same or opposite directions, the resultant OAB shows P + Q = R = OB , while triangle
ur ur ur uuur
can be determined by using the triangle law of OCB shows Q + P = R =OB .
vector addition which is stated as follows: ur ur ur ur
∴ P +Q = Q + P
If two vectors describing the same physical
quantity are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of a triangle taken
in order, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the third side of the
triangle drawn in the opposite sense (from the
starting point of first vector to the end point of
the second vector).
Let A and B be two vectors in the plane Fig. 2.6 (a): Commutative law.
of paper as shown in Fig. 2.5 (a). The sum of
(b) Vector addition is associative
these two vectors can be obtained by using the ur
triangle law described above as shown in Fig. ur If A , B and C are three vectors then
r r ur r r ur
2.5 (b). The resultant vector is indicated by C . ( A + B ) +C = A +( B +C )
P B Q

A ur
B B + ur C
C
+B
A
O R
R
A Fig. 2.6 (b): Associative law.
Fig. 2.5 (a): Two vectors A and B in a plane, Figure 2.6 (b) shows addition of 3 vectors

18
 ur uuur
A , B and C in two different ways to give Join OC to complete triangle OBC as
resultant R . shown in (b).
r r r ur uur ur
u uur r r r
R = ( A + B ) +C --- from triangle OQR Now, OC = OB + BC = A1 + A2 + A3
r r r ur C
R = A +( B C ) --- from triangle OPR A4 A3
r r ur r r ur
i.e., ( A + B ) +C = A +( B +C ) --- (2.6) D B

3
+A
A2
Thus the Associative law is proved.

+
+ A2

A1
uuur A5 A1
A2
Example 2.1: Express vector AC in terms of
uur uur O A1 A
vectors AB and CB shown in the following
figure. Fig. (b)
C From triangle OCD,
uur r uur uur r r r r
OD = A5 = OC + CD = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
uur
Thus OD is the resultant of the four vectors,
A B A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 , represented by
uuur uuur uuur uuur
Solution: Using the triangle law of addition of OA, AB, BC and CD , respectively.
vectors we can write 2.3.4 Law of parallelogram of vectors:
uuur uur uur
AC +CB = AB Another geometrical method of adding two
uuur uur uur vectors is called parallelogram law of vector
∴ AC = AB - CB
addition which is stated as follows:
Example 2.2: From the following figure, If two vectors of the same type, originating
determine the resultant of four forces from the same point (tails at the same point)
A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 are represented in magnitude and direction by
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their
C resultant vector is given in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
A4 A3
starting from the same point as shown in Fig.
D B 2.7.

A5 A2

O
A1 A
uur
Solution: Join OB to complete OAB as
shown in (a)
C
A4 A3 Fig 2.7: Parallelogram law of vector addition.
uuur ur
D In
uur ur Fig. 2.7, vector OA = P and vector
B
OB = Q , represent two vectors originating from
A2
A5 A1 + point O, inclined to each other at an angle If
A2
we complete the parallelogram,
uur r then according
O A1 A
to this law, the diagonal OC = R represents the
Fig. (a) resultant vector.
uur
uur r r uur
Now, OB = OA + AB = A1 + A2 To find the magnitude of R , drop a

19
perpendicular from C to reach OA (extended) at P sin  
1 
D. In right angled triangle ODC, by application similarly derived that   tan  
by Pythagoras theorem,  Q  P cos  
Example 2.3: Water is flowing in a stream
OC2 = OD2+DC2
with velocity 5 km/hr in an easterly direction
= (OA+AD)2 + DC2 relative to the shore. Speed of a boat is relative
OC2 = OA2+2OA.AD+AD2+DC2 to still water is 20 km/hr. If the boat enters the
In the right angled triangle ADC, by stream heading North, with what velocity will
application of Pythagoras theorem the boat actually travel?
AD2+DC2=AC2 Solution: The resultant velocity R of the boat
... OC2=OA2+2OA. AD+ AC2 --- (2.7) can be obtained by adding the two velocities
Also, using OAB shown in the figure. Magnitude
uuur uru uuur uuur ur uuur ur of the resultant velocity is calculated as follows:
OA P, AC OB = Q and OC R 5 km/hr
In ADC, cos = AD/AC A B
... AD=AC cos = Q cos
Substituting in Eq. (2.7) R
20 km/hr
R2 = P2+Q2+2 P Q cos
 R = P 2 +Q 2 + 2 P Q cos --- (2.8)
Equation (2.8) gives us the magnitude of
resultant vector R . O
To find the direction of the resultant vector
R= 20 2  52
R , we will have to find the angle ( ) made by
ur  425  20.61 km / hr
R with P .
The direction of the resultant velocity is
DC
In  ODC, tan  =  5 
OD = tan -1    tan (0.25)
-1

DC  20 
= --- (2.9)
OA + AD  14 0 04 ∴
DC The velocity of the boat is 20.61 km/hr in a
From the figure, sin = direction 14004 east of north.
AC
 DC = AC sin = Q sin 2.4 Resolution of vectors:
Also, A vector can be written as a sum of two
AD = AC cos = Q cos or more vectors along certain fixed directions.
ur
and OA = P , Thus a vector V can be written as
r
Substituing in Eq. (2.9), we get V  V $  V $  V $
1 2 3
--- (2.11)
Q sin
tan  = where  , � ,  are unit vectors along chosen
P + Q cos 
directions. V1, V2 and V3 are known as
 Q sin 
  = tan -1   --- (2.10) components of V along the three directions
 P + Q cos  
 ,  and  .
Equation (2.10) gives us the direction of
The process of splitting a given vector
resultant vector R . into its components is called resolution of the
ur
If is the angle between R and Q , it can be vector. The components can be found along

20
directions at any required angles, but if these Equation (2.16) gives the magnitude of R .
components are found along the directions
which are mutually perpendicular, they are To find the direction of R , from Fig. 2.8,
called rectangular components. Ry
tan =
Rx
 Ry 
 = tan -1   --- (2.17)
R
 x
r ur
Similarly, if R x , R y and R z are the
rectangular components of R along the x,
Fig. 2.8 : Resolution of a vector. y and z axes of the rectangular Cartesian co-
Let us see how to find rectangular ordinate ur ur ur
system in three dimensions, then
ur
components in two dimensions. R = R x + R y + R z = Rx i$ + Ry j + Rz k
r uur ur
Consider a vector R = OC , originating or , R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 + Rz 2 ---- (2.18)
from the origin of a rectangular co-ordinate
system as shown in Fig. 2.8. If two vectors are equal, it means that their
corresponding components are also equal and
Drop perpendiculars from C that meet the vice versa.
x-axisuuat
r Arand y-axis
uru rof at B.
OA R x and OB = R y ; R x and R y being the
If A = B
uur
components of OC along the x and y axes, i.e., if Ax i + Ay j + Az k = Bx i + By j + Bz k , then
respectively. Ax = Bx , Ay = By and Az = Bz
Then by the law of parallelogram of Example 2.4: Find a unit vector in the direction
vectors,
of the vector 3i + 4 j
R = Rx + R y --- (2.12)
Solution:
r r
R = Rx $i + Ry $j --- (2.13) Let V = 3$i + 4 $j
r r
where i and j are unit vectors along the x r Magnitude of V = | V | = 32  4 2  25  5
r
and y axes respectively, and Rx and Ry are the V = $ | V | , where is a unit vector along V .
r
magnitudes of the two components of R . V 3 4
  r = $i + $j
$
Let be the angle made by R with the |V | 5 5
x-axis, then r r
Rx Example 2.5: Given a = $i + 2 $j and b = 2i$ + $j ,
cos = what are the magnitudes of the two vectors? Are
R
 Rx = R cos --- (2.14) these two vectors equal?
Solution:
Ry
sin = 2 2
R |a | = 1 2 = 5
 Ry = R sin --- (2.15) 2 2
|b| = 2 1 = 5
Squaring and adding Eqs. (2.14) and
(2.15), we get The magnitudes of a and b are equal.
However, their corresponding components are
R 2 cos 2  + R 2 sin 2 = Rx 2 + Ry 2 not equal i.e., ax bx and ay by . Hence, the two
 R 2 = Rx 2 + Ry 2 vectors are not equal.

or , R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 --- (2.16)

21
2.5 Multiplication of Vectors: (3) Scalar product obeys the distributive law of
We saw that we can add or subtract multiplication
ur ur ur ur ur
vectors of the same type to get resultant vectors P . (Q + R ) = P .Q + P . R
ur ur
of the same type. However, when we multiply (4) Special cases of scalar product P . Q = P
vectors of the same or different types, we get Q cos
a new physical quantity which may either be ur ur
(i) If = 0, i.e., the two vectors P and Q are
a scalar (scalar product) or a vector (vector parallel urto each other, then
product). Also note that the multiplication of a ur
.
P Q = P Q cos PQ
scalar with a scalar is always a scalar and the
multiplication of scalar with a vector is always Thus, i i = j j = k k =1
a vector. Let us now study the characteristics
of a scalar product and vector product of two Do you know ?
vectors. Scalar and vector products are very
2.5.1 Scalar Product (Dot Product): useful in physics. They make mathematical
The scalar product or urdot product of two formulae and their derivation very elegant.
ur
nonzero vectors P and Q is defined as the Figure below shows a toy car pulled
product of magnitudes of the two vectors and the ur
through a displacement S . The force F
cosine of the angle betweenurthe two vectors. responsible for this is not in the direction of
ur
The scalar product of P and Q is written as, S but is at an angle to it. Component of
ur . ur ur
P Q = PQ cos --- (2.19) displacement along the direction of force F
ur ur is S cos . According to the definition, the
where is the angle between P and Q .
work done by a force is the product of the
Characteristics of scalar product force and the displacement in the direction
(1) The scalar product of two vectors is of force. ∴W = FS cos According to the
equivalent to the product of magnitude of one definition of scalar product,
vector with the magnitude of the component of ur
F . S = F S cos
the other vector in the direction of the first. ur
Q ∴W = F . S
-----------------

Also W = F (S cos ) = (F cos ) S

Hence dot or scalar product is the
product of magnitude of one of the vectors
os

----
Pc

--- and component of the other vector in the

------- direction of the first.
---
---- Power is the rate of doing work on a
ur ur
O Q cos P P body by an external force F assumed to
be constant in time. It v is the velocity of
Fig. 2.9: Projection of vectors. the body under the action of the force then
From Fig. 2.9, ur
ur . ur power P is given by the scalar product of F
P Q = PQ cos ur
and v i.e., P = F . v .
= P (Q cos ) ur ur
= P (component
ur ur of Q in the direction of P )
Similarly P . Q = Q (Pur cos )
ur
= Q (component of P in the direction of Q )
(2) Scalar product obeys the commutative law
of vectorurmultiplication. ur ur
ur .
P Q = P Q cos = Q P cos = Q . P

22
 ur ur Solution:
(ii) If = 180 , i.e., the two vectors P and Q r r
are anti-parallel, then v 1  v 2  ( $i + 2 $j +3 k$ )  (3 $i +4 $j - 5 k$ )
ur ur
P . Q = P Q cos 180 PQ =1×3 +2 ×4 +3× ×(-5)
(iii) If = 90 i.e., the two vectors are =-4
perpendicular to each other, then as $i  $i = $j  $j = k$  k$ =1,
ur ur
P . Q = P Q cos 90 and $i  $j = $i  k$ = $j  k$ = $j  $i = k$  $i = k$  $j =0
Thus, i j = j k = k i =0
ur ur ur ur 2.5.2 Vector Product (cross product):
(5) If P = Q then P . Q = P2 = Q2 The vector ur
product or cross product of two
(6) Scalar product of vectors expressed in terms ur
vectors ( P and Q ) is a vector whose magnitude
of rectangular components : is equal to the product of magnitudes of the
ur
Let P = Px $i + Py $j + Pz k$ two vectors and sine of the smaller angle ( )
ur between the two vectors. The direction of the
and Q = Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$
ur ur product vector is given by u r which is a unit
Then P  Q = Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz vector perpendicular to the plane containing the
Proof : two vectors and is given by the right hand screw
ur ur rule. This is shown in Fig. 2.10 (a) and (b)
P  Q =(Px $i + Py $j + Pz k$ )  (Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$ ) r ur ur
a) R = P  Q = PQ sin  u$ r --- (2.18)
r ur ur
= Px $i  (Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$ ) b) S = Q  P = PQ sin  u$ s --- (2.19)
+Py $j  (Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$ )
+Pz k$  (Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$ )
=( $i  $i ) Px Qx +( $i  $j ) Px Q y +( $i  k$ )Px Qz
+( $j  $i ) Py Qx +( $j  $j ) Py Q y +( $j  k$ )Py Qz R
ur
+( k$  $i ) Pz Qx +( k$  $j ) Pz Q y +( k$  k$ ) Pz Qz Q
u
Since, $i  $i = $j  $j = k$  k$ =1
r

O
and $i  $j = $j  k$ = k$  $i = $i  k$ = $j  $i = k$  $j =0 ur
ur ur P
 P  Q = Px Qx +0 +0 ur ur
+ 0 + Py Q y +0 Fig. 2.10 (a): Vector product R = P × Q .
ur
+0 +0 + Pz Qz Q
ur ur
 P  Q = Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz O
(7) If a  b  a  c , where a 0 , it is not necessary u s
ur
that b c . Using the distributive law, we can P
 
write a  b  c  0 . It implies that either b c
= 0 or a is perpendicular to b c . It does not S
necessarily imply that b  c  0
Example 2.6: Find the scalar product of the
two vectors
r r
v  $i  2 $j  3 k$ and v  3 $i  4 $j  5 k$ ur ur
1 2
Q
Fig. 2.10 (b): Vector product S = × P .

23
 According to the right hand screw rule, r r ur r r r ur
ur if A×( B +C ) = A×B + A×C --- (2.21)
the
ur screw is rotated in a direction from P to (3) Special cases of cross product
Q through the smaller angle, then the direction
| P ×Q |= P Q sin --- (2.22)
in which the tip of the screw advances is the
direction ofur R , perpendicular to the plane (i) If =0. i.e., if the two nonzero vectors are
ur parallel to each
containing P and Q . One example of vector ur uother,
r their vector product is a
ur zero vector | P ×Q |= P Q 0 = 0
or cross product is the force F experienced by
a charge q moving with velocity v through a (ii) If = 180 , i.e., if the two nonzero vectors
uniform magnetic field of magnetic induction are anti-parallel, their vector product is a zero
B . It is an empirical vector | P ×Q |= P Q sin 180  P Q sin   0
ur lawr (experimentally
ur
determined) given by F  q v  B . (iii) If = 90 , i.e., if the two nonzero vectors
are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude
Do you know ? of their vector product is equal to the product of
magnitudes of the two vectors.
1.As linear displacement x is the distance | P ×Q |= P Q sin 90 = P Q
travelled by a body along the line of travel,
angular displacement is the angle swept Thus i × j = k , j × k = i and k × i = j
by a body about a given axis. The rate
of change of angular displacement is the (4) If P = Q then | P ×Q |= | P ×P |=| Q ×Q |= 0 .
angular velocity denoted by . If a body Thus i × i = j × j = k × k =0
is rotating about as axis, it possesses ur
an angular velocity . If at a point at a (5) Let P = Px $i + Py $j + Pz k$
distance r from the axis of rotation the ur
and Q = Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$
body has linear velocity v , then v = × r . r r
2. An external force is needed to move a body
 
P ×Q = Px $i + Py $j + Pz k$ × Qx $i +Q y $j +Qz k$ 
from one point to other. Similarly to rotate = Px Qx i$ ×i$ + Px Q y i$ × $j + Px Qz i$ ×k$
a body about an axis passing through it,
+ Py Qx $j × $i + Py Q y $j × $j + Py Qz $j ×k$
torque is required. Torque is a vector with
its direction along the axis of rotation and + Pz Qx k$ ×$i + Pz Q y k$ × $j + Pz Qz k$ ×k$
magnitude ur describing the turning effect
of force F acting on the body to rotate it Now $i ×$i = $j × $j = k$ ×k$ =0, and
about the given axis. Torque is given $i ×k$ = - $j , $j ×$i = -k$ , k$ × $j = -$i
ur
as = r × F , r being the perpendicular $i × $j = k$ , $j ×k$ = $i , k$ ×$i = $j.
distance of a point on the body where the ur ur
force is applied from the axis of rotation. ∴ P ×Q = 0 + Px Q y k$ - Px Qz $j
Characteristics of Vector Product: - Py Qx k$ +0 + Py Qz $i
(1) Vector product does not obey commutative
+ Pz Qx $j - Pz Q y $i +0
law of multiplication.
ur ur ur ur
P ×Q Q ×P --- (2.20) =(Py Qz - Pz Q y ) $i
r r ur r
However, | P ×Q |= | Q ×P | i.e., the magnitudes + (Pz Qx - Px Qz ) $j
are the same but the directions are opposite to
+(Px Q y - Py Qx ) k$
each other.
This can be written in a determinant form as
(2) The vector product obeys the distributive
law of multiplication.

24
 r
$i $j $k Example 2.8: If A = 5i$ +6 $j + 4k$ and
r r r
P × Q = Px Py Pz --- (2.23) B = 2i$ - 2 $j + 3k$ , determine the angle between
Qx Q y Qz A and B .
(6) The magnitude of cross product of two
.
vectors is numerically equal to the area of a Solution: A B = A B cos = AxBx+AyBy+AzBz
parallelogram whose adjacent sides represent Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
the two vectors. cos =
AB
Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
cos =
Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 Bx 2 + B y 2 + B z 2
(5)(2) +(6)(-2) +(4)(3)
cos =
25 +36 +16 4 +4 +9
10
= = 0.2764
77. 17
Fig 2.11: Area of parallelogram and vector
product. = cos -1 0.2765 =73°58'
r
As shown in fig. 2.11, Example 2.9: Given P = 4$i - $j + 8 k$ and
r ur u r ur r r r ur ur
$i - m $j + 4 k$ , find m if P and Q have the
P OA , Q OB, P and Q are inclined at Q = 2
an angle same direction.
ur ur
Perpendicular BD, of length h drawn on Solution: Since P and Q have the same
OA, gives the height of the parallelogram with direction, their corresponding components must
OA as base. be in the same proportion, i.e.,
Area of parallelogram Px Py P
= = z
= base × height Qx Q y Qz
BD 4 -1 8
= OA  BD, as sin   = =
OB 2 -m 4
= P Q sin 1
ur ur ∴m =
 P ×Q 2
2.6 Introduction to Calculus:
= magnitude of the vector product --- (2.24)
Calculus is the study of continuous (not
Example 2.7: The angular momentum ur discrete) changes in mathematical quantities.
L = r × p , where r is a position vector and p is This branch of mathematics was first developed
linear momentum of a body. by G.W Leibnitz and Sir Issac Newton in the
r r r ur r r r
If r = 4i ×6 j - 3k and p = 2i +4 j - 5k , find L 17 century and is extensively used in several
$ $ th

branches of science. You will study calculus

Solution:
in mathematics in XIIth standard. Here we will
$i $j k$ learn the basics of the two branches of calculus
r r r namely differential and integral calculus. These
L =r×p = 4 6 -3
are necessary to understand the topics covered
2 4 -5 in this book.
r r 2.6.1 Differential Calculus:
∴ L = (-30 +12) $i + (-6 + 20) $j +(16 - 12)k
Let us consider a function y = f(x). Here x
$ $ $
= -18i +14 j + 4k . is called an independent variable and f(x) gives
the value of y for different values of x and is the

25
dependent variable. For example x could be the Thus,
position of a particle moving along x-axis and dy ( y  y )  y
 lim
y = f(x) could be its velocity at that position dx x0
x  0 x
x. We can thus draw a graph of y against x as df(x) f ( x0 + x )  f ( x0 )
shown in Fig. 2.12 (a). Let A and B be two points  lim
dx x0 x 0 x
on the curve giving values of y at x = x0 and
x = x0 + x, where x is a small increment in x. We can drop the subscript zero and write
The slope of the straight line joining A and B is a general formula which will be valid for all
y values of x as
given by tan   . dy
 lim
f(x + x) - f(x) df(x)
=
x dx x dx
--- (2.25)
If we make x smaller, the point B will x  0

come closer to A and if we keep making x In XIIth standard you will learn about
smaller and smaller, we will ultimately reach a the properties of derivatives and how to find
stage when B will coincide with A. This process derivatives of different functions. Here we will
is called taking the limit x going to zero and just list the properties as we will need them in
lim . In this limit the line AB
is written as x0 later Chapter s. dy/dx is called the derivative of
extended on both sides to P and Q will become y with respect to x (which is the rate of change of
the tangent to the curve at A, i.e., at y with respect to change in x) and the process of
finding the derivative is called differentiation.
Let f1(x) and f2(x) be two different functions of
x and let s be a constant. Some of the properties
of differentiation are
d(sf(x)) df(x)
1. =s --- (2.26)
dx dx

d df1 (x) df 2 (x)

2. (f1 (x) + f 2 (x)) = + --- (2.27)
dx dx dx
Fig. 2.12 (a): Average rate of change of y d df 2 (x) df1 (x)
with respect to x. 3. (f1 (x)× f 2 (x)) = f1 (x) + f 2 (x)
dx dx dx
--- (2.28)
d  f1 (x)  1 df (x) f (x) df (x)
=
1
4.  - 12 2

dx  f 2 (x)  f 2 (x) dx f 2 (x) dx

--- (2.29)
5. If x depends on time another variable t then,
df(x) df(x) dx
= --- (2.30)
dt dx dt
6.
Fig. 2.12 (b): Rate of change of y with
respect to x at x0
x = xo. In this limit both x and y will go to
zero. However, when two quantities tend to
zero, their ratio need not go to zero. In fact
 y 
lim  
x  0 x becomes the slope of the tangent
 
shown by PQ in Fig. 2.12 (b). This is written as
dy/dx at x = xo. The derivatives of some simple functions
of x are given below.

26
 d 2.6.2 Integral calculus
1. (x n ) = n x n-1 --- (2.31)
dx Integral calculus is the branch of
x ax
mathematics dealing with properties of integrals
2. d(e ) = e x and d(e ) = ae ax --- (2.32) and their applications. Physical interpretation
dx dx of integral of a function f(x), i.e., f(x)dx is
d 1
3. (ln x) = --- (2.33) the area under the curve f(x) versus x. It is the
dx x reverse process of differentiation as we will see
4. d --- (2.34) below.
( sin x) = cos x
dx We know how to find the area of a
5. d ( cos x) = - sin x --- (2.35) rectangle, triangle etc. In Fig. 2.13(a) we have
dx shown y which is a function of x, A and B being
6. d ( tan x) = sec 2 x --- (2.36) two points on it.
dx
d
7. ( cot x) = - cosec x
2
--- (2.37)
dx
8. d ( sec x) = tan x sec x --- (2.38)
dx
d
9. ( cosec x) = - cosec x cot x --- (2.39)
dx
Example 2.10: Find the derivatives of the
functions. Fig. 2.13 (a): Area under a straight line.
(a) f(x) = x 8
(b) f(x) = x 3 + sin x
(c) f(x) = x 3 sin x
Solution :
n
(a) Using dx = nx n-1 ,
dx
8
d(x )
= 8x7
dx
Fig. 2.13 (b): Area under a curve.
(b) Using
d df1 (x) df 2 (x) d ( sin x) The area under the curve (straight line)
(f1 (x) + f 2 (x)) = + , = cos x from x = a to x = b is shown by shaded area.
dx dx dx dx
This can be obtained as sum of the area of the
d d(x ) 3
d ( sin x)
(x 3 + sin x) = + rectangle ADEC = f(a) (b-a) and the area of the
dx dx dx triangle ABC = 1/2 (b-a) (f(b)-f(a))
= 3x + cos x
2
Figure 2.13(b) shows another function of
c) Using x. We do not have a simple formula to calculate
d df 2 (x) df1 (x) the area under this curve. For this calculation,
(f1 (x) f 2 (x)) = f1 (x) + f 2 (x)
dx dx dx we use a simple trick. We divide the area into a
d( sin x) large number of vertical strips as shown in the
and = cos x figure. We assume thickness (width) of each
dx
strip to be so small that it can be assumed to be
d d ( sin x) d(x 3 )
(x 3 sin x) = x 3 + sin x a rectangle as shown in the figure and add the
dx dx dx areas of these rectangles. Thus the area under
= x 3 cos x +3x 2 sin x the curve is given by

27
 Area under the curve Indefinite integrals of some basic functions
n n are given below. Their definite integrals can be
=  Ai =  (xi - xi -1 ) f(xi ) obtained by using the Eq. (2.44)
i =1 i =1
n+1
where n is the number of strips and Ai is the 1. x n dx = x
area of the ith strip. --- (2.47)
n +1
As the strips are not really rectangles, the
area calculated above is not exactly equal to the 1
2. dx = ln x --- (2.48)
area under the curve. However as we increase x
n, the sum of areas of rectangles gets closer to
the actual area under the curve and becomes 3. sin x dx = - cos x --- (2.49)
equal to it in the limit n . Thus we can write, 4. cos x dx = sin x --- (2.50)
Area under the curve
n 5. e x dx = e x --- (2.51)
= lim
n 
 (xi - xi -1 ) f(xi ) --- (2.40)
i =1 Example 2.11: Evaluate the following
Integration helps us in getting exact area if
integrals:
the change is really continuous, i.e., n is really
8
x =b (a) x dx
infinite. It is represented as f(x)dx and is 5
x =a (b) x 2 dx
called the definite integral of f(x) from x = a to 2

x = b. (c) (x + sin x) dx
x=b n
Solution: (a) Using formula
Thus,  f(x) dx = lim  (xi - xi-1 ) f(xi )
x=a
n 
i=l n x x9
--- (2.41) x dx = , x 8 dx =
n +1 9
The process of obtaining the integral is called
integration. We can also write (b) Using Eq. (2.44),
5 x3 5 5
3
2
3
125 - 8 117
F(x) = f(x)dx --- (2.42) x 2 dx = = - = =
2
3 2 3 3 3 3
F(x) is called the indefinite (without any
(c) Using Eq. (2.45),
limits on x) integral of f(x). Differentiation
is the reverse process to that of integration.   f (x) + f (x) dx = f (x)dx +  f (x)dx
1 2 1 2

Therefore,
and  sin x dx = cos x, we get  (x + sin x) dx
d
f(x) = (F(x)) --- (2.43) x2
dx
 x dx +  sin x dx = 2
+ cos x
b b
 F(x) = F(b) - F(a) =  f(x)dx --- (2.44)
a a

Internet my friend
Properties of integration
1.   f1 (x) + f 2 (x)  dx =  f1 (x)dx +  f 2 (x)dx 1. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vect.
html#veccon
--- (2.45) 2. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/
hframe.html
2. K f(x)dx = K f(x)dx for K = constant

--- (2.46)

28
 Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. r
iv) Find a vector which is parallel to v $i - 2 $j
i) The resultant of two forces 10 N and 15 N
and has a magnitude 10.
acting along + x and - x-axes respectively,
is  10 20 
 Ans : i- j
(A) 25 N along + x-axis  5 5 
(B) 25 N along - x-axis r
v) Show that vectors a = 2$i + 5 $j - 6k$ and
(C) 5 N along + x-axis r 5
(D) 5 N along - x-axis b = $i + $j - 3k$ are parallel.
2
ii) For two vectors to be equal, they should
have the 3. Solve the following problems.
(A) same magnitude r
i) Determine a ×b , given a = 2i$ +3 $j and
(B) same direction r
b = 3i$ +5 $j .
(C) same magnitude and direction
(D) same magnitude but opposite direction  Ans : k 
 
iii) The magnitude of scalar product of two r
ii) Show that vectors a = 2i +3 j +6k$ ,
$ $
unit vectors perpendicular to each other is r r
(A) zero (B) 1 b = 3i$ - 6 $j +2k$ and c =6i$ +2 $j - 3k$ are
(C) -1 (D) 2 mutually perpendicular.
iv) The magnitude of vector product of two iii) Determine the vector product of
ur ur
u
unit vectors making an angle of 60 with v1 2i$ +3 $j - k$ and v 2 $i +2 $j - 3k$ ,
each other is
 Ans : - 7i +5 j +k 
(A) 1 (B) 2  
ur ur
(C) ur3/2ur (D) 3 / 2 $ $
iv) Given v1 5i + 2 j and v 2 ai - 6 j are
$ $
ur
v) If A, B and C are three vectors, then perpendicular to each other, determine the
which of the following is not correct? value of a.
ur ur ur ur ur ur ur
 
(A) A  B  C  A  B  A  C 
 Ans :
12 
ur ur ur ur  5 
(B) A  B  B  A v) Obtain derivatives of the following
ur ur ur ur
(C) A  B  B  A functions:
ur ur ur ur ur ur ur
 
(D) A  B  C  A  B  B  C
(i) x sin x
(iii) x/sin x
(ii) x4+cos x

2. Answer the following questions.

 Ans : (i) sin x + x cos x, 
r $i - $j 
i) Show that a = is a unit vector.  1 x cos x 
2 (ii) 4x - sin x, (iii)
3
+
ur ur
u  sin x sin 2 x 
ii) If v1 3i$ +4 $j +k$ and v 2 $i - $j - k$ ,
ur uru vi) Using the rule for differentiation for
determine the magnitude of 1 2 . v v quotient of two functions, prove that
[Ans: 5] d  sin x 
 cos x  = sec x
2
ur ur
u
iii) For v1 2i$ - 3 $j and v 2  6i +5 j ,
$ $ dx  
determine
ur ur u the magnitude and direction of vii) Evaluate the following integral:
v1 v 2 .  /2 5
(i)  sin x dx (ii)  x dx
 -1  1  0 1
Ans : 2 5 ,  = tan  with x - axis


 2
 

  Ans : (i) 1,(ii) 12
***

29
 3. Motion in a Plane
Can you recall?
1. What is meant by motion? 2. What is rectilinear motion?
3. What is the difference between displacement and distance travelled?
4. What is the difference between uniform and nonuniform motion?
3.1 Introduction: The following quantities can be defined for the
We see objects moving all around us. Motion motion.
is a change in the position of an object with time. 1. Displacement: The displacement of the
We have come across the motion of a toy car object between t1 and t2 is the difference
when pushed along some particular direction, between the position vectors of the object at
the motion of a cricket ball hit by a batsman for the two instances. Thus, the displacement
a sixer and the motion of an aeroplane from one is given by
place to another. The motion of objects can be s   x  x 2  x1 --- (3.1)
divided in three categories: (1) motion along a Its direction is along the line of motion
straight line, i.e., rectilinear motion, (2) motion of the object. Its dimensions are that of
in two dimensions, i.e., motion in a plane and, length. For example, if an object has
(3) motion in three dimensions, i.e., motion in travelled through 1 m from time t1 to t2
space. The above cited examples correspond to along the +ve x-direction, the magnitude
three types of motions, respectively. You have of its displacement is 1 m and its direction
studied rectilinear motion in earlier standards. is along the +ve x-axis. On the other
In rectilinear motion the force acting on the hand, if the object travelled along the
object and the velocity of the object both are +ve y direction through the same distance
along one and the same line. The distances are in the same time, the magnitude of its
measured along the line only and we can indicate displacement is the same as before, i.e., 1
distances along the +ve and –ve axes as being m but the direction of the displacement is
positive and negative, respectively. The study along the +ve y-axis.
of the motion of an object in a plane or in space
becomes much easier and the corresponding 2. Path length: This is the actual distance
equations become more elegant if we use vector travelled by the object during its motion.
quantities. In this Chapter we will first recall It is a scalar quantity and its dimensions
basic facts about rectilinear motion. We will are also that of length. If an object travels
use vector notation for this study as it will be along the x-axis from x = 2 m to x = 5 m
useful later when we will study the motion in then the distance travelled is 3 m. In this
two dimensions. We will then study the motion case the displacement is also 3 m and its
in two dimensions which will be restricted to direction is along the +ve x-axis. However,
projectile motion only. Circular motion, i.e., the if the object now comes back to x = 4, then
motion of an object around a circular path will the distance through which the object has
be introduced here and will be studied in detail moved increases to 3 + 1 = 4 m. Its initial
in the next standard. position was x = 2 m and the final position
is now x = 4 m and thus, its displacement
3.2 Rectilinear Motion: is x = 4 – 2 = 2 m, i.e., the magnitude of
Consider an object moving along a straight the displacement is 2 m and its direction
line. Let us assume this line to be along the is along the +ve x-axis. If the object now
x-axis. Let x1 and x 2 be the position vectors moves to x =1, then the distance travelled,
of the body at times t1 and t2 during its motion. i.e., the path length increases to 4 + 3 =

30
 7 m while the magnitude of displacement given instant of time. It is defined as the
becomes 2 – 1 = 1 m and its direction is limiting value of the average velocity of
along the negative x-axis. the object over a small time interval ( t)
3. Average velocity: This is defined as the around t when the value of the time interval
displacement of the object during the time ( t) goes to zero.
interval over which average velocity is  x  d x
being calculated, divided by that time v  lim   , --- (3.3)
� t 0 t  dt
interval. As displacement is a vector  
quantity, the velocity is also a vector dx
quantity. Its dimensions are [L1 M0 T-1]. being the derivative of x with respect
dt
If the position vectors of the object are x1
to t (see Chapter 2).
and x 2 at times t1 and t2 respectively, then 6. Instantaneous speed: Instantaneous speed
the average velocity is given by is the speed of an object at a given instant
x 2  x1 of time t. It is the limiting value of the
v av  --- (3.2)
(t2 - t1 ) average speed of the object taken over
a small time interval ( t) around t when
For example, if the positions of an object the time interval goes to zero. In such a
are x = +2 m and x = +4 m at times t = 0 and limit, the path length will be equal to the
t = 1 minute respectively, the magnitude magnitude of the displacement and so the
of its average velocity during that time is instantaneous speed will always be equal
vav = (4 - 2)/(1- 0) = 2 m per minute and its to the magnitude of the instantaneous
direction will be along the +ve x-axis, and velocity of the object.
r
we write vav 2$i m/min where i is a unit
vector along x-axis.
Always Remember:
4. Average speed: This is defined as the
For uniform rectilinear motion, i.e., for an
total path length travelled during the time
object moving with constant velocity along
interval over which average speed is being
a straight line
calculated, divided by that time interval.
1. The average and instantaneous
Average speed = vav = path length/time
velocities are equal.
interval. It is a scalar quantity and has the
same dimensions as that of velocity, i.e., 2. The average and instantaneous speeds
[L1 M0 T-1]. are the same and are equal to the
magnitude of the velocity.
If the rectilinear motion of the object is
only in one direction along a line, then For nonuniform rectilinear motion
the magnitude of its displacement will 1. The average and instantaneous
be equal to the distance travelled and so velocities are different.
the magnitude of average velocity will be 2. The average and instantaneous speeds
equal to the average speed. However if the are different.
object reverses its direction (the motion 3. The average speed will be different
remaining along the same line) then the from the magnitude of average velocity.
magnitude of displacement will be smaller
than the path length and the average Example 3.1: A person walks from point P to
speed will be larger than the magnitude of point Q along a straight road in 10 minutes,
average velocity. then turns back and returns to point R which
5. Instantaneous velocity: I n s t a n t a n e o u s is midway between P and Q after further 4
velocity of an object is its velocity at a minutes. If PQ is 1 km, find the average speed

31
and velocity of the person in going from P to R.
Solution: The path length travelled by the
person is 1.5 km while the displacement is the
distance between R and P which is 0.5 km. The
time taken for the motion is 14 min.
The average speed = 1.5 / 14 = 0.107 km/min =
6.42 km/hr.
The magnitude of the average velocity = 0.5/14
= 0.0357 km/min = 2.142 km/hr.
Graphical Study of Motion
Fig 3.1 (b): Object with uniform velocity
We can study the motion of an object by
along +ve x-axis.
using graphs showing its position as a function
of time. Figure 3.1 shows the graphs of position
as a function of time for five different types
of motion of an object. Figure 3.1(a) shows
an object at rest, for which the x-t graph is a
horizontal straight line. Since the position
is not changing, displacement of the object
zero. Velocity is displacement (which is zero)
divided by time interval or the derivative of
displacement with respect to time. It can be
obtained from the slope of the line plotted in Fig 3.1 (c): Object with uniform velocity
the figure which is zero. along -ve x-axis.
Figure 3.1(b) shows x-t graph for an object
moving with constant velocity along the +ve x-
axis. Since velocity is constant, displacement
is proportional to elapsed time. The slope
of the straight line is +ve, showing that the
velocity is along the +ve x-axis. As the motion
is uniform, the average velocity is same as the
instantaneous velocity at all times. Also, the
speed is equal to the magnitude of the velocity.
Figure 3.1(c) shows the x-t graph for a Fig 3.1 (d): Object performing oscillatory
body moving with uniform velocity but along motion.
the -ve x-axis, the slope of the line being -ve.
Figure 3.1(d) shows the x-t graph of an object
having oscillatory motion with constant speed.
The direction of velocity changes from +ve to
-ve and vice versa over fixed intervals of time.

Fig.3.1 (e): Object in nonuniform motion.

Fig 3.1 (a): Object at rest. Figure 3.1(e) shows the motion of an

32
object with nonuniform velocity. Its velocity the displacement of the object during that time
changes with time and, therefore, the average interval (as shown below). Figure 3.2(d) shows
and instantaneous velocities are different. the motion of an object having nonuniform
Figure shows the average velocity over time acceleration. The average acceleration between
interval from t1 to t4 around time t0, which can t1 and t2 around t0 and the instantaneous
be seen from Eq. (3.2) to be the slope of line accelerations at t0 for the object are shown by
AB. For a smaller time interval from t2 to t3, the straight lines AB and CD respectively.
average velocity is the slope of the line CD. If
we keep reducing the time interval around t0, we
will ultimately come to a limit, when the time v0
interval will go to zero and lines AB, CD... will
go over to the tangent to the curve at t0. The v
instantaneous velocity at t0 will thus be equal to
the slope of the tangent PQ at t0 (see Eq. (3.3)).
7. Acceleration: Acceleration is defined as
the rate of change of velocity with time. It is
a vector quantity and its dimensions are [L1
M0 T-2]. The average acceleration of an object
having velocities v1 and v 2 at times t1 and t2 is
given by
Fig 3.2 (a): Object moving with constant
 v  v1 
a 2 --- (3.4) velocity.
 t2  t1 
Instantaneous acceleration is the limiting v2
value of the average acceleration when the
time interval goes to zero. It is given by v v
1
  v  dv
a  lim   --- (3.5)
� t 0 t 
  dt
The instantaneous acceleration at a given
time is the slope of the tangent to the velocity
versus time curve at that time. Figure 3.2
shows the velocity versus time (v - t) graphs for
four different cases. Figure 3.2(a) represents
the motion of an object with zero acceleration, Fig 3.2 (b): Object moving with velocity (v)
i.e., constant velocity. The shaded area under along +ve x-axis with uniform acceleration
the velocity-time graph over some time interval along the same direction.
t1 to t2, shown in Figs. 3.2(a) is equal to v0
(t2 - t1) which is the magnitude of the displacement
of the object from t1 to t2. Figure 3.2(b) is the v1
velocity-time graph for an object moving with v
constant +ve acceleration (magnitude of velocity
uniformly increasing with time). Figure 3.2(c) v2
shows similar motion but the object has -ve
acceleration, i.e., the acceleration is opposite
to the direction of velocity which, therefore,
decreases uniformly with time. The area under
both the curves between two instants of time is Fig 3.2 (c): Object moving with velocity (v)
with negative uniform acceleration.

33
 Equations of Motion for Uniform
Acceleration:
We can graphically derive Newton's
equations of motion for an object moving with
uniform acceleration. Consider an object having
v position x = 0 at t = 0. Let the velocity at t = 0 be
u and at time t be v. The graphical representation
of motion is shown in Fig. 3.3. The acceleration
is given by the slope of the line AB. Thus,
vu vu
Acceleration, a  
t 0 t
Fig. 3.2 (d): Object moving with nonuniform  v  u  at --- (3.7)
acceleration. This is the first equation of motion.
The area under the velocity-time curves v
in Figs. 3.2(a) to (d) can be written using the
definition of integral given in Chapter 2 as
t2 t t
2
dx 2

Area =  v dt  t dt t dx  x(t2 )  x(t1 ) --- (3.6)

dt  v
t1 1 1

= displacement of the object from t1 to t2.

Always Remember:
For uniform acceleration, for a rectilinear
motion:
1. Velocity-time graph is linear. O
2. The area under the velocity-time graph
between two instants of time t1 and t2 Fig.3.3: Derivation of equation of motion
gives the displacement of the object for motion with uniform acceleration.
during that time interval. As we know, the area under the curve in
velocity-time graph is the displacement of
3. The slope of the velocity-time graph is
the object. Thus displacement s = area of the
the acceleration of the object
quadrilateral OABD. = area of triangle ABC +
For nonuniform acceleration in a rectilinear area of rectangle OACD.
motion:
1
1. Velocity-time graph is nonlinear. =  v  u  t  ut
2
2. The area under the velocity-time graph 1 2
Using Eq. (3.7), s  ut  at --- (3.8)
between two instants of time t1 and t2 2
gives the displacement of the object This is the second equation of motion.
during that time interval. As the acceleration is constant, the
3. The instantaneous acceleration of the velocity is increasing linearly with time and
object at a given time is equal to the we can use average velocity vav, to calculate the
slope of the tangent to the curve at that displacement using Eq. (3.7) as
point.  v  u   v  u  v  u
s  vav t   t 
While using the concept of area under the  2  2a
curve, the origin of the velocity axis (for v-t  
s  v 2  u 2 /  2a 
graph) must be zero.
v 2  u 2  2 a .s --- (3.9)

34
 This is the third equation of motion. Vector Example 3.2: A stone is thrown vertically
notation was not included here as the motion upwards from the ground with a velocity 15
was rectilinear. m/s. At the same instant a ball is dropped from
The most common example of uniform a point directly above the stone from a height
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration of of 30 m. At what height from the ground will
an object in day to day life is a freely falling the stone and the ball meet and after how much
body. When a body starts with zero velocity at time? (Use g = 10 m/s2 for ease of calculation).
a certain height from the ground and falls under Solution: Let us assume that the stone and
the influence of the gravity of the Earth , it is the ball meet after time t0. The distances (not
said to be in free fall. The only other force that displacements) travelled by the stone and the
acts on it is that of the air resistance or friction. ball in that time can be obtained from Eq. (3.8)
For displacements of a few metres, this force is as
too small and can be neglected. The acceleration 1
of the body is the acceleration due to gravity sstone = 15 t0 – g t02
2
which is along the vertical direction and can be 1
sball = g t02
assumed to be constant over distances which are 2
small compared to the radius of the Earth . Thus When they meet, sstone + sball = 30
the velocity and acceleration are both along the 1 1
15 t0 - g t02 + g t02 = 30
vertical direction and the motion is a uniform 2 2
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration. t0 = 30/15 = 2 s
1
∴ sstone = 15 (2) – (10) (2)2 = 30 -20 =10 m
Do you know ? 2
Thus the stone and the ball meet at a height of
The distance travelled by an object starting 10 m.
from rest and having a uniform acceleration 8. Relative Velocity: You must have often
in successive seconds are in the ratio experienced relative motion. The most striking
1:3:5:7... Consider a freely falling object. example is when you are going in a train and
Let us calculate the distances travelled by another train travelling in the same direction
it in equal intervals of time t0 (say). This along parallel tracks, overtakes you. If you look
can be done using the second equation at that train, it actually seems to be moving
of motion s = u t0 +(1/2) g t02. The initial much slower than what your train seemed
velocity is zero. Therefore, the distance to move and yet it is overtaking you. On the
travelled in the first t0 interval = (1/2) g other hand if your train overtakes another
t02. For simplification let us write (1/2) train, travelling on a parallel track in the same
g = A. Then the distance travelled in the direction, and you look at that train, you feel
first t0 time interval = d1 = At02. In the time that your train has suddenly slowed down. Why
interval 2t0, the distance travelled = A(2t0)2. does this happen? This is because when you
Hence, the distance travelled in the second look at the neighbouring train, you are actually
t0 interval is d2 = A(4t02 - t02) = 3A t02 = 3 experiencing relative motion, i.e., your motion
d1. The distance travelled in time interval with respect to the other train or the motion
3t0 = A(3t0)2. Thus, the distance travelled of the other train with respect to you. Thus, in
in the 3rd t0 interval = d3 = A(9t02 – 4t02) = the first case as the other train overtakes you
5A t02 = 5d1. Continuing, one can see that the what you perceive is the velocity of the train
distances d1, d2, d3 .. are in the ratio 1:3:5:7... with respect to you, i.e., the difference in the
This is true for any rectilinear motion, velocities of the two trains which most often is
starting from rest, with positive uniform much smaller than the velocity of your train. In
acceleration. the second case, you are moving faster but when
you look at that train you only feel your velocity

35
relative to it and, therefore, your velocity the value of average speed will be different as
appears to be lower than its actual value. We the magnitude of the displacement need not
can define relative velocity of object A with be equal to the path length. For example, if a
respect to object B as the difference between particle travels along a circle and comes back
their velocities, i.e., to its original position, its displacement will
vAB = vA – vB --- (3.10) be zero but the path length will be equal to the
Similarly, the velocity of B with respect to A is circumference of the circle.
given by 3.3.1 Average and Instantaneous Velocities:
vBA = vB – vA --- (3.11) For studying the motion of an object in two
We assume that at time t = 0, A and B were dimensions, for simplicity, we will take the plane
at the same point x = 0. As they are travelling to be the x-y plane. To describe the position of
with different velocities, the distance between an object in this plane we will have to specify,
them will go on increasing with time in direct both its x and y coordinates. The definitions
proportion to the difference in their velocities, of displacement, average and instantaneous
i.e., the relative velocity between them. velocities, average and instantaneous speeds
and acceleration will be the same as those for
Example 3.3: An aeroplane A, is travelling rectilinear motion except that each of these
in a straight line with a velocity of 300 km/ quantities will now have components along the
hr with respect to Earth . Another aeroplane x and y directions. Let us assume the object to
B, is travelling in the opposite direction with a be at point P at time t1 as shown in Fig. 3.4 (a).
velocity of 350 km/hr with respect to Earth .
What is the relative velocity of A with respect
to B? What should be the velocity of a third
aeroplane C moving parallel to A, relative to
the Earth if it has a relative velocity of 100
km/hr with respect to A?
Solution: Let vA, vB and vC be the velocities of
the three planes relative to the Earth . Relative
velocity of A with respect to B = vAB = vA - vB =
300 – (-350) = 650 km/hr
Relative velocity of C with respect to A = vCA =
vC - vA = 100 km/hr.
Fig. 3.4 (a) Motion in two dimensions
Thus, vC = vCA + vA= 400 km/hr
3.3 Motion in Two Dimensions-Motion in a
Plane:
So far we were considering rectilinear
motion of an object. The direction of motion of
the object was always along one straight line.
Now we will consider the motion of an object
in two dimensions, i.e., along a plane. Here, the
direction of the force acting on an object will not
be in the same line as its initial velocity. Thus,
the velocity and acceleration will have different Fig. 3.4 (b) Instantaneous velocity
directions. For this reason we have to use vector The position of the object will be described
equations. The definitions of various terms by its position vector x1 . This can be written in
given in section 3.2 will remain valid except terms of its components along the x and y axes
that the magnitude of the average velocity and as

36
 r
x1  x1iˆ  y1 $j --- (3.12) 3.3.2 Average and Instantaneous Acceleration:
At time t2, let the position of the object be Q and Again, the definitions are the same as those
for rectilinear motion. Thus, the average
its position vector be x 2 acceleration ( a av) of a particle between times
r
ˆ
x 2  x2 i  y2 j$ --- (3.13) t1
and t2 can be written as
The displacement of the particle from t1 to t2 a  v 2  v1   v 2 x  v1x  iˆ   v 2 y  v1 y  ĵj
   
t2  t1  t2  t1   t2  t1  - (3.21)
av
shown by PQ, i.e., in time t = t2 – t1 is given by
uur r r where v 2 and v1 are the velocities of the
x  x 2  x1   x2  x1  iˆ   y2  y1  ˆj --- (3.14)
particle at times t2 and t1 respectively.
We can write the average velocity of the object
a = (a ) i + (a ) j --- (3.22),
as av av x av y

 x  x2  x1  ˆ  y2  y1  ˆ (aav)x and (aav)y being the x and y components

v av   i
    j of the average acceleration.
t  t2  t1   t2  t1 
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration
v  (v ) i  (v ) j
av av x av y --- (3.15) are given by
aav =  aav    aav 
2 2
where, (vav)x = (x2-x1)/(t2 - t1) and --- (3.23)
x y
(vav)y = (y2-y1)/(t2 - t1) --- (3.16) and
Average velocity is a vector whose tan = (aav)y/(aav)x --- (3.24)
direction is along x (see Eq. (3.2)), i.e., along The instantaneous acceleration is given by (see
the direction of displacement. In terms of its Eq. (3.5))
components, the magnitude (v) and direction
 v  dv  dv x  ˆ  dv y  ˆ
(the angle that the velocity vector makes with a  lim    i   j
� t 0 t 
the x-axis) can be written as (see Chapter 2)   dt  dt   dt  -(3.25)
2 2
v = v x v y and tan = vy/vx --- (3.17) d  dx  ˆ d  dy  ˆ  d 2 x  ˆ  d 2 y 
 i j   2  i   2  ĵ
Figure 3.4(b) shows the trajectory of an object dt  dt  dt  dt   dt   dt 
moving in two dimensions. The instantaneous
velocity of the object at point P along the --- (3.26)
trajectory is along the tangent to the curve at Thus, the x and y components of the
P. This is shown by the vector PQ. Its x and instantaneous acceleration are respectively
y components vx and vy are also shown in the given by
figure. ax = d2x/dt2 and ay = d2y/dt2 --- (3.27)
The instantaneous velocity of the object can be The magnitude and direction of acceleration
written in terms of derivative as (see Eq. 3.3) are given by
r r
r   x  d x  dx   dy  $
   iˆ    j -- (3.18)
2 2
v  lim    d2x   d2 y 
t 0 t  dt a =  2   2  --- (3.28),
   dt   dt 
 dt   dt 
The magnitude and direction of the and
instantaneous velocity are given by tan = (dvy/dt)/(dvx/dt) = dvy/dvx --- (3.29)
2
 dx   dy 
2 which is the slope of the tangent to the curve in
v      , --- (3.19) velocity graph, i.e., a plot of v versus v .
 dt   dt  y x
Example 3.4: The position vectors of three
tan =  dy / dt  /  dx / dt �  � dy
/ dx --- (3.20) particles are given by
r r
which is the slope of the tangent to the curve x1  (5$i  5 $j ) m, x 2  (5t $i  5t $j ) m and
at the point at which we are calculating the r
x 3  (5t $i  10t 2 $j ) m as a function of time t.
instantaneous velocity. Determine the velocity and acceleration for

37
each, in SI units. which is the vector form of Eq. (3.8).
Solution: v1 = d x 1/dt = 0 as x 1 does not depend Eq. (3.30) and (3.31) can be resolved into their
on time t. x and y components so as to get corresponding
Thus, the particle is at rest. scalar equations as follows.
vx = ux + ax t --- (3.32)
v 2 d x 2 /dt = 5 i + 5 j m/s. v 2 does not
change with time.  a 2  0 and vy = uy + ay t --- (3.33)

v 2  52  52  5 2 m / s , tan = 5/5 = 1 or =
1
sx  sx t  a x t 2 --- (3.34)
45 . Thus, the direction of v2 makes an angle of 2
1
45 to the horizontal. and s y  uy t  a y t 2 --- (3.35)
2
v 3 = d x 3 / dt =5 i +20t j . We can see that Eqs. (3.32) and (3.34)
involve only the x components of displacement,
 v 3  52  (20t ) 2 m / s . Its direction is along velocity and acceleration while Eqs. (3.33) and
 20t  (3.35) involve only the y components of these
= tan-1   with the horizontal.
 5  quantities. Thus the two sets of equations are
dv 3 independent of each other and can be solved
a3 20 ˆj m / s 2 independently. We can thus see that the motion
dt
Thus, the particle 3 is getting accelerated along along the x direction of an object is completely
the y-axis at 20 m/s2. controlled by the x components of velocity and
3.3.3 Equations of Motion for an Object acceleration while that along the y direction is
travellinging a Plane with Uniform completely controlled by the y components of
Acceleration: these quantities. This makes it easy to study the
We have derived equations of motion for motion in two dimensions which gets converted
an object in rectilinear motion in section 3.2. to two independent rectilinear motions along
We will now derive similar equations for a two perpendicular directions.
particle moving with uniform acceleration in
Always Remember:
two dimensions. Let the initial velocity of the
object be u at t = 0 and its velocity at time t be Motion in two dimensions can be
resolved into two independent motions in
v . As the acceleration is constant, the average
mutually perpendicular directions.
acceleration and the instantaneous acceleration
will be equal. By using the definition of
Example 3.5: The initial velocity of an object
acceleration (Eq. (3.21)), we get
a = ( v - u )/(t - 0) is u = 5 i + 10 j m/s. Its constant acceleration
--- (3.30) is a = 2 i + 3 j m/s . Determine the velocity
2
or v = u + a t
which is the same as Eq. (3.7) but is in vector and the displacement after 5 s.
form. Solution:
Let the displacement from time t = 0 to t v  u  a t
be s . This can be calculated from the average
velocity of the object during this time. For    
 5iˆ  10 ˆj  2iˆ  3 ˆj  5   15iˆ  25 ˆj
u v
constant acceleration, v av  v  v 2x  v 2y
2
 u v   uua t   152  252  225  625  850
 
 s  vav t    t    t  29.15 m / s
 2   2 
v y 
1 2 Direction of v with x-axis is tan-1    tan-1
∴s = u t + a t --- (3.31), v x 
2

38
 25  Solution: Let the velocity of the aeroplane
 15   tan-1(1.667) 59o
  with respect to Earth be v AE, velocity of wind
with respect to Earth be v WE. The velocity
1
s  u t  a t2 of aeroplane with respect to wind, v AW can be
2
determined by the following expression:
1
   
 5iˆ  10 ˆj  5   2iˆ  3 ˆj 52
2 v = v AE + v EW = v AE - v WE = – 100 i +300 j ,
AW

 50i   87.5  j
ˆ ˆ considering north along +y axis.
Magnitude of v AW
=  10000  90000 
 s  sx2  s 2y  502  87.52
= 100 10 km/hr, and its direction,
 2500  7656.25  300 
  tan 1    71.6 is towards north of
 10156.25  100.78 m  100  east.
1 87.5 3.3.5 Projectile Motion:
at tan  6015 ' with x-axis.
50 Any object in flight after being thrown
3.3.4 Relative Velocity: with some velocity is called a projectile and
Relative velocity between two objects its motion is called projectile motion. We often
moving in a plane can be defined in a way similar see projectile motion in our day-to-day life.
to that for objects moving along a straight line. Children throw stones towards trees for getting
The relative velocity of object A having velocity tamarind pods or mangoes. A bowler bowls
v A , with respect to the object B having velocity a ball towards a batsman in cricket, a basket
v B , is given by ball player throws a ball towards the basket,
all these are illustrations of projectile motion.
v AB = v A – v B --- (3.36) In this motion, we have objects (projectiles)
Similarly, the relative velocity of object B with with given initial velocity, moving under the
respect to object A , is given by influence of the Earth's gravitational field. The
projectile has two components of velocity, one
v BA = v B - v A --- (3.37) in the horizontal, i.e., along x-direction and the
We can see that the magnitudes of the two other in the vertical, i.e., along the y direction.
relative velocities are equal and their directions The acceleration due to gravity acts only along
are opposite. the vertically downward or direction. The
Consider a number of objects A, B, C, D horizontal component of velocity, therefore,
---- Y, Z, moving with respect to the other. Using remains unchanged as no force is acting in
the symbol vAB for representing the velocity of the horizontal direction, while the vertical
A relative to B etc, the velocity of A relative to component changes in accordance with laws of
Z can be written as motion with a x being 0 and a y (= g ) being the
v AZ  v AB  v BC  vCD  ...  v XY  vYZ downward acceleration due to gravity (upward
is positive). Unless stated otherwise, retarding
Note the order of subscripts (A B C D--- forces like air resistance, etc., are neglected for
Z). the projectile motion.
Example 3.6: An aeroplane is travelling Let us assume that the initial velocity of
northward with a velocity of 300 km/hr with the projectile is u and its direction makes an
respect to the Earth. Wind is blowing from east angle with the horizontal as shown in Fig.
to west at a speed of 100 km/hr. What is the 3.5. The projectile is thrown from the ground.
velocity of the aeroplane with respect to the We take the x-axis along the ground and y-axis
wind? in the vertical direction. The horizontal and
vertical components of initial velocity are u

39
cos and u sin respectively. The horizontal are shown at these points as well as at two
component remains unchanged in absence of intermediate points A and B, on the trajectory
any force acting in that direction, while the of the projectile. Note that the horizontal
vertical component changes according to (Eq. component of velocity remains the same, i.e.,
3.33) with ay = -g and uy = u sin . ux, while the vertical component decreases
and becomes zero at P. After that it changes its
direction, its magnitude increases and becomes
equal to uy again at Q. The horizontal distance
covered by the projectile before it falls to the
ground is OQ. We can derive the equation of the
trajectory of the projectile as follows.
Let the time taken by the projectile to reach
the maximum height be t0. The trajectory of the
object being symmetrical, it can be shown by
using equations of motion, that the object will
take the same time in going up in air and coming
Fig.3.5: Trajectory of a projectile.
down to the ground. At the highest point P, t = t0
Thus, the components of velocity at time t are and vy = 0. Using Eq. (3.39),
given by
we get, 0 = u sin – gt0
vx = ux = u cos --- (3.38)
vy = uy – gt = u sin – gt --- (3.39) t0 = (u sin /g --- (3.43)
As 0 < 90 , the vertical component initially ∴ Total time in air = T = 2t0 is the time of flight.
is in the upward direction. Similarly, the The total horizontal distance travelled by
displacements of the projectile in the horizontal the particle in this time T can be obtained by
and vertical directions at time t, according to using Eq. (3.40) as
Eqs. (3.34) and (3.35) are given by R = ux. T = u cos .2t0 = u cos . (2u sin )/g
sx = ucos .t ---- (3.40) = 2 ux vy /g = u2(2 sin cos )/g
1 2
sy = usin .t gt --- (3.41) = u2 sin2 /g --- (3.44)
2
The direction of motion of the projectile at any This maximum horizontal distance
time t makes an angle with the horizontal travelled by the projectile is called the horizontal
which is given by range R of the projectile and depends on the
tan = vy(t)/vx(t) --- (3.42) magnitude and direction of initial velocity of the
The vertical velocity keeps on decreasing projectile as well as the value of acceleration
as the projectile goes up and becomes zero due to gravity at that place.
at certain time. At that time the height of the For maximum horizontal range,
projectile is maximum. The velocity then sin2   1  2  900 or   450
starts increasing in the downward direction as u2
the particle is now falling under the Earth 's Hence, R  Rmax  for   450
g
gravitational field with a constant horizontal The maximum height H reached by the
component of velocity. After a while the projectile is the distance travelled along the
projectile reaches the ground. The trajectory of vertical (y) direction in time t0. This can be
the object is shown in Fig. 3.5. The projectile calculated by using Eq. (3.41) as
is assumed to start from the origin of the
1
coordinate system, O. The point of maximum H = u sin . t0 – g t02
height is indicated by P and the point where it 2
falls down to the ground is indicated by Q. The  u sin  1  u sin 2
 u sin   – g
horizontal and vertical components of velocity  g  2  g 

40
 2 Maximum horizontal distance travelled
u 2sin 2 u y
=  --- (3.45) R = 2.ux.uy/g = 2(15)(20)/10 = 60 m
2g 2g
Equation of motion for a projectile
Do you know ? We can derive the equation of motion of
All the above expressions of T, R, Rmax and the projectile which is the relation between
H are valid if the entire motion is governed the displacements of the projectile along the
only by gravitational acceleration g, i.e., vertical and horizontal directions. This can be
retarding forces like air resistance are obtained by eliminating t between the equations
absent. However, in reality, it is never so. As giving these displacements, i.e., Eqs. (3.40) and
a result, time of ascent ta and time of decent (3.41).
td are not equal but ta td . Also, in order As the projectile starts from x = 0, we can
to achieve maximum horizontal range for write sx = x and sy = y.
given initial velocity, the angle of projection sx x
 s x   u cos  t  t  
should be greater than 450 and the range is u cos u cos
2
much less than u . 1
 y   u sin  t  gt 2
g 2
2
Example 3.7: A stone is thrown with an  x  1  x 
initial velocity components of 20 m/s along   u sin     2 g  u cos 
 u cos   
the vertical, and 15 m/s along the horizontal
direction. Determine the position and velocity 1 g  2
 y   tan  x   2 x --- (3.46)
of the stone after 3 s. Determine the maximum 2  u cos 2 
height that it will reach and the total distance
travelled along the horizontal on reaching the This is the equation of the trajectory of the
ground. (Assume g = 10 m/s2) projectile. Here, u and are constants for the
given projectile motion. The above equation is
Solution: The initial velocity of the stone in of the form
x-direction = u cos = 15 m/s and in y-direction
= u sin = 20 m/s. y = Ax + Bx2 --- (3.47)
After 3 s, vx = u cos = 15 m/s and vy = u sin – which is the equation of a parabola. Thus,
gt = 20 – 10(3)= - 10 m/s = 10 m/s downwards. the path, i.e., the trajectory of a projectile is a
parabola.
 v  v 2x  v 2y  152  102 3.4 Uniform Circular Motion:
 225  100  325 An object moving with constant speed
 18.03 m / s along a circular path is said to be in uniform
circular motion (UCM). Such a motion is only
tan = vy/ vx = 10/15 = 2/3 possible if its velocity is always tangential to its
∴ = tan-1 (2/3) = 33 41' with the horizontal. circular path, without change in its magnitude.
sx = (u cos ) t = 15×3 = 45 m, To change the direction of velocity,
1 acceleration is a must. However, if the
sy = (u sin ) t – gt2 = 20 × 3 - 5(3)2 = 15 m. acceleration or its component is in line with
2
Thus the stone will be at a distance 45 m along the velocity (along or opposite to the velocity),
horizontal and 15 m along vertical direction it will always change the speed (magnitude of
from the initial position after time 3 s. The velocity) in which case it will not continue its
velocity is 18.03 m/s making an angle 33 41 uniform circular motion. In order to achieve both
with the horizontal. these requirements, the acceleration must be (i)
The maximum vertical distance travelled is perpendicular to the tangential velocity, (ii) of
given by H = (u sin )2/(2g) = 202/(2 ×10) = 20 m constant magnitude and (iii) always directed

41
towards the centre of the circular trajectory. the circle is the radius vector r . Its magnitude is
Such an acceleration is called centripetal (centre radius r and it is directed away from the centre
seeking) acceleration and the force causing this to the particle, i.e., away from the centre of
acceleration is centripetal force. the circle. As the particle performs UCM, this
Thus, in order to realize a circular motion, radius vector describes equal angles in equal
there are two requirements; (i) tangential intervals of time. At this stage we can define
velocity and (ii) centripetal force of suitable a new quantity called angular speed which
constant magnitude. gives the angle described by the radius vector,
An example is the motion of the moon per unit time. It is analogous to speed which is
going around the Earth in a nearly circular orbit distance travelled per unit time.
as a result of the constant gravitational attraction During one complete revolution, the angle
of fixed magnitude felt by it towards the Earth. described is 2 and the time taken is period T.
Hence, the angular speed
Do you know ?
 2 r 
A parabola is a symmetrical open curve Angle 2  T  v
obtained by the intersection of a cone     --- (3.49)
time T r r
with a plane which is parallel to its side. The unit of is radians/sec.
Mathematically, the parabola is described
with the help of a point called the focus and
a straight line called the directrix shown in
the accompanying figure. The parabola is
the locus of all points which are equidistant
from the focus and the directrix. The chord of
the parabola which is parallel to the directrix
and passes through the focus is called latus
rectum of the parabola as shown in the
accompanying figure.

Fig.3.6: Uniform circular motion.

3.4.2 Expression for Centripetal Acceleration:
Figure 3.6 shows a particle P performing
a UCM in anticlockwise sense along a circle of
radius r with angular speed and period T. Let
us choose the coordinates such that this motion
is in the xy- plane having centre at the origin O.
3.4.1 Period, Radius Vector and Angular Initially (for simplicity), let the particle be at P0
Speed: on the positive x-axis. At a given instant t, the
Consider an object of mass m, moving with radius vector of P makes an angle with the
a uniform speed v, along a circle of radius r. Let x-axis.
T be the time period of revolution of the object, d
   t and so 
i.e., the time taken by the object to complete one dt
revolution or to travel a distance of 2 r. x and y components of the radius vector r will
Thus, T = 2 r/v then be rcos and rsin respectively.
r
Distance 2 r  r   rcos  $i   rsin  $j
 Speed v   --- (3.48).
Time T   rcos  t  $i   rsin  t  $j --- (3.50)
During circular motion of a point object,
the position vector of the object from centre of Time derivative of position vector r gives

42
instantaneous velocity v and time derivative of
velocity v gives instantaneous acceleration a .
Magnitudes of r and are constants.

v 
dr
dt

 r sin  t  iˆ   cos  t  ˆj 
 
 r sin  t  iˆ  cos  t  ˆj
--- (3.51)
dv
a 
dt

 r  cos  t  iˆ  sin  t  ˆj 
 
  2 rcos  t  iˆ  rsin  t  ˆj   2 r Fig 3.7: Conical pendulum
ur
Thus, we resolve tension T into two
--- (3.52) mutually perpendicular components. Let be
Here minus sign shows that the acceleration is the angle made by the string with the vertical at
opposite to that of r , i.e., towards the centre. any position. The component T cos is acting
This is the centripetal acceleration. vertically upwards. The inclination should be
The magnitude of acceleration, such that T cos = mg, so that there is no net
vertical force.
v2
a   2r   v --- (3.53) The resultant force on the bob is then T
r
sin which is radial or centripetal or directed
The force providing this acceleration should also
towards centre O' T sin = mv2/r = mr 2.
be along the same direction, hence centripetal.
ur r r (mv 2 / r ) v 2
 F  ma  m 2 r --- (3.54) tan   
mg rg
2 mv 2
Magnitude of F  m  r   m v - (3.55) 2 r
r Since we know v =
Conical pendulum T
In a simple pendulum a mass m is suspended
by a string of length l and moves along an arc of 4 2 r 2
 tan  
a vertical circle. If the mass instead revolves in T 2 rg
a horizontal circle and the string which makes a r
constant angle with the vertical describes a cone T  2
g tan 
whose vertex is the fixed point O, then mass-
string system is called a conical pendulum as l sin 
T  2 ( r  l sin  )
shown in Fig. 3.7. In the absence of friction, the g tan 
system will continue indefinitely once started.
l cos 
As shown in the figure, the forces acting T  2
on the bob of mass, m, of the conical pendulum g
are: (i) Gravitational force, mg, acting vertically
ur h
T  2 ( h  l cos  ) --- (3.56)
downwards, (ii) Force due to tension T acting g
along the string directed towards the support. where l is length of the pendulum and h is the
These are the only two forces acting on the bob. vertical distance of the horizontal circle from
For the bob to undergo horizontal circular the fixed point O.
motion, (radius r) the resultant force must be Example 3.8: An object of mass 50 g moves
centripetal, (directed towards the centre of the uniformly along a circular orbit with an angular
circle). In other words vertical gravitational speed of 5 rad/s. If the linear speed of the
force must be balanced. particle is 25 m/s, what is the radius of the

43
circle? Calculate the centripetal force acting on r
t = 0, the velocity is given by u  20$i  35 $j
the particle.
km/s. After one minute the velocity becomes
r
v  20$i  35 $j . What is the magnitude of the
Do you know ?
acceleration?
1. The centripetal force is not one of the Solution: Magnitude of initial and final
external forces acting on the object. velocities =
As can be seen from above, the actual
forces acting on the bob are T and mg,  u  (20) 2  (35) 2 m / s
the resultant of these is the centripetal = 1625 m / s
force. Conversely, if the resultant force
= 40.3 m / s
is centripetal, motion must be circular.
2. In planetary motion, the gravitational As the velocity reverses in 1 min, the time
force between Sun and the planets period of revolution is 2 min.
provides the necessary centripetal 2 r uT
T , giving r 
force for the circular motion. u 2
2 2
Solution: The linear speed and angular speed a  u  u 2  2 u  2  3.14  40.3
are related by v = r r uT T 2  60
∴ r = v/ = 25/5 m = 5 m.  2.11 m s 2

mv 2
Centripetal force acting on the object = Internet my friend
r
0.05  252
 6.25 N. 1. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mot.
5
Example 3.9: An object is travelling in a html#motcon
horizontal circle with uniform speed. At 2. www.college-physics.com/book/mechanics

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises

1. Choose the correct option. (C) Uniform motion in a vertical circle

i) An object thrown from a moving bus is (D) Rectilinear motion in vertical circle
on example of iv) For uniform acceleration in rectilinear
(A) Uniform circular motion motion which of the following is not
(B) Rectilinear motion correct?
(C) Projectile motion (A) Velocity-time graph is linear
(D) Motion in one dimension (B) Acceleration is the slope of velocity
time graph
ii) For a particle having a uniform circular
motion, which of the following is constant (C) The area under the velocity-time
graph equals displacement
(A) Speed (B) Acceleration
(C) Velocity (D) Displacement (D) Velocity-time graph is nonlinear
iii) The bob of a conical pendulum under v) If three particles A, B and C are having
goes velocities v A , v B and v C which of the
following formula gives the relative
(A) Rectilinear motion in horizontal
velocity of A with respect to B
plane
(A) v A v B (B) v A v C v B
(B) Uniform motion in a horizontal circle

44
 (C) v A v B (D) v C v A ii). A car moving along a straight road with a
speed of 120 km/hr, is brought to rest by
2. Answer the following questions.
applying brakes. The car covers a distance
i) Separate the following in groups of of 100 m before it stops. Calculate (i) the
scalar and vectors: velocity, speed, average retardation of the car (ii) time
displacement, work done, force, power, taken by the car to come to rest.
energy, acceleration, electric charge,
[Ans: 50/9 m/sec2, 6 sec]
angular velocity.
iii) A car travels at a speed of 50 km/hr for 30
ii) Define average velocity and instantaneous
minutes, at 30 km/hr for next 15 minutes
velocity. When are they same?
and then 70 km/hr for next 45 minutes.
iii) Define free fall. What is the average speed of the car?
iv) If the motion of an object is described by [Ans: 56.66 km/hr]
x = f(t) write formulae for instantaneous iv) A velocity-time graph is shown in the
velocity and acceleration. adjoining figure.
v) Derive equations of motion for a particle
moving in a plane and show that the
motion can be resolved in two independent
motions in mutually perpendicular 20- -------------A B
directions.
v m/s 15-
vi) Derive equations of motion graphically 10-
for a particle having uniform acceleration, 5-
moving along a straight line. O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
vii) Derive the formula for the range and E D C
maximum height achieved by a projectile time (s)
thrown from the origin with initial Determine:
velocity u at an angel to the horizontal. (i) initial speed of the car (ii) maximum
viii) Show that the path of a projectile is a speed attained by the car (iii) part of the
parabola. graph showing zero acceleration (iv) part
ix) What is a conical pendulum? Show that its of the graph showing constant retardation
(v) distance travelled by the car in first 6
l cos 
time period is given by 2 , where l sec.
g
[Ans: (i) 0 (ii) 20 m/sec (iii) AB (iv) BC
is the length of the string, is the angle (v) 90 m]
that the string makes with the vertical and v) A man throws a ball to maximum
g is the acceleration due to gravity. horizontal distance of 80 meters. Calculate
x) Define angular velocity. Show that the the maximum height reached.
centripetal force on a particle undergoing [Ans: 20 m]
uniform circular motion is -m 2 r . vi) A particle is projected with speed v0 at
3. Solve the following problems. angle to the horizontal on an inclined
i) An aeroplane has a run of 500 m to take surface making an angle  (   ) to the
off from the runway. It starts from rest horizontal. Find the range of the projectile
and moves with constant acceleration to along the inclined surface.
cover the runway in 30 sec. What is the 2 v 2 cos  sin(   )
velocity of the aeroplane at the take off ? [Ans: R  0 ]
g cos 2 
[Ans: 120 km/hr] vii) A metro train runs from station A to B
to C. It takes 4 minutes in travelling from

45
 station A to station B. The train halts at x) A particle moves in a circle with constant
station B for 20 s. Then it starts from speed of 15 m/s. The radius of the
station B and reaches station C in next 3 circle is 2 m. Determine the centripetal
minutes. At the start, the train accelerates acceleration of the particle.
for 10 sec to reach the constant speed of [Ans: 112.5 m s-2]
72 km/hr. The train moving at the constant xi) A projectile is thrown at an angle of 30 to
speed is brought to rest in 10 sec. at next the horizontal. What should be the range
station. (i) Plot the velocity- time graph of initial velocity (u) so that its range
for the train travelling from the station will be between 40m and 50 m? Assume
A to B to C. (ii) Calculate the distance g = 10 m s-2.
between the stations A, B and C.
[Ans: AB = 4.6 km, BC =3.4 km] [Ans: 21.49 u 24.03 m s-2]
viii) A train is moving eastward at 10 m/sec. ***
A waiter is walking eastward at 1.2m/
sec; and a fly is charging toward the
north across the waiter’s tray at 2 m/s.
What is the velocity of the fly relative to
Earth
[Ans: 11.4 m/s, 10 due north of east]
ix) A car moves in a circle at the constant speed
of 50 m/s and completes one revolution
in 40 s. Determine the magnitude of
acceleration of the car.
[Ans: 7.85 m s-2]

46
 4. Laws of Motion
Can you recall?
1. What are different types of motions? 5. Acceleration is directly proportional to
2. What do you mean by kinematical equations force for fixed mass of an object.
and what are they? 6. Bodies possess potential energy and kinetic
3. Newton’s laws of motion apply to most energy due to their position and motion
bodies we come across in our daily lives. respectively which may change. Their
4. All bodies are governed by Newton’s law of total energy is conserved in absence of any
gravitation. Gravitation of the Earth results external force.
into weight of objects.
4.1. Introduction: a) Linear motion: Initial velocity may be
If an object continuously changes its zero or non-zero. If initial velocity is zero
position, it is said to be in motion. Mechanics (starting from rest), acceleration in any
is a branch of Physics that deals with motion. direction will result into a linear motion.
There are basically two branches of mechanics If initial velocity is not zero, the
(i) Statics, where we deal with objects at rest acceleration must be in line with the initial
or in equilibrium under the action of balanced velocity (along the same or opposite
forces and (ii) Kinetics, which deals with actual direction to that of the initial velocity) for
motion. resultant motion to be linear.
Kinetics can be further divided into two b) Circular motion: If initial velocity is
branches (i) Kinematics: In kinematics, we not zero and acceleration is throughout
describe various motions without discussing perpendicular to the velocity, the resultant
their cause. Various parameters discussed in motion will be circular.
kinematics are distance, displacement, speed,
c) Parabolic motion: If acceleration is
velocity and acceleration. (ii) Dynamics: In
constant and initial velocity is not in
dynamics we describe the motion along with its
line with the acceleration, the motion is
cause, which is force and/or torque. Parameters
parabolic, e.g., trajectory of a projectile
discussed in dynamics are momentum, force,
motion.
energy, power, etc. in addition to those in
kinematics. d) Other combinations of u and a will result
It must be understood that motion is strictly into different more complicated motion.
a relative concept, i.e., it should always be 4.2. Aristotle’s Fallacy:
described in context to a reference frame. For Aristotle (384BC-322BC) stated that
example, if you are in a running bus, neither “an external force is required to keep a body
you nor your co-passengers sitting in the bus are in uniform motion”. This was probably based
in motion in your reference, i.e., moving bus. on a common experience like a ball rolling
However, from the ground reference, bus, you on a surface stops after rolling through some
and all the passengers are in motion. distance. Thus, to keep the ball moving with
If not random, motions in real life may constant velocity, we have to continuously
be understood separately as linear, circular apply a force on it. Similar examples can be
or rotational, oscillatory, etc., or some found elsewhere, like a paper plane flying
combinations of these. While describing any through air or a paper boat propelled with some
of these, we need to know the corresponding initial velocity.
forces responsible for these motions. Trajectory Correct explanation to Aristotle’s fallacy
of any motion is decided by acceleration a and was first given by Galileo (1564-1642), which
the initial velocity u . was later used by Newton (1643-1727) in

47
formulating laws of motion. Galileo showed 4.3.1. Importance of Newton’s First Law of
that all the objects stop moving because of Motion:
some resistive or opposing forces like friction, (i) It shows an equivalence between ‘state
viscous drag, etc. In these examples such forces of rest’ and ‘state of uniform motion
are frictional force for rolling ball, viscous along a straight line’ as both need a net
drag or viscous force of air for paper plane and unbalanced force to change the state. Both
viscous force of water for the boat. these are referred to as ‘state of motion’.
Thus, in reality, for an uninterrupted The distinction between state of rest and
motion of a body an additional external force is uniform motion lies in the choice of the
required for overcoming these opposing forces. ‘frame of reference’.
(ii) It defines force as an entity (or a physical
Can you tell? quantity) that brings about a change in
the ‘state of motion’ of a body, i.e., force
1. Was Aristotle correct?
is something that initiates a motion or
2. If correct, explain his statement with an
controls a motion. Second law gives
illustration.
its quantitative understanding or its
3. If wrong, give the correct modified
mathematical expression.
version of his statement.
(iii) It defines inertia as a fundamental property
4.3. Newton’s Laws of Motion: of every physical object by which the
First law: Every inanimate object continues to object resists any change in its state of
be in its state of rest or of uniform unaccelerated motion. Inertia is measured as the mass
motion unless and until it is acted upon by an of the object. More specifically it is called
external, unbalanced force. inertial mass, which is the ratio of net force
ur
Second law: Rate of change of linear momentum ( | F |) to the corresponding acceleration
of a rigid body is directly proportional to the (| a |).
applied force and takes place in the direction of 4.3.2. Importance of Newton’s Second Law
the applied force. On selecting suitable units, it
ur dpr ur
of Motion:
takesurthe form F (where F is the force (i) It gives mathematical formulation for
r dt
and p mv is the linear momentum. quantitative measure of force as rate of
Third law: To every action (force), there is an change of linear momentum.
equal and opposite reaction (force).
Discussion: From Newton’s second law of Do you know ?
ur dpr d r
motion, F    mv  . For a given body, Mathematical expression for force must be
dt dt ur dpr
mass m is constant. ur
ur r remembered as F dt and not as F mar
dv r
F  m  ma … (for constant mass) ur dpr d  mv r  dm r r
 dv 
urdt r F   v   m 
Thus, if F 0, v is constant. Hence if there dt dt dt  dt 
is no force, velocity will not change. This is dm
nothing but Newton’s first law of motion.
  v   ma
dt
For a given body, mass is constant, i.e.,
Can you tell? dm ur
0 and only in this case, F mar
What is then special about Newton’s dt
In the case of a rocket, both the terms
first law if it is derivable from Newton’s are needed as both mass and velocity are
second law? varying.

48
 (ii) It defines momentum  p  mv  instead As v, the velocity of ejected water is
of velocity as the fundamental quantity dm dm
constant, F v , where is the rate at
related to motion. What is changed by a dt dt
which mass of water is ejected by the pipe.
force is the momentum and not necessarily
As the force is in the direction of velocity
the velocity.
dm
(iii) Aristotle’s fallacy is overcome by (horizontal), we can use scalars.  F  v
dt
considering resultant unbalanced force.
dm d V   d  Al   dl
4.3.3 Importance of Newton’s Third Law of    A  A v
dt dt dt dt
Motion:
(i) It defines action and reaction as a pair of where V = volume of water ejected
equal and opposite forces acting along the A = area of cross section of bore = 10 cm2
same line. = density of water = 1 g/cc
(ii) Action and reaction forces are always on l = length of the water ejected in time t
different objects. dl
Consequences: v velocity of water ejected
dt
Action force exerted by a body x on body = 0.5 m/s = 50 cm/s
ur dm
y, conventionally written as F yx , is the force F v   A v  v  A v 2  10  1 502
experienced by y. dt
 25000 dyne  0.25 N
ur As a result, body y exerts reaction force
F xy on body x. Equal and opposite force must be applied by
the gardener.
ur In this case, body x experiences the force
F xy only while the body y experiences the force 4.4. Inertial and Non-Inertial Frames of
ur
F yx only. Reference
ur ur
Consider yourself standing on a railway
Forces F xy and F yx are equal in magnitude
and opposite in their directions, but there is no platform or a bus stand and you see a train or
question of cancellation of these forces as those bus moving. According to you, that train or bus
are experienced by different objects. is moving or is in motion. As per the experience
ur ur of the passengers in the train or bus, they are at
Forces F xy and F yx need not be contact rest and you are moving (in backward direction).
forces. Repulsive forces between two magnets Hence motion itself is a relative concept. To
is a pair of action-reaction forces. In this case know or describe a motion you need to describe
the two magnets are not in contact. Gravitational or define some reference. Such a reference
force between Earth and moon or between is called a frame of reference. In the example
Earth and Sun are also similar pairs of non- discussed above, if you consider the platform as
contact action-reaction forces. the reference, then the passengers and the train
Example 4.1: A hose pipe used for gardening is are moving. However, if the train is considered
ejecting water horizontally at the rate of 0.5 m/s. as the reference, you and platform, etc. are
Area of the bore of the pipe is 10 cm2. Calculate moving.
the force to be applied by the gardener to hold
Usually a set of coordinates with a
the pipe horizontally stationary.
suitable origin is enough to describe a frame
Solution: If ejecting water horizontally is
of reference. If position coordinates of an
considered as action force on the water, the
object are continuously changing with time
water exerts a backward force (called recoil
in a frame of reference, then that object is in
force) on the pipe as the reaction force.
motion in that frame of reference. Any frame of
ur dpr d  mv r  dm r dv
r
reference in which Newton’s first law of motion
F   v m
dt dt dt dt is applicable is the simplest understanding of an

49
inertial frame of reference. It means, if there is
force equations.
no net force, there is no acceleration. Thus in an
(ii) Newton’s laws are applicable for point
inertial frame, a body will move with constant
objects.
velocity (which may be zero also) if there is no
(iii) Newton’s laws are applicable to rigid
net force acting upon it. In the absence of a net
bodies. A body is said to be rigid if the
force, if an object suffers an acceleration, that
relative distances between its particles
frame of reference is not an inertial frame and is
do not change for any deforming force.
called as non-inertial frame of reference.
(iv) For objects moving with speeds
Measurements in one inertial frame can be comparable to that of light, Newton’s
converted to measurements in another inertial laws of motion do not give results that
frame by a simple transformation, i.e., by match with the experimental results and
simply using some velocity vectors (relative Einstein special theory of relativity has
velocity between the two frames of reference). to be used.
Illustration: Imagine yourself inside a car (v) Behaviour and interaction of objects
with all windows opaque so that you can not having atomic or molecular sizes cannot
see anything outside. Also consider that there be explained using Newton’s laws of
is a pendulum tied inside the car and not set motion, and quantum mechanics has to
into oscillations . If the car just starts its motion be used.
(with reference to outside or ground), you will
A rocket in intergalactic space (gravity free
experience a jerk, i.e., acceleration inside the car
space between galaxies) with all its engines shut
even though there is no force acting upon you.
is closest to an ideal inertial frame. However,
During this time, the string of the pendulum
Earth’s acceleration in the reference frame of
may be steady, but not vertical. During time
the Sun is so small that any frame attached to
of acceleration, the car can be considered to
the Earth can be used as an inertial frame for
be a non-inertial frame of reference. Later on
any day-to-day situation or in our laboratories.
if the car is moving with constant velocity
(with reference to the ground), you will not 4.5 Types of Forces:
experience any jerky motion within the car and 4.5.1. Fundamental Forces in Nature:
the car can be considered as an inertial frame of All the forces in nature are classified into
reference. In this case, the pendulum string will following four interactions that are termed as
be vertical, when not oscillating. fundamental forces.
(i) Gravitational force: It is the attractive
Do you know ?
force between two (point) masses
The situations/phenomena that can be separated by a distance. Magnitude of
explained using Newton’s laws of motion gravitational force between point masses
fall under Newtonian mechanics. So far m1 and m2 separated by distance r is given
as our daily life situations are considered, Gm1m2
by F
Newtonian mechanics is perfectly applicable. r2
However, under several extreme conditions where G = 6.67×10-11 SI units. Between
we need to use some other theories. two point masses (particles) separated by
Limitation of Newton’s laws of motion a given distance, this is the weakest force
(i) Newton’s laws are applicable only in the having infinite range. This force is always
inertial frames of reference (discussed attractive. Structure of the universe is
later). If the body is in a frame of governed by this force.
reference of acceleration (a), we need to Common experience of this force for us is
use a pseudo force  ma  in addition gravitational force exerted by Earth on
to all the other forces while writing the us, which we call as our weight W.

50
 GMm  GM  collision forces, elastic forces, viscosity
W  2
 m  2   mg (fluid friction), etc. are EM in nature.
R  R  , Under the action of these forces, there
where M and R represent respectivily is deformation of objects that changes
mass and radius of the Earth. Distance intermolecular distances thereby resulting
between ourselves and Earth is taken as into reaction forces.
radius of the Earth when we are on the (iii) Strong (nuclear) force: This is the strongest
surface of the Earth because our size is force that binds the nucleons together
negligible as compared to radius of the inside a nucleus. Though strongest, it is a
Earth (6.4×106 m). short range (< 10-14 m) force. Therefore is
 GM  6.67  1011  6  1024 very strong attractive force and is charge
 2  independent.
 
2
 R  6.4  106
(iv) Weak (nuclear) force: This is the
9.8 m/s2 = g = gravitational acceleration interaction between subatomic particles
or gravitational field intensity. that is responsible for the radioactive
decay of atoms, in particular beta
We feel this force only due to normal
emission. The weak nuclear force is not as
reaction from the surface of our contact
weak as the gravitational force, but much
with Earth.
weaker than the strong nuclear and EM
All individual bodies also exert forces. The range of weak nuclear force is
gravitation force on each other but it is exceedingly small, of the order of 10-16 m.
too small compared to that by the Earth.
For example, mutual gravitational force
between two SUMO wrestlers, each Weak interaction force:
of mass 300 kg, assuming the distance The radioactive isotope C13 is
between them is 0.5 m, will be converted into N14 in which a neutron is
converted into a proton. This property is
used in carbon dating to determine the age
of a sample.
In radioactive beta decay, the nucleus
emits an electron (or positron) and an
This force is negligibly small in
uncharged particle called neutrino. There
comparison to the weight of each SUMO
are two types of -decay, + and -.
wrestler 3000 N.
During +decay, a proton is converted
(ii) Electromagnetic (EM) force: It is an into a neutron (accompanied by positron
attractive or repulsive force between emission) and during   decay a neutron
electrically charged particles. Earlier, is converted into a proton (accompanied by
electric and magnetic forces were electron emission).
thought to be independent. After the Another most interesting illustration
demonstrations by Michael Faraday of weak forces is fusion reaction in the
(1791-1867) and James Clerk Maxwell core of the Sun. During this, protons are
(1831-1879), electric and magnetic converted into neutrons and a neutrino is
forces were unified through the theory emitted due to energy balance. In general,
of electromagnetism. These forces are emission of a neutrino is the evidence
stronger than the gravitational force. that there is conversion of a proton into a
Our life is practically governed by these neutron or a neutron into a proton. This is
forces. Majority of forces experienced in possible only due to weak forces.
our daily life, such as force of friction,
normal reaction, tension in strings,

51
Example 4.2. Three identical point masses are force exerted by a ring mass on any other
fixed symmetrically on the periphery of a circle. mass at its centre is zero.
Obtain the resultant gravitational force on any In three-dimensions, we can imagine a
point mass M at the centre of the circle. Extend uniform hollow sphere to be made up of infinite
this idea to more than three identical masses number of such rings with a common diameter.
symmetrically located on the periphery. How Thus, the gravitational force for any mass kept
far can you extend this concept? at the centre of a hollow sphere is zero.
Solution:
(i) Figure below shows three identical point Do you know ?
masses m on the periphery of a circle of Unification of forces: Newton unified
radius r. Mass M is at the centre of the terrestrial (related to Earth and hence to
circle. Gravitational forces on M due our daily life) and celestial (related to
to these masses are attractive and are universe) domains under a common law of
directed as shown. gravitation. The experimental discoveries
GMm of Oersted (1777-1851) and Faraday showed
In magnitude, FMA = FMB = FMC =
r2 that electric and magnetic phenomena are in
general inseparable leading to what is called
‘EM phenomenon’. Electromagnetism
and optics were unified by Maxwell with
the proposition that light is an EM wave.
Einstein attempted to unify gravity and
electromagnetism under general relativity
but could not succeed. The EM and the weak
nuclear force have now been unified as a
Forces FMB and FMC are resolved along single ‘electro-weak’ force.
FMA and perpendicular to FMA as shown. 4.5.2. Contact and Non-Contact Forces:
Components perpendicular to FMA cancel
For some forces, like gravitational force,
each other. Components along FMA are
electrostatic force, magnetostatic force, etc.,
1
FMB cos 600 = FMC cos 600 = 2 FMA each. physical contact is not an essential condition.
Magnitude of their resultant is FMA and its These forces exist even if the objects are distant
direction is opposite to that of FMA. Thus, or physically separated. Such forces are non-
the resultant force on mass M is zero. contact forces.
(ii) For any even number of equal masses, Forces resulting only due to contact are
the force due to any mass m is balanced called contact forces. All these are EM in nature,
(cancelled) by diametrically opposite arising due to some deformation. Normal
mass. For any odd number of masses, as reaction, forces occurring during collision,
seen for 3, the components perpendicular force of friction, etc., are contact forces. There
to one of them cancel each other while the are two common categories of contact forces.
components parallel to one of these add up Two objects in contact, while exerting mutual
in such a way that the resultant is zero for force, try to push each other away along their
any number of identical masses m located common normal. Quite often we call it as
symmetrically on the periphery. ‘normal reaction’ force or ‘normal’ force. While
standing on a table, we push the table away from
(iii) As the number of masses tends to
us (downward) and the table pushes us away
infinity, their collective shape approaches
from it (upward) both being equal in magnitude
circumference of the circle, which is
and acting along the same ‘normal’ line.
nothing but a ring. Thus, the gravitational

52
 Force of friction is also a contact force that Pseudo in this case does not mean imaginary
arises whenever there is a relative motion or (because these are measurable with instruments)
tendency of relative motion between surfaces but just means non-real. These forces are
in contact. This is the parallel (or tangential) measured to be  ma  . Hence, a term  ma 
component of the reaction force. In this case, added to resultant force enables us to apply
the molecules of surfaces in contact, which have Newton’s laws of motion to a non-inertial frame
developed certain equilibrium, are required to of reference of acceleration a . Negative sign
be separated. refers to their direction, which is opposite to
4.5.3 Real and Pseudo Forces: that of the acceleration of the reference frame.
Consider ourselves inside a lift (or As per the illustration of the lift with
elevator). When the lift just starts moving up downward acceleration a , the weight
(accelerates upward), we feel a bit heavier as experienced will be W  mg   ma 
if someone is pushing us down. This is not As g and a are along the same direction
imaginary or not just a feeling. If we are standing in this case, W  mg  ma . This explains the
on a weighing scale inside this lift, during this feeling of a loss in weight.
time the weighing scale records an increase in ur
u
During upward acceleration, say a1 , we
weight. During travelling with uniform upward uur r r
velocity no such change is recorded. While have, 1  mg    ma1 
W
ur ur
u
stopping at some upper floor, the lift undergoes In this case, g and a1 are oppositely
downward acceleration for decreasing the directed. W1  mg    ma1   mg  ma1 that
upward velocity. In this case the weighing scale explains gain in weight or existence of extra
records loss in weight and we also feel lighter. downward force.
These extra upward or downward forces are (i)
In mathematics we define a number to be
Measurable, means they are not imaginary, (ii)
real if its square is zero or positive. Solution
not accountable as per Newton’s second law in
set of equations like x2 - 6x + 10 = 0 does
the inertial frame and (iii) not among any of the
not satisfy the criterion to be a real number.
four fundamental forces.
Such numbers are complex numbers which
When we are inside a bus such forces include i  1 along with some real
are experienced when the bus starts to move part. It means every non-real need not be
(forward acceleration), when the bus is about imaginary as in literal verbal sense.
to stop (backward acceleration) or takes a turn
(centripetal acceleration). In all these cases Example 4.3: A car of mass 1.5 ton is running
we are inside an accelerated system (which is at 72 kmph on a straight horizontal road. On
our frame of reference). If a force measuring turning the engine off, it stops in 20 seconds.
device is suitably used – like the weighing scale While running at the same speed, on the same
recording the change in weight – these forces road, the driver observes an accident 50 m in
can be recorded and will be found to be always front of him. He immediately applies the brakes
opposite to the acceleration of your frame and just manages to stop the car at the accident
of reference. They are also exactly equal to spot. Calculate the braking force.
-m a , where m is our mass and a is acceleration Solution: On turning the engine off,
of the system (frame of reference). u  20 m s 1 , v  0, t  20 s
We have already defined or described real vu
forces to be those which obey Newton’s laws a   1m s 2
t
of motion and are one of the four fundamental
forces. Forces in above illustrations do not This is frictional retardation (negative
satisfy this description and cannot be called real acceleration).
forces. Hence these are called pseudo forces. After seeing the accident,

53
 u  20 m s 1 , v  0, s  50 m against the (gravitational) force. Same amount
of potential energy is decreased when the
v 2  u2 displacement is in the direction of force. In
 a1    4 m s 2
2s either case it is independent of the actual path
This retardation is the combined effect of but depends only upon the initial and final
braking and friction. Thus, braking retardation positions. This change in the potential energy
 4  1  3 m s 2 . takes place in such a way that the mechanical
energy is conserved.
∴Braking force = mass × braking
As discussed above, increase inur the
retardation = 1500 × 3 = 4500 N ur r r
potential energy, dU   F . dx or U    F . dx
4.5.4. Conservative and Non-Conservative ur
where F is a conservative force. This concept,
Forces and Concept of Potential
will be described in details in Chapter 5 on
Energy:
Gravitation in context of gravitational potential
Consider an object lying on the ground energy and gravitational potential.
is lifted and kept on a table. Neglecting air
During this process, if friction or air
resistance, the amount of work done is the
resistance is present, additional work is
work done against gravitational force and
necessary against the frictional force (for the
it is independent of the actual path chosen
same displacement). This work is strictly path
(Remember, as there is no air resistance,
dependent and not recoverable. Such forces
gravitational force is the only force). Similarly,
(like friction, air drag, etc.) are called non-
while keeping the same object back on the
conservative forces. Work done against these
ground from the table, the work is done by the
forces appears as heat, sound, light, etc. The
gravitational force. In either case the amount of
work done against non-conservative forces
work done is the same and is independent of the ur is not recoverable even if the path is exactly
actual path chosen. The work done by force F
reversed.
in moving the object through a distance dxurcan
r 4.5.5. Work Done by a Variable Force:
be mathematically ur represented as dW = F . dx
r The popular
=-dU or dU   F . dx . ur rformula for calculating work
done is W  F  s  F s cos whereur is the
If work done by or against a force is
independent of the actual path, the force is said angle between the applied force F and the
to be a conservative force. During the work displacement s .
done by a conservative force, the mechanical This
ur formula is applicable only if both
energy (sum of kinetic and potential energy) force F and displacement s are constant and
is conserved. In fact, we define the concept finite. In several real-life situations, the force
of potential at a point or potential energy is not constant. For example, while lifting an
(in the topic of gravitation) with the help of object through several thousand kilometres, the
conservative forces only. The work done by or gravitational force is not constant. The viscous
against conservative forces reflects an equal forces like fluid resistance depend upon the
amount of change in the potential energy. The speed, hence, quite often are not constant with
corresponding work done is used in changing time. In order to calculate the work done by
the position or in achieving the new position in such variable forces we use integration.
the gravitational field. Hence, potential energy Illustration:ur Figure 4.1(a) shows variation
is often referred to as the energy possessed on of a force F plotted against corresponding
account of position. displacements in its direction s . As the
In the illustration given above, the work displacement is in the direction of the applied
done is reflected as increase in the gravitational force, vector nature is not used. We need to
potential energy when the displacement is calculate the work done by this force during

54
displacement from s1 to s2. As the force is Example 4.4: Over a given region, a force (in
variable, using W  F  s2  s1  directly is not newton) varies as F = 3x2 - 2x + 1. In this region,
possible. In order to use integration, let us an object is displaced from x1 = 20 cm to x2 = 40
divide the displacement into a large number of cm by the given force. Calculate the amount of
infinitesimal (infinitely small) displacements. work done.
One of such displacements is ds. It is so small Solution:
that the force F is practically constant for this s2 0.4
displacement. Practically constant means the W  F .ds   (3x 2  2 x  1)dx
change in the force is so small that the change s1 0.2

can not be recorded. The shaded strip shows one 0.4

  x 3  x 2  x 
of such displacements. As the force is constant, 0.2

the area of this strip F.ds is the work done dW  0.43  0.4 2  0.4   0.23  0.22  0.2 
for this displacement. Total work done W for
displacement  s2  s1  can then be obtained by  0.304  0.168  0.136 J
using integration. 4.6. Work Energy Theorem:
s2 If there is a decrease in the potential energy
W  F .ds (like a body falling down) due to a conservative
s1
force, it is entirely converted into kinetic energy.
Method of integrationuris applicable if the Work done by the force then appears as kinetic
exact way of variation in F with s is known energy. Vice versa if an object is moving
and that function is integrable. against a conservative force its kinetic energy
decreases by an amount equal to the work done
The area under the curve between s1 and against the force. This principle is called work-
s2 also gives the work done W (if the force axis energy theorem for conservative forces.
necessarily starts with zero), as it consists of all
the strips of ds between s1 and s2. In Fig. 4.1(b), Case I: Consider an object of mass m moving
the variation in the force is linear. In this case, with velocity u experiencing a constant
ur
the area of the trapezium AS1S2B gives total opposing force F which slows it down ur to
work done W. v during displacement s . As u and F are
oppositely directed, the entire motion will be
along the same line. In this case we need not use
the vector form, just signs should be good
enough.
F
If a is the acceleration, we can write
m
the relevant equation of motion as v2 - u2 = 2
(-a)s (negative acceleration for opposing force)
Fig 4.1 (a): Work done by nonlinearly
varying force. Multiplying throughout by m/2, we get
1 2 1 2
mu  mv   ma  .s  F .s
2 2
Left-hand side is decrease in the kinetic
energy and the right-hand side is the work done
by the force. Thus, change in kinetic energy is
equal to work done by the conservative force,
which is in accordance with work-energy
Fig 4.1 (b): Work done by linearly varying theorem.
force. Case II: Accelerating conservative force along

55
with a retarding non-conservative force: (or conserved). This leads us to the principle of
An object dropped from some point at conservation of linear momentum which can be
height h falls down through air. While coming stated as “The total momentum of an isolated
down its potential energy decreases. Equal system is conserved during any interaction.”
amount of work is done in this case also. Systems and free body diagrams:
However, this time the work is not entirely Mathematical approach for application of
converted into kinetic energy but some part Newton’s second law:
of it is used in overcoming the air resistance.
This part of energy appears in some other forms
such as heat, sound, etc. In this case, the work-
energy theorem can mathematically be written
as  PE   KE  Wair resistance
(Decrease in the gravitational P.E.
Increase in the kinetic energy + work done
against non-conservative forces). Magnitude of
air resistance force is not constant but depends
ur ur
u
upon the speed hence it can be written as F . ds Fig 4.2 (a): System for illustration of free
as seen during work done by (or against) a body diagram.
variable force. Consider the arrangement shown in Fig.4.2
4.7. Principle of Conservation of Linear (a). Pulleys P1, P3 and P4 are fixed, while P2 is
Momentum: movable. Force F = 100 N, applied at an angle
According to Newton’s second law, 60 with the horizontal is responsible for the
resultant force is equal to the rate of change of motion, if any. Contact surface of the 5 kg
ur dpr mass offers a constant opposing force F = 10
linear momentum or F N. Except this, there are no resistive forces
dt
In other words, if there is no resultant anywhere.
force, the linear momentum will not change Discussion: Until 1 kg mass reaches the pulley
or will remain constant or will be conserved. P , the motion of 1 kg and 2 kg masses is
1
Mathematically, if is constant identical. Thus, these two can be considered
to be a single system of mass 3 kg except for
Always remember knowing the tension T3. The forces due to
Isolated system means absence of tension in the string joining them are internal
any external force. A system refers to a set forces for this system.
of particles, colliding objects, exploding All masses except the 3 kg mass are
objects, etc. Interaction refers to collision, travelling same distance in the same time.
explosion, etc. During any interaction Thus, their accelerations, if any, have same
among such objects the total linear magnitudes. If the string S connecting 1 kg and
momentum of the entire system of these 4 kg masses moves by x, the lower string S1
particles/objects is constant. Remember, holding the 3 kg mass moves through x/2.
forces during collision or during explosion
Free body diagrams (FBD): A free body
are internal forces for that entire system.
diagram refers to forces acting on only one
During collision of two particles, the
body at a time, and its acceleration.
two particles exert forces on each other. If
these particles are discussed independently, Free body diagram of 2 kg mass: Let a be
these are external forces. However, for the its upward acceleration. According to Newton’s
system of the two particles together, these second law, it must be due to the resultant
forces are internal forces. vertical force on this mass. To know this force,

56
we need to know all the individual forces acting the vertical forces must cancel. Therefore,
on this mass. The agencies exerting forces on along the vertical direction,
this mass are Earth (downward force 1g) and N + F sin 60 = 5g
force due to the tension T3. Along the horizontal direction,
In this case, the lower half of the string T1  10  opposing force   Fcos600  T cos 600
Practical tip: Easiest way to know the Similar equations can be written for all
direction of forces due to tension is to the masses and also for the movable pully. On
put an X-mark on the string. Two halves solving these equations simultaneously, we can
of this cross indicate the directions of the obtain all the necessary quantities.
forces exerted by the string on the bodies
Example 4.5: Figure (a) shows a fixed pulley.
connected to either parts of the string.
A massless inextensible string with masses m1
is connected to the 2 kg mass. The direction and m2 > m1 attached to its two ends is passing
of T3 for lower part of the string is upwards over the pulley. Such an arrangement is called
as shown in the Fig. 4.2 (b). Upper part of the an Atwood machine. Calculate accelerations of
string is connected to the 1 kg mass. Thus, the the masses and force due to the tension along
direction of T3 for 1 kg mass will be downwards. the string assuming axle of the pulley to be
However, it will appear only for the free body frictionless.
diagram of the 1 kg mass and will not appear
in the free body diagram of 2 kg mass. Hence,
the free body diagram of the 2 kg mass will
be as follows: Its force equation, according to
Newton’s second law will then be T3 - 2g = 2a.

Fig 4.2 (b): Free body

diagram for 2 kg mass. Fig. (a).
Solution: Method I: Direct method: As
m2 > m1, mass m2 is moving downwards and
mass m1 is moving upwards.
Net downward force
Fig 4.2 (c): Free
body diagram for  F   m2  g   m1  g   m2  m1  g
5 kg mass. As the string is inextensible, both the
masses travel the same distance in the same
Free body diagram of mass 5 kg: Its time. Thus, their accelerations are numerically
horizontal acceleration is also a, but towards the same (one upward, other downward). Let it
right. The force exerting agencies are Earth be a.
(force 5g downwards), contact surface (normal Thus, total mass in motion, M  m2  m1
force N, vertically upwards and opposing force
F = 10 N, towards left), and the two strings F  m2  m1 
a    g
on either side (Forces due to their tensions T M  m2  m1 
and T1). All these are shown in its free body For mass m , the upward force is the force
diagrams in Fig. 4.2 (c). On resolving the force due to tension T1and downward force is mg. It
F along the vertical and horizontal directions, has upward acceleration a. Thus, T- m g = ma
1
the free body diagram of 5 kg mass can be ∴ T = m (g + a)
1
drawn as explained below.
Using the expression for a, we get
As this mass has only horizontal motion,

57
  2m1m2  During a collision, the linear momentum
T  g of the entire system of particles is always
m
 1  m 2  conserved as there is no external force acting on
Method II: (Free body equations) the system of particles. However, the individual
momenta of the particles change due to mutual
forces, which are internal forces.
  pinitial   p final , during any collision
ur
(or explosion), where p 's are the linear
momenta of the particles.
However, kinetic energy of the entire
system may or may not conserve.
Collisions can be of two types: elastic
collisions and inelastic collisions.
Fig. (b) Fig. (b) Elastic collision: A collision is said to elastic if
Free body diagrams of m1 and m2 are as kinetic energy of the entire system is conserved
shown in Figs. (b) and (c). during the collision (along with the linear
momentum). Thus, during an elastic collision,
Thus, for the first body, T  m1 g  m1 a --- (I)
For the second body, m2 g  T  m2a --- (II) K . E. initial  K . E . final

Adding (I) and (II), and solving for a, An elastic collision is impossible in
 m  m1  daily life. However, in many situations, the
we get, a   2 g --- (III) interatomic or intermolecular collisions are
 m2  m1  considered to be elastic (like in kinetic theory
Solving Eqs. (II) and (III) for T, we get, of gases, to be discussed in the next standard).
 2m1m2  Inelastic Collision: A collision is said to be
T = m2 (g - a)   g
m
 1  m2 
inelastic if there is a loss in the kinetic energy
during collision, but linear momentum is
4.8. Collisions: conserved. The loss in kinetic energy is either
During collisions a number of objects due to internal friction or vibrational motion of
come together, interact (exert forces on each atoms causing heating effect. Thus, during an
other) and scatter in different directions. inelastic collision,
K . E. initial  K . E .
. final

During an explosion as energy is supplied

Fig. 4.3 (a): Head on collision-before collision. internally. Thus,

K . E. final  K . E . initial .
As stated earlier,  pinitial   p final for
inelastic collisions or explosion also. In fact,
Fig. 4.3 (b): Head on collision-during impact. this is always the first equation for discussing
these interactions or while solving numerical
questions.
4.8.2. Perfectly Inelastic Collision:
This is a special case of inelastic collisions.
Fig. 4.3 (c): Head on collision-after collision. If colliding bodies join together after collision,
4.8.1. Elastic and inelastic collisions: it is said to be a perfectly inelastic collision.

58
In other words, the colliding bodies have a Consider such a head-on collision of two
common final velocity after a perfectly inelastic bodies of masses m1 and m2 with respective
collision. Being an inelastic collision, obviously initial velocities u1 and u2. As the collision is
there is a loss in the kinetic energy of the system head on, the colliding masses are along the
during a perfectly inelastic collision. In fact, the same line before and after the collision. Hence,
loss in kinetic energy is maximum in perfectly vector treatment is not necessary. (However,
inelastic collision. velocities must be substituted with proper
Illustrations: signs in actual calculation). Relative velocity
(i) Consider a bullet fired towards a block of approach is then ua  u2  u1
kept on a smooth surface. Collision Let v1 and v2 be their respective velocities
between bullet and the block will be elastic after the collision. The relative velocity of
if the bullet rebounds with exactly the recede (or separation) is then v s = v 2 - v1
same initial speed and the block remains
stationory. If the bullet gets embedded into
the block and the two move jointly, it is
perfectly inelastic collision. If the bullet
rebounds with smaller speed or comes
out of the block on the other side with
some speed, it is an inelastic (or partially
inelastic) collision. Remember, there is ---(4.1)
nothing called a partially elastic collision
Elastic collisions are always perfectly For a perfectly inelastic collision, the
elastic. An inelastic collision however, colliding bodies move jointly after the collision,
may be partially or perfectly inelastic. i.e., v 2 = v1 or v 2 - v1 = 0 . Hence, for a perfectly
(ii) Visualise a ball dropped from some height inelastic collision, e =0. In other words, if e =
on a hard surface, the entire system being 0, the head-on collision is perfectly inelastic
in an evacuated space. If the ball rebounds collision.
exactly to the same height from where it Coefficient of restitution during a head-on,
was dropped, the collision between the elastic collision:
ball and the surface (in turn, with the Consider the collision described above
Earth) is elastic. As you know, the ball to be elastic. According to the principle of
never reaches the same initial height or conservation of linear momentum,
a height greater than the initial height. Total initial momentum = Total final
Rebounding to smaller height refers to momentum.
inelastic collision. Instead of ball, if mud
 m1u1  m2 u2  m1v1  m2 v 2 --- (4.2)
or clay is dropped, it sticks to the surface.
This is perfectly inelastic collision.  m1  u1  v1   m2  v 2  u2  --- (4.3)
4.8.3. Coefficient of Restitution e: As the collision is elastic, total kinetic
For collision of two objects, the negative energy of the system is also conserved.
of ratio of relative velocity of separation to 1 1 1 1
 m1u12  m2 u22  m1v12  m2 v 22 --- (4.4)
relative velocity of approach is defined as the 2 2 2 2
coefficient of restitution e.
One dimensional or head-on collision: A
  
 m1 u12  v12  m2 v 22  u22 
collision is said to be head-on if the colliding  m1  u1  v1   u1  v1 
objects move along the same straight line,
before and after the collision. Here, we use u1,  m2  u2  v 2   v 2  u2  --- (4.5)
u2, v1, v2 as symbols. Dividing Eq. (4.5) by Eq. (4.3), we get

59
 u1  v1  u2  v 2 Subscripts 1 and 2 were arbitrarily chosen.
--- (4.6)
Thus, just interchanging 1 with 2 gives us v2 as
 u2  u1  v1  v 2
 m  m1   2m1 
For an elastic collision, v2   2  u2    u1 --- (4.9)
v  v2  m1  m2   m1  m2 
e 1 1 --- (4.7)
u2  u1 Equation (4.9) can also be obtained by
Thus, for an elastic collision, coefficient substituting v1 from Eq. (4.8) in Eq. (4.6).
of restitution, e =1. For a perfectly inelastic Particular cases:
collision, e =0 (by definition). Thus, for any (i) If the bodies are of equal masses (or
collision, the coefficient of restitution lies identical), m1 m2 , Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) give
between 1 and 0. v1 u2 and v 2 u1.
Above expressions (Eq. (4.1) Eq. (4.7))
Thus, the bodies just exchange their
are general. While substituting the values of
velocities.
u1, u2, v1, v2, their algebraic values must be
(ii) If colliding body is much heavier and
used in actual calculation.
the struck body is initially at rest, i.e.,
For example referring to the m1 � m2 and u2 0,
Fig. 4.3 (a), (b) and (c)
we can use
Eq (4.1) gives m2
vs m1  m2  m1 and 0
e m1  m2
ua
 v1  u1 and v 2  2u1 , i.e., the massive
Here ua = u1 - u2 since u1> u2
and vs = v1 + v2 since the objects go in striking body is practically unaffected and the
opposite directions. tiny body which is struck, travels with double
the speed of the massive striking body.
v1  v 2
e   --- (a) (iii) The body which is struck is much
u1  u2
heavier than the colliding body and is initially
Using Eq (4.6), at rest, i.e., m1 � m2 and u2 0.
u1 + v1 = u2 + v2 Using similar approximations, we get,
∴ According to Fig. 4.3, v1  u1 and v 2  0 , i.e., the tiny (lighter) object
u1 - v1 = u2 + v2 rebounds with same speed while the massive
object is unaffected. This is as good as dropping
∴ v1 + v2 = u2 - u1 --- (b)
an elastic object on hard surface of the Earth .
By substituting in (a),
(u  u ) Do you know ?
e   2 1  1,
(u1  u2 )
Are you aware of elasticity of materials? Is
which is the case of a perfectly elastic there any connection between elasticity of
collision. materials and elastic collisions?
4.8.4. Expressions for final velocities after a
head-on, elastic collision: Example 4.6: One marble collides head-on with
another identical marble at rest. If the collision
From Eq. (4.6), v 2  u1  v1  u2
is partially inelastic, determine the ratio of
Using this in Eq. (4.2), we get their final velocities in terms of coefficient of
m1u1  m2 u2  m1v1  m2  u1  v1  u2  restitution e.
 m  m2   2m2  Solution: According to conservation of
 v1   1 u 
 1  u
 2 --- (4.8) momentum, m1u1  m2 u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
 m1  m2   m1  m2 

60
 As m1 m2 , we get, u1  u2  v1  v 2 Final velocities and loss in K.E. in an
inelastic head-on collision:
 If u2  0, we get, v1  v 2  u1 ... (I) If e is the coefficient of restitution, using Eq.
Coefficient of restitution, (4.2), the expressions for final velocities after
v  v1 an inelastic collision can be derived as
e 2
u1  u2  v 2  v1  eu1 ... (II)  m  em2   1  e  m2 
v1   1  u1    u2
Dividing Eq. (I) by Eq. (II),  m1  m2   m1  m2 
v1  v 2 1
 em2  u2  u1   m1u1  m2 u2
v 2  v1 e 
Using componendo and dividendo, we get, m1  m2 and
v2 1 e  m  em1   1  e  m1 
 v2   2  u2    u1
v1 1  e  m1  m2   m 1  m 2 
4.8.5. Loss in the kinetic energy during a
em1  u1  u2   m1u1  m2 u2
perfectly inelastic head-on collision: 
Consider a perfectly inelastic, head on m1  m2
collision of two bodies of masses m1 and m2 Loss in the kinetic energy is given by
with respective initial velocities u1 and u2. As 1 mm 
the collision is perfectly inelastic, they move   K.E.   1 2   u1  u2  1  e 2
2  m1  m2 
2
 
jointly after the collision, i.e., their final velocity .
is the same. Let it be v. As e < 1, (1- e ) is always positive. Thus, there
2

According to conservation of linear is always a loss of K.E. in an inelastic collision.

Also, for a perfectly inelastic collision, e 0 .
momentum, m1u1  m2 u2   m1  m2  v Hence, in this case, the loss is maximum.
m1u1  m2 u2 Using e 1 , these equations lead us to an
v  --- (4.10)
m1  m2 elastic collision and for e 0 they lead us to
This is the common velocity after a a perfectly inelastic collision. Verify that they
perfectly inelastic collision give the same expressions that are derived
Loss in K.E. = (K.E.) earlier.
m1m2
= Total initial K.E. - Total final K.E. The quantity   is the reduced mass
m1  m2
1 1 1 of the system.
   K.E.  m1u12  m2 u22   m1  m2  v 2
2 2 2 Impulse or change in momenta of the
2 bodies:
1 1 1  m u  m2 u2 
 m1u12  m2 u22   m1  m2   1 1  During collision, the linear momentum
2 2 2  m1  m2  delivered by first body (particle) to the second
body must be equal to change in momentum
1  m1u1  m2 u2 
2
1 1
   K.E.  m1u12  m2 u22  or impulse of the second body, and vice versa.
2 2 2  m1  m2  J  p1  p2
∴ Impulse,
On simplifying, we get,  m1v1  m1u1  m2 v 2  m2 u2
 mm  On substituting the values of v1 and v2 and
  K.E.   1 2   u1  u2  --- (4.11)
2
solving, we get
 m1  m2   mm 
J   1 2  1  e   u1  u2 
Masses are always positive and  u1  u2   m1  m2 
2

is also positive. Hence, there is always a loss   1  e  urelative

in the kinetic energy in a perfectly inelastic
collision. u1  u2  urelative  velocity of approach

61
4.8.6. Collision in two dimensions, i.e., a Equations (4.12), (4.13), (4.14) and (4.15)
nonhead-on collision: are to be solved for the four unknowns v1, v2,
In this case, the direction of at least 1
and 2
one initial velocity is NOT along the line of Magnitude of the impulse, along the line of
impact. In order to discuss such collisions impact,
mathematically, it is convenient to use two  mm 
mutually perpendicular directions as shown in J   1 2  1  e   u1cos1  u2 cos 2 
Fig. 4.4. One of them is the common tangent  m1  m2 
at the point of impact, along which there is   1  e  urelative
no force (or along this direction, there is no
along line of impact.
change in momentum). The other direction is
Loss in the kinetic energy = (K.E.)
perpendicular to this common tangent through
1  m1m2 
the point of impact, in the two-dimensional 
2  m1  m2 

  u1cos1  u2 cos 2  1  e
2 2

plane of initial and final velocities. This is
called the line of impact. Internal mutual forces 1
exerted during impact, which are responsible 
2
2

 urelative 
1 e2 
for change in the momenta, are acting along Example 4.7: A shell of mass 3 kg is dropped
this line. From Fig. (4.4), u1 and u 2 , initial from some height. After falling freely for 2
velocities make angles 1 and 2 respectively seconds, it explodes into two fragments of
with the line of impact while v1 and v 2 , final masses 2 kg and 1 kg. Kinetic energy provided
velocities make angles 1 and 2 respectively by the explosion is 300 J. Using g = 10 m/s2,
with the line of impact. calculate velocities of the fragments. Justify
According to conservation of linear your answer if you have more than one options.
momentum along the line of contact, Solution: m1  m2  3 kg.
After falling freely for 2 seconds,
v  u  at  0  10  2   20 m s 1  u1  u2
According to conservation of linear
momentum, m1u1  m2 u2  m1v1  m2 v 2
 3  20  2 v1  1v 2  v 2  60  2 v1 --- (I)
K.E. provided Final K.E. – Initial
Fig. 4.4: Oblique or non head-on collision. 1 1 1
K.E.  m1v1  m2 v 2   m1  m2  u
2 2 2
m1u1cos1  m2 u2 cos 2 2 2 2
 m1v1cos1  m2 v 2 cos 2 1 1 1
--- (4.12)  2 v12  v 22  3  20   300 J
2

2 2 2
As there is no force along the common
tangent (perpendicular to line of impact), or 2 v12  v 22  1800
m1u1sin1  m1v1sin1
or 2 v12   60  2 v1   1800 using Eq. (I)
2
--- (4.13)
and m2 u2sin 2  m2 v 2sin 2 --- (4.14)  3600  240 v1  6 v12  1800
For coefficient of restitution, along the line
of impact,  v12  40 v1  300  0
and

There are two possible answers since the

--- (4.15) positions of two fragments can be different as
explained below.

62
 If v1 = 30 m s-1 and v2 = 0, lighter fragment r ur
 dp  F . dt
2 should be above. On the other hand, if v1 = 10
m s-1 and v2 = 40 m s-1, lighter fragment 2 should The quantity ‘change in momentum’ is
be below, both moving downwards. separately named as Impulse of the force J .
Example 4.8: Bullets of mass 40 g each, are If the force is constant, and is acting for a
fired from a machine gun at a rate of 5 per finite and measurable time, we can write
second towards a firmly fixed hard surface The change in momentum in time t
of area 10 cm2. Each bullet hits normal to the r r r r ur ---(4.16)
J  dp  p2  p1  F .t
surface at 400 m/s and rebounds in such a way
For a given body of mass m, it becomes
that the coefficient of restitution for the collision r r r r r ur
between bullet and the surface is 0.75. Calculate J  p2  p1  m  v2  v1   F .t ---(4.17)
ur
average force and average pressure experienced If F is not constant but we know how it
by the surface due to this firing. varies with time, then
Solution: For the collision, r r r ur
J  p  dp   F . dt --- (4.18)
u1  400 m s 1 , e  0.75 , v1 ?
For the firmly fixed hard surface, u2 v2 0 Always remember:
1) Colliding objects experience forces along
m/s. the line of impact which changes their
momenta. For their system, these forces are
-ve sign indicates that the bullet rebounds in internal forces. These forces form an action-
exactly opposite direction. reaction pair, which are equal and opposite,
Change in momentum of each bullet and act on different objects.
2) There is no force along the common tangent,
= m (v1-u1)
i.e., perpendicular to the line of contact.
Equal and opposite will be the momentum 3) In reality, the impact is followed by emission
transferred to the surface, per collision. of sound and heat and occasionally light.
∴ Momentum transferred to the surface, Thus, in general, part of mechanical
per collision energy- kinetic energy - is lost (i.e.,
p  m  u1  v1   0.04  400   300  28 N s converted into some other non-recoverable
forms). However, total energy of the system
The rate of collision is same as rate of firing. is conserved.
∴ Momentum received by the surface per 4) In reality, velocity of separation (relative
dp final velocity) is less than velocity of
second,  28  5  140 N approach (relative initial velocity) along
dt
This must be the average force experienced the line of impact. Thus coefficient of
by the surface of area A 10 cm 2  103 m 2 restitution e < 1.
5) Only during elastic collisions (atomic and
∴ Average pressure experienced,
molecular level only, never possible in real
life), the kinetic energy is conserved and the
velocity of separation is equal to the velocity
of approach or the initial relative velocity is
1.4 times the atmospheric pressure. equal to the final relative velocity.
4.9. Impulse of a force: 4.9.1. Necessity of defining impulse:
According to Newton’s first law of As discussed above, if a force is constant
motion, any unbalanced force changes linear over a given interval of time or if we know
momentum of the system, i.e., basic effect of an how it varies with time, we can calculate the
unbalanced force is to change the momentum. corresponding change in momentum directly
According to Newton’s second law of by multiplying the force and time.
ur dpr However, in many cases, an appreciable
motion, F force acts for an extremely small interval of
dt

63
time (too small to measure the force and the for velocity axis. (ii) Obtaining work done by a
time independently). However, change in the force as the area under the curve for F- s graph,
momentum due to this force is noticeable and with zero origin for force axis.
can be measured. This change is defined as Example 4.9: Mass of an Oxygen molecule is
impulse of the force. 5.35 × 10-26 kg and that of a Nitrogen molecule
Real life illustrations: While (i) hitting a ball is 4.65 ×10-26 kg. During their Brownian motion
with a bat, (ii) giving a kick to a foot-ball, (iii) (random motion) in air, an Oxygen molecule
hammering a nail, (iv) bouncing a ball from a travelling with a velocity of 400 m/s collides
hard surface, etc., appreciable amount of force elastically with a nitrogen molecule travelling
is being exerted. In such cases the time for with a velocity of 500 m/s in the exactly opposite
which these forces act on respective objects is direction. Calculate the impulse received by
negligibly small, mostly not easily recordable. each of them during collision. Assuming that
However, the effect of this force is a recordable the collision lasts for 1 ms, how much is the
change in the momentum of that object. Thus, it average force experienced by each molecule?
is convenient to define the change in momentum Let
itself as a physical quantity. m1  mO  5.35  1026 kg ,
m2  mN  4.65  1026 kg.
 u1  400 m s 1 and u2   500 m s 1
taking direction of motion of Oxygen
molecule as the positive direction.
For an elastic collision,
 m  m2   2m2 
v1   1  u1    u2 and
 m1  m2   m1  m2 
 m  m1   2m1 
Fig. 4.5: Graphical representation of impulse v2   2  u2    u1
of a force.  m1  m2   m1  m2 
Figure 4.5 shows variation of a force as a  v1   437 m s 1 and v 2  463 m s 1
function of time e.g., for a collision between bat
 J O  mO  v1  u1    4.478  1023 N s ,
and ball with the force axis starting with zero.
The shaded area or the area under the curve J N  mN  v 2  u2    4.478  1023 N s
gives the product of force against corresponding
As expected, the net impulse or net change
time (in this case, t ), hence gives the impulse.
in momentum is zero.
For a constant force it is obviously a rectangle.
Generally, force is zero before the impact, rises dpO J O  4.478  1023
FON   
to a maximum and decreases to zero after the dt t 103
impact. For softer tennis ball, the collision   4.478  1020 N
time is larger and the maximum force is less. 20
The area under the (F - t) graph is the same. and FNO   FON  4.478  10 N
Wicket keeper eases off (by increasing the 4.10. Rotational analogue of a force -
time of collision) while catching a fast ball. moment of a force or torque:
As mentioned earlier, it is absolutely necessary While opening a door fixed to a frame
that the force axis must start from zero. on hinges, we apply the force away from the
Recall from Chapter 3, analogues concepts hinges and perpendicular to the door to open
using area under a curve are (i) Obtaining it with ease. In this case we are interested in
displacement in a given time interval as area achieving some angular displacement for the
under the curve for v- t graph, with zero origin door. If the force is applied near the hinges or

64
nearly parallel to the door, it is very difficult to the directions involved. Figure 4.6(a) is a 3D
open the door. Similarly, if the door is heavier drawing indicating the laminar (plane or two
(made up of iron instead of wood or plastic), dimensional) object rotating about a (fixed) axis
we need to apply proportionally larger force for of rotation AOB, the axis being perpendicular
the same angular displacement. to the object and passing through it. Figure
It shows that rotational ability of a force 4.6(b) indicates the top view of the object
not only depends upon the mass (greater force when the rotation is in anticlockwise direction
for greater mass), but also upon the point of and Fig. 4.6(c) shows the view from the top, if
application of the force (the point should be as rotation is in clockwise direction. (In fact, Figs.
away as possible from the axis of rotation) and 4.6(b) and 4.6(c) are
ur drawn in such a way that
the angle between direction of the force and the the applied force F and position vector r of
line joining the axis of rotation with the point the point of application of the force are in the
of application (effect is maximum, if this angle plane of these figures). Direction of the torque
is 900). is always perpendicular ur to the plane containing
Taking into account all these factors, the the vectors r and F and can be obtained
quantity moment of a force or torque is defined from the rule of cross product or by using
as the rotational analogue of a force. As rotation the right-hand thumb rule. In Fig. 4.6(b), it is
refers to direction (sense of rotation), torque perpendicular to the plane of the figure (in this
must be a vector quantity. In its mathematical case, perpendicular to the body) and outwards,
form, torque or moment of a force is given by i.e., coming out of the paper while in the Fig.
r r ur 4.6(c), it is inwards, i.e., going into the paper.
  r F --- (4.17)
ur In order to indicate the directions which
where F is the applied force and r is the
position vector of the point of application of the are not in the plane of figure, we use a special
force from the axis of rotation, as shown in the convention: for perpendicular to the plane of
Figs. 4.6 (b) and 4.6 (c). figure and outwards and for perpendicular to
the plane of figure and inwards.

Figs. 4.6(a): Illustration

of moment of force
with object and axis of
rotation in 3D view. (a) (b)

Figs. 4.6(b): Top view ur

for moment of force F
in anticlockwise
ur rotation
with F and r in the (c) (d)
plane of paper. Fig. 4.7: Convention of pictorial
representation of vectors as shown in (a)
acting in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of paper (b) coming out of paper, (c)
Figs. 4.6(c): Top view ur going in to the paper and (d) perpendicular
of moment of force F ur to the plane of paper.
in clockwise rotation F
This convention depends upon a traditional
and r in the plane of
arrow shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). Consider yourself,
paper.
looking towards the figure from the top. If this
arrow approaches you, the tip of the arrow
Figures 4.6(a), 4.6(b) and 4.6(c) illustrate will be prominently seen. Hence circle with a

65
dot in it [Fig. 4.7 (b)] refers to perpendicular needs two forces acting in opposite direction
and outwards (or towards you). When you along different lines of action.
are leaving an arrow, i.e., if an arrow is going Torque or Moment of a couple: Figure 4.8
away from you, the feathers like a cross will be shows a couple consisting of two forces F1 and
seen. Hence, a circle with a cross [Fig. 4.6 (c)] F2 of equal magnitudes and opposite directions
indicates perpendicular and inwards (or away acting along different lines of action separated
from you). Circle with cross and dot indicates by a distance r. Corresponding position vectors
a line perpendicular to the plane of figure [Fig. should now be defined with reference to the
4.6 (d)]. lines of action of forces. Position vector of any
Magnitude of torque, r F sin --- (4.18) point on the line of action of force F1 from the
where is rthe smaller
ur angle between the line of action of force F2 is r12 . Similarly, the
directions of r and F . position vector of any point on the line of action
Consequences: (i) If r or F is greater, the of force F2 from the line of action of force F1
torque (hence the rotational effect) is greater. is r21. Torque or moment of the couple is then
Thus, it is recommended to apply the force given mathematically as
away from the hinges.
(ii) If   900 ,    max  rF . Thus, the
force should be applied along normal direction
for easy rotation.
(iii) If = 0 or 180 ,    min  0. Thus, if
the force is applied parallel or anti-parallel to r
, there is no rotation.
(iv) Moment of a force depends not only on
the magnitude and direction of the force, but also
on the point where the force acts with respect Fig. 4.8: Torque of a couple.
to the axis of rotation. Same force can have   r12  F1  r21  F2 --- (4.19)
different torque as per its point of application.
From the figure, it is clear that
4.11. Couple and its torque:
r12 sin  r21 sin  r
In the discussion of the torque given above,
we had considered rotation of the body about a If F1 F2 F , the magnitude of torque
fixed axis and due to a single force. In real life, is given by
quite often we apply two equal and opposite = r12 F1 sin = r21 F2 sin = r F --- (4.20)
forces acting along different lines of action in
order to cause rotation. Common illustrations It clearly shows that the torque
are turning a bicycle handle, turning the steering corresponding to a given couple, i.e., the
wheel, opening a common water tap, opening moment of a given couple is constant, i.e., it
the lid of a bottle (rotation type), etc. Such a is independent of the points of application of
pair of forces consisting of two forces of equal forces or the position of the axis of rotation,
magnitude acting in opposite directions along but depends only upon magnitude of either
different lines of action is called a couple. It force and the separation between their lines of
is used to realise a purely rotational motion. action.
Moment of a couple or rotational effect of a The direction of moment of couple can
couple is also called a torque. be obtained by using the vector formula of
It may be noted that in the discussion of the torque or by using the right-hand thumb
rotation of a body about a fixed axis due to rule. For the couple shown in the Fig. 4.8, it
a single force, there is a reaction force at the is perpendicular to the plane of the figure and
fixed axis. Hence, for rotation one always inwards. For a given pair of forces, the direction
of the torque is fixed.
66
 In many situations the word couple is torque due to the couple, but say that a couple
used synonymous to moment of the couple or is acting.
its torque, i.e., every time we may not say it as
Moment of a force Moment of a couple
1  r f   r12  F1  r21  F2
depends only upon the two forces, i.e., it
depends upon the axis of rotation and
2 is independent of the axis of rotation or the
the point of application of the force.
points of application of forces.
It can produce translational acceleration Does not produce any translational
3 also, if the axis of rotation is not fixed or if acceleration, but produces only rotational or
friction is not enough. angular acceleration.

Its rotational effect can be balanced by a Its rotational effect can be balanced only by
4
proper single force or by a proper couple. another couple of equal and opposite torque.

4.11.1. To prove that the moment of a couple In the Fig. 4.9 (b), lines of action of both
is independent of the axis of rotation: the forces are on the same side of the axis ur of
Figure 4.9 shows a rectangular sheet (any rotation. Thus, in this case, the rotation
ur of + F
object would do) free to rotate only about a fixed is anticlockwise, while that of - F is clockwise
axis of rotation, perpendicular to the plane of (from the top view). As a result, their individual
figure,
ur asurshown. A couple consisting of forces torques are oppositely directed. Perpendicular
F and - F is acting on the sheet at different distance of the forces F and -F from the axis of
locations. rotation are q and p respectively.
Here we are considering the torque of a         qF  pF
couple to be two torques due to individual forces
  q  p  F  rF --- (4.22)
causing rotation about the axis of rotation. In
Fig. 4.9(a), the axis of rotation is between the From equations (4.21) and (4.22), it is clear
lines of action of the two forces constituting the that the torque of a couple is independent of the
couple. Perpendicular distances of axis of rotation.
ur ur the axis of
rotation from the forces F and - F are x and y 4.12. Mechanical equilibrium:
respectively. Rotation due to the pair of forces As a consequence of Newton’s second law,
in this case is anticlockwise (from top view), the momentum of a system is constant in the
i.e., directions of individual torques due to the absence of an external unbalanced force. This
two forces are the same. state is called mechanical equilibrium.
        xF  yF   x  y  F  rF (4.21) A particle is said to be in mechanical
equilibrium, if no net force is acting upon it.
For a system of bodies to be in mechanical
equilibrium, the net force acting on any part
of the system should be zero. In other words,
velocity or linear momentum of all parts of the
(a)
system must be constant or (zero) for the system
to be in mechanical equilibrium. Also, there is
no acceleration in any part of the system.
ur
(b) Mathematically,  F  0 , for any part of
Fig. 4.9: Same couple on same object with the system for mechanical equilibrium.
fixed axis of rotation at different locations
in (a) and (b).

67
4.12.1 Stable, unstable and neutral Neutral equilibrium: In Fig. 4.9(c), potential
equilibrium: energy of the system is constant over a plane and
Figures 4.10 (a), (b) and (c) show a ball remains same at any position. Thus, even if the
at rest in three situations under the action of ball is disturbed, it still remains in equilibrium
balanced forces. In all these cases, it is under at practically any position. This is described as
equilibrium. However, potential energy-wise, neutral equilibrium.
the three cases differ. Example 4.10: A uniform wooden plank of
mass 30 kg is supported symmetrically by two
light identical cables; each can sustain a tension
(a)
up to 500 N. After tying, the cables are exactly
vertical and are separated by 2 m. A boy of mass
50 kg, standing at the centre of the plank, is
interested in walking on the plank. How far can
(b) he walk? (g = 10 ms-2)

(c) ’
Fig. 4.10: states of mechanical equilibrium
(a) stable, (b) unstable and (c) neutral.
Stable equilibrium: In Fig. 4.9(a), the
ball is most stable and is said to be in stable
equilibrium. If it is disturbed slightly from Solution: Let T1 and T2 be the tensions along
its equilibrium position and released, it tends the cables, both acting vertically upwards.
to recover its position. In this case, potential
Weight of the plank 300 N is acting
energy of the system is at its local minimum.
vertically downwards through the centre, 1 m
Unstable equilibrium: In Fig. 4.9(b), the ball
from either cable. Weight of the boy, 500 N is
is said to be in unstable equilibrium. If it is
vertically downwards at the point where he is
slightly disturbed from its equilibrium position,
standing.
it moves farther from that position. This
T1  T2  300  500  800 N
happens because initially, potential energy of
Suppose that the boy is able to walk x m
the system is at its local maximum. If disturbed,
towards the right. Obviously, the tension in the
it tries to achieve the configuration of minimum
right side cable goes on increasing as he walks
potential energy.
towards the cable.
If potential energy function is known for the Moments of 300 N and 500 N forces about
system, mathematically, the three equilibria left end A are clockwise, while that of T2 is
can be explained with the help of derivatives anticlockwise.
of that function. At any equilibrium position,
As the cable can sustain 500 N, (T2)max =
the first derivative of the potential energy
500 N
 dU 
function is zero  0 . Thus, for the equilibrium about A, we can
 dx   d 2U  write,
The sign of the second derivative  2 
 dx  300  1  500  1  x   500  2  x  0.4 m
decides the type of equilibrium. It is positive Thus, the boy can walk up to 40 cm on
either side of the centre.
at stable equilibrium (or vice versa), negative Example 4.11: A ladder of negligible mass
at unstable equilibrium and zero (or does not having a cross bar is resting on a frictionless
exist) at neutral equilibrium configuration. horizontal floor with angle between its legs
to be 400. Each leg is 1 m long. Calculate the

68
force experienced by the cross bar when a
person of mass 50 kg is standing on the ladder.
(g = 10 m s-2)
Solution: Tension T along the cross bar is
horizontal. Let L be the length of each leg,
which is 1 m.
Fig. 4.11: Centre of mass for n particles.
Position vector r of their centre of mass
from the same origin is then given by
 mr   mr
n n
i i i i
r 1 1

m
n
M i
1

If the origin itself is at the centre of mass,

n
As there is no friction, there is no horizontal
r  0  mi ri  0 , then
reaction at the floor. Reaction N given by the 1
floor at the base of the ladder will then be only n

vertical. Thus, along the vertical, two such mi ri gives the moment of masses
1
reactions balance weight W = mg of the person.
mg (similar to moment of force) about the centre
N   250 N of mass.
2
At the left leg, about the upper end, the Thus, centre of mass is a point about which
torque due to N is clockwise and that due to the summation of moments of masses in the
the tension T is anticlockwise. For equilibrium, system is zero.
these two torques should have same magnitude. If x1, x2, ... xn are the respective x-
coordinates of r1, r2, ... rn, the x-coordinate of
the centre of mass is given by
 mx  mx
n n
i i i i
x 1 1

m
n
4.13. Centre of mass: i
M
1
As discussed earlier, Newton’s laws of Similarly, y and z-coordinates of the centre
motion and many other laws are applicable for of mass are respectively given by
point masses only. However, in real life, we
 mi yi 1 mi yi
n n

always come across finite objects (objects of y 1


1 i
n
measurable sizes). Concept of centre of mass m M
(c.m.) helps us in considering these objects to and
 
n n
be point objects at a particular location, thereby m i z i mi zi
z 1 n  1
allowing us to apply Newton’s laws of motion.
4.13.1. Mathematical understanding of
 1
mi M

centre of mass: (i) Continuous mass distribution: For a

(i) System of n particles: Consider a system continuous mass distribution with uniform
of n particles of masses m1, m2 ... mn. density, we need to use integration instead of
n summation. In this case, the position vector of
mi = M the total mass.
1
the centre of mass is given by

Let be their respective position r

r dm  r dm ,
vectors from a given origin O (Fig. 4.11) . dm M

69
where dm  M is the total mass of the object. Hemispherical shell
Then the Cartesian coordinates of c.m. are of radius R
R
x
x dm  x dm xc 0, yc
2
dm M Solid hemisphere of
y
 y dm   y dm radius R
3R
dm M xc 0, yc
8
z
z dm  z dm Hollow right circu-
dm M lar cone of height h
h
Using the expressions given above, the xc 0, yc
centres of mass of uniform symmetric objects 3
can be obtained. Some of these are listed in the Solid right circular
Table 4.1 given below: cone of height h
Table 4.1: Coordinate of the centre of mass h
xc 0, yc
(c.m.) for some symmetrical objects 4
Coordinates of Uniform Symmetric Example 4.12: A letter ‘E’ is prepared from a
c.m. Objects uniform cardboard with shape and dimensions
System of two point as shown in the figure. Locate its centre of mass.
masses: c.m. divides Solution: As the sheet is uniform, each square
the distance in in- can be taken to be equivalent to mass m
verse proportion of concentrated at its respective centre. These
the masses masses will then be at the points labelled with
Any geometrically Centre of mass at a numbers 1 to 10, as shown in figure. Let us
symmetric object of geometrical centre of select the origin to be at the left central mass m5,
uniform density. the object as shown and all the co-ordinates to be in cm.
Isosceles triangular By symmetry, the centre of mass of m1, m2
plate and m3 will be at m2 (1, 2) having effective mass
H 3m. Similarly, effective mass 3m due to m8, m9
xc 0, yc
3 and m10 will be at m9 (1, -2). Again, by symmetry,
the centre of mass of these two (3m each) will
Right angled
have co-ordinates (1, 0). Mass m6 is also having
triangular plate
p q co-ordinates (1, 0). Thus, the effective mass at
xc , yc (1, 0) is 7m.
3 3
Thin semicircular
ring of radius R
2R
xc  0, yc 

Thin semicircular
disc of radius R
4R
xc  0, yc 
3
Using symmetry for m4, m5 and m7, there
will be effective mass 3m at the origin (0, 0).

70
Thus, effectively, 3m and 7m are separated mA y A  mB yB  mC yC
by 1 cm along x-direction. y-coordinate is not yc 
required. mA  mB  mC
m x  m2 x2 3  0  7  1 10 3
xc  1 1   0.7 cm m 4 m  0  9m  0
m1  m2 3 7 2 10 3
  cm
Alternately, for two point masses, the centre m  4 m  9m 28
of mass divides the distance between them in Example 4.14: A hole of radius r is cut from a
the inverse ratio of their masses. Hence, 1 cm is uniform disc of radius 2r. Centre of the hole is
at a distance r from centre of the disc. Locate
divided in the ratio 7:3. centre of mass of the remaining part of the disc.
from 3m, i.e., from the origin at mc
Solution: Method I: (Using entire disc):
Example 4.13: Three thin walled uniform
Before cutting the hole, c.m. of the full disc was
hollow spheres of radii 1cm, 2 cm and 3 cm
at its centre. Let this be our origin O. Centre of
are so located that their centres are on the three
mass of the cut portion is at its centre D. Thus,
vertices of an equilateral triangle ABC having
x
each side 10 cm. Determine centre of mass of it is at a distance 1 r form the origin. Let C
the system. be the centre of mass of the remaining disc.
Obviously, it should be on the extension of the
line DO. Let it be at a distance x2 x from the
origin. As the disc is uniform, mass of any of its
part is proportional to the area of that part.

Solution: Mass of a thin walled uniform hollow

sphere is proportional to its surface area, (as
density is constant) hence proportional to r2.
Thus, if mass of the sphere at A is mA m, then
mB 4m and mC 9m. By symmetry of the
spherical surface, their centres of mass are at
their respective centres, i.e., at A, B and C. Thus, if m is the mass of the cut disc, mass
Let us choose the origin to be at C, where of the entire disc must be 4m and mass of the
the largest mass 9m is located and the point B remaining disc will be 3m.
with mass 4m on the positive x-axis. With this, m x  m2 x2
xc  1 1
the co-ordinates of C are (0, 0) and that of B m1  m2 As centre of mass of the
are (10, 0). (Locating the origin at the larger
full disc is at the origin, we can write,
mass here save our efforts of calculations like
multiplications with larger numbers). If A of m  r  3m   x  r
0 x 
mass m is taken in the first quadrant, its co- m  3m 3
ordinates will be Method II: (Using negative mass): Let
R be the position vector of the centre of mass
mA x A  mB xB  mC xC of the uniform disc of mass M. Mass m is with
xc  centre of mass at position vector r from the
mA  mB  mC
centre of the disc. Position vector of the centre
m  5  4 m  10  9m  0 45 of mass of the remaining disc is then given by
  cm
m  4 m  9m 14

71
 MR  mr 4. Centre of mass is the point at which, if
rc  a force is applied, it causes only linear
M  m ….. (as if there is a negative
acceleration and not angular acceleration.
mass, i.e., m2 = - m)
5. Centre of mass is located at the centroid,
With our description, M = 4m, m =m, for a rigid body of uniform density.
 mr  r
R = 0 and r = r  rc   ... Same 6. Centre of mass is located at the geometrical
3m 3 centre, for a symmetric rigid body of
as method I.
4.13.2. Velocity of centre of mass: uniform density.
7. Location of centre of mass can be changed
Let v1, v2, ... vn be the velocities of a system
only by an external unbalanced force.
of point masses m1, m2, ... mn. Velocity of the
8. Internal forces (like during collision or
centre of mass of the system is given by
explosion) never change the location of
centre of mass.
9. Position of the centre of mass depends
only upon the distribution of mass,
however, to describe its location we may
use a coordinate system with a suitable
origin. In statistical terms the centre of
mass is decided by the weighted average
x, y and z components of v can be obtained
of individual masses. This is obtained
similarly.
For continuous distribution, v cm  
v dm by giving proper mass weightage to the
M distance. This should be clear from the
4.13.3. Acceleration of the centre of mass: mathematical expression for the location
Let a1, a2, ... an be the accelerations of the centre of mass.
of a system of point masses m1, m2, ... mn. 10. For a system of particles, the centre of
Acceleration of the centre of mass of the system mass need not coincide with any of the
is given by particles.
11. While balancing an object on a pivot, the
line of action of weight must pass through
the centre of mass and the pivot. Quite
often, this is an unstable equilibrium.
12. Centre of mass of a system of only two
particles divides the distance between
the particles in an inverse ratio of their
x, y and z components of a can be obtained masses, i.e., it is closer to the heavier
similarly. mass.

For continuous distribution, a cm  

a dm 13. Centre of mass is a point about which the
M summation of moments of masses in the
4.13.4. Characteristics of centre of mass: system is zero.
1. Centre of mass is a hypothetical point 14. If there is an axial symmetry for a given
at which entire mass of the body can be object, the centre of mass lies on the axis
assumed to be concentrated. of symmetry.
2. Centre of mass is a location, and not a 15. If there are multiple axes of symmetry
physical quantity. for a given object, the centre of mass is at
3. Centre of mass is particle equivalent of a their point of intersection.
given object for applying laws of motion. 16. Centre of mass need not be within the

72
 body (See the photograph given below: used for same purpose. This property can be
Picture 4.1). Other examples are a ring, a used to determine the c.g. (or c.m.) of a laminar
horse shoe, etc. (laminar means like a leaf – two dimensional)
object.
In Fig. 4.12, a laminar object is suspended
from a rigid support at two orientations. Lines
are to be drawn on the object parallel to the
plumb line shown. Plumb line is always vertical,
i.e., parallel to the line of action of gravitational
force. Intersection of the lines drawn is then
the point through which line of action of the
gravitational force passes for any orientation.
Thus, it gives the location of the c.g. or c.m.

Picture 4.1: Courtesy Wikipedia: Estimated

center of mass/gravity of a high jumper doing
a Fosbury Flop. Note that it is below the bar in
this position. This is possible because our head
and legs are much heavier than the fleshy part.
Increase in the gravitational potential energy of
the high jumper depends upon this point.
4.14. Centre of gravity Centre of mass is a fixed property for a
given rigid body in spite of any orientation.
Centre of gravity (c.g.) of a body is the
The centre of gravity may depend upon non-
point around which the resultant torque due to
uniformity of the gravitational field, in turn,
force of gravity on the body is zero. Analogous
will depend upon the orientation. For objects on
to centre of mass, it is the weighted average of
the Earth , this will be possible only if the size
the gravitational forces (weights) on individual
of an object is comparable to that of the Earth
particles.
(size at least few thousand km). In such cases,
For uniform gravitational field (in simple the c.g. will be slightly lower than the c.m. as on
words, if g is constant), c.g. always coincides the lower side of an object the gravitational field
with the c.m. Obviously it is true for all the is stronger. Of course, we shall not come across
objects on the Earth in our daily life. Thus, such an object.
in common usage, the terms c.g. and c.m. are

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct answer. do NOT cancel each other’s translational
i) Consider following pair of forces of equal effect?
magnitude and opposite directions: (A) Only P (B) Only P and Q
(P) Gravitational forces exerted on each (C) Only R (D) Only Q and R
other by two point masses separated ii) Consider following forces: (w) Force due
by a distance. to tension along a string, (x) Normal force
(Q) Couple of forces used to rotate a water given by a surface, (y) Force due to air
tap. resistance and (z) Buoyant force or upthrust
(R) Gravitational force and normal force given by a fluid.
experienced by an object kept on a Which of these are electromagnetic forces?
table. (A) Only w, y and z
For which of these pair/pairs the two forces

73
 (B) Only w, x and y (A) Centre of mass of a ‘C’ shaped uniform
(C) Only x, y and z rod can never be a point on that rod.
(D) All four. (B) If the line of action of a force passes
iii) At a given instant three point masses m, through the centre of mass, the moment
2m and 3m are equidistant from each other. of that force is zero.
Consider only the gravitational forces (C) Centre of mass of our Earth is not at its
between them. Select correct statement/s geometrical centre.
for this instance only: (D) While balancing an object on a pivot,
(A) Mass m experiences maximum force. the line of action of the gravitational
(B) Mass 2m experiences maximum force. force of the earth passes through the
(C) Mass 3m experiences maximum force. centre of mass of the object.
(D) All masses experience force of same viii. For which of the following objects will the
magnitude. centre of mass NOT be at their geometrical
iv) The rough surface of a horizontal table centre?
offers a definite maximum opposing force (I) An egg
to initiate the motion of a block along the (II) a cylindrical box full of rice
table, which is proportional to the resultant (III) a cubical box containing assorted
normal force given by the table. Forces sweets
F1 and F2 act at the same angle with the (A) Only (I)
horizontal and both are just initiating the (B) Only (I) and (II)
sliding motion of the block along the table. (C) Only (III)
Force F1 is a pulling force while the force (D) All, (I), (II) and (III).
F2 is a pushing force. F2 > F1 , because 2. Answer the following questions.
(A) Component of F2 adds up to weight to
i) In the following table, every entry on the
increase the normal reaction.
left column can match with any number of
(B) Component of F1 adds up to weight to
entries on the right side. Pick up all those
increase the normal reaction.
and write respectively against A, B, C and
(C) Component of F2 adds up to the
D.
opposing force.
(D) Component of F1 adds up to the Name of the force Type of the force
opposing force. A Force due to P EM force
v. A mass 2m moving with some speed is tension in a string
directly approaching another mass m B Normal force Q Reaction force
moving with double speed. After some C Frictional force R Conservative
time, they collide with coefficient of force
restitution 0.5. Ratio of their respective D Resistive force S Non-
speeds after collision is offered by air or conservative
(A) 2/3 (B) 3/2 water for objects force
(C) 2 (D) ½ moving through it.
vi. A uniform rod of mass 2m is held horizontal ii) In real life objects, never travel with
by two sturdy, practically inextensible uniform velocity, even on a horizontal
vertical strings tied at its ends. A boy of surface, unless something is done? Why
mass 3m hangs himself at one third length is it so? What is to be done?
of the rod. Ratio of the tension in the string iii) For the study of any kind of motion, we
close to the boy to that in the other string is never use Newton’s first law of motion
(A) 2 (B) 1.5 directly. Why should it be studied?
(C) 4/3 (D) 5/3 iv) Are there any situations in which we
vii. Select WRONG statement about centre of cannot apply Newton’s laws of motion?
mass: Is there any alternative for it?

74
v) You are inside a closed capsule from where obtain its value for an elastic collision
you are not able to see anything about and a perfectly inelastic collision.
the outside world. Suddenly you feel xv) Discuss the following as special cases of
that you are pushed towards your right. elastic collisions and obtain their exact
Can you explain the possible cause (s)? or approximate final velocities in terms
Is it a feeling or a reality? Give at least of their initial velocities.
one more situation like this. (i) Colliding bodies are identical.
vi) Among the four fundamental forces, (ii) A veru heavy object collides on a
only one force governs your daily life lighter object, initially at rest.
almost entirely. Justify the statement by (iii) A very light object collides on a
stating that force. comparatively much massive object,
vii) Find the odd man out: (i) Force initially at rest.
responsible for a string to become taut xvi) A bullet of mass m travelling with a
1
on stretching (ii) Weight of an object (iii) velocity u strikes a stationary wooden
The force due to which we can hold an block of mass m2 and gets embedded into
object in hand. it. Determine the expression for loss in
viii) You are sitting next to your friend on
the kinetic energy of the system. Is this
ground. Is there any gravitational force
violating the principle of conservation of
of attraction between you two? If so, why
energy? If not, how can you account for
are you not coming together naturally?
this loss?
Is any force other than the gravitational
xvii) One of the effects of a force is to change
force of the earth coming in picture?
ix) Distinguish between: (A) Real and the momentum. Define the quantity
pseudo forces, (B) Conservative and related to this and explain it for a variable
non-conservative forces, (C) Contact force. Usually when do we define it
and non-contact forces, (C) Inertial and instead of using the force?
non-inertial frames of reference. xviii) While rotating an object or while
x) State the formula for calculating work opening a door or a water tap we apply a
done by a force. Are there any conditions force or forces. Under which conditions
or limitations in using it directly? If is this process easy for us? Why? Define
so, state those clearly. Is there any the vector quantity concerned. How does
mathematical way out for it? Explain. it differ for a single force and for two
xi) Justify the statement, “Work and energy opposite forces with different lines of
are the two sides of a coin”. action?
xii) From the terrace of a building of height xix) Why is the moment of a couple
H, you dropped a ball of mass m. It independent of the axis of rotation even
reached the ground with speed v. Is if the axis is fixed?
1 2 xx) Explain balancing or mechanical
the relation mgH mv applicable
2 equilibrium. Linear velocity of a rotating
exactly? If not, how can you account fan as a whole is generally zero. Is it in
for the difference? Will the ball bounce mechanical equilibrium? Justify your
to the same height from where it was answer.
dropped? xxi) Why do we need to know the centre of
xiii) State the law of conservation of linear mass of an object? For which objects,
momentum. It is a consequence of which its position may differ from that of the
law? Given an example from our daily centre of gravity?
life for conservation of momentum. Does Use g = 10 m s -2, unless, otherwise stated.
it hold good during burst of a cracker?
3. Solve the following problems.
xiv) Define coefficient of restitution and
i) A truck of mass 5 ton is travelling on a

75
 horizontal road with 36 km hr -1 stops (c) t (d) t0
on traveling 1 km after its engine fails Derive the expression for power in terms
suddenly. What fraction of its weight is the of F, m and t.
frictional force exerted by the road?
F 2t
If we assume that the story repeats for a [Ans: p  , p t ]
car of mass 1 ton i.e., can moving with m
vi) 40000 litre of oil of density 0.9 g cc is
same speed stops in similar distance same
pumped from an oil tanker ship into a
how much will the fraction be?
storage tank at 10 m higher level than the
1
[Ans: in the both] ship in half an hour. What should be the
200 power of the pump?
ii) A lighter object A and a heavier object B
are initially at rest. Both are imparted the [Ans: 2 kW]
same linear momentum. Which will start vii) Ten identical masses (m each) are
with greater kinetic energy: A or B or both connected one below the other with
will start with the same energy? 10 strings. Holding the topmost string,
[Ans: A] the system is accelerated upwards with
iii) As I was standing on a weighing machine acceleration g/2. What is the tension
inside a lift it recorded 50 kg wt. Suddenly in the 6th string from the top (Topmost
for few seconds it recorded 45 kg wt. What string being the first string)?
must have happened during that time? [Ans: 6 mg]
Explain with complete numerical analysis. viii) Two galaxies of masses 9 billion solar
[Ans: Lift must be coming down with mass and 4 billion solar mass are 5
g million light years apart. If, the Sun has
acceleration  1m s 2 ]
10 to cross the line joining them, without
iv) Figure below shows a block of mass 35 kg being attracted by either of them, through
resting on a table. The table is so rough that what point it should pass?
it offers a self adjusting resistive force 10% [Ans: 3 million light years from the 9
of the weight of the block for its sliding billion solar mass]
motion along the table. A 20 kg wt load is ix) While decreasing linearly from 5 N to 3
attached to the block and is passed over a N, a force displaces an object from 3 m
pulley to hang freely on the left side. On the to 5 m. Calculate the work done by this
right side there is a 2 kg wt pan attached to force during this displacement.
the block and hung freely. Weights of 1 kg [Ans: 8 N]
wt each, can be added to the pan. Minimum x) Variation of a force in a certain region
how many and maximum how many such is given by F = 6x2 - 4x - 8. It displaces
weights can be added into the pan so that an object from x = 1 m to x = 2 m in this
the block does not slide along the table? region. Calculate the amount of work
[Ans: Min 15, maximum 21]. done. [Ans: Zero]
xi) A ball of mass 100 g dropped on the
ground from 5 m bounces repeatedly.
35 kg wt
on rough table
2kg wt
During every bounce 64% of the
20kg wt
load pan potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy. Calculate the following:
v) Power is rate of doing work or the rate at (a) Coefficient of restitution.
which energy is supplied to the system. (b) Speed with which the ball comes up
A constant force F is applied to a body from the ground after third bounce.
of mass m. Power delivered by the force (c) Impulse given by the ball to the
at time t from the start is proportional to ground during this bounce.
(a) t (b) t2 (d) Average force exerted by the ground

76
 if this impact lasts for 250 ms. away from the wall. The wall is smooth
(e) Average pressure exerted by the but the ground is rough. Roughness of the
ball on the ground during this impact if ground is such that it offers a maximum
contact area of the ball is 0.5 cm2. horizontal resistive force (for sliding
[Ans: 0.8, 5.12 m/s, 1.152N s, motion) half that of normal reaction at
4.608 N, 9.216×104 N/m2] the point of contact. A monkey of mass
xii) A spring ball of mass 0.5 kg is dropped 20 kg starts climbing the ladder. How
from some height. On falling freely for far can it climb along the ladder? How
10 s, it explodes into two fragments of much is the horizontal reaction at the
mass ratio 1:2. The lighter fragment wall?
continues to travel downwards with [Ans: 1.5 m, 15 N]
speed of 60 m/s. Calculate the kinetic xvi) Four uniform solid cubes of edges 10
energy supplied during explosion. cm, 20 cm, 30 cm and 40 cm are kept on
[Ans: 200 J] the ground, touching each other in order.
xiii) A marble of mass 2m travelling at 6 Locate centre of mass of their system.
cm/s is directly followed by another [Ans: 65 cm,
marble of mass m with double speed. 17.7 cm]
After collision, the heavier one travels xvii) A uniform solid sphere of radius R has a
with the average initial speed of the two. hole of radius R/2 drilled inside it. One
Calculate the coefficient of restitution. end of the hole is at the centre of the
[Ans: 0.5] sphere while the other is at the boundary.
xiv) A, 2 m long wooden plank of mass 20 Locate centre of mass of the remaining
kg is pivoted (supported from below) at sphere.
0.5 m from either end. A person of mass [Ans: -R/14 ]
40 kg starts walking from one of these xviii) In the following table, every item on the
pivots to the farther end. How far can the left side can match with any number of
person walk before the plank topples? items on the right hand side. Select all
[Ans: 1.25 m] those.
xv) A 2 m long ladder of mass 10 kg is kept ***
against a wall such that its base is 1.2 m

Types of collision Illustrations

(a) Elastic collision (i) A ball hit by a bat.
(b) Inelastic collision (ii) Molecular collisions responsible for pressure exerted by
(c) Perfectly inelastic collision a gas.
(d) Head on collision (iii) A stationary marble A is hit by marble B and the marble
B comes to rest.
(iv) A blob of clay dropped on the ground sticks to the ground.
(v) Out of anger, giving a kick to a wall.
(vi) A striker hits the boundary of a carrom board in a direction
perpendicular to the boundary and rebounds.

77
 5. Gravitation
Can you recall?

1. When released from certain height why do objects tend to fall vertically downwards?
2. What is the shape of the orbits of planets? 3. What are Kepler’s laws?
5.1 Introduction: virtue of their masses. It is always an attractive
All material objects have a natural force with infinite range. It does not depend
tendency to get attracted towards the Earth. In upon intervening medium. It is much weaker
many natural phenomena like coconut falling than other fundamental forces. Gravitational
from trees, raindrops falling from the clouds, force is 10-39 times weaker than strong nuclear
etc., the same tendency is observed. All bodies force.
are attracted towards the Earth with constant 5.2 Kepler’s Laws:
acceleration. This fact was recognized by Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe
Italian physicist Galileo. He is said to have the orbits of the planets around the Sun. He
demonstrated it by releasing two balls of published first two laws in 1609 and the third
different masses from top of the leaning tower law in 1619. These laws are the result of the
of Pisa which reached the ground at the same analysis of the data collected by Tycho Brahe
time. through years of observations of the planetary
Indian astronomer and mathematician motion.
Aryabhatta (476-550 A.D.) studied the motion
of the moon, Earth and other planets in the Do you know ?
5th century A.D. In his book ‘Aryabhatiya’,
he concluded that the Earth revolves about Drawing an ellipse
its own axis and it moves in a circular orbit An ellipse is the locus of the points in a plane
around the Sun. Also the moon revolves in such that the sum of their distances from two
a circular orbit around the Earth. Almost a fixed points, called the foci, is constant.
thousand years after Aryabhatta, Tycho Brahe You can draw an ellipse by the following
(1546-1601) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) procedure.
studied planetary motion through careful 1) Insert two tacks or drawing pins, A and
observations. Kepler analysed the huge data B, as shown in the figure into a sheet of
meticulously recorded by Tycho Brahe and drawing paper at a distance ‘d’ apart.
established three laws of planetary motion. He 2) Tie the two ends of a piece of thread
showed that the motion of planets follow these whose length is greater than distance
laws. The reason why planets obey these laws ‘d’ between the two tacks and place the
was provided by Newton. He explained that loop around AB as shown in the figure.
gravitation is the phenomenon responsible for 3) Place a pencil inside the loop of thread,
keeping planets in their orbits around the Sun. pull the thread taut and move the pencil
The moon revolves around the Earth also due sidewise, keeping the thread taut.
to gravitation. Gravitation compels dispersed The pencil will trace an ellipse.
matter to coalesce, hence the existence of the
Earth, the Sun and all material macroscopic
objects in the universe.
Every massive object in the universe
experiences gravitational force. It is the force of
mutual attraction between any two objects by

78
1 Law of orbit Fig 5.2 shows the orbit of a planet. The shaded
All planets move in elliptical orbits areas are the areas swept by SP, the line joining
around the Sun with the Sun at one of the the planet and the Sun, in fixed intervals of time.
foci of the ellipse. These are equal according to the second law.
The law of areas can be understood as an
outcome of conservation of angular momentum.
It is valid for any central force. A central force
on an object is a force which is always directed
along the line joining the position of object and
a fixed point usually taken to be the origin of
the coordinate system. The force of gravity
due to the Sun on a planet is always along the
line joining the Sun and the planet (Fig. 5.2).
It is thus a central force. Suppose the Sun is
Fig. 5.1: An ellipse traced by a planet with at the origin. The position of planet is denoted
the Sun at the focus.
by r and the perpendicular component of its
The orbit of a planet around the Sun is shown
in Fig. 5.1. momentum is denoted by p (component r ).
The area sweptuuu by
r the planet of mass m in given
Here, S and S are the foci of the ellipse the Sun
being at S. interval t is A which is given by
uuur 1 r r
P is the closest point along the orbit from A = (r × v t ) --- (5.1)
S and is, called ‘Perihelion’. 2
As for small t , v is perpendicular to r and
A is the farthest point from S and is, called this is the area of the triangle.
‘Aphelion’. uuur
A 1 r r --- (5.2)
PA is the major axis = 2a.  = (r × v)
t 2
PO and AO are the semimajor axes = a.
Linear momentum ( p ) is the product of mass
MN is the minor axis =2b.
and velocity.
MO and ON are the semiminor axes = b
p = mv --- (5.3)
2. Law of areas
.. . putting v = p /m in the above equation, we
The line that joins a planet and the Sun
sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time. get uuur ur
 A 1 r p 
Kepler observed that planets do not move = r×  --- (5.4)
around the Sun with uniform speed. They move t 2  m 
faster when they are nearer to the Sun while ur
Angular momentum L is the rotational
they move slower when they are farther from
equivalent of linear momentum and is defined
the Sun. This is explained by this law.
as ur r ur
∴L =r×p --- (5.5)
For central force the angular momentum is
conserved.
uuur ur
A L
 = = constant --- (5.6)
t 2m
... This proves the law of areas. This is a
Fig. 5.2: The orbit of a planet P moving consequence of the gravitational force being a
around the Sun. central force.

79
 3. Law of periods T2 2 r2 3
The square of the time period of  
T12 r13
revolution of a planet around the Sun is 3/ 2
proportional to the cube of the semimajor T r 
 2  2 
axis of the ellipse traced by the planet. T1  r1 
If r is length of semimajor axis then, this 3/ 2
law states that  3r 
= 1
T 2  r3  r1 
T2 T2
or 3  constant   27
--- (5.7) T1
r
Kepler’s laws were based on regular T2  T1  27
observations of the motion of planets. Kepler  365  27
did not know why the planets obey these laws,.
 1897days
i.e. he had not derived these laws.
Table 5.1 gives data from measurements (B) If r2=2r1
T2 2 r2 3
of planetary motions which confirm Kepler’s 
T12 r13
law of periods.
3/ 2
Table 5.1: Kepler’s third law T2 2  2r1 
 
T12  r1 
Planet Semi-major Period T2/r3
axis in units in years in units of T
 2  8
of 1010 m 10-34 y2m-3 T1
Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95 T2  T1 8
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00  365 8
Earth 15.0 1 2.96
 1032 days.
Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98
Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01 5.3 Universal Law of Gravitation:
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98 When objects are released near the surface
Uranus 287 84. 2.98 of the Earth, they always fall down to the
Neptune 450 165 2.99 ground, i.e., the Earth attracts objects towards
Pluto 590 248 2.99 itself. Galileo (1564-1642) pointed out that
Example 5.1: What would be the average heavy and light objects, when released from the
duration of year if the distance between the Sun same height, fall towards the Earth at the same
and the Earth becomes speed, i.e., they have the same acceleration.
Newton went beyond (the Earth and objects
(A) thrice the present distance.
falling on it) and proposed that the force of
(B) twice the present distance. attraction between masses is universal. Newton
Solution: stated the universal law of gravitation which
(A) Let r1 = Present distance between the Earth led to an explanation of terrestrial gravitation.
and Sun It also explains that Kepler’s laws. provide the
T = 365 days. reason behind the observed motion of planets
If r2 = 3r1 to find T2 = ? around the Sun.
According to Kepler’s law of period In 1665, Newton studied the motion of
moon around the Earth. It was known that the
T12 r13 and T22 r23 moon completes one revolution about the Earth
in 27.3 days. The distance from the Earth to

80
the moon is 3.85×105 km. The motion of the by an object due to the gravitational force of
moon is in almost a circular orbit around the the Earth must be decreasing with distance of
Earth with constant angular speed . As it is a the body from the Earth. (Remember that the
circular motion, the moon must be constantly value of acceleration due to Earth’s gravity at
acted upon by a force directed towards the the surface is 9.8 m/s2)
Earth which is at the centre of the circle. This We have,
force is the centripetal force, and is given by a object 9.8 m / s 2
F = mr 2 --- (5.8)   3600
a moon 0.0027 m / s 2
where m is the mass of the moon and r is the Also,
distance between the centres of the moon and distance of moon from the Earth’s centre
the Earth. distance of object from the Earth’s centre
Also we have F = ma from Newton’s laws
of motion. 3.85×105 km
... ma = mr 2 = 60
6378 km
... a = r 2 --- (5.9)
Thus from the above two equations we get
As angular velocity in terms of time period 2
a object  distance of moon  --- (5.11)
is given as  
a moon  distance of object 
2
 Newton therefore concluded that the
T
we get acceleration of an object towards the Earth is
2 inversely proportional to the square of distance
 2  --- (5.10)
a = r  of object from the centre of the Earth.
 T  1
a 
Substituting values of r and T, we get r2
3.85  105  1034 2 m As, F = ma
a
(27.3  24  60  60) 2 s 2 Therefore, the force exerted by the Earth on an
object of mass m at a distance r from it is
 a  0.0027 m / s 2 m
F
This is the acceleration of the moon which r2
is towards the centre of the Earth, i.e., centre of Similarly an object also exerts a force on the
orbit in which the moon revolves. What could Earth which is
M
FE
Do you know ? r2
The value of acceleration due to gravity where M is the mass of the Earth.
can be assumed to be constant when we are According to Newton’s third law of
dealing with objects close to the surface of motion, the force on a body due to the Earth has
the Earth. This is because the difference in to be equal to the force on the Earth due to the
their distances from the centre of the Earth object. Hence the force F is also proportional to
is negligible. the mass of the Earth. Hence Newton concluded
be the force which produces this acceleration? that the gravitational force between the Earth
Newton assumed that the laws of nature and an object of mass m is
are the same for Earthly objects and for Mm
F
celestial bodies. As this acceleration is much r2
smaller than the acceleration felt by bodies
He then generalized it to gravitational
near the surface of the Earth (while falling on
force between any two objects and stated his
Earth), he concluded that the acceleration felt

81
Universal law of gravitation as follows. Gm1m2
The force between them, F1 =
Every particle of matter attracts every r2
other particle of matter with a force which is
When the distance between them is doubled the
directly proportional to the product of their
Gm1m2 Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to the force becomes, F2 =
square of the distance between them. (2r ) 2 4r 2
This law is applicable to all material F Gm1m2 4r 2
 1  
objects in the universe. Hence it is known as F2 r2 Gm1m2
the universal law of gravitation. F
 1 4
F2
1
 F2  N ( F1  1 N )
4
F2  0.25 N
 Force become one forth (0.25 N)

Figure 5.3 shows two point masses m1 and

o m2 with position vectors r 1 and r 2 respectively
from origin O. The position vector of m2
Fig. 5.3: Gravitational force between with respect to m1 is then given by
masses m1 and m2. r 21 = r 2 r 1 . Similarly r 12 = r 1 - r 2 - r 21 and
If two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are
separated by a distance r, then the gravitational if r r 12 = r 21 , the formula for force on m2
force of attraction between them can be written due to m1 can be expressed in vector form as,
ur mm
as F 21 =G 1 2 2 (-r$ 21 ) --- (5.13)
r
m1 m2
F
r2 where urr 21 is the unit vector from m2 to m1. The
or, F =G m1 m2 --- (5.12) force F 21 is directed from m1 to m2. ur Similarly,
2
r force experienced by m1 due to m2 is F 12
where G is a constant known as the universal ur mm
gravitational constant. Its value in SI units is F 12  G 1 2 2 (r$ 12 ) --- (5.14)
given by r
ur ur
G = 6.67×10-11N m2/kg2  F 12   F 21 --- (5.15)
and its dimensions are
[G] = [L3M-1T-2].
The gravitational force is an attractive
force and it acts along the line joining the two
bodies. The forces exerted by two bodies on each
other have same magnitude but have opposite
directions, they form an action-reaction pair.
Example 5.2: The gravitational force between
two bodies is 1 N. If distance between them is
doubled, what will be the gravitational force
between them?
Solution: Let the masses of the two bodies be
m1 and m2 and the distance between them be r. Fig. 5.4: gravitational force due to a
collection of masses.

82
 This law refers to two point masses. For a part of the shell may be closer to point A, but
collection of point masses, the force on any one its mass is less. Remaining part will then have
of them is the vector sum of the gravitational larger mass but its centre of mass is away from
forces exerted by all the other point masses. A. However mathematically it can be shown
As shown in Fig. 5.4, the resultant force that the net gravitational force on A is still
on
ur point mass m1 is the vector sum of forces zero, so long as it is inside the shell. In fact,
ur ur
F 12 , F 13 and F 14 due to point masses m2, m3 the gravitational force at any point inside any
and m4 respectively. Masses m2, m3 and m4 are hollow closed object of any shape is zero.
also attracted towards mass m1 and there is also (2) The gravitational force of attraction
mutual attraction between masses m2, m3 and between a hollow spherical shell or solid sphere
m4 but these forces are not shown in the figure. of uniform density and a point mass situated
ur n ur outside is just as if the entire mass of the shell
For n particles, force on ith mass F i   F ij or sphere is concentrated at the centre of the
j 1

ur
j i
shell or sphere.
where F ij is the force on ith particle due to Gravitational force caused by different
jth particle. regions of shell can be resolved into components
The gravitational force between an along the line joining the point mass to the
extended object like the Earth and a point mass centre and along a direction perpendicular to
A can be obtained by obtaining the vector sum this line. The components perpendicular to this
of forces on the point mass A due to each of the line cancel each other and the resultant force
point mass which make up the extended object. remains along the line joining the point to the
We can consider the following two special centre. By mathematical calculations it can be
cases, for which we can get a simple result. shown to be equal to the force that would have
We will state the result here and show how it been exerted if the entire mass of the shell was
can be understood qualitatively. present at the centre of the shell.
(1) The gravitational force of attraction It is obvious that case (2) is applicable for
due to a hollow, thin spherical shell of uniform any uniform sphere (solid or hollow), so long as
density, on a point mass situated inside it is the point is outside the sphere.
zero. Example 5.3: Three particles A, B, and C each
This can be qualitatively understood as having mass m are kept along a straight line
follows. First let us consider the case when the with AB = BC = l. A fourth particle D is kept on
point mass A, is at the centre of the hollow thin the perpendicular bisecter of AC at a distance l
shell. In this case as every point on the shell from B. Determine the gravitational force on D.
is equidistant from A, all points exert force of Solution : CD = AD = AB2  BD 2  2 l
equal magnitude on A but the directions of these Gravitational force on D = Vector sum of
forces are different. Now consider the forces gravitational forces due to A, B and C.
on A due to two diametrically opposite points
on the shell. The forces on A due to them will
be of equal magnitude but will be in opposite
directions and will cancel each other. Thus
forces due to all pairs of points diametrically
opposite to each other will cancel and there
will be no net force on A due to the shell. When
the point object is situated elsewhere inside
the shell, the situation is not so symmetric.
Gravitational force varies directly with mass
and inversely with square of the distance. Some

83
 Gmm Gm2 vertical metallic fibre about 100 cm long. Two
Forceuuu
due
r to A = ( AD) 2 . This will small spheres s1 and s2 of lead having equal
2l 2
be along DA mass m and diameter about 5 cm are mounted
at the ends of the rod and a small mirror M is
Gmm Gm2
Force fastened to the metallic fibre as shown in Fig.
uuur due to C = (CD) 2 2l 2
. This is
along DC 5.5. The mirror can be used to reflect a beam of
light onto a scale and thereby measure the angel
Gmm Gm2
Force through which the wire will be twisted.
uuur due to B = (BD) 2 l2
. This is
along DB Two large lead spheres L1 and L2 of equal
We can resolve the forces along horizontal mass M and diameter of about 20 cm are
and vertical directions. brought close to the small spheres on opposite
side as shown in Fig. 5.5. The big spheres attract
Let the unit vector along horizontal
uuur the nearby ur
small spheres by equal and opposite
direction AC be i and along the vertical
uuur force. Let F be the force of attraction between
direction BD be j a big sphere and small sphere near to it. Hence
Net horizontal force on D a torque will be generated without exerting any
Gm2 Gm2 net force on the bar. Due to this torque the bar
 cos 45 ( i )  cos 90(i ) turns and the suspension wire gets twisted till
2l 2 l2
the restoring torque due to the elastic property
Gm2 of the wire becomes equal to the gravitational
 2 cos 45(i )
2l torque.
-Gm2 Gm2 The gravitational force between the
  0
2 2l 2 2 2l 2 spherical balls is the same as if their masses are
Net vertical force on D concentrated at their centres. If r is the initial
Gm2 Gm2 distance of separation between the centres of
 cos 45 (  j )  ( j ) the big and the neighbouring small sphere, then
2l 2 l2
the magnitude of the force between them is
Gm2
 2 cos 45( j ) mM
2l F =G 2
r
-Gm2  1  If length of the rod is L, then the magnitude
 2   1 ( j )
l  2  of the torque arising out of these forces is
Gm2  1  mM
 2   1 (  j ) = FL =G 2 L --- (5.16)
l  2  r
At equilibrium, it is equal and opposite to
( j ) shows that the net force is directed the restoring torque.
along DB
mM
5.4 Measurement of the Gravitational G 2 L = K --- (5.17)
r
Constant (G): where K is the restoring torque per unit angle
The magnitude of the gravitational and is the angle of twist.
constant G can be found by measuring the force By applying a known torque 1 and
of gravitational attraction between two bodies measuring the corresponding angle of twist
of masses m1 and m2 separated by certain , the restoring torque per unit twist can be
distance ‘L’.This can be measured by using the determined as K = 1/ .
Cavendish balance. Thus, in actual experiment measuring
The Cavendish balance consists of a light and knowing values of , m, M and r, the value
rigid rod. It is supported at the centre by a fine of G can be calculated from Eq. (5.17). The

84
gravitational constant measured in this way is gravity of the Earth and denoted by g.
found to be If the object is close to the surface of the
G = 6.67×10-11N m2/kg2 Earth, r R, the radius of the Earth then
GM
g Earth’s surface = 2 --- (5.19)
R
Example 5.4: Calculate mass of the Earth from
given data,
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/s2
Radius of the Earth RE = 6.37×106 m
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2
Solution:
GM
g = 2E
RE
Fig 5.5 : The Cavendish balance. gR 2
 ME = E
5.5 Acceleration due to Gravity: G
We have seen in section 5.3 that the 9.81 (6.37  106 ) 2
magnitude of the gravitational force on a point  M 
6.67  1011
E

object of mass m due to another point object of

 M E  5.97  1024 kg
mass M at a distance r from it is given by the
equation. The value of g depends only on the
mM properties of the Earth and does not depend
F =G 2
r on the mass of the object. This is exactly what
This formula can be used to calculate Galileo had found from his experiments of
the gravitational force on an object due to the dropping objects with different masses from the
Earth. We know that the Earth is an extended same height.
object. In many practical applications Earth
can be assumed to be a uniform sphere. As seen Do you know ?
in section 5.3 its entire mass can be assumed to
An object of mass m (much smaller
be concentrated at is centre. Thus if the mass
than the mass of the Earth) is attracted
of the Earth is M and that of the point object
towards the Earth and falls on it. The
is m and the distance of the point object from
Earth is also attracted by the same force
the centre of the Earth is r then the force of
(magnitude) toward the mass m. However,
attraction between them is given by
its acceleration towards m will be
Mm  Mm 
F =G 2  G r 2  Gm
r a earth =  =
If the point object is not acted upon by M r2
a m  GM 
any other force, it will be accelerated towards    earth =
g M  as g  r 2 
 
the centre of the Earth under the action of this
force. Its acceleration can be calculated by As m << M, aEarth<< g and is nearly
using Newton’s second law F = ma. zero. Thus, practically only the mass m
Acceleration due to the gravity of the Earth = moves towards the Earth.
Mm 1 Example 5.5: Calculate the acceleration due
G 2 ×
r m to gravity on the surface of moon if mass of
GM the moon is 1/80 times that of the Earth and
= 2 --- (5.18) diameter of the moon is 1/4 times that of the
r
This is known as the acceleration due to Earth (g =9.8 m/s2)

85
Solution: 5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to
Mm = Mass of the moon = M/80 if M is Gravity with Altitude, Depth, Latitude
mass of the Earth. and Shape:
(Rm) = Radius of the moon = R/4 if R is (A) Variation in g with Altitude:
Radius of the Earth. Consider a body of mass m on the surface
of the Earth. The acceleration due to gravity on
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface the Earth’s surface is given by,
of the Earth, g = GM/R2 --- (1) GM
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface g= 2
R
2
of the moon, gm=GMm/ Rm --- (2)
.. . From equation (1) and (2)
2
gm Mm  R 
= × 
g M  Rm 
2
gm 1  4 
 
g 80  1 
Fig. 5.6 Acceleration due to gravity at
g 1
 m  height h above the Earth’s surface.
g 5 When the body is at height h above the
g 9.8 surface of the Earth as shown in Fig. 5.6,
 gm  
5 5 acceleration due to gravity changes to
 g m  1.96 m / s 2 GM
gh =
(R +h)2
Example 5.6: Find the acceleration due to
gravity on a planet that is 10 times as massive GM
as the Earth and with radius 20 times of the gh (R +h)2
∴ =
radius of the Earth (g = 9.8 m/s2). g GM
Solution : Let mass of the planet be Mp, radius R2
of the Earth be RE , mass of the Earth be ME gh R2
∴ =
and gp be acceleration due to gravity on the g (R +h)2
planet. g R2
M p = 10 M E ∴ gh = --- (5.20)
(R +h)2
Rp = 20 RE , g = 9.8 m / s 2 This equation shows that, the acceleration
To Find g p = ? due to gravity goes on decreasing with increase
GM E GM in altitude of body from the surface of the Earth.
g= 2
, gP = 2 P We can rewrite,
RE RP
g R2
G (10 M E )  gh = 2
∴ gP = 2 h
(20 RE ) 2 R 1 + 
 R
10GM E
=  h
-2

400 RE2  gh = g  1 + 
 R
1
= g h
40 For small attitude h, i.e., for << 1,
R
= 0.245 m / s 2  2h 
 g h � g  1-  --- (5.21)
 R

86
 (By neglecting higher power terms of The acceleration due to gravity according
h h to eq. (5.19) is
as << 1 )
R R GM
This expression can be used to calculate g= 2
R
the value of g at height h above the surface of
the Earth as long as h << R. Assuming that the density of the Earth is
Example 5.7 : At what distance above the uniform, it is given by
Mass (M)
surface of Earth the acceleration due to gravity 
decreases by 10% of its value at the surface? Volume(V)
(Radius of Earth = 6400 km) 4
 M =  R3 
Solution : gh = 90% of g (g decreases by 10% 3
hence it becomes 90%) 4
g h 90 G   R3
or, 0.9 g  3
g 100 R2
From Eq. (5.21) 4
 2h   g   R G --- (5.22)
g h = g 1 -  3
 R Consider a body at a point P at the depth
gh 2h d below the surface of the Earth as shown in
 =1 -
g R Fig. 5.7. Here the force on a body at P due to
2h the material outside the inner sphere shown by
 0.9 =1 - shaded region, can be shown to cancel out due
R
to symmetry. The net force on P is only due to
2h
 =1 - 0.9 the material inside the inner sphere of radius
R OP = R - d. Acceleration due to gravity because
=0.1 of this sphere is
0.1R GM
h = gd =
2 (R - d)2
R where M ' = volume of the inner sphere×density
h=
20 4
 M    ( R - d )3  
6400 3
h=
20 4
G   ( R - d )3 
h = 320 km 3
 gd 
(B) Variation in g with Depth: ( R - d )2
The Earth can be imagined to be a sphere 4
made of large number of concentric uniform  gd  G   ( R - d )  --- (5.23)
3
spherical shells. The total mass of the Earth
is the combined mass of all the shells. When Dividing Eq. (5.23) by Eq. (5.22) we get,
an object is on the surface of the Earth it g R-d
 d =
experiences the gravitational force as if the g R
entire mass of the Earth is concentrated at its g d
centre.  d =1 -
g R
 d
Fig. 5.7 Acceleration  g d = g 1 -  --- (5.24)
due to gravity at depth d  R
below the surface of the This equation gives acceleration due to
Earth. gravity at depth d below the Earth's surface.

87
It shows that the acceleration due to gravity (C) Variation in g with Latitude and Rotation
decreases with depth. of the Earth:
Special case : Latitude is an angle made by radius vector
At the centre of the Earth, where d = R, Eq. of any point from centre of the Earth with the
(5.24) gives gd = 0 equatorial plane. Obviously it ranges from 00 at
Hence, a body of mass m if taken to the the equator to 900 at the poles.
centre of Earth, will not experience the force
of gravity due to the Earth. This can also be
understood to be due to symmetry. The case
is similar to the force of gravity on an object
placed at the centre of a spherical shell as seen
in section 5.3.
Thus, the value of acceleration due to
gravity is maximum at the surface of the Earth. Fig. 5.9 Variation of g with latitude.
The value goes on decreasing with The Earth rotates about its polar axis from
1) increase in depth below the Earth’s west to east with uniform angular velocity .
surface. (varies linearly with (R-d) = r) Hence every point on the surface of the Earth
(except the poles) moves in a circle parallel to
2) increase in height above the Earth’s
the equator. The motion of a mass m at point
surface. (varies inversely with (R+h)2 = r 2)
P on the Earth is shown by the dotted circle
Graphically the variation of acceleration with centre at O . Let the latitude of P be and
due to gravity according to depth and height radius of the circle be r.
can be expressed as follows. We have plotted PO = r
the value of g as a function of r, the distance EOP = E being a point on the
from the centre of the Earth, in Fig. 5.8. For r equator
< R i. e. below the surface of the Earth, we use ∴ OPO =
 d PO r
Eq. (5.24), according to which gd = g 1   In OPO , cos = 
 R PO R
Writing R - d = r, the distance from the ∴ r = Rcos
centre of the Earth, we get the value of g as a The centripetal acceleration for the mass
r m, directed along PO is
function of r, g(r) = g which is the equation
R a=r 2
of a straight line with slope g/R and passing
through the origin. a = R 2cos
The component of this centripetal
acceleration along PO, i.e., towards the centre
of the Earth is
ar = a cos
∴ ar = R 2cos .cos
ar = R 2cos2
Part of the gravitational force of attraction
on P acting towards PO is utilized in providing
Fig 5.8 - Variation of g due to depth and this components of centripetal acceleration.
altitude from the Earth’s surface. Thus the effective force of gravitational
For r > R we have to use Eq. (5.20). Writing attraction on m at P can be written as
R + h = r we have mg = mg - mR 2cos2
g R2 g being the effective acceleration due to
g(r) = 2 which is plotted in Fig. 5.8
r gravity at P i.e., at latitude This is thus given

88
by g = g - R 2cos2 --- (5.25) Effect of the shape of the Earth: Quite often
As the value of increases, cos decreases. we assume the Earth to be a sphere. However,
Therefore g will increase as we move away it is actually on ellipsoid; bulged at equator.
from equator towards any pole due to the Hence equatorial radius of Earth (6378 km) is
rotation of the Earth. greater than the polar radius (6356 km). Thus,
special case I At equator = 0 on the equator, there is combined effect of
cos = 1 greater radius and rotation in reducing the force
g =g-R 2 of gravity. As a result, the acceleration due to
The effective acceleration due to gravity gravity on the equator is gE = 9.7804 m/s2 and
is minimum at equator, as here it is reduced by on the poles it is g = 9.8322 m/s2.
maximum amount. The reduction here is g - g Weight of an object is the force with which
=R 2 the Earth attracts that object. Thus, weight
R = 6.4 ×106 m ---Radius of the Earth and w = mg where m is the mass of the object. As
the value of g changes with altitude, depth and
= Angular velocity of rotation of the latitude, the weight also changes. Weight of an
Earth object is minimum at the equator. Similarly,
2
 the weight of an object reduces with increasing
T height above the Earth’s surface and with
2 increasing depth below the its surface.
 
24  60  60 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential
  7.275  105 s -1 Energy:
 g - g  = R 2 In earlier standards, you have studied
potential energy as the energy possessed by an
 g - g  = 0.03386 m / s 2 object on account of its position or configuration.
Case II At poles = 90 0 The word configuration corresponds to the
cos = 0 distribution of the particles in the object.
.. . g = g - R 2 cos More specifically, potential energy is the work
=g-0 done against conservative force (or forces) in
=g achieving a certain position or configuration
There is no reduction in acceleration of a given system. It always depends upon the
due to gravity at poles, due to the rotation of relative positions of the particles in that system.
the Earth as the poles are lying on the axis of There is a universal principle that states, Every
rotation and do not revolve. system always configures itself in order to
have minimum potential energy or every
Variation of g with latitudes at sea level is
system tries to minimize its potential energy.
given in the following table.
Obviously, in order to change the configuration,
Table 5.2: Variation of g with latitude you will have to do work.
Latitude ( ) g (m/s2) Examples:
0 9.7804 (I) A spring in its natural state, possesses
10 9.7819 minimum potential energy. Whenever we stretch
20 9.7864 it or compress it, we perform work against the
30 9.7933 conservative force (in this case, the elastic
40 9.8017 restoring force). Due to this work, the relative
50 9.8107 distances between the particles of the system
60 9.8192 change (configuration changes) and its potential
70 9.8261 energy increases. The spring finally regains its
80 9.8306 original configuration of minimum potential
90 9.8322 energy on removal of the applied force.

89
(II) When an object is lying on the Earth, the work done by us (external
ur agent) against the
system of that object and the Earth has minimum gravitational force F g
potential energy. This is the gravitational For displacement of the object from an
potential energy of the system as these two are initial position ri to the final position rf , the
bound by the gravitational force. While lifting change in potential energy U, can be obtained
the object to some height (new position), we by integrating dU.
do work against the conservative gravitational rf rf
ur r
force in order to achieve the new position. 
 U    dU     F g . dr 
In its new position, the object is at rest due ri ri

to balanced forces. If you are holding the object, ur GMm

the force of static friction between the object and Gravitational force of the Earth, F g   r 2 rˆ
your fingers balances the gravitational force. where r is the unit vector in the direction of
If kept on a surface, the normal reaction force
r . Negative sign appears here because urr is
given by the surface balances the gravitational
force. However, now, the object has a capacity from centre of the Earth to the object and F g is
to acquire kinetic energy, when given an directed towards centre of the Earth.
opportunity (when allowed to fall). We call this ∴ For ‘Earth and mass’ system,
rf rf
increase in the capacity as the potential energy  GMm 
U  dU      2 rˆ  . dr
gained by the system. As we raise it more and ri ri  r 
more, this capacity, and hence potential energy rf
of the system, increases. It falls on the Earth to  dr 
 GMm   2  as dr is along rˆ
achieve the configuration of minimum potential ri 
r 
energy on dropping it from the new position. r
 1
f
Thus, in general, we can write work done  GMm   
against a conservative force acting on an  r  ri
object = Increase in the potential energy of
1 1 
the system. ur r  GMm    - - - (5.26)
r r 
 F . dx  dU  i f 
Here dU is the change in potentialurenergy Change in potential energy corresponds
r
while displacing the object through dx , F being
to the work done against conservative forces.
the force acting on the object The absolute value of potential energy is not
It should be remembered that potentialdefined. It is logical as well as convenient to
energy is always of the system as a whole. For
choose the point of zero potential energy to be
an object on the Earth, it is of the system of the
the point of zero force. For gravitational force,
such point is taken at r   . This point should
object and the Earth and not only of that object.
There is no meaning to potential energy of anbe chosen as the initial point so that initially the
potential energy is zero. ∴U (ri) = 0 at ri =
isolated object in the intergalactic (gravity free)
space, in the absence of any conservative force
Final point rf is obviously the point where we
acting upon it. need to determine the potential energy of the
5.7.1 Expression for Gravitational Potential system.  rf  r
Energy: 1 1 
U (r) grav .  GMm   
ur Work done against gravitational force r r 
F g , in displacing an object through a small  i f 

displacement dr , appears as increase in the  1 1

 GMm   
potential ur energy of the system.  r
r
 dU   F g . dr GMm

Negative sign appears because dU is the r --- (5.27)

90
This is gravitational potential energy of the Thus, mgh is increase in the gravitational
system of object of mass m and Earth of mass potential energy of the Earth -mass system
M having separation r (between their centres of if an object of mass m is lifted to a height h,
mass). provided h is negligible compared to radius of
Example 5.8: What will be the change in the Earth (up to a few kilometers).
potential energy of a body of mass m when 5.7.3 Concept of Potential:
it is raised from height RE above the Earth’s From eq. (5.27), the gravitational potential
surface to 5/2 RE above the Earth’s surface? RE energy of the system of Earth and any mass
and ME are the radius and mass of the Earth m at a distance r from the centre of the Earth is
respectively. given by
Solution: GMm
U 
1 1  r
U  GmM E   
r r   GM 
 i f    m
 r 
 1 1 
 GmM E     VE r  m --- (5.30)
 2 RE 2.5 RE 
GmM E 0.5 GmM E GM
   The factor   VE r depends only upon
RE 2  2.5 10 RE r
5.7.2 Connection of potential energy formula mass of Earth and the location. Thus, it is
with mgh: the same for any mass m bound to the Earth.
If the object is on the surface of Earth, r R Conveniently, this is defined as the gravitational
GMm potential of Earth at distance r from its centre.
U1   In terms of potential, we can write the potential
R
If the object is lifted to height h above the energy of the Earth-mass system as
surface of Earth, the potential energy becomes Gravitational potential energy, U = Gravitational
GMm potential Vr × mass m or Gravitational potential
U2  
Rh is Gravitational potential energy per unit mass,
U
Increase in the potential energy is given by i.e., Vr . The concept of potential can be
U  U 2  U1 m
defined on similar lines for any conservative
 1  1  force field.
 GMm      
 R h  R Gravitational potential difference between
 h  any two points in gravitational field can be
 GMm 
 R  R  h   written as
 
 U  U1  dW
GMmh V2  V1   2  --- (5.31)
  m  m
R  R  h = Work done (or change in potential energy)
If g is acceleration due to the Earth on the per unit mass
surface of Earth, GM gR 2 In general, for a system of any two masses m1
 R  and m2, separated by r, we can write
 U  mgh   --- (5.28)
 Rh Gravitational potential energy,
Gm1m2
Eq. (5.28) gives the work to be done (or energy U   V1  m2  V2  m1 ---(5.32)
to be supplied) to raise an object of mass m to a r
height h, above the surface of the Earth. Here V1 and V2 are gravitational potentials at r
If h � R , we can use R  h  R. Only in this due to m1 and m2 respectively.
case U  mgh --- (5.29)

91
5.7.4 Escape Velocity: 5.8 Earth Satellites:
When any object is thrown vertically up, it The objects which revolve around the
falls back to the Earth after reaching a certain Earth are called Earth satellites. moon is the
height. Higher the speed with which the object is only natural satellite of the Earth. It revolves
thrown up, greater will be the height. If we keep in almost a circular orbit around the Earth
on increasing the velocity, a stage will come with period of revolution of nearly 27.3 days.
when the object will reach heights so large that Artificial satellites have been launched by
it will escape the gravitational field of the Earth several countries including India. These
and will not fall back on the Earth. This initial satellites have different periods of revolution
velocity is called the escape velocity. according to their practical use like navigation,
Thus, the minimum velocity with which a surveillance, communication, looking into
body should be thrown vertically upwards from space and monitoring the weather.
the surface of the Earth so that it escapes the Communication Satellites: These are
Earth’s gravitational field, is called the escape geostationary satellites. They revolve around
velocity (ve) of the body. Obviously, as the the Earth in equatorial plane. They have same
gravitational force due to Earth becomes zero sense of rotation as that of the Earth and the same
only at infinite distance, the object has to reach period of rotation as that of the Earth, i. e., one day
infinite distance in order to escape. or 24 hours. Due to this, they appear stationary
Let us consider the kinetic and potential from the Earth’s surface. Hence they are called
energies of an object thrown vertically upwards geostationary satellites or geosynchronous
with escape velocity ve, when it is at the surface satellites. These are used for communication,
of the Earth and when it reaches infinite television transmission, telephones and
distance. radiowave signal transmission, e.g., INSAT
On the surface of the Earth, group of satellites launched by India.
1 2 Polar Satellites: These satellites are placed
K.E. = mv e
2 in lower polar orbits. They are at low altitude
GMm 500 km to 800 km. Polar satellites are used
P.E. = -
R for weather forecasting and meteorological
Total energy = P.E. + K.E. purpose. They are also used for astronomical
1 2 GMm observations and study of Solar radiations.
= mv e - --- (5.33) Period of revolution of polar satellite is
2 R
The kinetic energy of the object will go nearly 85 minutes, so it can orbit the Earth16
on decreasing with time as it is pulled back time per day. They go around the poles of the
by Earth’s gravitational force. It will become Earth in a north-south direction while the Earth
zero when it reaches infinity. Thus at infinite rotates in an east-west direction about its own
distance from the Earth axis. The polar satellites have cameras fixed
K.E. = 0 on them. The camera can view small stripes of
GMm the Earth in one orbit. In entire day the whole
Also, P.E. =  =0 Earth can be viewed strip by strip. Polar and

∴ Total energy = P.E. + K.E. = 0 equatorial regions at close distances can be
As energy is conserved viewed by these satellites.
1 2 GMm 5.8.1 Projection of Satellite:
mv e - =0 For the projection of an artificial satellite,
2 R
it is necessary for the satellite to have a certain
2GM
or, ve = --- (5.34) velocity and a minimum two stage rocket. A
R
single stage rocket can not achieve this. When
Using the numerical values of G, M and R.
the fuel in first stage of rocket is ignited on
the escape velocity is 11.2 km/s.
the surface of the Earth, it raises the satellite

92
vertically. The velocity of projection of satellite During this elliptical path, if the satellite
normal to the surface of the Earth is the vertical passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, it
velocity. If this vertical velocity is less that the experiences a nonconservative force of air
escape velocity (ve), the satellite returns to the resistance. As a result it loses energy and spirals
Earth’s surface. While, if the vertical velocity is down to the Earth.
greater than or equal to the escape velocity, the Case (II) vh=vc
satellite will escape from Earth’s gravitational If the horizontal velocity is exactly equal
influence and go to infinity. Hence launching to the critical velocity, the satellite moves in a
of a satellite in an orbit round the Earth can stable circular orbit round the Earth.
not take place by use of single stage rocket. It Case (III) vc<vh<ve
requires minimum two stage rocket. If horizontal velocity is greater than
With the help of first stage of rocket, the critical velocity and less than the escape
satellite can be taken to a desired height above velocity at that height, the satellite again moves
the surface of the Earth. Then the launcher is in an elliptical orbit round the Earth with the
point of projection as perigee (point closest to
rotated in horizontal direction i.e. through 900
the Earth).
using remote control and the first stage of the
Case (IV) vh = ve
rocket is detached. Then with the help of second
If horizontal speed of projection is equal
stage of rocket, a specific horizontal velocity
to the escape speed at that height, the satellite
(vh) is given to satellite so that it can revolve travels along parabolic path and never returns
in a circular path round the Earth. The exact to the point of projection. Its speed will be zero
horizontal velocity of projection that must be at infinity.
given to a satellite at a certain height so that it Case (V) vh > ve
can revolve in a circular orbit round the Earth is If horizontal velocity is greater than the
called the critical velocity or orbital velocity escape velocity, the satellite escapes from
(vc) gravitational influence of Earth transversing a
A satellite follows different paths depending hyperbolic path.
upon the horizontal velocity provided to it. Four Expression for critical speed
different possible cases are shown in Fig. 5.10. Consider a satellite of mass m revolving
Case (I) vh<vc: round the Earth at height h above its surface.
If tangential velocity of projection vh is less Let M be the mass of the Earth and R be
than the critical velocity, the orbit of satellite is its radius. If the satellite is moving in a circular
an ellipse with point of projection as apogee orbit of radius (R+h) = r, its speed must be the
(farthest from the Earth) and Earth at one of the magnitude of critical velocity vc.
foci. The centripetal force necessary for circular
motion of satellite is provided by gravitational
force exerted by the satellite on the Earth.
∴ Centripetal force = Gravitational force
mv c 2 GMm
= 2
r r
GM
 vc2 =
r
GM
 vc =
r
GM
 vc =  g h ( R +h) --- (5.35)
Fig. 5.10: Various possible orbits depending (R +h)
on the value of vh.

93
 This is the expression for critical speed at
G
the orbit of radius (R + h)  vc = 2R
It is clear that the critical speed of a 3
satellite is independent of the mass of the When a satellite revolves very close to
satellite. It depends upon the mass of the Earth the surface of the Earth, motion of satellite
and the height at which the satellite is revolving gets affected by the friction produced due to
or gravitational acceleration at that altitude. resistance of air. In deriving the above expression
The critical speed of a satellite decreases with the resistance of air is not considered.
increase in height of satellite. 5.8.2 Weightlessness in a Satellite:
Special case According to Newton’s second law of
When the satellite is revolving close to the motion, F = ma , where F is the net force acting
surface of the Earth, the height is very small as on an object having acceleration a.
compared to the radius of the Earth. Hence the
height can be neglected and radius of the orbit Let us consider the example of a lift or
is nearly equal to R (i.e R>>h, R+h R) elevator from an inertial frame of reference.
GM Whether the lift is at rest or in motion, a
... Critical speed v c � passenger in it experiences only two forces:
R
As G is related to acceleration due to (i) Gravitational force mg directed vertically
gravity by the relation, downwards (towards centre of the earth) and
GM (ii) normal reaction force N directed vertically
g= 2
R upwards, exerted by the floor of the lift. As these
∴ GM = gR 2 forces are oppositely directed, the net force in
the downward direction will be F = ma - N .
... Critical speed in terms of acceleration
due to gravity can be obtained as Though the weight of a body (passenger, in
this case) is the gravitational force acting upon
gR 2
vc = = gR it, we experience or feel our weight only due
R to the normal reaction force N exerted by the
� 7.92 km/s floor. This, in turn, is equal and opposite to the
Obviously, this is the maximum possible critical relative force between the body and the lift. If
speed. This is at least 25 times the speed of the you are standing on a weighing machine in a
fastest passenger aeroplanes. lift, the force recorded by the weighing machine
Example 5.9: Show that the critical velocity of is nothing but the normal reaction N.
a body revolving in a circular orbit very close
Case I: Lift having zero acceleration
to the surface of a planet of radius R and mean
G This happens when the lift is at rest or is
density is 2 R . moving upwards or downwards with constant
3
Solution : Since the body is revolving very velocity:
close to the planet, h = 0 The net force F = 0 = mg - N ∴ mg =N
M M
density   = Hence in this case we feel our normal
V 4 3 weight mg .
R
3
Case II: Lift having net upward acceleration au
4 3
M = R  This happens when the lift just starts
3
moving upwards or is about to stop at a lower
Critical Velocity
floor during its downward motion (remember,
4 3 while stopping during downward motion, the
G R 
GM 3 acceleration must be upwards).
vc = =
R R

94
 As the net acceleration is upwards, the not falling on the earth? The reason is that the
upward force must be greater. revolving satellite is having a tangential velocity
∴ F = mau = N - mg ∴ N = mg + mau, i.e., which manages to keep it moving in a circular
N > mg, hence, we feel heavier. orbit at that height.
5.8.3 Time Period of a Satellite:
It should also be remembered that this is
not an apparent feeling. The weighing machine The time taken by a satellite to complete
really records a reading greater than mg. one revolution round the Earth is its time period.

Case III (a): Lift having net downward Consider a satellite of mass m projected to
acceleration ad height h and provided horizontal velocity equal
to critical velocity. The satellite revolves in a
This happens when the lift just starts circular orbit of radius (R+h) = r.
moving downwards or is about to stop at a higher
floor during its upward motion (remember, The distance traced by satellite in one
while stopping during upward motion, the revolution is equal to the circumference of the
acceleration must be downwards). circular orbit within periodic time T.
Circumference of the orbit
As the net acceleration is downwards, the  Critical speed = Time period
downward force must be greater.
2 r
∴ F = mad = mg -N ∴ N = mg - mad , i.e., vc =
T
N < mg, hence, we feel lighter.
Gm
It should be remembered that this is not an but we have, v c =
r
apparent feeling. The weighing machine really
records a reading less than mg. Gm 2 r
 
r T
Case III (b): State of free fall: This will be
possible if the cables of the lift are cut. In this or, GM 4 2 r 2

case, the downward acceleration ad = g. r T2
If the downward acceleration becomes 4 2 r 3
 T2 
equal to the gravitational acceleration g, we get, GM
N = mg - mad = 0.
As 2, G and M are constant, T 2 r3, i.e.,
Thus, there will not be any feeling of the square of period of revolution of satellite is
weight. This is the state of total weightlessness directly proportional to the cube of the radius
and the weighing machine will record zero. of orbit.
In the case of a revolving satellite, the r3
T = 2
satellite is performing a circular motion. The GM
acceleration for this motion is centripetal, which
(R + h)3
is provided by the gravitational acceleration  T  2 --- (5.36)
g at the location of the satellite. In this case, GM
ad = g, or the satellite (along with the astronaut) This is an expression for period of satellite
is in the state of free fall. Obviously, the apparent
revolving in a circular orbit round the Earth.
weight will be zero, giving the feeling of total Period of satellite a does not depend on its
weightlessness. Perhaps you might have seen mass. It depends on mass of the Earth, radius
in some videos that the astronauts are floating of the Earth and the height of the satellite. If
inside the satellite. It is really difficult for them
the height of projection is increased, period of
to change their position. the satellite increases. Period of the satellite can
In spite of free fall, why is the satellite also be obtained in terms of acceleration due to

95
gravity. mass ( M )
density (  ) =
As GM = gh (R+h)2 volume (V )
(R +h)3 M = V --- (2)
T = 2
g h (R +h)2 As planet is spherical in shape, volume of
R +h planet is given as
T = 2 4
gh V =  R3
3
r 4
T = 2 --- (5.37)  M =  R3  --- (3)
gh 3
Substituting the values form eq. (2) and (3)
Special case : in Eq. (1), we get
When satellite revolves close to the surface
R3
of the Earth, R + h R and gh g. Hence the T = 2
4
minimum period of revolution is G   R3 
3
R
(T)min = 2 --- (5.38) 3
g T =
G
Example 5.9: Calculate the period of revolution
of a polar satellite orbiting close to the surface 5.8.4 Binding Energy of an orbiting satellite:
of the Earth. Given R = 6400 km, g = 9.8 m/s2. The minimum energy required by a satellite
to escape from Earth’s gravitational influence
Solution : h is negligible as satellite is close to is the binding energy of the satellite.
the Earth surface. Expression for Binding Energy of satellite
.. . R + h R revolving in circular orbit round the Earth
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving
gh g
at height h above the surface of the Earth in a
R = 6400 km = 6.4×106 m. circular orbit. It possesses potential energy as
R well as kinetic energy. Let M be the mass of
T = 2 the Earth, R be the Radius of the Earth, vc be
g
critical velocity of satellite, r = (R+h) be the
6.4  106 radius of the orbit.
= 2  3.14
9.8 ∴Kinetic energy of satellite
3
= 5.705  10 second 1
mv c 2
= 85 minute (approximately) 2
1 GMm
Example 5.10: An artificial satellite revolves
2 r --- (5.39)
around a planet in circular orbit close to its
surface. Obtain the formula for period of the The gravitational potential at a distance r
satellite in terms of density and radius R of from the centre of the Earth is - GM
planet. r
. .. Potential energy of satellite = Gravitational
Solution : Period of satellite is given by,
potential × mass of satellite
(R +h)3
T =2 --- (1) GMm
GM =- --- (5.40)
r
Here, the satellite revolves close to the
The total energy of satellite is given as
surface of planet, hence h is negligible, hence
T.E. = K.E. + P.E.
R+h � R

96
 1 GMm GMm influence its total energy should become non-
= - negative (zero or positive). Hence the minimum
2 r r
energy to be supplied to unbind the satellite
1 GMm
=- --- (5.41) 1 GMm
2 r is This is the binding energy of a
2 r
Total energy of a circularly orbiting satellite.
satellite is negative. Negative sign indicates
that the satellite is bound to the Earth, due Internet my friend
to gravitational force of attraction. For the hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/grav.
satellite to be free from the Earth’s gravitational html#grav

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises

1. Choose the correct option. 2. Answer the following questions.

i) The value of acceleration due to gravity is i) State Kepler’s law equal of area.
maximum at ii) State Kepler’s law of period.
(A) the equator of the Earth . iii) What are the dimensions of the universal
(B) the centre of the Earth. gravitational constant?
(C) the pole of the Earth. iv) Define binding energy of a satellite.
(D) slightly above the surface of the v) What do you mean by geostationary
Earth. satellite?
ii) The weight of a particle at the centre of the vi) State Newton’s law of gravitation.
Earth is vii) Define escape velocity of a satellite.
(A) infinite. viii) What is the variation in acceleration due
(B) zero. to gravity with altitude?
(C) same as that at other places. ix) On which factors does the escape speed
(D) greater than at the poles. of a body from the surface of Earth
depend?
iii) The gravitational potential due to the Earth
is minimum at x) As we go from one planet to another
planet, how will the mass and weight of
(A) the centre of the Earth. a body change?
(B) the surface of the Earth. xi) What is periodic time of a geostationary
(C) a points inside the Earth but not at satellite?
its centre. xii) State Newton’s law of gravitation and
(D) infinite distance. express it in vector form.
iv) The binding energy of a satellite revolving xiii) What do you mean by gravitational
around planet in a circular orbit is 3×109 J. constant. State its SI units?
Its kinetic energy is xiv) Why is a minimum two stage rocket
(A) 6×109J necessary for launching of a satellite?
(B) -3 ×109J xv) State the conditions for various possible
(C) -6 ×10+9J orbits of satellite depending upon the
(D) 3 ×10+9J horizontal speed of projection.

97
2. Answer the following questions in is very small as compared to the radius
detail. of the Earth .
i) Derive an expression for critical velocity xv) What is critical velocity? Obtain an
of satellite. expression for critical velocity of an
ii) State any four applications of a orbiting satellite. On what factors does it
communication satellite depend?
iii) Show that acceleration due to gravity xvi) Discuss the variation of acceleration due
at height h above the Earth’s surface is to gravity with altitude.
2
 R  xvii) Define escape speed. Derive an
gh  g   expression for the escape speed of an
 Rh
iv) Draw a well labelled diagram to show object from the surface of the each.
different trajectories depending upon the xviii) Describe how an artificial satellite using
tangential projection speed. two stage rocket is launched in an orbit
v) Derive an expression for binding energy around the Earth.
of a body at rest on the Earth’s surface of 4. Solve the following problems.
a satellite. i) At what distance below the surface of
vi) Why an astronaut in an orbiting satellite the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity
have a feeling of weightlessness? decreases by 10% of its value at the
vii) Draw a graph showing the variation surface, given radius of Earth is 6400
of gravitational acceleration due to km.
the depth and altitude from the Earth’s [Ans: 640 km].
surface. ii) If the Earth were made of wood, the mass
viii) At which place on the Earth’s surface is of wooden Earth would have been 10%
the gravitational acceleration maximum? as much as it is now (without change in
Why? its diameter). Calculate escape speed
ix) At which place on the Earth surface the from the surface of this Earth.
gravitational acceleration minimum? [Ans: 3.54 km/s]
Why? iii) Calculate the kinetic energy, potential
x) Derive an expression for variation in energy, total energy and binding energy
gravitational acceleration of the Earth at of an artificial satellite of mass 2000 kg
with latitude. orbiting at a height of 3600 km above the
xi) Define the binding energy of a satellite. surface of the Earth.
Obtain an expression for binding energy Given:- G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2/kg2
of a satellite revolving around the Earth R = 6400 km
at certain attitude. M = 6×1024 kg
xii) Obtain the formula for acceleration due [Ans: KE = 40.09×109J, PE =
to gravity at the depth ‘d’ below the -80.09 ×109J TE = 40.09 ×109J, BE =
Earth’s surface. 40.09×109J]
xiii) State Kepler’s three laws of planetary iv) Two satellites A and B are revolving
motion. round a planet. Their periods of revolution
xiv) State the formula for acceleration due are 1 hour and 8 hour respectively. The
to gravity at depth ‘d’ and altitude ‘h’ radius of orbit of satellite B is 4×104 km.
find radius of orbit of satellite A .
Hence show that their ratio is equal to [Ans: 1×104 km]
 Rd 
 R  2h  by assuming that the altitude
 

98
v) Find the gravitational force between the x) Calculate the value of the universal
Sun and the Earth. gravitational constant from the given
Given Mass of the Sun = 1.99×1030 kg data. Mass of the Earth = 6×1024 kg,
Mass of the Earth = 5.98×1024 kg Radius of the Earth = 6400 km and
the acceleration due to gravity on the
The average distance between the Earth
surface = 9.8 m/s2
and the Sun = 1.5×1011 m.
[Ans : 6.672×10-11 N m2Kg22 ]
[Ans: 3.5×1022 N]
xi) A body weighs 5.6 kgwt on the surface
vi) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity of the Earth. How much will be its the
at a height of 300 km from the surface of weight on a planet whose mass is 1/7th
the Earth. (M = 5.98 ×1024 kg, R = 6400 mass of the Earth and radius twice that
km). of the Earth’s radius.
[Ans :- 8.889 m/s2] [Ans: 9.8 kg-wt]
vii) Calculate the speed of a satellite in an xii). What is the gravitational potential due to
orbit at a height of 1000 km from the the Earth at a point which is at a height
Earth’s surface. ME= 5.98×1024 kg, R = of 2RE above the surface of the Earth,
6.4×106 m. Mass of the Earth is 6×1024 kg, radius of
[Ans : 7.34 ×103 m/s] the Earth = 6400 km and G = 6.67×10-11
Nm2 kg-2.
viii) Calculate the value of acceleration due
to gravity on the surface of Mars if the [Ans: 2.08×107 J]
radius of Mars = 3.4×103 km and its
mass is 6.4×1023 kg. ***
[Ans : 3.697 m/s2]
ix) A planet has mass 6.4 ×1024 kg and radius
3.4×106 m. Calculate energy required to
remove on object of mass 800 kg from
the surface of the planet to infinity.
[Ans : 1.004 ×1010J]

99
 6. Mechanical Properties of Solids
Can you recall?
1. Can you name a few objects which change their shape and size on application of a force
and regain their original shape and size when the force is removed ?
2. Can you name objects which do not regain their original shape and size when the external
force is removed?
6.1 Introduction: the larger is its deformation. Deformation
Solids are made up of atoms or a group could be in the form of change in length of a
of atoms placed in a definite geometric wire, change in volume of an object or change
arrangement. This arrangement is decided by in shape of a body.
nature so that the resultant force acting on each We know that when a deforming force
constituent due to others is zero. This is the (e.g. stretching) is applied to a rubber band, it
equilibrium state of a solid at room temperature. gets deformed (elongated) but when the force
The given equilibrium arrangement does not is removed, it regains its original length. When
change with time. It can change only when an a similar force is applied to a dough, or clay
external stimulus, like compressive force from it also gets deformed but it does not regain its
all sides, is applied to a solid. The constituents original shape and size after removal of the
vibrate about their equilibrium positions even deforming force. These observations indicate
at very low temperatures but cannot leave their that rubber and clay are different in nature.
fixed positions. This fact provides the solids The property that decides this nature is called
a definite shape and size (allows the solids to elasticity/plasticity. We will learn more about
maintain a definite shape and size). these properties of solids in this Chapter .
If an external force is applied to a solid the 6.2 Elastic Behavior of Solids:
constituents are slightly displaced and restoring If a body regains its original shape and
forces are developed in it. These restoring size after removal of the deforming force, it
forces try to bring the constituents back to is called an elastic body and the property is
their equilibrium positions so that the solid can called elasticity. Here the restoring forces are
regain its shape. When the deforming forces are strong enough to bring the displaced molecules
removed, the inter-atomic forces tend to restore to their original positions. Examples of elastic
the original positions of the molecules and thus materials are metals, rubber, quartz, etc.
the body regains its original shape and size. If a body regains its original shape and
However, as we will see later, this is possible size completely and instantaneously upon
only within certain limits. removal of the deforming force, then it is said
The form of a body is decided by its size to be perfectly elastic.
and shape, e.g., a tennis ball and a football If a body does not regain its original
both are spherical, i.e., they have the same shape and size and retains its altered shape
shape. But a tennis ball is smaller in size than or size upon removal of the deforming force,
a football. When a force is applied to a solid it is called a plastic body and the property is
(which is not free to move), the size or shape called plasticity. Here, the restoring forces are
or both change due to changes in the relative not strong enough to bring the molecules back
positions of molecules. Such a force is called to their original positions. Examples of plastic
deforming force. materials are clay, putty, plasticine, thick mud,
The change in shape or size or both etc. There is no solid which is perfectly elastic
of a body due to an external force is called or perfectly plastic. The best example of a near
deformation. ideal elastic solid is quartz fibre and that of a
The larger the deforming force on a body, plastic body is putty.

100
6.3 Stress and Strain:
The elastic properties of a body are
described in terms of stress and strain. When
a body gets deformed under an applied force,
restoring forces are set up internally. They
oppose change in shape or size of the body.
Fig. 6.1 (a): Tensile stress.
When body is in equilibrium in its altered shape
or size, deforming force and restoring force are
equal and opposite.
The internal restoring force per unit area of
a body is called stress.
--- (6.1)
Fig. 6.1 (b): Compressive stress.
ur
where F is internal restoring force (external B) Tensile strain:
applied deforming force). SI unit of stress is N The strain produced by a tensile deforming
m or pascal (Pa). The dimensions of a stress force is called tensile strain or longitudinal
-2

are [ L-1 M1 T-2 ]. strain or linear strain.

Strain is a measure of the deformation of a If L is the original length and l is the
body. When two equal and opposite forces are change in length due to the deforming force,
applied to an elastic body, there is a change in then
the dimensions of the body, Strain is defined --- (6.5)
as the ratio of change in dimensions of the
body to its original dimensions. 2 : When a deforming force acting on a body
produces change in its volume, the stress is
--- (6.2)
called volume stress and the strain produced is
called volume strain.
It is the ratio of two similar quantities.
A) Volume stress or hydraulic stress:
Hence strain is a dimensionless physical ur
Let F be a force acting perpendicular to
quantity. It has no units. There are three types
the entire surface of the body. It acts normally
of stress and corresponding strains.
and uniformly all over the surface area A of the
1: Stress produced by a deforming force acting
body. Such a stress which produces change in
along the length of a body or a rod is called
size but no change in shape is called volume
tensile stress or a longitudinal stress. The
stress.
strain produced is called tensile strain.
A) Tensile stress or compressive
ur
stress: --- (6.6)
Suppose a force F is applied along a length
of a wire, or perpendicular to its cross section A Volume stress produces change in size
of a wire (or along its length). This produces an without change in shape of body, it is called
elongation in the wire and the length of the wire hydraulic or hydrostatic volume stress as shown
increases accordingly as shown in Fig. 6.1 (a). in Fig. 6.2.
B) Volume strain:
--- (6.3) A deforming force acting perpendicular to
the entire surface of a body produces a volume
When a rod is pushed at two ends with equal strain. Let V be the original volume and V be
and opposite forces, its length decreases. the change in volume due to deforming force,
The restoring force per unit area is called then
compressive stress as shown in Fig. 6.1 (b).
--- (6.7)
--- (6.4)

101
 surface is slightly displaced. Such force is
called tangential force. Tangential force is
parallel to the top and the bottom surface of
the block. The restoring force per unit area
developed due to the applied tangential force
is called shearing stress or tangential stress.
B) Shearing strain:
Fig. 6.2 : Volume stress. There is a relative displacement, l, of the
bottom face and the top face of the cube. Such
relative displacement of two surfaces is called
Do you know ?
shear strain. It can be calculated as follows,
When a balloon is filed with air at high l
pressure, its walls experience a force from Shearing strain = tan --- (6.9)
l
within. This is also volume stress. It tries when the relative displacement l is very small.
to expand the balloon and change its size 6.4 Hooke’s Law:
without changing shape. When the volume Robert Hooke (1635-1703), an English
stress exceeds the limit of bulk elasticity, the physicist, studied the tension in a wire and
balloon explodes. Similarly, a gas cylinder strain produced in it. His study led to a law now
explodes when the pressure inside it exceeds known as Hooke’s law.
the limit of bulk elasticity of its material. Statement: Within elastic limit, stress is
A submarine when submerged under directly proportional to strain.
water is under volume stress. Stress
constant
Strain
3 : When a deforming force acting on a body The constant is called the modulus
produces change in the shape of a body, shearing of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity
stress and shearing strain are produced. of a material is the ratio of stress to the
A) Shearing stress: corresponding strain. It is defined as the
ur
Let F be a tangential force acting on slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic
surface area A. This force produces change in deforming region and depends on the nature of
shape of the body without changing its size as the material. The maximum value of stress up
shown in Fig. 6.3. to which stress is directly proportional to strain
--- (6.8) is called the elastic limit. The stress-strain
curve within elastic limit is as shown in Fig. 6.4
D

Fig 6.4: Stress versus strain graph within

Fig. 6.3 : Tangential force produces
elastic limit for an elastic body.
shearing stress.
6.5 Elastic modulus:
Suppose
ur ABCD is the front face of a cube. There are three types of stress and strain
A force F is applied to the cube so that the
related to change in length, change in volume
bottom of the cube is fixed and only the top
and change in shape. Hence, we have three

102
moduli of elasticity corresponding to each type Table 6.1: Young's modulus of some
of stress and strain. familiar materials
6.5.1 Young’s modulus (Y): Material Young's modulus Y
It is the modulus of elasticity related to ×1010 Pa (N/m2)
change in length of an object like a metal
Lead 1.5
wire, rod, beam, etc., due to the applied
Glass (crown) 6.0
deforming force. Hence it is also called as
Aluminium 7.0
elasticity of length. It is named after the British
Silver 7.6
physicist Thomas Young (1773-1829).
Gold 8.1
Consider a metal wire of length L having
Brass 9.0
radius r suspended from a rigid support. A load
Copper 11.0
Mg is attached to the free end of the wire. Due
Steel 21.0
to this, deforming force gets applied to the
free end of wire in downward direction. In its Example 6.1: A brass wire of length 4.5m with
equilibrium position, cross-section area of 3×10-5 m2 and a copper
Applied force wire of length 5.0 m with cross section area
Longitudinal stress 4×10-5 m2 are stretched by the same load. The
Area
same elongation is produced in both the wires.
F Find the ratio of Young’s modulus of brass and
A copper.
Mg Solution: For brass,
 2 --- (6.10)
r LB= 4.5m, AB= 3×10-5 m2
It produces change in length of wire. If (L+l) is lB= l, FB= F
the new length of wire, then l is the extension or
elongation in wire.
change inlength
Longitudinal strain F  4.5
original length YB 
3  105  l
l
= - -- (6.11) For copper,
L LC= 5m, AC= 4×10-5 m2
Young’s modulus is the ratio of longitudinal lC= l, FC=F
stress to longitudinal strain.
longitudinal stress
Young s modulus  -- (6.12)
longitudinal strain
F  5.0
Yc 
4  105  l
YB F  4.5 4  105  l
 
YC 3  105  l F 5
MgL 18  105
Y ---(6.13)   1.2
 r 2l 15  105
SI unit of Young’s modulus is N/m2. Its Example 6.2: A wire of length 20 m and area
dimensions are [ L-1 M1 T-2 ]. of cross section 1.25×10-4 m2 is subjected to a
Young’s modulus indicates the load of 2.5 kg. (1 kgwt = 9.8N). The elongation
resistance of an elastic solid to elongation or produced in wire is 1×10-4 m. Calculate Young’s
compression. Young’s modulus of a material modulus of the material.
is useful for characterization of an object Solution: Given,
subjected to compression or tension. L = 20 m
A = 1.25 ×10-4 m2
103
 F = mg = 2.5 × 9.8N Table 6.2: Bulk modulus of some familiar
L = 10-4 m materials
To find: Y Material Bulk modulus K
FL ×1010 Pa (N/m2)
Y
Al Lead 4.1
2.5 9.8 20 Brass 6.0

1.25  104  104 Glass (crown) 6.0
= 3.92 × 1010 N m-2 Aluminium 7.5
6.5.2 Bulk modulus (K): Silver 10.0
It is the modulus of elasticity related to Copper 14.0
change in volume of an object due to applied Steel 16.0
deforming force. Hence it is also called as Gold 18.0
elasticity of volume. Bulk modulus of elasticity Bulk modulus measures the resistance
is a property of solids, liquids and gases. offered by gases, liquids or solids while an
If a sphere made from rubber is completely attempt is made to change their volume.
immersed in a liquid, it will be uniformly The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity
compressed from all sides. Suppose this is called compressibility of the material.
compressive force is F. Let the change in
--- (6.18)
pressure on the sphere be dP and let the change
in volume be dV. If the original volume of the
sphere is V, then volume strain is defined as Compressibility is the fractional decrease
in volume, - V/V per unit increase in pressure.
SI unit of compressibility is m2/ N or Pa-1 and
its dimensions are [ L1 M-1 T2].
dV Example 6.3: A metal cube of side 1m is
 --- (6.14)
V subjected to a force. The force acts normally
The negative sign indicates that there is a on the whole surface of cube and its volume
decrease in volume. The magnitude of the changes by 1.5×10-5 m3. The bulk modulus of
dV metal is 6.6×1010 N/m2. Calculate the change
volume strain is in pressure.
V
Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of Solution: Given,
volume stress to strain. volume of cube=V = l3 = (1)3 =1m3
Change in volume = dV = 1.5×10-5 m3
Bulk modulus = K = 6.6×1010 N/m2.
dP dP To find: Change in pressure dP
K V --- (6.17) dP
 dV  dV K V
 V  dV
 
dV
SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2. Dimensions of dP K
V
K are [ L-1 M1 T-2 ].
Table 6.2 gives bulk moduli of some 6.6  1010  1.5  105
dP 
familiar materials 1
dP = 9.9×105 N/m2.
Do you know ? 6.5.3 Modulus of rigidity ( ):
The bulk modules of water is 2.18×108 Pa The modulus of elasticity related to
and its compressibility is 45.8×10-11 Pa-1. change in shape of an object is called rigidity
Materials with small bulk modulus and large modulus. It is the property of solids only as
compressibility are easier to compress. they alone posses a definite shape.

104
 The block shown in Fig. 6.5 is made of Table 6.3: Rigidity modulus of some
a uniform isotropic material. It has a uniform familiar materials
cross section area A and height l. A cross section Material Rigidity modulus
of the block is defined as any plane parallel ×1010 Pa (N/m2)
to the top and the bottom surface and cuts the Lead 0.6
block. Two forces of magnitude 'F' applied Aluminium 2.5
along top and bottom surface as shown in Fig. Glass (crown) 2.5
(6.5) constitute a couple. The upper surface Silver 2.7
is displaced relative to the lower surface by Gold 2.9
a small distance l and corresponding angles Brass 3.5
charge by a small amount = l/l. Copper 4.4
Steel 8.3
Rigidity modulus indicates resistance offered
by solid to change in its shape.
Example 6.4: Calculate the modulus of rigidity
of a metal, if a metal cube of side 40cm is
subjected to a shearing force of 2000N. The
upper surface is displaced through 0.5cm with
respect to the bottom. Calculate the modulus of
Fig. 6.5: Modulus of rigidity, tangential
rigidity of the metal.
force F and shear strin
Solution: Given,
A couple is applied by pushing the top
length of side of cube = L= 40cm = 0.40m
and the bottom surfaces as shown in Fig. 6.5.
Shearing force = F= 2000N = 2×103N
Similar couple would be applied if the bottom
Displacement of top face = l = 0.5cm = 0.005m
of the block is fixed
ur and only
ur the top is pushed. Area = A = L2 = 0.16m2
The forces F and - F are parallel to
To find: modulus of rigidity,
the cross section. This is different than the
F
tensile stress where the force is normal to the 
cross section. A
As a result of the way in which the forces l 0.005
   0.0125
are applied the block is subjected to a shear L 0.40
stress defined by shear stress = F/A. 2.0  103 N
The SI unit of shear stress is N/m2 or Pa. 
(0.16m 2 )  (0.0125)
The block is distorted as a result of the shear
stress. The top and bottom surface are relatively = 1.0  106 N / m 2
displaced by a small distance l. The corner 6.5.4 Poisson’s ratio:
angle changes by a small amount which is Suppose a wire is fixed at one end and a
called shear strain and is expressed in radian. force is applied at its free end so that the wire
Shear stain ' ' is given by = l/l. gets stretched. Length of the wire increases and
Shear modulus or modules of rigidity: It is at the same time, its diameter decreases, i.e.,
defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear the wire becomes longer and thinner as shown
strain within elastic limits in Fig. 6.6.
shear stress F / A F
=   --- (6.17)
shear strain  A
Table 6.3 gives values of rigidity Fig. 6.6 (a): When a wire is stretched its
modulus of some familiar materials. length increases and its diameter decreases.

105
 Do you know ?
For most of the commonly used metals,
the value of is between 0.25 and 0.35.
Fig. 6.6 (b): When a wire is compressed its
Many times we assume that volume is
length increases and its diameter increases.
constant while stretching a wire. However,
If equal and opposite forces are applied to
in reality, its volume also increases. Using
an object along its length inwards, the object gets
approximations it can be shown that
compressed. There is a decrease in dimensions
0.5 if volume is unchanged. In practice it
along its length and at the same time there is an
is much less. This shows that volume also
increase in its dimensions perpendicular to its
increases while stretching.
length. When length of the wire decreases, its
diameter increases. 6.6 Stress-Strain Curve:
The ratio of change in dimensions to Suppose a metal wire is suspended
original dimensions in the direction of the vertically from a rigid support and stretched
applied force is called linear strain while by applying load to its lower end. The load is
the ratio of change in dimensions to original gradually increased in small steps until the wire
dimensions in a direction perpendicular to the breaks. The elongation produced in the wire is
applied force is called lateral strain. Within measured during each step. Stress and strain
elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the is noted for each load and a graph is drawn by
linear strain is called the Poisson’s ratio. taking tensile strain along x-axis and tensile
If L is the original length of wire, l is stress along y-axis. It is a stress-strain curve as
increase/decrease in length of wire, D is the shown in Fig. 6.7.
original diameter and d is corresponding
change in diameter of wire then, Poisson’s ratio
is given by
Lateral strain

Linear strain
d/D
=
l/L
d .L
 --- (6.18)
D.l
Fig. 6.7 : stress-strain curve.
Poisson’s ratio has no unit. It is dimensionless. The initial part of the graph is a straight
Table 6.4 gives values of Poisson ratio, , of line OA. This is the region in which Hooke's
some familiar materials. law is obeyed and stress is directly proportional
Table 6.4: Poisson ratio, , of some familiar to stain. The straight line portion ends at A.
materials The stress at this point is called proportional
Material Poisson ratio limit. If the load is further increased till point
Glass (crown) 0.2 B is reached, stress and strain are no longer
Steel 0.28 proportional and Hooke's law is not valid. If
Aluminium 0.36 the load is gradually removed starting at any
Brass point between O and B. The curve is retraced
0.37
until the wire regains its original length. The
Copper 0.37 change is reversible. The material of the wire
Silver 0.38 shows elastic behaviour in the region OB. Point
Gold 0.42 B is called the yield point. The corresponding
point is called the elastic limit.

106
 When the stress is increased beyond point the energy dissipated during deformation of a
B, the strain continues to increase. If the load is material.
removed at any point beyond B, C for example,
the material does not regain its original length.
It follows the line CE. Length of the wire when
there is no stress is greater than the original
length. The deformation is irreversible and the
material has acquired a permanent set.
Further increase in load causes a large
increase in strain for relatively small increase
in stress, until a point D is reached at which
fracture takes place.
Fig. 6.8: Stress-stain curve for increasing
The material shows plastic flow or plastic
and decreasing load.
deformation from point B to point D. The
material does not regain its original state when
Can you tell?
the stress is removed. The deformation is
called plastic deformation. Why does a rubber band become loose after
The curve described above shows all repeated use?
the possibilities for an elastic substance. 6.7 Strain Energy:
In particular, many metallic wires (copper, The elastic potential energy gained by a
aluminum, silver, etc) exhibit this type of wire during elongation by a stretching force
behavior. However, majority of materials in is called as strain energy.
every day life exhibit only some part of it. Consider a wire of original length L and
Materials such as glass, ceramics, etc., cross sectional area A stretched by a force F
break within the elastic limit. They are called acting along its length. The wire gets stretched
brittle. and elongation l is produced in it. The stress
Metals such as copper, aluminum, wrought and the strain increase proportionately.
iron, etc. have large plastic range of extension. F
They lengthen considerably and undergo Longitudinal stress =
A
plastic deformation till they break. They are l
called ductile. Longitudinal strain =
L
Metals such as gold, silver which can be longitudinal stress
hammered into thin sheets are called malleable. Young’s modulus =
longitudinal strain
Rubber has large elastic region. It can be
F 
stretched so that its length becomes many times  A  FL
its original length, after removal of the stress it Y  
returns to its original state but the stress strain  l  Al
 L
curve is not a straight line. A material that can  
be elastically stretched to a larger value of YAl
strain is called an elastomer. F  --- (6.19)
L
In case of some materials like vulcanized
The magnitude of stretching force increases
rubber, when the stress applied on a body
from zero to F during elongation of wire. At a
decreases to zero, the strain does not return to
certain stage, let ‘f ’ be the force applied and
zero immediately. The strain lags behind the
‘x’ be the corresponding extension. The force at
stress. This lagging of strain behind the stress is
this stage is given by Eq. (6.19) as
called elastic hysteresis. Figure 6.8 shows the
YAx
stress-strain curve for increasing and decreasing f=
load . It encloses a loop. Area of loop gives L

107
For further extension dx in the wire, the work Work done per unit volume
done is given by 1
Work = (force).(displacement). = (stress).(strain)
2
dW = f dx Strain energy per unit volume
1
YAx
dx = (stress).(strain) --- (6.22)
∴ dW = 2
L stress
When wire gets stretched from x = 0 to x = l, the As Y = ,
total work done is given as strain
l Stress = Y. (strain) and
W  dW stress
strain =
0 Y
l
YAx ∴ Strain energy per unit volume
W   dx 1
0
L  Y  (strain ) 2 --- (6.23)
2
YA
l
Also, strain energy per unit volume
L 0
W  xdx
--- (6.24)
l
YA  x  2
Thus Eq. (6.22), (6.23) and (6.24) give strain
W   
L  2 0 energy per unit volume in various forms.
6.8 Hardness:
YA  l 2 02  Hardness is the property of a material
W    
L 2 2 which enables it to resist plastic deformation.
YAl 2 Hard materials have little ductility and they are
W brittle to some extent. The term hardness also
2L
refers to stiffness or resistance to bending,
1 YAl scratching abrasion or cutting. It is the
W l
2 L property of a material which gives it the ability
1 to resist permanent deformation when a load
W Fl
2 is applied to it. The greater the hardness,
1 greater is the resistance to deformation.
Work done = .
(load) (extension) --- (6.20) The most well-known example of the hard
2
This work done by stretching force is equal materials is diamond. It is incredibly difficult
to energy gained by the wire. This energy is to scratch a diamond. Metal with very low
strain energy. hardness is aluminium.
1 Hardness of material is different from
Strain energy = (load).(extension) --- (6.21) its strength and toughness.
2
Strain energy per unit volume can be obtained If a force is applied to a body it produces
by using Eq. (6.20) and various formula of deformation in it. Higher is the force required
stress, strain and young’s modulus. for deformation, the stronger is the material,
Work done per unit volume i.e., the material has more strength.
work done in streching wire Steel has high strength whereas plasticine
volume of wire. clay is not strong because it gets easily deformed
even by a small force.
1 F .l Toughness is the ability of a material to
2 A.L resist fracturing when a force is applied to it.
1  F  l  Plasticine clay is relatively tough as it can be
    stretched and deformed due to applied force
2  A  L 
without breaking.

108
 A single material may be hard, strong and motion. In this section we are going to study
tough, e.g., friction in solids only.
1) Bulletproof glass is hard and tough but not 6.9.1 Origin of friction:
strong. If smooth surfaces are observed under
2) Drill bits must be hard, strong and tough powerful microscope, many irregularities and
for their work. projections are observed. Friction arises due
3) Anvils are very tough and strong but they to interlocking of these irregularities between
are not hard. two surfaces in contact. The surfaces can
6.9 Friction in Solids: be made extremely smooth by polishing to
Whenever the surface of one body slides avoid irregularities but it is noticed that in this
over another, each body exerts a certain case also, friction does not decrease but may
amount of force on other body. These forces increase. Hence the interlocking of irregularities
are tangential to the surfaces. The force on is not the real cause of friction.
each body is opposite to the direction of motion According to modern theory, cause of
between two bodies. It prevents or opposes friction is the force of attraction between
the relative motion between two bodies. It is molecules of two surfaces in actual contact
common experience that an object placed on in addition to the force due to the interlocking
any surface does not move easily when a small between the two surfaces. When one body is in
force is applied to it. This is because of certain contact with another body, the real microscopic
force of opposition acting between the surface of area in contact is very small due to irregularities
the object and the surface on which it is placed. in contact. Figure 6.9 shows the microscopic
Even a rolling ball comes to rest after covering view of two polished surfaces in contact.
a finite distance on playground because of
such opposing force. Our foot ware is provided
with designs at the bottom of its sole so as to
produce force of opposition to avoid slipping.
It is difficult to walk without such opposing
force. You know what happens when you try Fig. 6.9: Microscopic view polished
to walk fast on polished flooring at home with surfaces in contact.
soap water spread on it. There is a possibility Due to small area, pressures at points of
of slipping due to lack of force of opposition. contact is very high. Hence there is strong force
To initiate any motion between pair of surfaces, of attraction between the surfaces in contact.
we need a certain minimum force. Also after If both the surfaces are of the same material
the motion begins, it is constantly opposed the force of attraction is called cohesive force
by some natural force. This mechanical force while if the surfaces are of different materials
between two solid surfaces in contact with each the force of attraction is called adhesive force.
other is called as frictional force. The property When the surfaces in contact become more and
which resists the relative motion between two more smooth, the actual area of contact goes on
surfaces in contact is called friction. increasing. Due to this, the force of attraction
In some cases it is necessary to avoid between the molecules increases and hence the
friction, because friction causes dissipation of friction also increases. Putting some grease or
energy in machines due to which efficiency other lubricant (a different material) between
of machines decreases. In such cases friction the two surfaces reduces the friction.
should be reduced by using polished surfaces, 6.9.2 Types of friction:
lubricants, etc. Relative motion between 1. Static friction:
solids and fluids (i.e. liquids and gases) is also Suppose a wooden block is placed on a
opposed naturally by friction, e.g., a boat on the horizontal surface as shown in Fig 6.10. A
surface of water experiences opposition to its small horizontal force F is applied to it. The

109
block does not move with this force as it cannot to the normal reaction. Table 6.4 gives
overcome the frictional force between the block the coefficient of static fiction for some
and horizontal surface. In this case the force materials.
of static friction is equal to F and balances it. 2] The limiting force of friction is independent
The frictional force which balances applied of the apparent area between the surfaces
force when the body is static is called force of in contact, so long as the normal reaction
static friction. In other words, static friction remains the same.
prevents sliding motion. 3] The limiting force of friction depends upon
If we keep increasing F, a stage will come materials in contact and the nature of their
when for F = Fmax, the object will start moving. surfaces.
For F < Fmax, the force of static friction is equal Table 6.4: Coefficient of static friction
to F. For F Fmax, the kinetic friction comes into
play. Static friction opposes impending motion Material Coefficient of
i.e. the motion that would take place in absence static friction s
of frictional force under the applied force. Teflon on Teflon 0.4
Brass on steel 0.51
Copper on steel 0.53
Aluminium on steel 0.61
Steel on steel 0.74
Glass on glass 0.94
Fig. 6.10: Static friction.
The force of static friction is self adjusting Rubber on concrete (dry) 1.0
force. When the applied force F is very small, the Example 6.5: The coefficient of static friction
block remains at rest. Here the force of friction between a block of mass 0.25 kg and a
is also small. When F is increased by small horizontal surface is 0.4. Find the horizontal
value, the block remains still at rest as force force applied to it.
of friction is increased to balance the applied Solution: Given,
force. If applied force is increased, the friction coefficient of static friction = 0.4
also increases and reaches the maximum value.
Mass = 0.25kg
Just before the body starts sliding over another
To find: Force
body, the value of frictional force is maximum,
it is called as limiting force of friction. If F = µs. N = µs. (mg)
the direction of applied force is reversed, the F = 0.4 × 0.25 × 9.8
direction of static friction also reversed, i.e., it F = 0.98N
adjusts its direction also. 2. Kinetic friction :
Laws of static friction: Once the sliding of block on the surface
1] The limiting force of static friction is starts, the force of friction decreases. The force
directly proportional to normal reaction required to keep the body sliding steadily is
(N) between the two surfaces in contact. thus less than the force required to just start its
FL N sliding. The force of friction that comes into
. . FL = µs N
.
--- (6.25)play when a body is in steady state of motion
over another surface is called kinetic force of
Where µs is constant of proportionality. It
friction.
is called as coefficient of static friction.
Friction between two surfaces in contact
FL
 µs  --- (6.26) when one body is actually sliding over the
N other body, is called kinetic friction or
The coefficient of static friction is defined dynamic friction.
as the ratio of limiting force of friction

110
Laws of kinetic friction : static friction is greater than the force of kinetic
1. The force of kinetic friction (Fk ) is directly friction while the force of kinetic friction is
proportional to the normal reaction greater than force of rolling friction. As rolling
between two surfaces in contact. friction is the minimum, ball bearings are
∴ Fk N used to reduce friction in parts of machines to
∴ F k = µk N --- (6.27) increase its efficiency.
Where µk is constant of proportionality. It Advantages of friction:
is called as coefficient of kinetic friction. Friction is necessary in our daily life.
F We can walk due to friction between
 k  k --- (6.28) ground and feet.
N We can hold object in hand due to static
The coefficient of kinetic friction is defined friction.
as the ratio of force of kinetic friction to the Brakes of vehicles work due to friction;
normal reaction between the two surfaces hence we can reduce speed or stop
in contact. Table 6.5 gives the co-efficient vehicles.
of kinetic friction for some materials. Climbing on a tree is possible due to
2. Force of kinetic friction is independent of friction.
shape and apparent area of the surfaces in Disadvantages of friction
contact. Friction opposes motion.
3. Force of kinetic friction depends upon Friction produces heat in different parts
the nature and material of the surfaces in of machines. It also produces noise.
contact. Automobile engines consume more fuel
4. The magnitude of the force of kinetic due to friction.
friction is independent of the relative
Methods of reducing friction
velocity between the object and the surface
Use of lubricants, oil and grease in
provided that the relative velocity is neither
different parts of a machine.
too large nor too small.
Use of ball bearings converts kinetic
Table 6.5: Coefficient of kinetic friction friction into rolling friction.
Material Coefficient of
kinetic friction k Can you tell?
Rubber on concrete (dry) 0.25 1) It is difficult to run fast on sand.
Glass on glass 0.40 2) It is easy to roll than pull a barrel
Brass on steel 0.40 along a road.
Copper on steel 0.44 3) An inflated tyre rolls easily than a
Aluminium on steel 0.47 flat tyre.
Steel on steel 0.57 4) Friction is a necessary evil.
Teflon on Teflon 0.80
3 Rolling friction : Internet my friend
Motion of a body over a surface is said
to be rolling motion if the point of contact 1. https://opentextbc.ca>chapter>friction.
of the body with the surface keeps changing 2. https://www.livescience.com
continuously. 3. https://www.khanacdemy.org.physics
Friction between two bodies in contact 4. https://courses.lumenlearning.com>
when one body is rolling over the other, is elastiscitychapter>elasticity
called rolling friction.
5. https://www.toper.com>guides>physics
For same pair of surfaces, the force of

111
 Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct answer: xii) State the names of the hardest material
i) Change in dimensions is known as….. and the softest material.
(A) deformation (B) formation xiii) Define friction.
(C) contraction (D) strain. xiv) Why force of static friction is known as
ii) The point on stress-strain curve at which ‘self-adjusting force’?
strain begins to increase even without xv) Name two factors on which the co-
increase in stress is called…. efficient of friction depends.
(A) elastic point (B) yield point 3. Answer in short:
(C) breaking point (D) neck point i) Distinguish between elasticity and
iii) Strain energy of a stretched wire is plasticity.
18×10-3 J and strain energy per unit ii) State any four methods to reduce friction.
volume of the same wire and same cross iii) What is rolling friction? How does it
section is 6×10-3 J/m3. Its volume will arise?
be.... iv) Explain how lubricants help in reducing
(A) 3cm3 (B) 3 m3 friction?
(C) 6 m 3
(D) 6 cm 3
v) State the laws of static friction.
iv) ----- is the property of a material which vi) State the laws of kinetic friction.
enables it to resist plastic deformation. vii) State advantages of friction.
(A) elasticity (B) plasticity viii) State disadvantages of friction.
(C) hardness (D) ductility ix) What do you mean by brittle substance?
v) The ability of a material to resist Give any two examples.
fracturing when force is applied to it, is 4. Long answer type questions:
called…… i) Distinguish between Young’s modulus,
(A) toughness (B) hardness bulk modulus and modulus of rigidity.
(C) elasticity (D) plasticity. ii) Define stress and strain. What are their
2. Answer in one sentence: different types?
i) Define elasticity. iii) What is Young’s modulus? Describe an
ii) What do you mean by deformation? experiment to find out Young’s modulus
iii) State the SI unit and dimensions of stress. of material in the form of a long string
wire.
iv) Define strain.
iv) Derive an expression for strain energy per
v) What is Young’s modulus of a rigid body?
unit volume of the material of a wire.
vi) Why bridges are unsafe after a very long
v) What is friction? Define coefficient of
use?
static friction and coefficient of kinetic
vii) How should be a force applied on a body friction. Give the necessary formula for
to produce shearing stress? each.
viii) State the conditions under which Hooke’s vi) State Hooke’s law. Draw a labeled graph
law holds good. of tensile stress against tensile strain for
ix) Define Poisson’s ratio. a metal wire up to the breaking point.
x) What is an elastomer? In this graph show the region in which
xi) What do you mean by elastic hysteresis? Hooke’s law is obeyed.

112
5. Answer the following vii) A wire of mild steel as initial length 1.5m
i) Calculate the coefficient of static friction and diameter 0.60mm gets extended by
for an object of mass 50 kg placed on 6.3 mm when a certain force is applied to
horizontal table pulled by attaching a it. If Young’s modulus of mild steel is 2.1
spring balance. The force is increased x 1011 N/m2, calculate force applied.
gradually it is observed that the object [Ans: 250N]
just moves when spring balance shows viii) A composite wire is prepared by joining
50N. a tungsten wire and steel wire end to end.
[Ans: µs = 0.102] Both the wires are of the same length
ii) A block of mass 37 kg rests on a rough and the same area of cross section. If
horizontal plane having coefficient of this composite wire is suspended to a
static friction 0.3. Find out the least rigid support and a force is applied to
force required to just move the block its free end, it gets extended by 3.25mm.
horizontally. Calculate the increase in length of
tungsten wire and steel wire separately.
[Ans: Fs = 108.8N]
[Ans: extension in tungsten wire =
iii) A body of mass 37 kg rests on a rough
horizontal surface. The minimum 1.182 mm extension in steel wire =
horizontal force required to just start the 2.068 mm]
motion is 68.5 N. In order to keep the ix) A steel wire having cross sectional area
body moving with constant velocity, a 1.2mm2 is stretched by a force of 120N. If
force of 43 N is needed. What is the value a lateral strain of 1.455 mm is produced
of a) coefficient of static friction? and b) in the wire, calculate the Poisson’s ratio.
coefficient of kinetic friction? [Given: Ysteel = 2 x 1011N/m2]
[Ans: a) µs = 0.4660 [Ans: 0.291]
b) µk = 0.2925 ] x) A telephone wire 125m long and 1mm in
iv) A wire gets stretched by 4mm due to a radius is stretched to a length 125.25m
certain load. If the same load is applied when a force of 800N is applied. What
to a wire of same material with half the is the value of Young’s modulus for
length and double the diameter of the material of wire?
first wire? What will be the change in its [Ans: 1.27×10 11N/m2]
length? xi) A rubber band originally 30cm long is
[Ans: 0.5mm] stretched to a length of 32cm by certain
load. What is the strain produced?
v) Calculate the work done in stretching a
[Ans: 6.667× 10-2 ]
steel wire of length 2m and cross sectional
area 0.0225mm2 when a load of 100 N is xii) What is the stress in a wire which is 50m
slowly applied to its free end. [Young’s long and 0.01cm2 in cross section, if the
modulus of steel= 2×1011 N/m2 ] wire bears a load of 100kg?
[Ans: 9.8× 108 N/m2]
[Ans: 2.222J]
xiii) What is the strain in a wire cable of
vi) A solid metal sphere of volume 0.31m3
original length 50m whose length
is dropped in an ocean where water
increases by 2.5cm when a load is lifted?
pressure is 2×107 N/m2. Calculate change
in volume of the sphere if bulk modulus [Ans: 5× 10-4 ]
of the metal is 6.1×1010 N/m2
***
[Ans: 10-4 m3]

113
 7. Thermal Properties of Matter

Can you recall?

1. Temperature of a body determines its 3. Solids, liquids and gases expand on
hotness while heat energy is its heat heating.
content. 4. Substances change their state from solid
2. Pressure is the force exerted per unit area to liquid or liquid to gas on heating up to
normally on the walls of a container by the specific temperature.
gas molecules due to collisions.

7.1 Introduction: quantitatively measure it. Scientific precision

In previous lessons, while describing the requires measurement of a physical quantity in
equilibrium states of a mechanical system numerical terms. A thermometer is the device to
or while studying the motion of bodies, only measure the temperature.
three fundamental physical quantities namely In this chapter , we will learn properties of
length, mass and time were required. All other matter and various phenomena that are related
physical quantities in mechanics or related to heat. Phenomena or properties having to do
to mechanical properties can be expressed in with temperature changes and heat exchanges
terms of these three fundamental quantities. are termed as thermal phenomena or thermal
In this chapter, we will discuss properties or properties. You will understand why the
phenomena related to heat. These require a direction of wind near a sea shore changes
fourth fundamental quantity, the temperature, during day and night, why the metal lid of a
as mentioned in Chapter 1. glass bottle comes out easily on heating and
The sensation of hot or cold is a matter of why two metal vessels locked together can be
daily experience. A mother feels the temperature separated by providing heat to the outer vessel.
of her child by touching its forehead. A cook 7.2 Temperature and Heat:
throws few drops of water on a frying pan to Heat is energy in transit. When two bodies
know if it is hot enough to spread the dosa at different temperatures are brought in contact,
batter. Although not advisable, in our daily they exchange heat. After some time, the heat
lives, we feel hotness or coldness of a body by transfer stops and we say the two bodies are
touching or we dip our fingers in water to check in thermal equilibrium. The property or the
if it is hot enough for taking bath. When we say deciding factor to determine the state of thermal
a body or water is hot, we actually mean that its equilibrium is the temperature of the two bodies.
temperature is more than our hand. However, Temperature is a physical quantity that defines
in this way, we can only compare the hotness the thermodynamic state of a system.
or coldness of two objects qualitatively. Hot You might have experienced that a glass of
and cold are relative terms. You might recall ice-cold water when left on a table eventually
the example given in your science textbook of warms up whereas a cup of hot tea on the
VIIIth standard. Lukewarm water seems colder same table cools down. It means that when the
than hot water but hotter than cold water to our temperature of a body, ice-cold water or hot
hands. We ascribe a property ‘temperature’ to tea in the above examples, is different from its
an object to determine its degree of hotness. surrounding medium, heat transfer takes place
The higher the temperature, the hotter is the between the body and the surrounding medium
body. However, the precise temperature of until the body and the surrounding medium
a body can be known only when we have are at the same temperature. We then say that
an accurate and easily reproducible way to the body and its surroundings have reached

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a state of thermal equilibrium and there is no gas, there are no forces between the molecules
net transfer of heat from one to the other. In of a gas. Hence gases neither have a definite
fact, whenever two bodies are in contact, there volume nor shape. Interatomic spacing in solids
is a transfer of heat owing to their temperature is ~ 10-10 m while that in liquid is almost twice.
difference. The average inter molecular spacing in gases at
Matter in any state-solid, liquid or gas- NTP is ~10-9 m.
consists of particles (ions, atoms or molecules). From the above discussion, we understand
In solids, these particles are vibrating about their that heat supplied to the substance increases
fixed equilibrium positions and possess kinetic the kinetic energy of molecules or atoms of
energy due to motion at the given temperature. the substance. The average kinetic energy
The particles possess potential energy due to per particle of a substance defines the
the interatomic forces that hold the particles temperature. Temperature measures the degree
together at some mean fixed positions. Solids of hotness of an object and not the amount of its
therefore have definite volume and shape. thermal energy.
When we heat a solid, we provide energy to A glass of water, a gas enclosed in a
the solid. The particles then vibrate with higher container, a block of copper metal are all
energy and we can see that the temperature examples of a 'system'. We can say that heat
of the solid increases (except near its melting in the form of energy is transferred between
point). Thus the energy supplied to the solid two (or more) systems or a system and its
(does not disappear!) becomes the internal surroundings by virtue of their temperature
energy in the form of increased kinetic energy difference. SI unit of heat energy is joule (J) and
of atoms/molecules and raises the temperature that of temperature is kelvin (K) or celcius (°C).
of the solid. The temperature is therefore a The CGS unit of heat energy is erg and one J =
measure of the average kinetic energy of the 107 erg. The other unit of heat energy, that you
atoms/ molecules of the body. The greater the have learnt in VIIIth standard, is calorie (cal)
kinetic energy is, the faster the molecules will and the relation with J is 1 cal = 4.184 J. Heat
move and higher will be the temperature of the being energy has dimension [L2M1T-2K°] while
body. If we continue heating till the solid starts dimension of temperature is [L°M°T°K1].
to melt, the heat supplied is used to weaken
7.3 Measurement of Temperature:
the bonds between the constituent particles.
The average kinetic energy of the constituent In order to isolate two liquids or gases from
particles does not change further. The order each other and from the surroundings, we use
of magnitude of the average distance between containers and partitions made of materials like
the molecules of the melt remains almost the wood, plastic, glass wool, etc. An ideal wall or
same as that of solid. Due to weakened bonds partition (not available in practice) separating
liquids do not possess definite shape but have two systems is one that does not allow any flow
definite volume. The mean distance between or exchange of heat energy from one system
the particles and hence the density of liquid to the other. Such a perfect thermal insulator
is more or less the same as that of the solid. is called an adiabatic wall and is generally
On heating further, the atoms/molecules in shown as a thick cross-shaded (slanting lines)
liquid gain kinetic energy and temperature of region. When we wish to allow exchange of
the liquid increases. If we continue heating heat energy between two systems, we use a
the liquid further, at the boiling point, the partition like a thin sheet of copper. It is termed
constituents can move freely overcoming the as a diathermic wall and is represented as a
interatomic/molecular forces and the mean thin dark region.
distance between the constituents increases so Let us consider two sections of a container
that the particles are farther apart. separated by an adiabatic wall. Let them contain
As per kinetic theory of gases, for an ideal two different gases. Let us call them system A

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and system B. We independently bring systems temperatures just as we select the standard
A and B in thermal equilibrium with a system C. of length (metre) to be the distance between
Now if we remove the adiabatic wall separating two fixed marks. The fact that substances
systems A and B, there will be no transfer of change state from solid to liquid to gas at
heat from system A to system B or vice versa. fixed temperatures is used to define reference
This indicates that systems A and B are also temperature called fixed point. The two fixed
in thermal equilibrium. Overall conclusion of temperatures selected for this purpose are the
this activity can be summarized as follows: melting point of ice or freezing point of water
If systems A and B are separately in thermal and the boiling point of water. The next step is
equilibrium with a system C, then A and B are to sub-divide this standard temperature interval
also mutually in thermal equilibrium. When into sub-intervals by utilizing some physical
two or more systems/ bodies are in thermal property that changes with temperature and
equilibrium, their temperatures are same. This call each sub-interval a degree of temperature.
principle is used to measure the temperature of This procedure sets up an empirical scale for
a system by using a thermometer. temperature.
* The temperature at which pure water
Do you know ? freezes at one standard atmospheric
pressure is called ice point/ freezing point
If TA = TB and TB = TC, then TA = TC is not
of water. This is also the melting point of
a mathematical statement, if TX represents the ice.
temperature of system X. It is the zeroth law * The temperature at which pure water boils
of thermodynamics and makes the science of and vaporizes into steam at one standard
Thermometry possible. atmospheric pressure is called steam point/
Do you remember that to know the boiling point. This is also the temperature
temperature of our body, doctor brings the at which steam changes to liquid water.
mercury in the thermometer down to indicate Having decided the fixed point phenomena,
some low temperature. We are then asked to it remains to assign numerical values to these
keep the thermometer in our mouth. We have fixed points and the number of divisions
to wait for some time before the thermometer is between them. In 1750, conventions were
taken out to know the temperature of our body. adopted to assign (i) a temperature at which
There is transfer of heat energy from our body pure ice melts at one atmosphere pressure
to the thermometer since initially our body is (the ice point) to be 0º and (ii) a temperature
at a higher temperature. When the temperature at which pure water boils at one atmosphere
on the thermometer is same as that of our body, (the steam point) to be 100º so that there are
thermal equilibrium is said to be attained and 100 degrees between the fixed points. This was
heat transfer stops. the centigrade scale (centi meaning hundred in
Latin). This was redefined as celcius scale after
As mentioned above, to precisely know
the Swedish scientist Anders Celcius (1701-
the thermodynamic state of any system, we
1744). It is a convention to express temperature
need to know its temperature. The device used
as degree celcius (ºC).
to measure temperature is a thermometer.
Thermometry is the science of temperature To measure temperature quantitatively,
and its measurement. For measurement of generally two different scales of temperature
temperature, we need to establish a temperature are used. They are describe below.
scale and adopt a set of rules for assigning 1) Celsius scale:- On this scale, the ice point is
numbers (with corresponding units). marked as 0 and the steam point is marked
For the calibration of a thermometer, as 100, both taken at normal atmospheric
a standard temperature interval is selected pressure (105 Pa or N/m2). The interval
between two easily reproducible fixed between these points is divided into 100

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 equal parts. Each of these is known as Given TF = 98.4 F,
degree Celsius and is written as ºC. 100
2) Fahrenheit scale :- On this scale, the ice TC  (98.4-32)
180
point is market as 32 and the steam point 100
 (66.4)
is marked as 212, both taken at normal 180
atmospheric pressure. The interval between = 36.89 C
these points is divided into 180 equal A device used to measure temperature, is
parts. Each division is known as degree based on the principle of thermal equilibrium.
Fahrenheit and is written as F. To measure the temperature, we use different
A relationship for conversion between measurable properties of materials which
the two scales may be obtained from a graph change with temperature. Some of them are
of fahrenheit temperature (TF) versus celsius length of a rod, volume of a liquid, electrical
temperature (TC). The graph is a straight line resistance of a metal wire, pressure of a gas at
(Fig. 7.1) whose equation is constant volume etc. Such changes in physical
TF  32 TC
 --- (7.1) properties with temperature are used to design
180 100
a thermometer. Physical property that is used in
the thermometer for measuring the temperature
is called the thermometric property and the
material employed for the purpose is termed
as the thermometric substance. Temperature
is measured by exploiting the continuous
monotonic variation of the chosen property
with temperature. A calibration, however, is
required to define the temperature scale.
There are different kinds of thermometers
Fig. 7.1: A plot of fahrenheit temperature each type being more suitable than others for a
(TF) versus celsius temperature (TC). certain job. In each type, the physical property
Example 7.1: Average room temperature used to measure the temperature must vary
on a normal day is 27 C. What is the room continuously over a wide range of temperature.
temperature in F? It must be accurately measurable with simple
Solution: We have apparatus.
TF  32 TC
=
An important characteristic of a
180 100 thermometer is its sensitivity, i.e., a change in the
180 thermometric property for a very small change
 TF  TC + 32
100 in temperature. Two other characteristics
Given TC = 27 C,
are accuracy and reproducibility. Also it is
180
TF   27 + 32 important that the system attains thermal
100
= 48.6 + 32
equilibrium with the thermometer quickly.
= 80.6 F If the values of a thermometric property
Example 7.2: Normal human body temperature are P 1
and P2 at the ice point (0 ºC) and steam
in feherenheit is 98.4 F. What is the body point (100 ºC) respectively and the value of this
temperature in C? property is PT at unknown temperature T, then
Solution: We have T is given by the following equation
TC TF  32 100  PT  P1 
 T --- (7.2)
100 180  P2  P1 
100
 TC  (TF -32)
180 Ideally, there should be no difference

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in temperatures recorded on two different 100  R  95.2 
thermometers. This is seen for thermometers 27  ,
based on gases as thermometric substances. In a 138.6  95.2 
constant volume gas thermometer, the pressure 27  138.6  95.2 
R   95.2
of a fixed volume of gas (measured by the 100
difference in height) is used as the thermometric  11.72  95.2  106.92 
property. It is an accurate but bulky instrument.
Normally in research laboratories,
Liquid-in-glass thermometer depends a thermocouple is used to measure the
on the change in volume of the liquid with temperature. A thermocouple is a junction of
temperature. The liquid in a glass bulb expands two different metals or alloys e.g., copper and
up a capillary tube when the bulb is heated. The iron joined together. When two such junctions
liquid must be easily seen and must expand (or at the two ends of two dissimilar metal rods
contract) rapidly and by a large amount over are kept at two different temperatures, an
a wide range of temperature. Most commonly electromotive force is generated that can be
used liquids are mercury and alcohol as they calibrated to measure the temperature.
remain in liquid state over a wide range.
Mercury freezes at -39 C and boils at 357 C; Thermistor is another device used to
alcohol freezes at -115 C and boils at 78 C. measure temperature based on the change in
Thermochromic liquids are ones which change resistance of a semiconductor materials i.e., the
colour with temperature but have a limited resistance is the thermometric property. You
range around room temperatures. For example, will learn more about this device in Chapter
titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are white at 14 on Semiconductors.
room temperature but when heated change to 7.4 Absolute Temperature and Ideal Gas
yellow. Equation:
Example 7.3: The length of a mercury column 7.4.1 Absolute zero and absolute temperature
in a mercury-in-glass thermometer is 25 mm at Experiments carried out with gases at
the ice point and 180 mm at the steam point. low densities indicate that while pressure is
What is the temperature when the length is 60 held constant, the volume of a given quantity
mm? of gas is directly proportional to temperature
Solution: Here the thermometric property P is (measured in ºC). Similarly, if the volume of
the length of the mercury column. Using Eq. a given quantity of gas is held constant, the
(7.2), we get pressure of the gas is directly proportional to
temperature (measured in ºC). These relations
100  60  25 
T  22.58 C are graphically shown in Fig. 7.2 (a) and
180  25 (b). Mathematically, this relationship can
Resistance thermometer uses the change be written as PV TC. Thus the volume-
of electrical resistance of a metal wire temperature or pressure-temperature graphs for
with temperature. It measures temperature a gas are straight lines. They show that gases
accurately in the range -2000 C to 1200 C but expand linearly with temperature on a mercury
it is bulky and is best for steady temperatures. thermometer i.e., equal temperature increase
causes equal volume or pressure increase. The
Example 7.4: A resistance thermometer has
similar thermal behavior of all gases suggests
resistance 95.2 at the ice point and 138.6
that this relationship of gases can be used to
at the steam point. What resistance would be
measure temperature in a constant-volume gas
obtained if the actual temperature is 27 ºC?
thermometer in terms of pressure of the gas.
Solution: Here the thermometric property P
Although actual experimental
is the resistance. Using Eq. (7.2), if R is the
measurements might differ a little from the
resistance at 27 ºC, we have
ideal linear relationship, the linear relationship

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holds over a wide temperature range. temperature is not possible in practice. It may
be noted that the point of zero pressure or zero
volume does not depend on any specific gas.
The two fixed point scale, described in
section 7.3, had a practical shortcoming for
calibrating the scale. It was difficult to precisely
control the pressure and identify the fixed
points, especially for the boiling point as the
boiling temperature is very sensitive to changes
in pressure. Hence, a one fixed point scale
Fig. 7.2 (a): Graph of pressure versus was adopted in 1954 to define a temperature
temperature (in C) at constant volume. scale. This scale is called the absolute scale or
thermodynamic scale. It is named as the kelvin
scale after Lord Kelvin (1824-1907).
It is possible for all the three phases -
solid, liquid and gas/vapour - to coexist in
equilibrium. This is known as the triple point.
To know the triple point one has to see that
three phases coexist in equilibrium and no one
phase is dominating. This occurs for each
Fig. 7.2 (b): Graph of volume versus substance at a single unique combination of
temperature (in C) at constant pressure. temperature and pressure. Thus if three phases
It may be noted that the lines do not of water - solid ice, liquid water and water
pass through the origin i.e., have non-zero vapour- coexist, the pressure and temperature
intercept along the y-axis. The straight lines are automatically fixed. This is termed as the
have different slopes for different gases. If we triple point of water and is a single fixed point
assume that the gases do not liquefy even if to define a temperature scale.
we lower the temperature, we can extend the The absolute scale of temperature, is
straight lines backwards for low temperatures. so termed since it is based on the properties
Is it possible to reach a temperature where the of an ideal gas and does not depend on the
gases stop exerting any pressure i.e., pressure is property of any particular substance. The zero
zero? In a constant pressure thermometer, as the of this scale is ideally the lowest temperature
temperature is lowered, the volume decreases. possible although it has not been achieved in
Suppose the gas does not liquefy even at very practice. It is termed as Kelvin scale with its
low temperature, at what temperature, will zero at -273.15 C and temperature intervals
is volume become zero? Practically it is not same as that on the celsius scale. It is written
possible to keep the material in gaseous state as K (without ). Internationally, triple point
for very low temperature and without exerting of water has been assigned as 273.16 K at
any pressure. If we extrapolate the graph of pressure equal to 6.11 × 102 Pa or 6.11 × 10-3
pressure P versus temperature Tc (in ºC), the atmosphere, as the standard fixed point for
temperature at which the pressure of a gas calibration of thermometers. Size of one kelvin
would be zero is -273.15 ºC. It is seen that all is thus 1/273.16 of the difference between the
the lines for different gases cut the temperature absolute zero and triple point of water. It is
axis at the same point at -273.15 ºC. This point same as one celcius. On celcius scale, the triple
is termed as the absolute zero of temperature. point of water is 0.01 ºC and not zero.
It is not possible to attain a temperature lower Three identical thermometers, marked in
than this value. Even to achieve absolute zero kelvin, celcius and fahrenheit, placed in a fixed

119
temperature bath, each thermometer showing 7.4.2 Ideal Gas Equation:
the same rise in the level of mercury for human The relation between three properties of
body temperature, are depicted in Fig. 7.3. a gas i.e., pressure, volume and temperature is
The relation between the three scales of called ideal gas equation. You will learn more
temperature is as given in Eq. (7.3) . about the properties of gases in chemistry.
TC TF  32 TK  273.15 Using absolute temperatures, the gas laws
  --- (7.3)
100 180 100 can be stated as given below.
1) Charles’ law- In Fig. 7.2 (b), the volume-
temperature graph passes through the
origin if temperatures are measured on the
kelvin scale, that is if we take 0 K as the
origin. In that case the volume V is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature T.
Thus V T
V
or, = constant --- (7.4)
Fig. 7.3: Comparison of the kelvin, celsius T
Thus Charles' law can be stated as, the
and fahrenheit temperature scales. volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly
Example 7.5: Express T = 24.57 K in celsius proportional to its absolute temperature if
and fahrenheit. the pressure is kept constant.
Solution: We have 2) Pressure (Gay Lussac's) law- From
TF  32 TC TK - 273.15 Fig.7.2, it can be seen that the pressure-
 =
180 100 100 temperature graph is similar to the volume-
 TC = TK -273.15 temperature graph.
= 24.577-273.15 Thus P T
= - 248.58C P
TF  32 TK - 273.15
or, T = constant --- (7.5)
 Pressure law can be stated as the pressure of
180 100
180 a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
 TF  (TK - 273.15) + 32
100 to its absolute temperature if the volume is
9 kept constant.
 (24.57  273.15)  32
5 3) Boyle’s law- For fixed mass of gas at
= - 447.44 + 32 constant temperature, pressure is inversely
= - 415.44F proportional to volume.
Example 7.6: Calculate the temperature which 1
has the same value on fahernheit scale and Thus P V
kelvin scale. PV = constant --- (7.6)
Solution: Let the required temperature be y.
Combining above three equations, we get
i.e., TF = TK = y then we have
PV
y  32 y  273.15 T = constant --- (7.7)

180 100 For one mole of a gas, the constant of
or , 5 y  160  9 y  2458.35 proportionality is written as R
or , 4 y  160  2458.35 PV
∴ =R or PV = RT --- (7.8)
T
 y  574.59
If given mass of a gas consists of n moles,
Thus 574.59 F and 574.59 K are equivalent then Eq. (7.8) can be written as
temperatures. PV= nRT --- (7.9)

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 This relation is called ideal gas equation. If the substance is in the form of a long
The value of constant R is same for all gases. rod of length l, then for small change T, in
Therefore, it is known as universal gas constant. temperature, the fractional change l/l, in length
Its numerical value is 8.31 J K-1 mol-1. (shown in Fig.7.4), is directly proportional to
Example 7.7: The pressure reading in a T.
thermometer at steam point is 1.367 × 103 Pa. l
What is pressure reading at triple point knowing  T
l
the linear relationship between temperature and l
pressure? or   T --- (7.10)
l
P
Solution: We have Ptriple = 273.16 ×   where where is called the coefficient of linear
P T 
and P are the pressures at temperature ofexpansion of solid. Its value depends upon
triple
triple point (273.16 K) and T respectively. We nature of the material. Rearranging Eq. (7.10),
are given that P = 1.367 × 103 Pa at steam point we get
i.e., at 273.15 + 100 = 373.15 K. l

l T
 1.367  103 
∴ Ptriple = 273.16 ×   lT  l0
= --- (7.11)
3  373.15  l0 (T  T0 )
= 1.000 × 10 Pa
7.5 Thermal Expansion: where l0 = length of rod at 0 °C
When matter is heated, it normally expands lT = length of rod when heated to T °C
and when cooled, it normally contracts. The T0 = 0 °C is initial temperature
atoms in a solid vibrate about their mean T = final temperature
positions. When heated, they vibrate faster and l =lT - l0 = change in length
force each other to move a little farther apart. T =T - T0= rise in temperature
This results into expansion. The molecules in
a liquid or gas move with certain speed. When Referring to Eq. (7.11), if l0=1 and T- T0=1 °C,
heated, they move faster and force each other then
to move a little farther apart. This results in = lT - l0 (numerically).
expansion of liquids and gases on heating. The Coefficient of linear expansion of a solid
expansion is more in liquids than in solids; is thus defined as increase in the length per
gases expand even more. unit original length at 0 °C for one degree
A change in the temperature of a body centigrade rise in temperature.
causes change in its dimensions. The increase The unit of coefficient of linear expansion is
in the dimensions of a body due to an increase per degree celcius or per kelvin. The magnitude
in its temperature is called thermal expansion. of is very small and it varies only a little with
There are three types of thermal expansion: temperature. For most practical purposes,
1) Linear expansion, 2) Areal expansion, can be assumed to be constant for a particular
3) Volume expansion. material. Therefore, it is not necessary that
7.5.1 Linear Expansion: initial temperature be taken as 0 °C. Equation
The expansion in length due to thermal (7.11) can be rewritten as
energy is called linear expansion. l l
 2 1
l1 (T2  T1 ) --- (7.12)
where l1 = initial length at temperature T1 °C
l2 = final length at temperature T2 °C.
Fig. 7.4: Linear expansion l is exaggerated Table 7.1 lists average values of coefficient
for explanation. of linear expansion for some materials in the

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temperature range 0°C to 100 °C. We have
Table 7.1: Values of coefficient of linear l l l l
= 2 1  2 1
expansion for some common materials. l1 (T2  T1 ) l1T2  l1T1
l2  l1
Materials (K-1)  l1T2  l1T1 

Carbon (diamond) 0.1×10-5 1 l l 
Glass 0.85×10-5 T2  l1T1  2 1 
l1   
Iron 1.2×10-5 1  4.268  4.256 
Steel 1.3×10-5   (4.256  27) 
4.256  1.2  105 
Gold 1.4×10-5
1  0.012 
Copper 1.7×10-5  114.912 
4.256  1.2  105 
Silver 1.9×10-5 1
Aluminium 2.5×10-5  114.912  1000 
4.256 
Sulphur 6.1×10-5  261.96 C
Mercury 6.1×10-5 7.5.2 Areal Expansion:
Water 6.9×10-5 The increase A, in the surface area, on
Carbon (graphite) 8.8×10-5 heating is called areal expansion or superficial
Example 7.8: The length of a metal rod at 27 °C expansion.
is 4 cm. The length increases to 4.02 cm when
the metal rod is heated upto 387 °C. Determine A
 T
the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal A
rod. A
or   T
Solution: Given A

T1 = 27 °C Fig. 7.5: Areal expansion A is exaggerated

T2 = 387 °C for explanation.
l1 = 4 cm = 4×10-2 m If a substance is in the form of a plate of
area A, then for small change T in temperature,
l2 = 4.02 cm = 4.02×10-2 m
the fractional change in area, A/A (as shown
We have
in Fig. 7.5), is directly proportional to T.
l l
 2 1 A
 T
l1 (T2  T1 ) A
A

 4.02  4.0   102 or
A
  T --- (7.13)
2
4  10 (387  27) where is called the coefficient of areal
2
0.02  10 expansion of solid. It depends on the material

4  102  360 of the solid. Rearranging Eq. (7.13), we get
A AT  A0
 1.39  105 / C   --- (7.14)
AT A0 (T  T0 )
Example 7.9: Length of a metal rod at
where A0= area of plate at 0 °C
temperature 27 C is 4.256 m. Find the
temperature at which the length of the same AT = area of plate when heated to T °C
rod increases to 4.268m. ( for iron T0 = 0 °C is initial temperature
= 1.2×10-5 K-1) T = final temperature
Solution: Given A = AT - A0 = change in area
T1 = 27 C, l1 = 4.256 m, T =T - T0= rise in temperature.
l2 = 4.268m, = 1.2×10-5 K-1 If A0 = 1 m2 and T - T0 = 1 °C, then
= AT - A0 (numerically).

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Therefore, coefficient of areal expansion of a If the substance is in the form of a cube
solid is defined as the increase in the area per of volume V, then for small change T in
unit original area at 0°C for one degree rise temperature, the fractional change, V/V
in temperature. (as shown in Fig.7.6), in volume is directly
The unit of is per degree celcius or per proportional to T.
kelvin. V
 T
V
As in the case of , also does not vary V
much with temperature. Hence, if A1 is the area or   T --- (7.16)
V
of a metal plate at T1 °C and A2 is the area at
higher temperature T2 °C, then where is called coefficient of cubical or
volume expansion. It depends upon the nature
A2  A1 of the material. Its unit is per degree celcius or
 --- (7.15)
A1 (T2  T1 ) per kelvin. From Eq.(7.16), we can write
V V  V0
Example 7.10: A thin aluminium plate has an    T --- (7.17)
V T V0 (T - T0 )
area 286 cm2 at 20 °C. Find its area when it is
heated to 180 °C. where V0 = volume at 0 °C
( for aluminium = 4.9×10-5 /°C) VT = volume when heated to T °C
Solution: Given T0 = 0 °C is initial temperature
T1 = 20 °C T = final temperature
T2 = 180 °C V = VT - V0= change in volume
A1 = 286 cm2 T =T - T0= rise in temperature.
= 4.9×10-5 /°C If V0 = 1 m3, T - T0=1 °C, then
We have =VT - V0 (numerically).
A2  A1 The coefficient of cubical expansion of

A1 (T2  T1 ) a solid is therefore defined as increase in
volume per unit original volume at 0°C for
∴ A2= A1 [1 + (T2-T1)]
one degree rise in the temperature.
= 286 [1 + 4.9×10-5 (180-20)]
If V1 is the volume of a body at T1 °C and
= 286 [1 + 4.9×10-5×160] V2 is the volume at higher temperature T2 °C,
= 286 [1 + 784.0×10-5] then
= 286 [1 + 0.00784] V V
1  2 1 --- (7.18)
= 286 [1.00784] V1 (T2  T1 )
... A2 = 288.24 cm2 1
is the coefficient of volume expansion at
7.5.3 Volume expansion temperature T1 °C.
The increase in volume due to heating is Since fluids possess definite volume and
called volume expansion or cubical expansion. take the shape of the container, only change
in volume is significant. Equations (7.17) and
(7.18) are valid for cubical or volume expansion
of fluids. It is to be noted that since fluids are kept
V in containers, when one deals with the volume
 T
V expansion of fluids, expansion of the container
V is also to be considered. If expansion of fluid
or   T
V results in a volume greater than the volume
of the container, the fluid will overflow if the
Fig. 7.6: Volume expansion V is
container is open. If the container is closed,
exaggerated for explanation.
volume expansion of fluid will cause additional

123
pressure on the walls of the container. Can Example 7.11 : A liquid at 0 °C is poured
you now tell why the balloon bursts sometimes in a glass beaker of volume 600 cm3 to fill it
when you try to fill air in it? completely. The beaker is then heated to 90 °C.
Normally solids and liquids expand on How much liquid will overflow?
heating. Hence their volume increases on
heating. Since the mass is constant, it results in ( liquid
= 1.75×10-4 /°C, glass
= 2.75×10-5 /°C)
a decrease in the density on heating. You have Solution: Given
learnt about the anomalous behaviour of water. V1= 600 cm3
Water expand on cooling from 4 °C to 0 °C.
T1 = 0 °C
Hence its density decreases on cooling in this
temperature range. T2 = 90 °C
In Table 7.2 are given typical average We have V V
 2 1
values of the coefficient of volume expansion V1 (T2  T1 )
for some materials in the temperature range
0°C to 100°C. ... increase is volume = V2 - V1= V1 (T2- T1)
Increase in volume of beaker
Table 7.2: Values of coefficient of volume
expansion for some common materials. = glass
× V1 (T2- T1)
Materials (K-1) = 2.75×10-5×600×(90-0)
Invar 2×10-6 = 2.75×10-5×600×90
Glass (ordinary) 2.5×10-5 = 148500×10-5 cm3
Steel (3.3-3.9)×10-5
... increase in volume of beaker = 1.485 cm3
Iron 3.55×10-5
Gold 4.2×10-5 Increase in volume of liquid
Brass 5.7×10-5 = liquid
× V1 (T2- T1)
Aluminium 6.9×10-5 = 1.75×10-4×600×(90-0)
Mercury 18.2×10-5
Water 20.7×10-5 = 1.75×10-4×600×90
Paraffin 58.8×10-5 = 94500×10-4 cm3
Gasoline 95.0×10-5 ... increase in volume of liquid = 9.45 cm3
Alcohol (ethyl) 110×10-5
... volume of liquid which overflows
is also characteristic of the substance but
is not strictly a constant. It depends in general on = (9.45-1.485) cm3
temperature as shown in Fig.7.7. It is seen that = 7.965 cm3
becomes constant only at high temperatures. 7.5.4 Relation between Coefficients of
Expansion:
i) Relation between and :
Consider a square plate of side l0 at 0 °C
and lT at T °C.
... lT = l0 (1+ T) from Eq. (7.11).
If area of plate at 0 °C is A0, A0 = l02.
If area of plate at T °C is AT,
AT = lT2 = l02 (1+ T)2
or AT = A0 (1+ T)2 --- (7.19)
Also from Eq. (7.14),
Fig. 7.7: Coefficient of volume expansion AT = A0 (1+ T) --- (7.20)
of copper as a function of temperature.

124
 Using Eqs. (7.19) and (7.20), we get Solution: Given
A0 (1+ T)2 = A0 (1+ T) T1 = 0 °C
or 1+ 2 T + 2T2 =1+ T T2 = 100 °C
Since the values of are very small, the A1 = 50×8 = 400 cm2
term 2T2 is very small and may be neglected. A2 = 401.57 cm2
∴ 2 --- (7.21) We have
A2  A1
  2 
A1 (T2  T1 )
Can you tell?
(401.57  400) cm 2
1. Why the metal wires for electrical 
transmission lines sag? 400 cm 2  (100  0) C
2. Why a railway track is not a continuous 1.57
  0.3925  104 C1
piece but is made up of segments 400  100
separated by gaps?   0.1962  104 C1
3. How a steel wheel is mounted on an  1.962  105 C1
axle to fit exactly?
4. Why lakes freeze first at the surface? ∴ Coefficient of linear expansion of brass
is 1.962×10-5 /°C.
The result is general because any solid can
be regarded as a collection of small squares. Do you know ?
ii) Relation between and :
* When pressure is held constant, due to
Consider a cube of side l0 at 0 °C
change in temperature, the volume of
and lT at T °C. a liquid or solid changes very little in
... lT = l0 (1+ T) from Eq. (7.11). comparison to the volume of a gas.
If volume of the cube at 0 °C is V0, V0 = l0 . * The coefficient of volume expansion, , is
3

generally an order of magnitude larger for

If volume of the cube at T °C is
liquids than for solids.
VT, VT = lT3 = l03 (1+ T)3 * Metals have high values for the coefficient
or VT = V0 (1+ T)3 --- (7.22) for linear expansion, , than non-metals.
Also from Eq. (7.17), changes more with temperature than
VT = V0 (1+ T) --- (7.23) and .
* We know that water expands on freezing
Using Eqs. (7.22) and (7.23), we get from 4 ºC to 0 ºC. Other two substances,
V0 (1+ T)3 = V0 (1+ T) metals bismuth (Bi) and antimony (Sb),
or 1+ 3 T +3 T + T =1+ T3 3 that expand on freezing. Thus the density
Since the values of are very small, the of liquid is more than corresponding solid
terms with higher powers of may be neglected. and hence solid Bi or Sb float on their
∴ 3 --- (7.24) liquids like ice floats on water.
Again the result is general because any
solid can be regarded as a collection of small 7.6 Specific Heat Capacity:
cubes. 7.6.1 Specific Heat Capacity of Solids and
Finally, the relation between , and is Liquids
  If 1 kg of water and 1 kg of paraffin are
  --- (7.25)
2 3 heated in turn for the same time by the same
Example 7.12: A sheet of brass is 50 cm long heater, the temperature rise of paraffin is about
and 8 cm broad at 0 °C. If the surface area at twice that of water. Since the heater gives
100 °C is 401.57cm2, find the coefficient of equal amounts of heat energy to each liquid, it
linear expansion of brass. seems that different substances require different

125
amounts of heat to cause the same temperature 1 Q
rise of 1°C in the same mass of 1 kg. C --- (7.27)
 T
If Q stands for the amount of heat
absorbed or given out by a substance of mass The SI unit of molar specific heat capacity
m when it undergoes a temperature change T, is J/mol °C or J/mol K. Like specific heat, molar
then the specific heat capacity of that substance specific heat also depends on the nature of the
is given by substance and its temperature. Table 7.3 lists
Q the values of specific heat capacity for some
s common materials.
mT --- (7.26)
If m = 1 kg and T = 1°C then s = Q. From Table 7.3, it can be seen that water
Thus specific heat capacity is defined as has the highest specific heat capacity compared
the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed to other substances. For this reason, water is
or given out by the substance to change its used as a coolant in automobile radiators as
temperature by one unit (one degree) 1 C well as in a heater in hot water bags.
or 1K. 7.6.2 Specific Heat Capacity of Gas:
Table 7.3: Specific heat capacity of some In case of a gas, slight change in
substances at room temperature and temperature is accompanied with considerable
atmospheric pressure. changes in both, the volume and the pressure.
If gas is heated at constant pressure, volume
Substance Specific heat capacity
changes and therefore some work is done on
(J kg-1 K-1)
the surroundings during expansion requiring
Steel 120 additional heat. As a result, specific heat at
Lead 128 constant pressure (Sp) is greater than specific
Gold 129 heat at constant volume (Sv). It is thus necessary
Tungsten 134.4 to define two principal specific heat capacities
Silver 234 for a gas.
Copper 387 Principal specific heat capacities of gases:
Iron 448 a) The principal specific heat capacity of a
Carbon 506.5 gas at constant volume (Sv) is defined as
Glass 837 the quantity of heat absorbed or released
Aluminium 903.0 for the rise or fall of temperature of unit
Kerosene 2118 mass of a gas through 1 K (or 1°C) when
Paraffin oil 2130 its volume is kept constant.
Alcohol (ethyl) 2400
b) The principal specific heat capacity of a
Ethanol 2500
gas at constant pressure (Sp) is defined as
Water 4186.0
the quantity of heat absorbed or released
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/ for the rise or fall of temperature of unit
kg °C or J/kg K and C.G.S. unit is erg/g °C or mass of a gas through 1K (1°C) when its
erg/g K. The specific heat capacity is a property pressure is kept constant.
of the substance and weakly depends on its
Molar specific heat capacities of gases:
temperature. Except for very low temperatures,
the specific heat capacity is almost constant for a) Molar specific heat capacity of a gas at
all practical purposes. constant volume (Cv) is defined as the
quantity of heat absorbed or released for
If the amount of substance is specified in
the rise or fall of temperature of one mole
terms of moles instead of mass m in kg, then
of the gas through 1K (or 1°C), when its
the specific heat is called molar specific heat (C)
volume is kept constant.
and is given by

126
 b) Molar specific heat capacity of a gas at = 4×10 × 300 J
constant pressure (Cp) is defined as the ... Q = 12000 J
quantity of heat absorbed or released for
7.6.4 Heat Capacity (Thermal Capacity):
the rise or fall of temperature of one mole
of the gas through 1K (or 1°C), when its Heat capacity or thermal capacity of a
pressure is kept constant. body is the quantity of heat needed to raise or
lower the temperature of the whole body by
Relation between Principal and Molar
1°C (or 1K).
Specific Heat Capacities:
∴ Thermal heat capacity can be written as
A relation between principal specific heat
Heat received or given out
capacity and molar specific heat capacity is
given by the following expression = mass × 1 × specific heat capacity
Molar specific heat capacity = Molecular Heat capacity = Q = m × s --- (7.29)
weight × principal specific heat capacity. Heat capacity (thermal capacity) is measured
i.e. Cp= × Sp and Cv= × Sv in J/°C.
where is the molecular weight of the gas. Example 7.14: Find thermal capacity for a
copper block of mass 0.2 kg, if specific heat
Table 7.4 lists values of molar specific
capacity of copper is 290 J/kg °C.
heat capacity for some commonly known gases.
Solution: Given
Table 7.4: Molar specific heat capacity of m = 0.2 kg
some gases. s = 290 J/kg °C
Gas CP CV Thermal capacity = m × s = 0.2 kg×290 J/kg °C
(J mol-1 K-1) (J mol-1 K-1) =58 J/ °C
He 20.8 12.5 7.7 Calorimetry:
H2 28.8 20.4 Calorimetry is an experimental technique
N2 29.1 20.8 for the quantitative measurement of heat
O2 29.4 21.1 exchange. To make such measurement a
CO2 37.0 28.5 calorimeter is used. Figure 7.8 shows a simple
7.6.3 Heat Equation: water calorimeter.
It consists of cylindrical vessel made of
If a substance has a specific heat capacity copper or aluminium and provided with a stirrer
of 1000 J/kg °C, it means that heat energy of and a lid. The calorimeter is well-insulated to
1000 J raises the temperature of 1 kg of that prohibit any transfer of heat into or out of the
substance by 1°C or 6000 J will raise the calorimeter.
temperature of 2 kg of the substance by 3 °C. If
the temperature of 2 kg mass of the substance
falls by 3 °C, the heat given out would also
be 6000 J. In general we can write the heat
equation as
Heat received or given out (Q) = mass
(m) × temperature change ( t) × specific heat
capacity (s).
or Q = m × T × s --- (7.28)
Example 7.13: If the temperature of 4 kg
mass of a material of specific heat capacity
300 J/ kg °C rises from 20 °C to 30 °C. Find the Fig. 7.8: Calorimeter.
heat received. One important use of calorimeter is to
Solution: determine the specific heat of a substance using
Q = 4 kg × (30-20) °C × 300 J/kg °C
127
 the principle of conservation of energy. (m2 s2  m3 s3 )(T  T2 )
Here we are dealing with heat energy and the s1  --- (7.31)
m1 (T1  T )
system is isolated from surroundings. Therefore,
heat gained is equal to the heat lost. Also, one can find specific heat capacity
In the technique known as the “method of water or any liquid using the following
of mixtures”, a sample 'A' of the substance is expression, it the specific heat capacity of the
heated to a high temperature which is accurately material of calorimeter and sample is known
measured. The sample 'A' is then placed quickly m s (T  T ) m2 s2
s3  1 1 1  --- (7.32)
in the colorimeter containg water. The contents m3 (T  T2 ) m3
are stirred constantly until the mixture attains
a final common temperature. The heat lost by Note - In the experiment, the heat from the solid
the sample 'A' will be gained by the water and sample 'A' is given to the liquid and therefore
the calorimeter. The specific heat of the sample the sample should be denser than the liquid, so
'A' of the substance can be calculated as under: that sample does not float on the liquid.
Let Example 7.15: A sphere of aluminium of 0.06
kg is placed for sufficient time in a vessel
m1 = mass of the sample 'A'
containing boiling water so that the sphere is
m2 = mass of the calorimeter and the stirrer at 100 °C. It is then immediately transferred to
m3 = mass of the water in calorimeter 0.12 kg copper calorimeter containing 0.30 kg
s1 = specific heat capacity of the substance of of water at 25 °C. The temperature of water rises
sample 'A' and attains a steady state at 28 °C. Calculate
s2 = specific heat capacity of the material of the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
calorimeter (and stirrer) (Specific heat capacity of water, sw = 4.18 ×
103J kg-1 K-1, specific heat capacity of copper
s3 = specific heat capacity of water -1 -1
sCu = 0.387×103 J kg K )
T1 = initial temperature of the sample 'A'
Solution : Given
T2 = initial temperature of the calorimeter
Mass of aluminium sphere = m1 = 0.06 kg
stirrer and water
Mass of copper calorimeter = m2= 0.12 kg
T = final temperature of the combined system
Mass of water in calorimeter
We have the data as following:
= m3= 0.30 kg
Heat lost by the sample 'A' = m1s1 (T1- T)
Specific heat capacity of copper
Heat gained by the calorimeter and the stirrer
= sCu = s2 = 0.387×103 J kg-1 K-1
= m2s2 (T - T2)
Specific heat capacity of water
Heat gained by the water = m3s3 (T - T2)
= sw = s3= 4.18×103 J kg-1 K-1
Assuming no loss of heat to the
surroundings, the heat lost by the sample goes Initial temperature of aluminium sphere
into the calorimeter, stirrer and water. Thus = T1 =100°C
writing heat equation as, Initial temperature of calorimeter and
m1s1(T1- T) water = T2= 25°C
= m2s 2(T - T2) + m3s3(T - T2) ---(7.30) Final temperature of the mixture
Knowing the specific heat capacity of = T = 28°C
water (s3 = 4186 J kg-1 K-1) and copper (s2 = 387 We have
J kg-1 K-1) being the material of the calorimeter
and the stirrer, one can calculate specific heat
capacity (s1) of material of sample 'A', from Eq.
(7.30) as

128
 (m2 s2  m3 s3 )(T  T2 ) (ice) to liquid (water).
s1 
m1 (T1  T )
 0.12  387    0.30  4180    28  25 
=

Temperature T (0C)
(0.06 )(100  28) C

=
 46.44  1254   3 = 3901.32 D

(0.06 )  72 4.32
A
-1 -1
= 903.08 J kg K Time (t) (s)

Fig. 7.9 : Variation of temperature with time.

∴ Specific heat capacity of aluminium is
a) The change of state from solid to liquid is
903.08 J kg-1 K-1.
called melting and from liquid to solid is
7.8 Change of State: called solidification.
Matter normally exists in three states: solid, b) Both the solid and liquid states of the
liquid and gas. A transition from one of these substance co-exist in thermal equilibrium
states to another is called a change of state. Two during the change of states from solid to
common changes of states are solid to liquid and liquid or vice versa.
liquid to gas (and vice versa). These changes
c) The temperature at which the solid and
can occur when exchange of heat takes place
the liquid states of the substance are in
between the substance and its surroundings.
thermal equilibrium with each other is
called the melting point of solid (here ice)
Activity or freezing point of liquid (here water). It
To understand the process of change of is the characteristic of the substance and
state also depends on pressure.
Take some cubes of ice in a beaker. d) The melting point of a substance at one
Note the temperature of ice (0 °C). Start standard atmospheric pressure is called its
heating it slowly on a constant heat normal melting point.
source. Note the temperature after every e) At one standard atmospheric pressure, the
minute. Continuously stir the mixture freezing point of water and melting point
of water and ice. Observe the change in of ice is 0 °C or 32°F. The freezing point
temperature. Continue heating even after describes the liquid to solid transition
the whole of ice gets converted into water. while melting point describes solid-to-
Observe the change in temperature as liquid transition.
before till vapours start coming out. Plot 2) From point B to D:
the graph of temperature (along y-axis) The temperature begins to rise from point
versus time (along x-axis). Obtain a graph
B to point C, i.e., after the whole of ice gets
of temperature versus time as shown in
converted into water and we continue further
Fig. 7.9.
heating. We see that temperature begins to
Analysis of observations : rise. The temperature keeps on rising till it
1) From point A to B: reaches point C i.e., nearly 100 °C. Then it
There is no change in temperature from again becomes steady. It is observed that the
point A to point B, this means the temperature temperature remains constant until the entire
of the ice bath does not change even though amount of the liquid is converted into vapour.
heat is being continuously supplied. That is the The heat supplied is now being utilized to
temperature remains constant until the entire change water from liquid state to vapour or
amount of the ice melts. The heat supplied is gaseous state.
being utilised in changing the state from solid a) The change of state from liquid to vapour

129
 is called vapourisation while that from is more. Hence the rate of losing such molecules
vapour to liquid is called condensation. to atmosphere will be larger. Thus, higher is the
b) Both the liquid and vapour states of the temperature of the liquid, greater is the rate of
substance coexist in thermal equilibrium evaporation. Since faster molecules are lost, the
during the change of state from liquid to average kinetic energy of the liquid is reduced
vapour. and hence the temperature of the liquid is
c) The temperature at which the liquid and lowered. Hence the phenomenon of evaporation
the vapour states of the substance coexist gives a cooling effect to the remaining liquid.
is called the boiling point of liquid, Since evaporation takes place from the surface
of a liquid, the rate of evaporation is more if the
here water or steam point. This is also
area exposed is more and if the temperature of
the temperature at which water vapour
the liquid is higher.
condenses to form water. You might have seen that if your mother
d) The boiling point of a substance at one wants her sari/clothes to dry faster, she does
standard atmospheric pressure is called its not fold them. More is the area exposed, faster
normal boiling point. is the drying because the water gets evaporated
faster. The presence of wind or strong breeze
Can you tell? and content of water vapour in the atmosphere
1. What after point D in graph ? Can steam are two other important factors determining the
drying of clothes but we do not refer to them here.
be hotter than 100 °C ?
Before giving an injection to a patient,
2. Why steam at 100 C causes more harm
normally a spirit swab is used to disinfect the
to our skin than water at 100 C? region. We feel a cooling effect on our skin due
to evaporation of the spirit as explained before.
Do you know ?
You must have seen that water spilled Activity
on floor dries up after some time. Where does Activity to understand the dependence
the water disappear? It is converted into water of boiling point on pressure
vapour and mixes with air. We say that water
Take a round bottom flask, more than
has evaporated. You also know that water can be
converted into water vapour if you heat the water
half filled with water. Keep it over a burner
till its boiling point. What is then the difference and fix a thermometer and steam outlet
between boiling and evaporation? through the cork of the flask
Both evaporation and boiling involve as shown in figure. As water
change of state, evaporation can occur at any in the flask gets heated, note
temperature but boiling takes place at a fixed that first the air, which was
temperature for a given pressure, unique for each dissolved in the water comes
liquid. Evaporation takes place from the surface out as small bubbles. Later
of liquid while boiling occurs in the whole liquid. bubbles of steam form at the
As you know, molecules in a liquid are bottom but as they rise to the
moving about randomly. The average kinetic
cooler water near the top, they
energy of the molecules decides the temperature
of the liquid. However, all molecules do not
condense and disappear. Finally, as the
move with the same speed. One with higher temperature of the entire mass of the water
kinetic energy may escape from the surface reaches 100 °C, bubbles of steam reach the
region by overcoming the interatomic forces. surface and boiling is said to occur. The
This process can take place at any temperature. steam in the flask may not be visible but as
This is evaporation. If the temperature of the it comes out of the flask, it condenses as tiny
liquid is higher, more is the average kinetic droplets of water giving a foggy appearance.
energy. Since the number of molecules is fixed, it If now the steam outlet is closed for a
implies that the number of fast moving molecules few seconds to increase the pressure in the

130
 flask, you will notice that boiling stops. arrangement of carbon atoms is different in the
More heat would be required to raise the two cases. Figure 7.10 shows the phase diagram
temperature (depending on the increase in of water and CO2. Let us try to understand the
pressure) before boiling starts again. Thus diagram.
boiling point increases with increase in
pressure.
Let us now remove the burner. Allow
water to cool to about 80°C. Remove the
thermometers and steam outlet. Close the
flask with a air tight cork. Keep the flask
turned upside down on a stand. Pour ice-
cold water on the flask. Water vapours in the
flask condense reducing the pressure on the
water surface inside the flask. Water begins Fig. 7.10 (a): Phase diagram of water (not
to boil again, now at a lower temperature. to scale).
Thus boiling point decreases with decrease
in pressure and increases with increase in
pressure.

Can you tell?

1. Why cooking is difficult at high altitude?
2. Why cooking is faster in pressure cooker?
7.8.1 Sublimation:
Have you seen what happens when Fig. 7.10 (b): Phase diagram of CO2 (not to
camphor is burnt? All substances do not pass scale).
through the three states: solid-liquid-gas. i) Vapourisation curve l - v: The curve labelled
There are certain substances which normally l - v represents those points where the liquid and
pass from the solid to the vapour state directly vapour phases are in equilibrium. Thus it is a
and vice versa. The change from solid state to graph of boiling point versus pressure. Note
vapour state without passing through the liquid that the curves correctly show that at a pressure
state is called sublimation and the substance is of 1 atmosphere, the boiling points of water is
said to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) and iodine 100°C and that the boiling point is lowered for
sublime. During the sublimation process, both a decreased pressure.
the solid and vapour states of a substance ii) Fusion curve l - s: The curve l - s represents
coexist in thermal equilibrium. Most substances the points where the solid and liquid phases
sublime at very low pressures. coexist in equilibrium. Thus it is a graph of the
7.8.2 Phase Diagram: freezing point versus pressure. At one standard
A pressure - temperature (PT) diagram atmosphere pressure, the freezing point of water
often called a phase diagram, is particularly is 0 °C as shown in Fig. 7.10 (a). Also notice
convenient for comparing different phases of a that at a pressure of one standard atmosphere
substance. water is in the liquid phase if the temperature is
between 0 °C and 100 °C but is in the solid or
A phase is a homogeneous composition of
vapour phase if the temperature is below 0 °C
a material. A substance can exist in different
or above 100 °C. Note that l - s curve for water
phases in solid state, e.g., you are familiar with
slopes upward to the left i.e., fusion curve of
two phases of carbon- graphite and diamond.
water has a slightly negative slope. This is true
Both are solids but the regular geometric

131
only of substances that expand upon freezing. Gas and vapour can thus be defined as-
However, for most materials like CO2, the 1) A substance which is in the gaseous phase
l - s curve slopes upwards to the right i.e., fusion and is above its critical temperature is called
curve has a positive slope. The melting point of a gas.
CO2 is -56 C at higher pressure of 5.11 atm. 2) A substance which is in the gaseous phase
iii) Sublimation curve s - v: The curve and is below its critical temperature is called
labelled s - v is the sublimation point versus a vapour.
pressure curve. Water sublimates at pressure Vapour can be liquefied simply by
less than 0.0060 atmosphere, while carbon increasing the pressure, while gas cannot.
dioxide, which in the solid state is called dry Vapour also exerts pressure like a gas.
ice, sublimates even at atmospheric pressure at 7.8.4 Latent Heat:
temperature as low as -78 C. Whenever there is a change in the state of
iv) Triple point: The temperature and pressure a substance, heat is either absorbed or given out
at which the fusion curve, the vapourisation but there is no change in the temperature of the
curve and the sublimation curve meet and all the substance.
three phases of a substance coexist is called the Latent heat of a substance is the quantity
triple point of the substance. That is, the triple of heat required to change the state of unit
point of water is that point where water in solid, mass of the substance without changing its
liquid and gaseous states coexist in equilibrium temperature.
and this occurs only at a unique temperature and Thus if mass m of a substance undergoes
pressure. The triple point of water is 273.16 K a change from one state to the other then the
and 6.11×10-3 Pa and that of CO2 is -56.6 C and quantity of heat absorbed or released is given
5.1×10-5 Pa. by Q = mL --- (7.33)
7.8.3 Gas and Vapour: where L is known as latent heat and is
The terms gas and vapour are sometimes characteristic of the substance. Its SI unit is J
used quite randomly. Therefore, it is important kg-1. The value of L depends on the pressure and
to understand the difference between the two. is usually quoted at one standard atmospheric
A gas cannot be liquefied by pressure alone, pressure.
no matter how high the pressure is. In order The quantity of heat required to convert
to liquefy a gas, it must be cooled to a certain unit mass of a substance from its solid state to
temperature. This temperature is called critical the liquid state, at its melting point, without
temperature. any change in its temperature is called its
Critical temperatures for some common gases latent heat of fusion (Lf ).
and water vapour are given in Table 7.5. Thus, The quantity of heat required to convert
nitrogen must be cooled below -147 °C to unit mass of a substance from its liquid state
liquefy it by pressure. to vapour state, at its boiling point without
Table 7.5: Critical Temperatures of some any change in its temperature is called its
common gases and water vapour. latent heat of vapourization (Lv ).
Gas Critical Temperature A plot of temperature versus heat energy
( C) (K) for a given quantity of water is shown is Fig.
7.11.
Air -190 83
From Fig. 7.11, we see that when heat is
N2 -147 126 added (or removed) during a change of state, the
O2 -118 155 temperature remains constant. Also the slopes
CO2 31.1 241.9 of the phase lines are not all the same, which
indicates that specific heats of the various states
Water vapour 374 647
are not equal. For water the latent heat of fusion

132
and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33×105J kg-1 and Lv =
22.6×105J kg-1 respectively. That is 3.33Í105J
of heat is needed to melt 1kg of ice at 0 °C
and 22.6×105J of heat is needed to convert 1
kg of water to steam at 100 °C. Hence, steam
at 100°C carries 22.6×105J kg-1 more heat than
water at 100 °C. This is why burns from steam
are usually more serious than those from boiling
water. Melting points, boiling point and latent
heats for various substances are given Table 7.6. Fig. 7.11: Temperature versus heat for
water at one standard atmospheric pressure
(not to scale).
Table 7.6 : Temperature of change of state and latent heats for various substances at one
standard atmosphere pressure.

Substance Melting point Lf Boiling point Lv

( C) (×10 Jkg-1)
5
( C) (×10 Jkg-1)
5

Gold 1063 0.645 2660 15.8

Lead 328 0.25 1744 8.67
Water 0 3.33 100 22.6
Ethyl alcohol -114 1.0 78 8.5
Mercury -39 0.12 357 2.7
Nitrogen -210 0.26 -196 2.0
Oxygen -219 0.14 -183 2.1

Example 7.16: When 0.1 kg of ice at 0 °C = mice s (T - Tice )

is mixed with 0.32 kg of water at 35 °C in a = 0.1 kg×4186 J×(7.8 - 0) C
container. The resulting temperature of the = 3265.08 J
mixture is 7.8 °C. Calculate the heat of fusion
of ice (swater = 4186 J kg-1 K-1). Head lost = Heat gained
36434.944  0.1 Lf  3265.08
Solution: Given
36434.944  3265.08
mice = 0.1 kg Lf  = 3316.9864
0.1
mwater = 0.32 kg
= 3.31698  105 J kg-1
Tice = 0 C
Twater = 35 C
Do you know ?
TF = 7.8 C
The latent heat of vapourization is
swater = 4186 kg K-1
much larger than the latent heat of fusion.
Heat lost by water The energy required to completely separate
= mwater swater (TF- Twater) the molecules or atoms is greater than the
= 0.32 kg × 4186 J × (7.8 - 35) C energy needed to break the rigidity (rigid
= - 36434.944 J (here negative sign bonds between the molecules or atoms) in
indicates loss of heat energy) solids. Also when the liquid is converted
Heat required to melt ice = mice Lf = 0.1×Lf into vapour, it expands. Work has to be done
against the surrounding atmosphere to allow
Heat required to raise temperature of water this expansion.
(from ice) to final temperature

133
7.9 Heat Transfer: the rod. This method of heat transfer is called
Heat may be transferred from one point conduction.
of body to another in three different ways- by Those solid substances which conduct heat
conduction, convection and radiation. Heat easily are called good conductors of heat e.g.
transferes through solids by conduction. In this silver, copper, aluminium, brass etc. All metals
process, heat is passed on from one molecule are good conductors of heat. Those substances
to other molecule but the molecules do not which do not conduct heat easily are called bad
leave their mean positions. Liquids and gases conductors of heat e.g. wood, cloth, air, paper,
are heated by convection. In this process, there etc. In general, good conductors of heat are
is a bodily movement of the heated molecules. also good conductors of electricity. Similarly
In order to transfer heat by conduction and bad conductors of heat are bad conductors of
convection a material medium is required. electricity also.
However transfer of heat by radiation does not 7.9.1.1 Thermal Conductivity:
need any medium. Radiation of heat energy Thermal conductivity of a solid is a
takes place by EM waves that travel with a measure of the ability of the solid to conduct
speed of 3×108 ms-1 in the space/vacuum . The heat through it. Thus good conductors of heat
energy from the Sun comes to us by radiation. have higher thermal conductivity than bad
It may be noted that conduction is a slow conductors.
process of heat transfer while convection is a
rapid process. However radiation is the fastest Suppose that one end of a metal rod is
process because the transfer of heat takes place heated (see Fig 7.12 (a)). The heat flows by
at the speed of light. conduction from hot end to the cold end. As a
result the temperature of every section of the
7.9.1 Conduction: rod starts increasing. Under this condition, the
Conduction is the process by which heat rod is said to be in a variable temperature state.
flows from the hot end to the cold end of a solid After some time the temperature at each section
body without any net bodily movement of the of the rod becomes steady i.e. does not change.
particles of the body. Note that temperature of each cross-section of
Heat passes through solids by conduction the rod is constant but not the same. This is
only. When one end of a metal rod is placed in called steady state condition. Under steady state
a flame while the other end is held in hand, the condition, the temperature at points within the
end held in hand slowly gets hotter, although rod decreases uniformly with distance from the
it itself is not in direct contact with flame. We hot end to the cold end. The fall of temperature
say that heat has been conducted from the hot with distance between the ends of the rod in the
end to the cold end. When one end of the rod direction of flow of heat, is called temperature
is heated, the molecules there vibrate faster. As gradient.
they collide with their slow moving neighbours, T1  T2
they transfer some of their energy by collision  Temperature gradient 
x
to these molecules which in turn transfer energy where T1= temperature of hot end
to their neighbouring molecules still farther
down the length of the rod. Thus the energy T2= temperature of cold end
of thermal motion is transferred by molecular x = length of the rod
collisions down the rod. The transfer of heat 7.9.1.2 Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity:
continues till the two ends of the rod are at the Consider a cube of each side x and each face
same temperature in principle but this will take of cross-sectional area A. Suppose its opposite
infinite time. Normally various sections of the faces are maintained at temperatures T1 and T2
rod will attain a temperature which remains (T1 > T2) as shown in Fig. 7.12 (b). Experiments
constant but not same through out the lenght of show that under steady state condition, the

134
quantity of heat ‘Q’ that flows from the hot face SI unit of coefficient of thermal
to the cold face is conductivity k is J s-1 m-1 °C-1 or J s-1 m-1 K-1 and
i) directly proportional to the cross-sectional its dimensions are [L1 M1 T-3 K-1].
area A of the face. i.e., Q A From Eq. (7.34), we also have
ii) directly proportional to the temperature Q kA(T1  T2 )
difference between the two faces i.e., Q  --- (7.36)
t x
(T1- T2)
The quantity Q/t, denoted by Pcond , is the
iii) directly proportional to time t (in seconds)
time rate of heat flow (i.e. heat flow per second)
for which heat flows i.e. Q t
from the hotter face to the colder face, at right
iv) inversely proportional to the perpendicular angles to the faces. Its SI unit is watt (W). SI
distance x between hot and cold faces i.e., unit of k can therefore be written as W m-1 °C-1
Q 1/x or W m-1 K-1.
Combining the above four factors, we Using calculus, Eq. (7.36) may be written
have the quantity of heat as
A(T1  T2 )t dQ dT
Q  kA
x dt dx
kA(T1  T2 )t dT
Q  --- (7.34) where is the temperature gradient.
x dx
where k is a constant of proportionality and is The negative sign indicates that heat flow
called coefficient of thermal conductivity. Its is in the direction of decreasing temperature.
value depends upon the nature of the material. dT dQ
If A 1 m 2 and 1, then k
If A = l m , T1-T2= 1 C (or 1 K), t = 1 s and
2
dx dt
(numerically).
x = 1 m, then from Eq. (7.34), Q = k.
Hence the coefficient of thermal
Fig 7.12 (a):
conductivity of a material may also be
Section of a
defined as the rate of flow of heat per unit
metal bar in the
area per unit temperature gradient when the
steady state.
heat flow is at right angles to the faces of a
thin parallel-sided slab of material.
The coefficients of thermal conductivity of
some materials are given Table 7.7.
Fig 7.12 (b): Section
7.9.1.3 Thermal Resistance (RT):
of a cube in the
steady state. Conduction rate Pcond is the amount of
energy transferred per unit time through a slab
of area A and thickness x, the two sides of the
slab being at temperatures T1 and T2 (T1 >T2), and
Thus the coefficient of thermal
is given by Eq. (7.36)
conductivity of a material is defined as the
quantity of heat that flows in one second Q T T
Pcond   kA 1 2 --- (7.37)
between the opposite faces of a cube of side t x
1 m, the faces being kept at a temperature
As discussed earlier, k depends on the
difference of 1°C (or 1 K).
material of the slab. A material that readily
From Eq. (7.34), we have
transfers heat energy by conduction is a good
Qx
k --- (7.35) thermal conductor and has high value of k.
A(T1  T2 )t

135
 Table 7.7: Coefficient of thermal kcal or °C s/J and its dimensional formula is
conductivity (k). [M-1 L-2 T3 K1].
Substance Coefficient of thermal The lower the thermal conductivity k,
conductivity (J s-1 m-1 K-1) the higher is the thermal resistance. RT A
Silver 406 material with high RT value is a poor thermal
Copper 385 conductor and is a good thermal insulator.
Aluminium 205 Thermal resistivity T is the reciprocal of
Steel 50.2 thermal conductivity k and is characteristic of a
Insulating brick 0.15 material while thermal resistance is that of slab
Glass 0.8 (or of rod) and depends on the material and on
Brick and concrete 0.8 the thickness of slab (or length of rod).
Water 0.8
Example 7.17: What is the rate of energy
Wood 0.04-0.12
Air at 0 C 0.024 loss in watt per square metre through a glass
window 5 mm thick if outside temperature
In western countries , where the temperature is -20 ºC and inside temperature is 25 ºC?
falls below 0 ºC in winter season, insulating the (kglass = 1 W/m K)
house from the surroundings is very important.
In our country, if we wish to carry cold drinks Solution : Given
with us for picnic or wish to bring ice-cream kglass = 1 W/m K
from the shop to our house, we need to keep T1 = 25 ºC
them in containers (made up of say thermocol) T2 = -20 ºC
that are poor thermal conductors. Hence the x = 5 mm = 5 × 10-3 m
concept of thermal resistance RT, similar
to electrical resistance, is introduced. The ∴ T1 T2 = 25 – (-20) ºC = 45 K
opposition of a body, to the flow of heat through Q T1  T2
We have Pcond   kA .
it, is called thermal resistance. The greater the t x
thermal conductivity of a material, the smaller ∴The energy loss per square metre,
is its thermal resistance and vice versa. Thus Pcond T T
k 1 2
bad thermal conductors are those which have A x
high thermal resistance.
= 1W m-1 K-1 × 45 K / (5 × 10-3 m)
From Eq. (7.37) = 9 × 103 W/m2
(T1  T2 ) x 7.9.1.4 Applications of Thermal Conductivity:

Pcond kA i) Cooking utensils are made of metals
but are provided with handles of bad
We know that when a current flows through a conductors.
conductor, the ratio V/I is called the electrical Since metals are good conductors of
resistance of the conductor where V is the heat, heat can be easily conducted through
electrical potential difference between the ends the base of the utensils. The handles of
of the conductor and I is the current or rate utensils are made of bad conductors of
of flow of charge. In Eq. (7.38), (T1-T2) is the heat (e.g., wood, ebonite etc.) so that they
temperature difference between the ends of the can not conduct heat from the utensils to
conductor and Pcond is the rate of flow of heat. our hands.
Therefore in analogy with electrical resistance, ii) Thick walls are used in the construction
(T1-T2)/ Pcond is called thermal resistance RT of of cold storage rooms. Brick is a bad
the material i.e., conductor of heat so that it reduces the
x flow of heat from the surroundings to
Thermal resistance RT
kA the rooms. Still better heat insulation
The SI unit of thermal resistance is °C s/
is obtained by using hollow bricks. Air

136
 being a poorer conductor than a brick, it Solution : Given
further avoids the conduction of heat from A = 1000 cm2 = 1000 ×10-4 m2
outside. k = 0.022 cal/ s cm C = 0.022 ×102 cal/m C
iii) To prevent ice from melting it is wrapped
x = 4 mm = 0.4 ×10-2 m
in a gunny bag. A gunny bag is a poor
conductor of heat and reduces the heat T1 = 27 C, T2 = -5 C
flow from outside to ice. Moreover, the From Eq. (7.34), we have
air filled in the interspaces of a gunny kA(T1  T2 )t
bag, being very bad conductor of heat, Q
x
further avoids the conduction of heat from
outside. Q kA(T1  T2 )
 
Low thermal conductivity can also be t x
a disadvantage. When hot water is poured in 0.022  102  1000  104  (27  (5))

a glass beaker the inner surface of the glass 0..4  102
expends on heating. Since glass is a bad  1.76  103 cal / s  1.76 kcal / s
conductor of heat, the heat from inside does not
reach the outside surface so quickly. Hence the 7.9.2 Convection:
outer surface does not expand thereby causing We have seen that heat is transmitted
a crack in the glass. through solids by conduction wherein energy
Example 7.18: The temperature difference is transferred from one molecule to another but
between two sides of an iron plate, 2 cm thick, the molecules themselves vibrating with larger
is 10 °C. Heat is transmitted through the plate at amplitude do not leave their mean positions.
the rate of 600 kcal per minute per square metre But in convection, heat is transmitted from one
at steady state. Find the thermal conductivity point to another by the actual bodily movement
of iron. of the heated (energised) molecules within the
Solution: Given fluid.
In liquids and gases heat is transmitted by
Q 600
 600 kcal / min m 2   10 kcal / s m 2 convection because their molecules are quite
At 60 free to move about. The mechanism of heat
2
x  2 cm  2  10 m transfer by convection in liquids and gases is
T1  T2  10 C described below.
From Eq.(7.34), we have Consider water being heated in a vessel
kA(T1  T2 )t from below. The water at the bottom of the
Q vessel is heated first and consequently its
x
density decreases i.e., water molecules at the
Q x bottom are separated farther apart. These hot
k 
At T1  T2 molecules have high kinetic energy and rise
2 2
10 kcal / s m  2  10 m upward to cold region while the molecules from
 cold region come down to take their place. Thus
10C
each molecule at the bottom gets heated and
 0.02 kcal / m s C
rises then cools and descends. This action sets
Example 7.19: Calculate the rate of loss of up the flow of water molecules called convection
heat through a glass window of area 1000 currents. The convection currents transfer heat
cm2 and thickness of 4 mm, when temperature to the entire mass of water. Note that transfer of
inside is 27 °C and outside is -5 °C. Coefficient heat is by the bodily/ physical movement of the
of thermal conductivity of glass is 0.022 cal/ s water molecules.
cm °C.

137
 Always remember: circulation of fresh air. This is called forced
convection. Example in section 7.9.2.1
The process by which heat is transmitted
are of forced convection, namely, heat
through a substance from one point to
convector, air conditioner, heat radiators in
another due to the actual bodily movement
IC engine etc.
of the heated particles of the substance is
called convection. 7.9.3 Radiation:
7.9.2.1 Applications of Convection: The transfer of heat energy from one
place to another via emission of EM energy
i) Heating and cooling of rooms
(in a straight line with the speed of light)
The mechanism of heating a room by a without heating the intervening medium is
heater is entirely based on convection. The called radiation.
air molecules in immediate contact with the
For transfer of heat by radiation, molecules
heater are heated up. These air molecules
are not needed i.e. medium is not required. The
acquire sufficient energy and rise upward.
fact that Earth receives large quantities of heat
The cool air at the top being denser moves
form the Sun shows that heat can pass through
down to take their place. This cool air in
empty space (i.e., vacuum) between the Sun and
turn gets heated and moves upward. In this
the atmosphere that surrounds the Earth . In
way, convection currents are set up in the
fact, transfer of heat by radiation has the same
room which transfer heat to different parts
properties as light (or EM wave).
of the room. The same principle but in
opposite direction is used to cool a room A natural question arises as to how heat
by an air-conditioner. transfer occurs is the absence of a medium
(i.e., molecules). All objects possess thermal
ii) Cooling of transformers
energy due to their temperature T(T > 0 K).
Due to current flowing in the windings of The rapidly moving molecules of a hot body
the transformer, enormous heat is produced. emit EM waves travelling with the velocity
Therefore, transformer is always kept in of light. These are called thermal radiations.
a tank containing oil. The oil in contact These carry energy with them and transfer it
with transformer body heats up, creating to the low-speed molecules of a cold body on
convection currents. The warm oil comes which they fall. This results in an increase in
in contact with the cooler tank, gives heat the molecular motion of the cold body and
to it and descends to the bottom. It again its temperature rises. Thus transfer of heat by
warms up to rise upward. This process is radiation is a two-fold process- the conversion
repeated again and again. The heat of the of thermal energy into waves and reconversion
transformer body is thus carried away by of waves into thermal energy by the body on
convection to the cooler tank. The cooler which they fall. We will learn about EM waves
tank, in turn loses its heat by convection to in Chapter 13.
the surrounding air.
7.10 Newton’s Laws of Cooling:
7.9.2.2 Free and Forced Convection:
If hot water in a vessel is kept on table,
i) When a hot body is in contact with air it begins to cool gradually. To study how a
under ordinary conditions, like air around given body can cool on exchanging heat with
a firewood, the air removes heat from the its surroundings, following experiment is
body by a process called free or natural performed.
convection. Land and sea breezes are
A calorimeter is filled up to two third of
also formed as a result of free convection
its capacity with boiling water and is covered.
currents in air.
A thermometer is fixed through a hole in the
ii) The convection process can be accelerated lid and its position is adjusted so that the bulb
by employing a fan to create a rapid of the thermometer is fully immersed in water.

138
The calorimeter vessel is kept in a constant According to Newton’s law of cooling the
temperature enclosure or just in open air since rate of loss of heat dT/dt of the body is directly
room temperature will not change much proportional to the difference of temperature
during experiment. The temperature on the (T -T0) of the body and the surroundings
thermometer is noted at one minute interval provided the difference in temperatures is small.
until the temperature of water decreases by Mathematically this may be expressed as
about 25 °C. A graph of temperature T (along dT
 (T -T0 )
y-axis) is plotted against time t (along x-axis). dt
This graph is called cooling curve (Fig 7.13 (a)). dT
From this graph you can infer how the cooling   C (T -T0 ) --- (7.39)
dt
of hot water depends on the difference of its where C is constant of proportionality.
temperature from that of its surroundings. You
will also notice that initially the rate of cooling Example 7.22: A metal sphere cools at the rate
is higher and it decreases as the temperature of 1.6 °C/min when its temperature is 70°C. At
of the water falls. A tangent is drawn to the what rate will it cool when its temperature is
curve at suitable points on the curve. The slope 40°C. The temperature of surroundings is 30°C.
of each tangent (dT/dt) gives the rate of fall of Solution: Given T1 = 70 C
temperature at that temperature. Taking (0,0) T2 = 40 C
as the origin, if a graph of dT/dt is plotted T0 = 30 C
against corresponding temperature difference  dT 
(T-T0), the curve is a straight line as shown in  dt   1.6 C / min
 1
Fig 7.13 (b).
Fig 7.13 (a): According to Newton’s law of cooling, if
Temperature versus C is the constant of proportionality
time graph. lim T  dT 
t 0 t  dt   C (T1 -T0 )
 1
gives the slope of the
or, 1.6  C (70  30)
tangent drawn to the
curve at point A and 1.6
C   0.04 / min
indicates the rate of 40
fall of temperature.  dT 
Also    C (T2 -T0 )
 dt 2
 0.04(40  30)  0.4  C/ min

Fig 7.13 (b): Thus the rate of cooling drops by a factor of

Rate of change of four when the difference in temperature of the
temperature versus metal sphere and its surroundings drops by a
time graph. factor of four.

Internet my friend
The above activity shows that a hot body
loses heat to its surroundings in the form of heat 1. https://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on hbase/hframe.html
the difference in the temperature of the body 2. https://youtu.be/7ZKHc5J6R5Q
and its surroundings. Newton was the first to 3. https://physics.info/expansion
study the relation between the heat lost by a
body in a given enclosure and its temperature
in a systematic manner.

139
 Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. iv) What is absolute zero?
i) Range of temperature in a clinical v) Derive the relation between three
thermometer, which measures the coefficients of thermal expansion.
temperature of human body, is vi) State applications of thermal expansion.
(A)70 ºC to 100 ºC vii) Why do we generally consider two
(B) 34 ºC to 42 ºC specific heats for a gas?
(C) 0 ºF to 100 ºF viii) Are freezing point and melting point
(D) 34 ºF to 80 ºF same with respect to change of state ?
ii) A glass bottle completely filled with water Comment.
is kept in the freezer. Why does it crack? ix) Define (i) Sublimation (ii) Triple point.
(A) Bottle gets contracted x) Explain the term 'steady state'.
(B) Bottle is expanded xi) Define coefficient of thermal
(C) Water expands on freezing conductivity. Derive its expression.
(D) Water contracts on freezing xii) Give any four applications of thermal
iii) If two temperatures differ by 25 °C on conductivity in every day life.
Celsius scale, the difference in temperature xiii) Explain the term thermal resistance.
on Fahrenheit scale is State its SI unit and dimensions.
(A) 65° (B) 45° xiv) How heat transfer occurs through
(C) 38° (D) 25° radiation in absence of a medium?
iv) If , and are coefficients of linear, area xv) State Newton’s law of cooling and
l and volume expansion of a solid then explain how it can be experimentally
(A) : : 1:3:2 (B) : : 3:1:2 verified.
(C) : : 2:3:1 (D) : : 3:1:2 xvi) What is thermal stress? Give an example
v) Consider the following statements- of disadvantages of thermal stress in
(I) The coefficient of linear expansion has practical use?
dimension K -1 xvii) Which materials can be used as thermal
(II) The coefficient of volume expansion insulators and why?
has dimension K -1
3. Solve the following problems.
(A) I and II are both correct i) A glass flask has volume 1×10-4 m3.
(B) I is correct but II is wrong It is filled with a liquid at 30 ºC.
(C) II is correct but I is wrong If the temperature of the system is raised to
(D) I and II are both wrong 100 ºC, how much of the liquid
vi) Water falls from a hight of 200 m. What is will overflow. (Coefficient of
the difference in temperature between the volume expansion of glass is 1.2 × 10-5
water at the top and bottom of a water fall (ºC)-1 while that of the liquid is 75 × 10-5
given that specific heat of water is 4200 J (ºC)-1).
kg-1 °C-1? [Ans : 516.6 × 10-8 m3]
(A) 0.96°C (B) 1.02°C ii) Which will require more energy, heating
(C) 0.46°C (D) 1.16°C a 2.0 kg block of lead by 30 K or heating
2. Answer the following questions. a 4.0 kg block of copper by 5 K? (slead =
i) Clearly state the difference between heat 128 J kg-1 K-1, scopper = 387 J kg-1 K-1)
and temperature? [Ans : copper]
ii) How a thermometer is calibrated ? iii) Specific latent heat of vaporization of
iii) What are different scales of temperature? water is 2.26 × 106 J/kg. Calculate the
What is the relation between them? energy needed to change 5.0 g of water

140
 into steam at 100 ºC. x) An aluminium rod and iron rod show 1.5
[Ans : 11.3 × 10 J]
3
m difference in their lengths when heated
iv) A metal sphere cools at the rate of at all temperature. What are their lengths
0.05 ºC/s when its temperature is 70 at 0 °C if coefficient of linear expansion
ºC and at the rate of 0.025 ºC/s when for aluminium is 24.5×10-6 /°C and for
its temperature is 50 ºC. Determine the iron is 11.9×10-6 /°C
temperature of the surroundings and find [Ans: 1.417m, 2.917m]
the rate of cooling when the temperature xi) What is the specific heat of a metal if 50
of the metal sphere is 40 ºC. cal of heat is needed to raise 6 kg of the
[Ans : 30 ºC, 0.0125 ºC/s] metal from 20°C to 62 °C ?
v) The volume of a gas varied linearly with [Ans: s = 0.198 cal/kg °C]
absolute temperature if its pressure is xii) The rate of flow of heat through a copper
held constant. Suppose the gas does not rod with temperature difference 30 °C is
liquefy even at very low temperatures, at 1500 cal/s. Find the thermal resistance
what temperature the volume of the gas of copper rod.
will be ideally zero? [Ans 0.02 °C/scal]
[Ans : -273.15 ºC] xiii) In electric kettle takes 20 minutes to
vi) In olden days, while laying the rails for heat a curtain quantity of water from 0°C
trains, small gaps used to be left between to boiling point. It requires 90 minutes
the rail sections to allow for thermal to turn all the water at 100°C into steam.
expansion. Suppose the rails are laid at Find the latent heat of vaporisation.
room temperature 27 ºC. If maximum (Specific heat of water = 1cal/g°C)
temperature in the region is 45 ºC and [Ans: 450 cal/g]
the length of each rail section is 10 m, xiv) Find the temperature difference between
what should be the gap left given that two sides of a steel plate 4 cm thick,
= 1.2 × 10-5 K-1 for the material of the rail when heat is transmitted through the
section? plate at the rate of 400 k cal per minute
[Ans : 2.16 mm] per square metre at steady state. Thermal
vii) A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of conductivity of steel is 0.026 kcal/m s K.
the wooden wheel of a bullock cart. The [Ans:10.26°C]
diameter of the wooden rim and the iron xv) A metal sphere cools from 80 °C to 60
ring are 1.5 m and 1.47 m respectively °C in 6 min. How much time with it take
at room temperature of 27 ºC. To what to cool from 60 °C to 40 °C if the room
temperature the iron ring should be temperature is 30°C?
heated so that it can fit the rim of the [Ans: 10 min]
wheel ( iron = 1.2×10-5 K-1).
[Ans: 1727.7 °C ] ***
viii) In a random temperature scale X, water
boils at 200 °X and freezes at 20 °X.
Find the boiling point of a liquid in this
scale if it boils at 62 °C.
[Ans: 131.6°X]
ix) A gas at 900°C is cooled until both
its pressure and volume are halved.
Calculate its final temperature.
[Ans: 293.29K]

141
 8. Sound
Can you recall?
1. What type of wave is a sound wave? 2. Can sound travel in vacuum?
3. What are reverberation and echo? 4. What is meant by pitch of sound?
8.1 Introduction: agencies. In such types of waves energy gets
We are all aware of the ripples created on the transferred from one point to another. Water
surface of water when a stone is dropped in it. waves mentioned above are travelling waves.
The water molecules oscillate up and down They keep travelling outward from the point
around their equilibrium positions but they do where stone was dropped until they are stopped
not move from one point to another along the by walls of the container or the boundary of the
surface of water. The disturbance created by water body. Other type of waves are stationary
dropping the stone, however travels outwards. waves about which we will learn in XIIth
This type of wave is a periodic and regular standard.
disturbance in a medium which does not cause 8.2 Common Properties of all Waves:
any flow of material but causes the flow of The properties described below are valid for
energy and momentum from one point to all types of waves, however, here they are
another. There are different types of waves and described for mechanical waves.
not all types require material medium to travel 1) Amplitude (A): Amplitude of a wave motion
through. We know that light is a type of wave is the largest displacement of a particle of the
and it can travel through vacuum. Here we will medium through which the wave is propagating,
first study different types of waves, learn about from its rest position. It is measured in metre
their common properties and then study sound in SI units.
waves in particular.
2) Wavelength ( ): Wavelength is the distance
Types of waves: between two successive particles which are
(i) Mechanical waves: A wave is said to be in the same state of vibration. It is further
mechanical if a material medium is essential explained below. It is measured in metre.
for its propagation. Examples of these types 3) Period (T): Time required to complete one
of waves are water waves, waves along a vibration by a particle of the medium is the
stretched string, seismic waves, sound waves, period T of the wave. It is measured in seconds.
etc.
4) Double periodicity: Waves possess double
(ii) EM waves: These are generated due to periodicity. At every location the wave motion
periodic vibrations in electric and magnetic repeats itself at equal intervals of time, hence
fields. These waves can propagate through it is periodic in time. Similarly, at any given
material media, however, material medium is instant, the form of wave repeats at equal
not essential for their propagation. These will distances hence, it is periodic in space. In
be studied in Chapter 13. this way wave motion is a doubly periodic
(iii) Matter waves: There is always a wave phenomenon i.e periodic in time and periodic
associated with any object if it is in motion. in space.
Such waves are matter waves. These are 5) Frequency (n): Frequency of a wave is the
studied in quantum mechanics. number of vibrations performed by a particle
Travelling or progressive waves are during each second. SI unit of frequency
waves in which a disturbance created at is hertz. (Hz) Frequency is a reciprocal
one place travels to distant points and keeps 1
travelling unless stopped by some external of time period, i.e., n
T

142
6) Velocity (v): The distance covered by a In the figure 8.1 (a), displacements of
wave per unit time is called the velocity of the various particles along a sinusoidal wave
wave. During the period (T), the wave covers a travelling along + ve x-axis are plotted against
distance equal to the wavelength ( ) Therefore their respective distances from the source (at
the magnitude of velocity of wave is given by, O) at a given instant. This plot is valid for
distance transverse as well as longitudinal wave.
Magnitude of velocity =
time The state of oscillation of a particle is called
wavelength its phase. In order to describe the phase at a
v place, we need to know (a) the displacement (b)
period
the direction of velocity and (c) the oscillation
 number (during which oscillation) of the
v 
T --- (8.1) particle there.
1 In Fig. 8.1 (a), particles P and Q (or E and
but n (frequency) --- (8.2) C or B and D) have same displacements but the
T
 v  n --- (8.3) directions of the their velocities are opposite.
This equation indicates that, the magnitude Particles B and F have same magnitude of
of velocity of a wave in a medium is constant. displacements and same direction of velocity.
Increase in frequency of a wave causes decrease Such particles are said to be in phase during
in its wavelength. When a wave goes from one their respective oscillations. Also, these are
medium to another medium, the frequency of successive particles with this property of having
the wave does not change. In such a case speed same phase. Separation between these two
and wavelength of the wave change. particles is wavelength . These two successive
For mechanical waves to propagate through particles differ by '1' in their oscillation number,
a medium, the medium should possess certain i.e., if particle B is at its nth oscillation, particle
properties as given below: F will be at its (n +1)th oscillation as the wave is
travelling along + x direction. Most convenient
i) The medium should be continuous and
way to understand phase is in terms of angle.
elastic so that the medium regains original
For a sinusoidal wave, the variation in the
state after removal of deforming forces.
displacement is a 'sine' function of distance
ii) The medium should possess inertia. The from the source and of time as discussed below.
medium must be capable of storing energy For such waves it is possible for us to assign
and of transferring it in the form of waves. angles corresponding to the displacement (or
iii) The frictional resistance of the medium time).
must be negligible so that the oscillations
At the instant the above graph is drawn,
will not be damped.
the disturbance (energy) has just reached the
7) Phase and phase difference: particle A. The phase angle corresponding
to this particle A can be taken as 0 At this
instant, particle B has completed quarter
oscillation and reached its positive maximum
(sin 1). The phase angle of this particle
Fig. 8.1 (a): Displacement as a function of B is c/2 = 90 at this instant. Similarly, phase
distance along the wave. angles of particles C and E are c (180 ) and 2 c
(360 ) respectively. Particle F has completed
one oscillation and is at its positive maximum
during its second oscillation. Hence its phase
 c 5 c
angle is 2  
c
Fig. 8.1 (b): Displacement as a function of .
2 2
time.

143
 B and F are the successive particles in 8.3 Transverse Waves and Longitudinal
the same state (same displacement and same Waves:
direction of velocity) during their respective Progressive waves can be of two types,
oscillations. Separation between these two is transverse and longitudinal waves.
wavelength ( ). Phase angle between these Transverse waves : A wave in which
two differs by 2 c. Hence wavelength is better particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
understood as the separation between two perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
particles with phase difference of 2 c. wave is called transverse wave. Water waves
As noted above, waves possess double are transverse waves, as water molecules
periodicity. This means the displacements of vibrate perpendicular to the surface of water
particles are periodic in space (as shown in Fig.while the wave propagates along the surface.
8.1 (a)) as well as periodic time. Figure 8.1 Characteristics of transverse waves.
(b) shows the displacement of one particular 1) All particles of the medium in the path of the
particle as a function of time. wave vibrate in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave
Activity : with same period and amplitude.
2) When transverse wave passes through
(1) Using axes of displacement and a medium, the medium is divided
distance, sketch two waves A and B into alternate the crests i.e., regions of
such that A has twice the wavelength positive displacements and troughs i.e.,
regions of negative displacements.
and half the amplitude of B.
3) A crest and an adjacent trough form one
(2) Determine the wavelength and
cycle of a transverse wave. The distance
amplitude of each of the two waves P measured along the wave between any two
and Q shown in figure below. consecutive points in the same phase (crest
or trough) is called the wavelength of the
wave.
4) Crests and troughs advance in the
medium and are responsible for transfer of
energy.
5) Transverse waves can travel through solids
Characteristics of progressive wave and on surfaces of liquids only. They can
1) All vibrating particles of the medium have not travel through liquids and gases. EM
same amplitude, period and frequency. waves are transverse waves but they do
2) State of oscillation i.e., phase changes from not require material medium for
particle to particle. propagation.
Example 8.1: The speed of sound in air is 330 6) When transverse waves advance through a
m/s and that in glass is 4500 m/s. What is the medium there is no change in the pressure
ratio of the wavelength of sound of a given and density at any point of medium,
frequency in the two media? however shape changes periodically.
Solution: vair = n air 7) If vibrations of all the particles along the
path of a wave are constrained to be in
vglass = n glass
a single plane, then the wave is called
air v air 330 polarised wave. Transverse wave can be
 =   7.33  10 2

glass v glass 4500 polarised.

 0.0733  7.33  102 8) Medium conveying a transverse wave
must possess elasticity of shape.

144
Longitudinal waves : A wave in which requirement of the function is that it should
particles of the medium vibrate in a direction describe the motion of the particle of the medium
parallel to the direction of propagation of wave at that point. A sinusoidal progressive wave can
is called longitudinal wave. Sound waves are be described by a sinusoidal function. Let us
longitudinal waves.
assume that the progressive wave is transverse
Characteristics of longitudinal waves: and, therefore, the position of the particle of the
1) All the particles of medium along the path
medium is described by a fixed value of x. The
of the wave vibrate in a direction parallel
to the direction of propagation of wave displacement from the equilibrium position can
with same period and amplitude. be described by y. Such a sinusoidal wave can
2) When longitudinal wave passes through be written as follows:
a medium, the medium is divided into y (x,t) = a sin (kx - t + ) --- (8.4)
regions of alternate compressions and Hence a, k, and are constants.
rarefactions. Compression is the region Let us see the justification for writing this
where the particles of medium are crowded equation. At a particular instant say t = to,
(high pressure zone), while rarefaction is y (x, t0) = a sin (kx - t0 + )
the region where the particles of medium
= a sin (kx + constant )
are more widely separated, i.e. the medium
gets rarefied (low pressure zone). Thus the shape of the wave at t = t0, as a
3) A compression and adjacent rarefaction function of x is a sine wave.
form one cycle of longitudinal wave. The Also, at a fixed location x = x0,
distance measured along the wave between y (x0,t) = a sin (kx0- t + )
any two consecutive points having the = a sin (constant - t)
same phase is the wavelength of wave. Hence the displacement y, at x = x0 varies
4) For propagation of longitudinal waves, as a sine function.
the medium should possess the property This means that the particles of the medium,
of elasticity of volume. Thus longitudinal
through which the wave travels, execute simple
waves can travel through solids. liquids
and gases. Longitudinal wave can not harmonic motion around their equilibrium
travel through vacuum or free space. position. In addition x must increase in the
5) The compression and rarefaction advance positive direction as time t increases, so as to
in the medium and are responsible for keep (kx- t + ) a constant. Thus the Eq. (8.4)
transfer of energy. represents a wave travelling along the positive
6) When longitudinal wave advances through x axis. A wave represented by
a medium there are periodic variations y(x, t) = a sin (kx + t + ) --- (8.5)
in pressure and density along the path of is a wave travelling in the direction of the
wave and also with time.
negative x axis.
7) Longitudinal waves can not be polarised,
as the direction of vibration of particles Symbols in Eq. (8.4):
and direction of propagation of wave are y (x, t) is the displacement as a function of
same or parallel. position (x) and time (t)
8.4 Mathematical Expression of a Wave: a is the amplitude of the wave.
Let us describe a progressive wave is the angular frequency of the wave
mathematically. Since it is a progressive wave, k is the angular wave number
we require a function of both the position x and (kx0- t + ) is the argument of the
time t. This function will describe the shape sinusoidal wave and is the phase of the particle
of the wave at any instant of time. Another at x at time t.

145
8.5 The Speed of Travelling Waves Table 8.1: Speed of Sound in Gas, Liquids,
Speed of a mechanical wave depends and Solids
upon the elastic properties and density of the
medium. The same medium can support both Medium Speed (m/s)
transverse and longitudinal waves which have Gases
different speeds. Air [0 C] 331
8.5.1 The speed of transverse waves Air [20 C] 343
The speed of a wave is determined by Helium 965
the restoring force produced in the medium Hydrogen 1284
when it is disturbed. The speed also depends Liquids
on inertial properties like mass density of the Water (0 C) 1402
medium. The waves produced on a string are Water (20 C) 1482
transverse waves. In this case the restoring Seawater 1522
force is provided by the tension T in the string. Solids
The inertial property i.e. the linear mass density Vulcanised Rubber 54
m, can be determined from the mass of string M Copper 3560
and its length L as m = M/L. The formula for Steel 5941
speed of transverse wave on stretched string is Granite 6000
given by Aluminium 6420
T
v --- (8.6) 8.5.3 Newton’s formula for velocity of sound:
m Propagation of longitudinal waves was
The derivation of the formula is beyond the studied by Newton. Sound waves travel
scope of this book. through a medium in the form of compressions
The important point here is that the speed of a and rarefactions. The density of medium is
transverse wave depends only on the properties greater at the compression while being smaller
of the string, T and m. It does not depend on in the rarefaction. Hence the velocity of sound
wavelength or frequency of the wave. depends on elasticity and density of the medium.
8.5.2 The speed of longitudinal waves Newton formulated the relation as
In case of longitudinal waves, the particles E
of the medium oscillate forward and backward v  --- (8.7)

along the direction of wave propagation. This
where E is the proper modulus of elasticity of
causes compression and rarefaction which
medium and is the density of medium.
travel in the medium as the medium possess
elastic property. Newton assumed that, during propagation
Speed of sound in liquids and solids is of sound, there is no change in the average
higher than that in gases. The speed of sound temperature of the medium. Hence sound
as a longitudinal wave in an ideal gas is given wave propagation in air is an isothermal
by Newton’s formula as discussed below. process (temperature remaining constant ) and
Speed of sound in different media is given in isothermal elasticity should be considered.
table below. The volume elasticity of air determined under
isothermal change is called isothermal bulk
Always remember: modulus and is equal to the atmospheric
When a sound wave goes from one pressure ‘P’. Hence Newtons formula for speed
medium to another its velocity changes of sound in air is given by
along with its wavelength. Its frequency,
P
which is decided by the source remains v 
 --- (8.8)
constant.

146
As atmospheric pressure is given by P=hdg process but is a rapid process. If frequency is
and at NTP, 256 Hz, the air is compressed and rarefied 256
h = 0.76 m of Hg times in a second. Such process must be a rapid
process. Heat is produced during compression
d = 13600 kg/m3-density of mercury
and is lost during rarefaction. This heat does not
= 1.293 kg/m3- density of air get sufficient time for dissipation. Due to this
and g = 9.8 m/s2 the total heat content remains the same. Such
0.76  13600  9.8 a process is called an adiabatic process and
v hence, adiabatic elasticity must be adiabatic
1.293
and not isothermal elasticity, as was assumed
v = 279.9 m/s at NTP. by Newton.
This is the value of velocity of sound
according to Newton’s formula. But the Always remember:
experimental value of velocity of sound at 00C In isothermal process temperature
as determined earlier by a number of scientists remains constant while in adiabatic
is 332 m/s. The difference between predicted process there is neither transfer of heat
value by Newton’s formula and experimental nor of mass.
value is large and it is not due to experimental The adiabatic modulus of elasticity of air
error. The Experimental value is 16% greater is given by,
than the value given by the formula. Newton
could not give satisfactory explanation of this E= P --- (8.9)
discrepancy. It was resolved by French physicist where P is the pressure of the medium (air)
Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827). and is ratio of specific heat of air at constant
Example 8.2: Suppose you are listening to an pressure (Cp) to the specific heat of air at
out-door live concert sitting at a distance of 150 constant volume (Cv) called as the adiabatic
m from the speakers. Your friend is listening ratio
to the live broadcast of the concert in another Cp
i.e., = --- (8.10)
country and the radio signal has to travel 3000 Cv
km to reach him. Who will hear the music first
and what will be the time difference between For air the ratio of Cp / Cv is 1.41
the two? Velocity of light =3×108 m/s and that i.e. = 1.41
of sound is 330m/s. Newton's formula for speed of sound in air as
Solution: Time taken by sound to reach you modified by Laplace to give
150 P
s 0.4546 v  --- (8.11)
330 
Time taken by the broadcasted sound (which is
done by EM waves having velocity =3×108m/s) Accoriding to this formula velocity of sound at
3 NTP is
3000 km 3  10
   102 s
5
3  10 km / s 3  10 5 1.41 0.76  13600  9.8
v
1.293
∴ your friend will hear the sound first. The
time difference will be = 332.3 m/s
= 0.4546 - 0.01 This value is in close agreement with
= 0.4446 s. the experimental value. As seen above, the
velocity of sound depends on the properties of
8.5.4 Laplace’s correction
the medium.
According to Laplace, the generation
of compression and rarefaction is not a slow

147
8.5.5 Factors affecting speed of sound: Hence for gaseous medium obeying ideal
As sound waves travel through atmosphere gas equation change in pressure has no effect
(open air), some factors related to air affect the on velocity of sound unless there is change in
speed of sound. temperature.
Example 8.3: Consider a closed box of rigid
Do you know ?
walls so that the density of the air inside it
Cp, the specific heat of gas at constant is constant. On heating, the pressure of this
pressure, is defined as the quantity of heat enclosed air is increased from P0 to P. It is now
required to raise the temperature of unit mass observed that sound travels 1.5 times faster
of gas through 1 K when pressure remains
0 than at pressure P0 calculate P/P0.
constant. Solution:
Cv, the specific heat of gas at constant  Po
volume, is defined as the quantity of heat vP 

required to raise the temperature of unit mass
of gas through 10 K when volume remains  Po
vPo 
constant. 
When pressure is kept constant the v P  1.5 v P o
volume of the gas increases with increase in
temperature. Thus additional heat is required P  Po
 1.5
to increase the volume of gas against the  
external pressure. Therefore heat required P P
 2.25 o
to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas  
through 10 K when pressure is kept constant P  2.25 Po
is greater than the heat required when volume
is kept constant. i.e. Cp > Cv. (b) Effect of temperature on speed of sound
Suppose vo and v are the speeds of sound at
a) Effect of pressure on velocity of sound
T0 and T in kelvin respectively. Let 0 and be
According to Laplace’s formula velocity the densities of gas at these two temperatures.
of sound in air is The velocity of sound at temperature T0 and T
P can be written by using Eq. (8.13),
v 
  RT0
v0 
M --- M is molar mass, n = 1
If M is the mass and V is volume of air then
M  RT
 v
V M
v RT
 PV  
v  --- (8.12) v0 RT0
M
At constant temperature PV = constant v T
  --- (8.14)
according to Boyle’s law. Also M and are v0 T0
constant, hence v = constant.
This equation shows that speed of sound
Therefore at constant temperature, a in air is directly proportional to the square root
change in pressure has no effect on velocity of of absolute temperature. Thus, speed of sound
sound in air. This can be seen in another way. in air increases with increase in temperature.
For gaseous medium, PV = nRT, n being the Taking T = 273 K and writing T= (273 + t) K
o
number of moles.
where t is the temperature in degree celsius.
 nRT
--- (8.13) The ratio of velocity of sound in air at t C to
0
v 
M that at 0 C is given by,
0

148
 v 273  t m
< d
  = 0.81 kg/m3(at 0 C) and
v0 273 m
= 1.29 kg/m3(at 0 C))
v t d
  1 ... vm > vd.
v0 273
Thus, the speed of sound in moist air is
v 1 greater than speed of sound in dry air. i.e speed
  1   t where  
v0 273 increases with increase in the moistness of air.
1
8.6 Principle of Superposition of Waves:
or, v  v 0 1   t  2
Waves don’t display any repulsion towards
As is very small,we can write
each other. Therefore two wave patterns can
 1  overlap in the same region of the space without
v � v0 1   t 
 2  affecting each other. When two waves overlap
their displacements add vectorially. This
 1 1  additive rule is referred to as the principle of
v  v0 1   t
 2 273  superposition of waves.
When two or more waves travelling
 t  through a medium arrive at a point of medium
v  v0 1   simultaneously, each wave produces its own
 546 
displacement at that point independent of
v0 the others. Hence the resultant displacement
v  v0  t
546 at that point is equal to the vector sum of
But v0 =332 m/s at 00C the displacements due to all the waves. The
phenomenon of superposition will be discussed
332
 v  v0  t in detail in XIIth standard.
546
8.7 Echo, reverberation and acoustics:
 v � v 0   0.61 t , --- (8.15) Sound waves obey the same laws of
i.e., for 1 C rise in temperature velocity reflection as those of light.
increases by 0.61 m/s. Hence for small 8.7.1 Echo:
variations in temperature (< 50 C), the speed
An echo is the repetition of the original
of sound changes linearly with temperature.
sound because of reflection from some rigid
(c) Effect of humidity on speed of sound surface at a distance from the source of sound.
Humidity (moisture) in air depends upon If we shout in a hilly region, we are likely to
the presence of water vapour in it. Let m and d hear echo.
be the densities of moist and dry air respectively. Why can’t we hear an echo at every place?
If vm and vd are the speeds of sound in moist air At 220C, the velocity of sound in air is 344 m/s.
and dry air then using Eq. (8.11). Our brain retains sound for 0.1 second. Thus for
P us to hear a distinct echo, the sound should take
vm 
m more than 0.1s after starting from the source
(i.e., from us) to get reflected and come back
P to us.
and v d 
d distance = speed × time
v d = 344 × 0.1
 m  --- (8.16)
vd m = 34.4 m.
Moist air is always less dense than dry air, To be able to hear a distinct echo, the
i.e., reflecting surface should be at a minimum

149
distance of half of the above distance i.e 17.2 8.7.3 Acoustics:
m. As velocity depends on the temperature of The branch of physics which deals with
air, this distance will change with temperature. the study of production, transmission and
Example 8.4: A man shouts loudly close to a reception of sound is called acoustics. This is
high wall. He hears an echo. If the man is at useful during the construction of theaters and
40 m from the wall, how long after the shout auditorium. While designing an auditorium,
will the echo be heard ? (speed of sound in air proper care for the absorption and reflection of
= 330 m/s) sound should be taken. Otherwise audience will
solution: The distance travelled by the sound not be able to hear the sound clearly.
wave For proper acoustics in an auditorium the
= 2 × distance from man to wall. following conditions must be satisfied.
= 2 × 40 1) The sound should be heard sufficiently
= 80 m. loudly at all the points in the auditorium.
distance
... Time taken to travel the distance = The surface behind the speaker should be
speed parabolic with the speaker at its focus; so
80 m that the distribution of sound is uniform
= in the auditorium. Reflection of sound
330 m / s
is helpful in maintaining good loudness
0.24 s
.. . The man will hear the echo 0.24 s after he through the entire auditorium.
shouts. 2) Echoes and reverberation must be
8.7.2 Reverberation: eliminated or reduced. Echoes can be
If the reflecting surface is nearer than 15 reduced by making the reflecting surfaces
m from the source of sound, the echo joins up more absorptive. Echo will be less if the
with the original sound which then seems to be auditorium is full.
prolonged. Sound waves get reflected multiple 3) Unnecessary focusing of sound should be
times from the walls and roof of a closed avoided and there should not be any zone
room which are nearer than 15 m. This causes of poor audibility or region of silence. For
a single sound to be heard not just once but that purpose curved surface of the wall or
continuously. This is called reverberation. It is ceiling should be avoided.
this the persistence of sound after the source has 4) Echelon effect : It is due to the mixing of
switched off, as a result of repeated reflection sound produced in the hall by the echoes
from walls, ceilings and other surfaces. of sound produced in front of regular
Reverberation characteristics are important in structure like the stairs. To avoid this, stair
the design of concert halls, theatres etc. type construction must be avoided in the
If the time between successive reflections hall.
of a particular sound wave reaching us is small, 5) The auditorium should be sound-proof
the reflected sound gets mixed up and produces when closed, so that stray sound can not
a continuous sound of increased loudness which enter from outside.
can’t be heard clearly. 6) For proper acoustics no sound should be
Reverberation can be decreased by making produced from the inside fittings, seats,
the walls and roofs rough and by using curtains etc. Instead of fans, air conditioners may
in the hall to avoid reflection of sound. Chairs be used. Soft action door closers should be
and wall surfaces are covered with sound used.
absorbing materials. Porous cardboard sheets, Acoustics observed in nature
perforated acoustic tiles, gypsum boards, thick
The importance of acoustic principles goes
curtains etc. at the ceilings and at the walls are
far beyond human hearing. Several animals use
most convenient to reduce reverberation.

150
sound for navigation. mass transit vehicle involves the study
(a) Bats depends on sound rather than light of generation and propagation of sound
to locate objects. So they can fly in in the motor’s wheels and supporting
total darkness of caves. They emit short structures.
ultrasonic pulses of frequency 30 kHz to (c) We can study properties of the Earth by
150 kHz. The resulting echoes give them measuring the reflected and refracted
information about location of the obstacle. elastic waves passing through its interior.
(b) Dolphins use an analogous system for It is useful for geological studies to detect
underwater navigation. The frequencies local anomalies like oil deposits etc.
are subsonic about 100 Hz. They can sense 8.8 Qualities of sound:
an object of about the size of a wavelength Audible sound or human response to sound:
i.e., 1.4 m or larger. Whenever we talk about audible sound,
Medical applications of acoustics what matters is how we perceive it. This is
(a) Shock waves which are high pressure high purely a subjective attribute of sound waves.
amplitude waves are used to split kidney Major qualities of sound that are of our
stones into smaller pieces without invasive interest are (i) Pitch, (ii) Timbre or quality and
surgery. A shock wave is produced (iii) Loudness.
outside the body and is then focused by a (i) Pitch:
reflector or acoustic lens so that as much This aspect refers to sharpness or shrillness
of its energy as possible converges on the of the sound. If the frequency of sound is
stone. When the resulting stresses in the increased, what we perceive is the increase in
stone exceeds its tensile strength, it breaks the pitch or we feel the sound to be sharper.
into small pieces which can be removed Tone refers to the single frequency of that wave
easily. while a note may contain one or more than
(b) Reflection of ultrasonic waves from one tones. We use the words high pitch or high
regions in the interior of body is used for tones if frequency is higher. As sharpness is a
ultrasonic imaging. It is used for prenatal subjective term, sentences like “sound of double
(before the birth) examination, detection frequency is doubly sharp” make no sense.
of anamolous conditions like tumour etc Also, a high pitch sound need not be louder.
and the study of heart valve action. Tones of guitar are sharper than that of a base
(c) At very high power level, ultrasound is guitar, sound of tabla is sharper than that of
selective destroyer of pathalogical tissues a dagga, (in general) female sound is sharper
in treatment of arthritis and certain type of than that of a male sound and so on.
cancer. For a sound amplifier (or equaliser) when
Other applications of acoustics we raise the treble knob (or treble Button), high
(a) SONAR is an acronym for Sound frequencies are boosted and if we raise bass
Navigational Ranging. This is a technique knob, low frequencies are boosted.
for locating objects underwater by (ii) Timbre (sound quality)
transmitting a pulse of ultrasonic sound During telephonic conversation with a
and detecting the reflected pulse. The time friend, (mostly) you are able to know who is
delay between transmission of a pulse and speaking at the other end even if you are not
the reception of reflected pulse indicates told about who is speaking. Quite often we say,
the depth of the object. This system is “Couldn’t you recognise the voice?” The sound
useful to measure motion and position of quality in this context is called timbre. Same
the submerged objects like submarine. song played on a guitar, a violin, a harmonium
(b) Acoustic principle has important or a piano feel significantly different and we
application to environmental problems can easily identify that instrument. Quality
like noise control. The design of quiet- of sound of any sound instrument (including

151
our vocal organ) depends upon the mixture of and so on.
tones and overtones in the sound generated by Hence, loudness of 20 db sound is felt
that instrument. Even our own sound quality double that of 10 db, but its intensity is 10
during morning (after we get up) and in the times that of the 10 db sound. Now, we feel 40
evening is different. It is drastically affected if db sound twice as loud as 20 db sound but its
we are suffering from cold or cough. Concept intensity is 100 times as that of 20 db sound
of overtones will be discussed during XIIth and 10000 times that of 10 db sound. This is the
standard. power of logarithmic or exponential scale.
(iii) Loudness: If we move away from a (practically) point
Intensity of a wave is a measurable source, the intensity of its sound varies inversely
quantity which is proportional to square of 1
the amplitude (I A2) and is measured in with square of the distance, i.e., I .
r2
the (SI) unit of W/m2. Human perception of Whenever you are using earphones or jam
intensity of sound is loudness. Obviously, if your mobile at your ear, the distance from the
intensity is more, loudness is more. The human source is too small. Obviously, such a habit for
response to intensity is not linear, i.e., a sound a long time can affect your normal hearing.
of double intensity is louder but not doubly Example 8.5: When heard independently, two
loud. This is also valid for brightness of light. sound waves produce sensations of 60 db and
In both cases, the response is approximately 55 db respectively. How much will the sensation
logarithmic. Using this property, the loudness be if those are sounded together, perfectly in
(and brightness) can be measured. phase?
Under ideal conditions, for a perfectly Solution:
healthy human ear, the least audible intensity is I I
L1  60 db  10 log10 1  1  106 or I1  106 I 0
I0 = 10-12 W/m2. Loudness of a sound of intensity I0 I0
I, measured in the unit bel is given by Similarly, I 2 105.5 I 0
 I 
Lbel  log10   --- (8.17) As the waves combine perfectly in phase,
 I0  the vector addition of their amplitudes will be
2 2 2 2
Popular or commonly used unit for loudness is given by A  ( A1  A2 )  A1  A2  2 A1 A2
decibel. As intensity is proportional to square of the
We know, 1 decimetre or 1 dm = 0.1m. amplitude.
Similarly, 1 decibel or 1 db = 0.1 bel. ∴1 bel =  I  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2
10 db. Thus, loudness in db is 10 times loudness
in bel 
 105 I 0 101  100.5  2 101.5 
 I 
 Ldb  10 Lbel  10 log10  
I
 0

 105 I 0 10  3.1623  2  100.75 
For sound of least audible intensity I0,  24.41 105 I 0  2.441 106 I 0
I 
Ldb 10 log10  0   10 log10 1  0 --- (8.18)
 I0 
This corresponds to threshold of hearing
For sound of 10 db,
 I   I 
10 10 log10      101 or I  10 I 0
 I0   I0 
For sound of 20 db,
 I   I  It is interesting to note that there is only a
20  10 log10     102 or I  100 I 0 marginal increase in the loudness.
 I0   I0 

152
 Table 8.2: Approximate Decibel Ratings of Some Audible Sounds

Source or description of noise Loudness, Ldb Effcet

Immediate ear
Extremely loud 160
damage
Jet aeroplane, near 25 m 150 Rupture of eardrum
Auto horn, within a metre, Aircraft tale
110 Strongly painful
off, 60 m
Diesel train, 30 m, Average factory 80
Highway traffic, 8 m 70 Uncomfortable
Conversion at a restaurant 60
Conversation at home 50
Quiet urban background sound 40
Quiet rural area 30 Virtual silence
Whispering of leaves, 5 m 20
Normal breathing 10
Threshold of hearing 0

8.9 Doppler Effect: Do you know ?

Have you ever heard an approaching train According to the world health
and noticed distinct change in the pitch of the organisation a billion young people could be
sound of its whistle, when it passes away ? at risk of hearing loss due to unsafe listening
Same thing similar happens when a listener practices. Among teenagers and young
moves towards or away from the stationary adults aged 12-35 years (i) about 50% are
source of sound. Such a phenomenon was exposed to unsafe levels of sound from use
first identified in 1842 by Austrian physicist of personal audio devices and (ii) about 40%
Christian Doppler (1803-1853) and is known are exposed to potentially damaging sound
as Doppler effect. levels at clubs, discotheques and bars.
When a source of sound and a listener are
8.9.1 Source Moving and Listener Stationary:
in motion relative to each other the frequency
Consider a source of sound S, moving away
of sound heard by listener is not the same as the
from a stationary listener L (called relative
frequency emitted by the source.
recede) with velocity vs. Speed of sound waves
Doppler effect is the apparent change with respect to the medium is v which is always
in frequency of sound due to relative motion positive. Suppose the listener uses a detector for
between the source and listener. Doppler effect counting each wave crest that reaches it.
is a wave phenomenon. It holds for sound Initially (at t = 0), source which is at point
waves and also for EM waves. But here we S1 emits a crest when at distance d from the
shall consider it for sound waves only. listener see Fig. 8.2 (a). This crest reaches the
The changes is frequency can be studied under listener at time t1= d/v. Let T0 be the time period
3 different conditions: at which the waves are emitted. Thus, at t =
1) When listener is stationary but source is T0 the source moves the distance = vs To and
moving. reaches the point S2. Distance of S2 from the
2) When listener is moving but source is listener is (d+vsTo). when at S2, the source emits
stationary. second crest. This crest reaches the listener at
3) When listener and source both are moving.  d  v sT0 
t2 =T0    --- (8.19)
 v 
153
 Similarly at time pTo, the source emits its
(p+1)th crest (where, p is an integer, p = 1,2,3,...).
It reaches the listener at time
 d + pv sT0  Fig. 8.2 (b): Doppler effect detected when
t p+1 = pT0 +  
 v  the listener is moving and source is at rest
Hence the listener’s detector counts p in the medium.
crests in the time interval 8.9.2 Listener Approaching a Stationary
 d + pv sT0  d Source with Velocity vL:
t p+1 - t1 = pT0 +  -
 v Consider a listener approaching with
 v 
Hence the period of wave as recorded by velocity vL towards a stationary source S as
the listener is shown in Fig. 8.2 (b). Let the first wave be
(t - t ) emitted by the source at t = 0, when the listener
T = p+1 1 or was at L1 at an initial distance d from the source.
p
Let t1 be the instant when the listener receives
 d + pv sT0 d  this (wave), his position being L2. During time
 pT0 + v
- 
v
T =  t1, the listener travels distance vLt1 towards the
p stationary source. In this time, the sound wave
v T travels distance  d  v L t1  with speed v.
T =T0 + s 0
v d  v L t1 d
 t1   t1 
 v  v v  vL
T =T0 1 + s 
 v  Second wave is emitted by the source at t T0
v +v s  = the time period of the waves emitted by the
T =T0  
 v  source. Let t2 be the instant when the listener
receives second wave. During time t2 , the
1 1  v 
 =   distance travelled by the listener is v L t2 . Thus,
T T0  v + v s  the distance to be travelled by the sound to
 v  reach the listener is then d v L t2 .
 n = n0   --- (8.20)
v +v s  ∴ Sound (second wave) travels this distance
d  v L t2
where n is the frequency recorded by the listener with speed v in time 
v
and no is the frequency emitted by the source. However, this time should be counted after T0,
If source of sound is moving towards the as the second wave was emitted at t T0 .
listener with speed vs (called relative approach), d  v L t2  t  vT0  d
the second term from Eq. (8.18) onwards, will  t 2  T0  2
v  vL
v
be negative (or will be subtracted).
Thus, in this case, d  v L t3 2vT0  d
Similarly, t3  2T0   t3 
v v  vL
 v  Extending this argument to (p+1)th wave, we
n = n0   --- (8.21)
v - v can write,
 s 
d  v L t p 1 pvT0  d
t p 1  pT0   t p 1 
v v  vL
Time duration between instances of receiving
Fig. 8.2 (a): Doppler effect detected when successive waves is the observed or recorded
the source is moving and listener is at rest period T.
in the medium.

154
 Case (III) If |vL| < |vs|, n < no as now there is
pvT0  d d pvT0
 pT  t p 1  t1    relative recede (source recedes faster, listener
v  vL v  vL v  vL approaches slowly).
 v  8.9.4 Common Properties between Doppler
T  T0   --- (8.22)
 v  vL 
Effect of Sound and Light:
A) Wherever there is relative motion between
1 1  v  vL  listener (or observer) and source (of sound
 
T T0  v  or light waves), the recorded frequency is
different than the emitted frequency.
 v  vL 
 n  n0   --- (8.23) B) Recorded frequency is higher (than emitted
 v  frequency), if there is relative approach.
8.9.3 Both Source and Listener are Moving: C) Recorded frequency is lower, if there is
In general when both the source and relative recede.
listener are in motion, we can write the observed D) If vL or vs are much smaller then wave
frequency speed (speed of sound or light) we can use
 v  vL  vr as relative velocity. In this case, using
n = n0   --- (8.24) Eq. (8.24)
 v vs 
n v r 
� � --- (8.26)
Where the upper signs (in both numerator and n v 
denominator) should be chosen during relative
approach while lower signs should be chosen where n is Doppler shift or change in the
during relative recede. It must be remembered recorded frequency, i.e., |n - no| and is
that ‘when you are deciding the sign for any the recorded change in wavelength.
one of these, the other should be considered to n  n0 v r
 �
be at rest’. n v
Illustration:  v 
 n  n0  1  r  --- (8.27)
Consider an observer or listener and a  v 
source moving with respective velocities vL and
vS along the same direction. In this case, listener Once again upper sign is to be used during
is approaching the source with vL (irrespective relative approach while lower sign is to be
of whether source is moving or not). Thus, the used during relative recede.
upper, i.e., positive sign, should be chosen E) If velocities of source and observer
for numerator. However, the source is moving (listener) are not along the same line
with vS away form the listener irrespective of their respective components along the
listener's motion. Thus the lower sign in the line joining them should be chosen for
denominator which is positive has to be chosen. longitudinal Doppler effect and the same
 v + vL  mathematical treatment is applicable.
 n  no   --- (8.25) 8.9.5 Major Differences between Doppler
 v + vs 
Effects of Sound and Light:
Case (I) If |vL| = |vs|, n = no. Thus there is no A) As the speed of light is absolute, only
Doppler shift as there is no relative motion, relative velocity between the observer and
even if both are moving. the source matters, i.e., who is in motion is
Case (II) If |vL| > |vs|, numerator will be greater, not relevant.
n > no. This is because there is relative approach B) Classical and relativistic Doppler effects
as the listener approaches the source faster and are different in the case of light, while in
the source is receding at a slower rate. case of sound, it is only classical.

155
 C) For obtaining exact Doppler shift for sound
 v + vL 
waves, it is absolutely important to know n' = n  
who is in motion.  v 
D) If wind is present, its velocity alters the  330  220 
n  3600 
speed of sound and hence affects the  330 
Doppler shift. In this case, component of n  6000 Hz
the wind velocity (vw) is chosen along the
The frequency of echo detected by rocket =
line joining source and observer. This is to
6000 Hz
be algebraically added with the velocity of
sound. Hence 'v' is to be replaced by (v Example 8.7: A bat, flying at velocity VB = 12.5
vw) in all the above expressions. Positive m/s, is followed by a car running at velocity
sign to be used if v and vw are along VB = 50 m/s. Actual directions of the velocities
the same direction (remember that v is of the car and the bat are as shown in the figure
always positive and always from source to below, both being in the same horizontal plane
listener). Negative sign is to be used if v (the plane of the figure). To detect the car, the
and vw are oppositely directed. bat radiates ultrasonic waves of frequency
36 kHz. Speed of sound at surrounding
Example 8.6: A rocket is moving at a speed of temperature is 350 m/s.
220 m/s towards a stationary target. It emits a
wave of frequency 1200 Hz. Some of the sound
reaching the target gets reflected back to the
rocket as an echo. Calculate (1) The frequency
of sound detected by the target and (2) The
frequency of echo detected by rocket (velocity
of sound= 330 m/s.) There is an ultrasonic frequency detector
fitted in the car. Calculate the frequency
Solution: Given, target stationary, i.e.,
recorded by this detector.
vL = 0, vs = 220 m/s, v = 330 m/s
The ultrasonic waves radiated by the bat
n0 = 1200 Hz are reflected by the car. The bat detects these
To find the frequency of sound detected by waves and from the detected frequency, it
the target we have to used Eq. (8.25) knows about the speed of the car. Calculate the
 v  frequency of the reflected waves as detected by
n = n0   the bat. (sin 37 = cos 53 0.6, sin 53 = cos
 v  vs  37 0.8)
 330  Solution: As shown in the figure below, the
n  1200  
 330  220  components of velocities of the bat and the car,
n  3600 Hz along the line joining them, are
0 1
The frequency of sound detected by the VC cos 53  50  0.6  30 m s and
target = 3600 Hz. VB cos 370  12.5  0.8  10 m s 1.
When echo is heard by rocket’s detector,
These should be used while calculating the
target is considered as source
doppler shifted frequencies.
... vs = 0
The frequency of sound emitted by the source
(i.e. target) is n0 = 3600 Hz, and the frequency
detected by rocket is n'. Now listener is
approaching a the source and so we have to use.

156
  v  vL  emitted frequency n0  38  103 Hz , n ?
Doppler shifted frequency, n  n0  ;
 v vs  Car, the source, is approaching the listener
upper signs to be used during approach, lower
(bat).
signs during recede.
Thus, v S vC cos 530 30 m/s
Part I: Frequency radiated by the bat n0 = 36
0
×103 Hz, Frequency detected by the detector in Thus, v L v B cos 37 10 m/s
the car = n = ? Now bat-the listener is receding while car the
In this case, bat is the source which is moving  v  vL 
away from the car (receding) while the detector source is approaching  n  n0  
 v  vs 
in the car is the listener, who is approaching the  350  10 
 n  38  103  
source (bat). v s VB cos370 10 m/s and  350  30 
v L VC cos 530 30 m/s 34
 38  103 
The source (bat) is receding, while the listener 33
 v  vL  3
 39.15 10 Hz
(car) is approaching  n  n0  
 v  vs   39.15 kHz
3  350  30 
 n  36  10  
 350  10  Internet my friend
 38  103 Hz = 38 kHz
Part II: Reflected frequency, as detected by https://hyperphysics.phys-astr.gsu.edu/
the bat: Frequency reflected by the car is the hbase/hframe.html
Doppler shifted frequency as detected at the
car. Thus, this time, the car is the source with

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct alternatives concerns should
i) A sound carried by air from a sitar to a (A) amplify sound (B) reflect sound
listener is a wave of following type. (C) transmit sound (D) absorb sound
(A) Longitudinal stationary 2. Answer briefly.
(B)Transverse progressive i) Wave motion is doubly periodic.
(C) Transverse stationary Explain.
(D) Longitudinal progressive ii) What is Doppler effect?
ii) When sound waves travel from air to water, iii) Describe a transverse wave.
which of these remains constant ? iv) Define a longitudinal wave.
(A) Velocity (B) Frequency v) State Newton’s formula for velocity of
(C) Wavelength (D) All of above sound.
iii) The Laplace’s correction in the expression vi) What is the effect of pressure on velocity
for velocity of sound given by Newton is of sound?
needed because sound waves vii) What is the effect of humidity of air on
(A) are longitudinal velocity of sound?
(B) propagate isothermally viii) What do you mean by an echo?
(C) propagate adiabatically ix) State any two applications of acoustics.
(D) are of long wavelength x) Define amplitude and wavelength of a
iv) Speed of sound is maximum in wave.
(A) air (B) water xi) Draw a wave and indicate points which
(C) vacuum (D) solid are (i) in phase (ii) out of phase (iii)
v) The walls of the hall built for music have a phase difference of /2.

157
xii) Define the relation between velocity, what value should be the speed of sound
wavelength and frequency of wave. in air?
xiii) State and explain principle of b) Now, she moves to another location
superposition of waves. and finds that she should now make
xiv) State the expression for apparent 45 claps in 1 minute to coincide with
frequency when source of sound and successive echoes. Calculate her distance
listener are for the new position from the wall.
i) moving towards each other [Ans: a) 340 m/s b) 255 m]
ii) moving away from each other v) Sound wave A has period 0.015 s, sound
xv) State the expression for apparent wave B has period 0.025. Which sound
frequency when source is stationary and has greater frequency?
listener is [Ans : A]
1) moving towards the source vii) At what temperature will the speed of
2) moving away from the source sound in air be 1.75 times its speed at
xvi) State the expression for apparent N.T.P?
frequency when listener is stationary [Ans: 836 k = 563 C]
and source is.
i) moving towards the listener viii) A man standing between 2 parallel eliffs
ii) moving away from the listener fires a gun. He hearns two echos one
xvii) Explain what is meant by phase of a after 3 seconds and other after 5 seconds.
wave. The separation between the two cliffs is
xviii) Define progressive wave. State any four 1360 m, what is the speed of sound?
properties. [Ans:340m/s]
xix) Distinguish between traverse waves and ix) If the velocity of sound in air at a given
longitudinal waves. place on two different days of a given
xx) Explain Newtons formula for velocity week are in the ratio of 1:1.1. Assuming
of sound. What is its limitation? the temperatures on the two days to be
3. Solve the following problems. same what quantitative conclusion can
i) A certain sound wave in air has a speed your draw about the condition on the
340 m/s and wavelength 1.7 m for this two days?
wave, calculate [Ans: Air is moist on one day
a) the frequency b) the period. and dry = 1.12 moist = 1.21 moist ]
[Ans a) 200 Hz, b) 0.005s] x) A police car travels towards a stationary
ii) A tuning fork of frequency 170 Hz observer at a speed of 15 m/s. The siren
produces sound waves of wavelength 2 on the car emits a sound of frequency 250
m. Calculate speed of sound. Hz. Calculate the recorded frequency.
[Ans: 340 m/s] The speed of sound is 340 m/s.
iii) An echo-sounder in a fishing boat [Ans : 261.54 Hz]
receives an echo from a shoal of fish xi) The sound emitted from the siren of an
0.45 s after it was sent. If the speed of ambulance has frequency of 1500 Hz.
sound in water is 1500 m/s, how deep is The speed of sound is 340 m/s. Calculate
the shoal? the difference in frequencies heard by
[Ans : 337.5 m] a stationary observer it the ambulance
iv) A girl stands 170 m away from a high initially. travels towards and then away
wall and claps her hands at a steady rate from the observer at a speed of 30 m/s.
so that each clap coincides with the echo [Ans : 1645-2676 Hz]
of the one before.
a) If she makes 60 claps in 1 minute, ***

158
 9. Optics
Can you recall?
1. What are laws of reflection and refraction? 4. What is total internal reflection?
2. What is dispersion of light? 5. How does light refract at a curved surface?
3. What is refractive index? 6. How does a rainbow form?
9.1 Introduction: c = 299792458 m s-1 According to Einstein’s
“See it to believe it” is a popular saying. special theory of relativity, this is the maximum
In order to see, we need light. What exactly possible speed for any object. For practical
is light and how are we able to see anything? purposes we write it as c = 3×108 m s-1.
We will explore it in this and next standard. Commonly observed phenomena
We know that acoustics is the term used for concerning light can be broadly split into three
science of sound. Similarly, optics is the term categories.
used for science of light. There is a difference (I) Ray optics or geometrical optics: A
in the nature of sound waves and light waves particular direction of propagation of
which you have seen in chapter 8 and will learn energy from a source of light is called
in chapter 13. a ray of light. We use ray optics for
9.2 Nature of light: understanding phenomena like reflection,
Earlier, light was considered to be that form refraction, double refraction, total
of radiant energy which makes objects visible internal reflection, etc.
due to stimulation of retina of the eye. It is a (II) Wave optics or physical optics: For
form of energy that propagates in the presence explaining phenomena like interference,
or absence of a medium, which we now call diffraction, polarization, Doppler effect,
waves. At the beginning of the 20th century, it etc., we consider light energy to be in the
was proved that these are electromagnetic (EM) form of EM waves. Wave theory will be
waves. Later, using quantum theory, particle further discussed in XIIth standard.
nature of light was established. According to (III) Particle nature of light: Phenomena like
this, photons are energy carrier particles. By an photoelectric effect, emission of spectral
experiment using countable number of photons, lines, Compton effect, etc. cannot be
it is now an established fact that light possesses explained by using classical wave theory.
dual nature. In simple words we can say that These involve the interaction of light with
light consists of energy carrier photons guided matter. For such phenomena we have to
by the rules of EM waves. In vacuum, these use quantum nature of light. Quantum
waves (or photons) travel with a velocity of nature of light will be discussed in XIIth
standard.
In a material medium, the speed of EM 9.3 Ray optics or geometrical optics:
waves is given by In geometrical optics, we mainly study
image formation by mirrors, lenses and prisms.
Permitivity and permeability are It is based on four fundamental laws which you
constants which depend on the electric and have learnt in earlier classes.
magnetic properties of the medium.
(i) Light travels in a straight line in a
c homogeneous and isotropic medium.
The ratio n is called the absolute
v Homogeneous means that the properties
refractive index and is the property of the
of the medium are same every where in
medium.
the medium and isotropic means that the

159
 properties are the same in all directions. Solution:
(ii) Two or more rays can intersect at a point
without affecting their paths beyond that nglass 1.5
point.
(iii) Laws of reflection:
(a) Reflected ray lies in the plane formed by
incident ray and the normal drawn at the
point of incidence; and the two rays are on
either side of the normal.
(b) Angles of incidence and reflection are
equal.
(iv) Laws of refraction: These apply at the
boundary between two media
(a) Refracted ray lies in the plane formed by Most convenient unit to express this small time
incident ray and the normal drawn at the
is nano  n   10
9
point of incidence; and the two rays are on
either side of the normal.
(b) Angle of incidence ( 1 in a medium of 9.3.1 Cartesian sign convention:
refractive index n 1) and angle of refraction While using geometrical optics it is
( 2 in medium of refractive index n 2) are necessary to use some sign convention. The
related by Snell’s law, given by ( n 1)sin relation between only the numerical values of
( n 2)sin 2. u, v and f for a spherical mirror (or for a lens)
will be different for different positions of the
object and the type of mirror. Here u and v are
Do you know ? the distances of object and image respectively
Interestingly, all the four laws stated from the optical center and f is the focal
above can be derived from a single length. Properly used suitable sign convention
principle called Fermat’s (फर्मा) principle. It enables us to use the same formula for all
says that “While travelling from one point different particular cases. Thus, while deriving
to another by one or more reflections or a formula and also while using the formula it
refractions, a ray of light always chooses is necessary to use the same sign convention.
the path of least time”. Most convenient sign convention is Cartesian
Ideally it is the path of extreme time, sign convention as it is analogous to coordinate
i.e., path of minimum or maximum time. geometry. According to this sign convention,
We strongly recommend you to go through (Fig. 9.1):
a suitable reference book that will give
you the proof of i = r during reflection and
Snell’s law during refraction using
Fermat’s principle.

Example 9.1: Thickness of the glass of a

spectacle is 2 mm and refractive index of its
glass is 1.5. Calculate time taken by light to
cross this thickness. Express your answer with Fig. 9.1 Cartesian sign convention.
most convenient prefix attached to the unit i) All distances are measured from the optical
‘second’. center or pole. For most of the optical
objects such as spherical mirrors, thin
160
 lenses, etc., the optical centers coincides object but on the other side of the reflecting
with their geometrical centers. surface.
ii) Figures should be drawn in such a way that b) If we are standing on the bank of a still
the incident rays travel from left to right. water body and look for our image formed
A diverging beam of light corresponds to by water (or if we are standing on a plane
rays of light coming from real point object, mirror and look for our image formed by
a converging beam corresponds to rays of the mirror), the image is laterally reversed,
light directed to a virtual point object or of the same size and on the other side.
image and a parallel beam corresponds to c) If an object is kept between two plane
an object at infinity. Thus, a real object mirrors inclined at an angle (like in a
should be shown to the left of pole (Fig. kaleidoscope), number of images, n, are
9.2 (a)) and virtual object or image to the formed due to multiple reflections from
right of pole. (Fig. 9.2 (b)) both the mirrors. Exact number of images
depends upon the angle between the
mirrors and where exactly the object is
kept. It can be obtained as follows (Table
9.1):
360
Calculate n 

Let N be the number of images seen.
Fig. 9.2: (a) Diverging beam from a real (I) If n is an even integer, N   n  1  ,
object irrespective of where the object is.
(II) If n is an odd integer and object is exactly
on the angle bisector, N   n  1  .
(III) If n is an odd integer and object is off the
angle bisector, N n
(IV) If n is not an integer, N m, where m is
Fig. 9.2: (b) Converging beam towards a integral part of n.
virtual object. Table 9.1
iii) x-axis can be conveniently chosen as the 360 Position of
Angle
principal axis with origin at the pole. 0
n N
 the object
iv) Distances to the left of the pole are
On angle
negative and those to the right of the pole 120 3 2
bisector
are positive.
Off angle
v) Distances above the principal axis (x-axis) 120 3 3
bisector
are positive while those below it are 110 3.28 Anywhere 3
negative.
90 4 Anywhere 3
Unless specially mentioned, we shall always
80 4.5 Anywhere 4
consider objects to be real for further On angle
discussion. 72 5 4
bisector
9.4 Reflection: Off angle
72 5 5
9.4.1 Reflection from a plane surface: bisector
a) If the object is in front of a plane reflecting 60 6 Anywhere 5
surface, the image is virtual and laterally 50 7.2 Anywhere 7
inverted. It is of the same size as that of the
object and at the same distance as that of

161
Example 9.2: A small object is kept (concave or convex) mirror is related to object
symmetrically between two plane mirrors distance and image distance as
inclined at 38 . This angle is now gradually 1 1 1
  --- (9.1)
increased to 41 , the object being symmetrical f v u
all the time. Determine the number of images
visible during the process.
Solution: According to the convention used in
the table above,
360
  380  n   9.47
38
∴ N = 9. This is valid till the angle is 40 as the
object is kept symmetrically
Beyond 40 n > 9 and it decreases upto
360
= 8.78 Fig. 9.3 (a): Parallel rays incident from
41 .
left appear to converge at F, lying on the
Hence now onwards there will be 8 images till positive side of origin (pole).
41 .
9.4.2 Reflection from curved mirrors:
In order to focus a parallel or divergent
beam by reflection, we need curved mirrors.
You might have noticed that reflecting mirrors
for a torch or headlights, rear view mirrors of
vehicles are not plane but concave or convex.
Mirrors for a search light are parabolic. We
shall restrict ourselves to spherical mirrors only
which can be studied using simple mathematics.
These are parts of a sphere polished from
outside (convex) or from inside (concave). Fig. 9.3 (b): Parallel rays incident from
Radius of the sphere of which a mirror is left appear to converge at F, lying on the
a part is called as radius of curvature (R) of negative side of origin (pole).
the mirror. Only for spherical mirrors, half By a small mirror we mean its aperture
of radius of curvature is focal length of the (diameter) is much smaller (at least one tenth)
 R than the values of u, v and f.
mirror  f   . For a concave mirror it is
 2 Focal power: Converging or diverging ability
the distance at which parallel incident rays
converge. For a convex mirror, it is the distance of a lens or of a mirror is defined as its focal
from where parallel rays appear to be diverging 1
power. It is measured as P
after reflection. According to sign convention f
In SI units, it is measured as diopter.
the incident rays are from left to right and they
1 dioptre  D   1 m1
should face the polished surface of the mirror.
Thus, focal length of a convex mirror is positive Lateral magnification: Ratio of linear size
(Fig 9.3 (a)) while that of a concave mirror is of image to that of the object, measured
negative (Fig. 9.3 (b)). perpendicular to the principal axis, is defined as
v
Relation between f, u and v: the lateral magnification m
For a point object or for a small finite For any position of the object,ua convex mirror
object, the focal length of a small spherical

162
always forms virtual, erect and diminished to a cone of very small angle.
image, m 1 . In the case of a concave mirror (iii) If there is a parallel beam of rays, it is
it depends upon the position of the object. paraxial, i.e., parallel and close to the principal
Following Table 9.2 will help you refresh your axis.
knowledge. However, in reality, these assumptions
Table 9.2
do not always hold good. This results into
Concave mirror (f negative) distorted or defective image. Commonly
Real(R)
Linear occurring defects are spherical aberration,
Position of Position of or coma, astigmatism, curvature, distortion.
magnifi-
object image Virtual
(V)
-cation Except spherical aberration, all the other arise
u v f R m 0 due to beams of rays inclined to principal axis.
u 2f 2f v f R m 1 These are not discussed here.
u 2f v 2f R m 1 Spherical aberration: As mentioned
2f u f v 2f R m 1  R
earlier, the relation  f   giving a single
u f v R m  2
u f v u V m 1 point focus is applicable only for small aperture
Example 9.3: A thin pencil of length 20 cm spherical mirrors and for paraxial rays. In
is kept along the principal axis of a concave reality, when the rays are farther from the
mirror of curvature 30 cm. Nearest end of the principal axis, the focus gradually shifts towards
pencil is 20 cm from the pole of the mirror. pole. This phenomenon (defect) arises due to
What will be the size of image of the pencil? spherical shape of the reflecting surface, hence
as spherical aberration. It results into a blurred
Solution: R = 30 cm
image with unclear boundaries (Fig. 9.4).
f = R/2 =-15 cm ... (Concave mirror)
1 1 1
 
f v u
For nearest end, u = u1 = - 20 cm . Let the image
distance be v1
1 1 1
    v1  60 cm
15 v1 20
Nearest end is at 20 cm and pencil itself is 20
cm long. Hence farthest end is 20 + 20 40 Fig. 9.4: Spherical aberration for curved
cm  u2 mirrors.
Let the image distance be v2 The distance between FM and FP is measured
1 1 1 as the longitudinal spherical aberration. If there
    v 2  24 cm is no spherical aberration, we get a single point
15 v 2 40
image on a screen placed perpendicular to the
∴ Length of the image = 60 -24 = 36 cm.
principal axis at that location for a beam of
Defects or aberration of images: The theory
incident rays parallel to the axis. In the presence
of image formation by mirrors or lenses and
of spherical aberration, no such point is possible
the formulae that we have used such as the
1 1 1 at any position of the screen and the image is
R
expressions f or   etc. always a circle. At a particular location of the
2 f v u
are based on following assumptions: (i) Objects screen, the diameter of this circle is minimum.
and images are situated close to the principal This is called the circle of least confusion. In
axis. the figures it is across AB. Radius of this circle
is transverse spherical aberration.
(ii) Rays diverging from the objects are confined

163
 In the case of curved mirrors, this defect Absolute refractive index of a medium is
can be completely eliminated by using a defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum
parabolic mirror. Hence surfaces of mirrors to that in the given medium.
used in a search light, torch, headlight of a car, c
telescopes, etc., are parabolic and not spherical. n
v where c and v are respective speeds
of light in vacuum and in the medium. As n
Do you know ? is the ratio of same physical quantities, it is a
unitless and dimensionless physical quantity.
Why does a parabolic mirror not have
For any material medium (including air)
spherical aberration?
n 1 , i.e., light travels fastest in vacuum than
Parabola is a geometrical shape drawn
in any material medium. Medium having
in such a way that every point on it is
greater value of n is called optically denser. An
equidistant from a straight line and a point.
optically denser medium need not be physically
Figure shows a parabola. Points A, B, C, …
denser, e.g., many oils are optically denser than
on it are equidistant from line RS (called
water but water is physically denser than them.
directrix) and point F (called focus). Hence
A A = AF, B B = BF, C C = CF, …. Relative refractive index:
R Refractive index of medium 2 with respect
to medium 1 is defined as the ratio of speed of
light v1 in medium 1 to its speed v2 in medium
1 n2 v1
2. Thus, n2
n1 v 2

S
Fig. 9.5 Single focus for parabolic mirror. Do you know ?
If rays of equal optical path converge
(a) Logic behind the convention 1n2 : Letter
at a point, that point is the location of real
n is the symbol for refractive index,
image corresponding to that beam of rays.
n2 corresponds to refractive index of
Paths A AA , B BB . C CC , etc.,
are equal paths in the absence of mirror. medium 2 and 1n2 indicates that it is
If the parabola ABC… is a mirror then with respect to medium 1. In this case,
the respective optical paths will be A AF, light travels from medium 1 to 2 so we
B BF, C CF, … and from the definition of need to discuss medium 2 in context to
parabola, these are also equal. Thus, F is the medium 1.
single point focus for entire beam parallel to (b) Dictionary meaning of the word refract
the axis with NO spherical aberration. is to change the path`. However, in
context of Physics, we should be more
9.5 Refraction: specific. We use the word deviate for
Being on EM wave, properties of light changing the path. During refraction at
(speed, wavelength, direction of propagation, normal incidence, there is no change
etc.) depend upon the medium through which in path. Thus, there is refraction but
it is traveling. If a ray of light comes to an no deviation. Deviation is associated
interface between two media and enters into with refraction only during oblique
another medium of different refractive index, incidence. Deviation or changing the
it changes itself suitable to that medium. This path or bending is associated with
phenomenon is defined as refraction of light. many phenomena such as reflection,
The extent to which these properties change is diffraction, scattering, gravitational
decided by the index of refraction, 'n', bending due to a massive object, etc.
Absolute refractive index:

164
Illustrations of refraction: 1) When seen from Example 9. 4: A crane flying 6 m above a still,
outside, the bottom of a water body appears to clear water lake sees a fish underwater. For
the crane, the fish appears to be 6 cm below
be raised. This is due to refraction at the plane
surface of water. In this case, the water surface. How much deep should the
Real depth crane immerse its beak to pick that fish?
nwater
apparent depth For the fish, how much above the water surface
does the crane appear? Refractive index of
This relation holds good for a plane
water 4/3.
parallel transparent slab also as shown below.
Solution: For crane, apparent depth of the fish
Figure 9.6 shows a plane parallel slab of a
is 6 cm and real depth is to be determined.
transparent medium of refractive index n. A
point object O at real depth R appears to be at For fish, real depth (height, in this case) of the
I at apparent depth A, when seen from outside crane is 6 m and apparent depth (height) is to
(air). Incident rays OA (traveling undeviated) be determined.
and OB (deviating along BC) are used to locate
the image.
For crane, it is water with respect to air as real
depth is in water and approve depth is as seen
from air
4 R R
n     R  8cm
3 A 6
For fish, it is air with respect to water as the
Fig. 9.6: Real and apparent depth. real height is in air and seen from water.
By considering i and r to be small, we can write, 3 R 6
n     A  8m
x x 4 A A
tan  r    sin  r  and tan  i    sin  i  9.6 Total internal reflection:
A R
x
sin  r   A  R Real depth
n    
sin  i   x  A Apparent deptth
R
 
2) A stick or pencil kept obliquely in a glass
containing water appears broken as its part in
water appears to be raised.
Small angle approximation: For small angles, Fig. 9.7: Total internal reflection.
expressed in radian, sin     tan . Figure 9.7 shows refraction of light
For example, for emerging from a denser medium into a rarer
medium for various angles of incidence.
The angles of refraction in the rarer medium
are larger than the corresponding angles of
In this case the error is 0.5236  0.5  0.0236 in incidence. At a particular angle of incidence ic
0.5, which is 4.72 %. in the denser medium, the corresponding angle
For practical purposes we consider angles less of refraction in the rarer medium is 900. For
than 100 where the error in using sin    is angles of incidence greater than ic , the angle
less than 0.51 %. (Even for 600, it is still 15.7 %) of refraction become larger than 900 and the ray
It is left to you to verify that this is almost does not enter into rarer medium at all but is
equally valid for tan till 200 only. reflected totally into the denser medium. This is

165
called total internal reflection. In general, there
is always partial reflection and partial refraction
at the interface. During total internal reflection
TIR, it is total reflection and no refraction. The
corresponding angle of incidence ic in the denser
medium is called critical angle. Fig. 9.8 (a): Optical fibre construction.
Critical angle for a pair of refracting
media can be defined as that angle of incidence
in the denser medium for which the angle of
Fig. 9.8 (b): Optical fibre working.
refraction in the rarer medium is 900.
An optical fibre essentially consists of an
Do you know ? extremely thin (slightly thicker than a human
hair), transparent, flexible core surrounded
In Physics the word critical is used when by optically rarer (smaller refractive index),
certain phenomena are not applicable or flexible cover called cladding. This system is
more than one phenomenon are applicable. coated by a buffer and a jacket for protection.
Some examples are as follows. Entire thickness of the fibre is less than half a
(i) In case of total internal reflection, the mm. (Fig. 9.8(a)). Number of such fibres may
phenomenon of reversibility of light be packed together in an outer cover.
is not applicable at critical angle and
An optical signal (ray) entering the core
refraction is possible only for angles of
incidence in the denser medium smaller suffers multiple total internal reflections (Fig.
than the critical angle. 9.8 (b)) and emerges after several kilometers
(ii) At the critical temperature, a substance with extremely low loss travelling with highest
coexists into all the three states; possible speed in that material ( ~ 2,00,000
solid, liquid and gas. At all the other km/s for glass). Some of the advantages of
temperatures, only two states are optic fibre communication are listed below.
simultaneously possible. (a) Broad bandwidth (frequency range): For
(iii) For liquids, streamline flow is possible TV signals, a single optical fibre can
till critical velocity is achieved. carry over 90000 channels (independent
At critical velocity it can be either signals).
streamline or turbulent. (b) Immune to EM interference: Being
Let µ be the relative refractive index electrically non-conductive, it is not able
of denser medium with respect to the rarer. to pick up nearby EM signals.
Applying Snell’s law at the critical angle of (c) Low attenuation loss: The loss is lower
incidence, iC , we can write than 0.2 dB/km so that a single long cable
can be used for several kilometers.
(d) Electrical insulator: No issue with ground
For commonly used glasses of loops of metal wires or lightning.
(e) Theft prevention: It is does not use copper
or other expensive material.
(f) Security of information: Internal damage
9.6.1 Applications of total internal reflection: is most unlikely.
(i) Optical fibre: Though little costly for initial (ii) Prism binoculars: Binoculars using
set up, optic fibre communication is undoubtedly only two cylinders have a limitation of field
the most effective way of telecommunication of view as the distance between the two
by way of EM waves. cylinders can’t be greater than that between
the two eyes. This limitation can be overcome

166
by using two right angled glass prisms From the dimensions given,
( iC ~ 420 ) used for total internal reflection as
shown in the Fig. 9.9. Total internal reflections
occur inside isosceles, right angled prisms.
9.7 Refraction at a spherical surface and
lenses:
In the section 9.5 we saw that due to
refraction, the bottom of a water body appears
Real depth
to be raised and nwater apparent depth .
However, this is valid only if we are
dealing with refraction at a plane surface.
In many cases such as liquid drops, lenses,
ellipsoid paper weights, etc, curved surfaces are
present and the formula mentioned above may
Fig. 9.9: Prism binoculars not be true. In such cases we need to consider
(iii) Periscope: It is used to see the objects on refraction at one or more spherical surfaces.
the surface of a water body from inside water. This will involve parameters including the
The rays of light should be reflected twice curvature such as radius of curvature, in
through right angle. Reflections are similar addition to refractive indices.
to those in the binoculars (Fig 9.10) and total Lenses: Commonly used lenses can be
internal reflections occur inside isosceles, right visualized to be consisting of intersection of
angled prisms. two spheres of radii of curvature R1 and R2 or
of one sphere and a plane surface (R = ) .
A lens is said to convex if it is thicker in the
middle and narrowing towards the periphery.
According to Cartesian sign convention, its
focal length is positive. A lens is concave if
it is thicker at periphery and narrows down
Fig. 9.10: Periscope.
towards center and has negative focal length.
Example 9.5: There is a tiny LED bulb at the Convex lens is visualized to be internal cross
center of the bottom of a cylindrical vessel of section of two spheres (or one sphere and a
diameter 6 cm. Height of the vessel is 4 cm. The plane surface) while concave lens is their
beaker is filled completely with an optically external cross section (Figs. 9.11-a to 9.11-f).
dense liquid. The bulb is visible from any Concavo-convex and convexo-concave lenses
inclined position but just visible if seen along are commonly used for spectacles of positive
the edge of the beaker. Determine refractive and negative numbers, respectively.
index of the liquid.
For lenses of material optically denser than
Solution: As seen from the accompanying the medium in which those are kept, convex
figure, if the bulb is just visible from the edge, lenses have positive focal length and converge
angle of incidence in the liquid must be the the incident beam while concave lenses have
critical angle of incidence, iC negative focal length and diverge the incident
beam.
For most of the applications of lenses,
maximum thickness of lens is negligible (at
least 50 times smaller) compared with all the
other distances such as R1 and R2, u, v, f, etc.

167
Such a lens is called as a thin lens and physical For lenses, the relations between u, v, R and f
center of such a lens can be assumed to be the depend also upon the refractive index n of the
common pole (or optical center) for both its  R
refracting surfaces. material of the lens. The relation  f  2 
 
Fig. 9.11 (a): Convex does NOT hold good for lenses. Below we shall
lens as internal derive the necessary relation by considering
cross section of two refraction at the two surfaces of a lens
spheres. independently.
Unless mentioned specifically, we assume
Fig. 9.11 (b): Concave lenses to be made up of optically denser
lens as external cross material compared to the medium in which
section of two spheres. those are kept, e.g., glass lenses in air or in
water, etc. As special cases we may consider
lenses of rarer medium such as an air lens
Fig. 9.11 (c): Plano in water or inside a glass. A spherical
convex lens hole inside a glass slab is also a lens of
rarer medium. In such case, physically (or
geometrically or shape-wise) convex lens
diverges the incident beam while concave
Fig. 9.11 (d): Plano lens converges the incident beam.
concave lens
Refraction at a single spherical surface:
Consider a spherical surface YPY’ of radius
curvature R, separating two transparent media
Fig. 9.11 (e): concave-
convex lens of refractive indices n1 and n2 respectively with
n1 n2 . P is the pole and X’PX is the principal
axis. A point object O is at an object distance
-u from the pole, in the medium of refractive
Fig. 9.11 (f) convex-
index n1 . Convexity or concavity of a surface
concave lens
is always with respect to the incident rays, i.e.,
with respect to a real object. Hence in this case
1 1 1 the surface is convex (Fig. 9.12).
For any thin lens,   --- (9.2)
f v u
If necessary, we can have a number of
thin lenses in contact with each other having
common principal axis. Focal power of such
combination is given by the algebraic addition
(by considering ± signs) of individual focal
powers. Fig. 9.12: Refraction at a single refracting
1 1 1 1 1 surface.
∴        
f  f i  f1 f 2 f 3 To locate its image and in order to minimize
spherical aberration, we consider two paraxial
 P1  P2  P3 ..  Pi  P
rays. The ray OP along the principal axis
For only two thin lenses, separated in air by travels undeviated along PX. Another ray OA
distance d, strikes the surface at A. CAN is the normal
1 1 1 d from center of curvature C of the surface at A.
    P1  P2  dP1P2  P Angle of incidence in the medium n1 at A is i.
f f
1 f
2 f f
1 2

168
As n1< n2 , the ray deviates towards the normal,
travels along AZ and cuts the principal axis at
I. Thus, real image of point object O is formed
at I. Angle of refraction in medium n2 is r. n2 refractive index of the other medium 1
According to Snell’s law,
u   4 cm
n1 sin  i   n2sin  r  --- (9.3)
v=?
Let be the angles subtended by R   3 cm
incident ray, normal and refracted ray with the n  n n n
principal axis.
2 1
 2 1
R v u
 i     and r     For paraxial rays, all
these angles are small and PA can be considered 1  1.5  1  1.5  1  1  3  v  4.8 cm
as an arc for . 3 v 4 6 v 8
In this case apparent depth is NOT less
than real depth. This is due to curvature of the
arc AP arc AP refracting surface.
Also,    ,
PO u In this case we had considered the object
arc AP arc AP
  and placed in rarer medium, real image in denser
PC R
medium and the surface facing the object
arc AP arc AP
  to be convex. However, while deriving the
PI v relation, all the symbolic values (which
 n1i  n2 r could be numeric also) were substituted as
 n1      n2      per the Cartesian sign convention (e.g. ‘u’
as negative, etc.). Hence the final expression
  n2  n1    n2  n1 (Eq. 9.4) is applicable to any surface
separating any two media and real or virtual
Substituting and canceling arc AP,
image provided you substitute your values
we get
(symbolic or numerical) as per Cartesian
n2  n1 n2 n1 sign convention. The only restriction is that
  --- (9.4)
R v u n1 is for medium of real object and n2 is the
Example 6: A glass paper-weight (n =1.5) of other medium (not necessarily the medium
radius 3 cm has a tiny air bubble trapped inside of image). Only in the case of real image, it
it. Closest distance of the bubble from the will be in medium n2. If virtual, it will be in
surface is 2 cm. Where will it appear when seen the medium n1 (with image distance negative
from the other end (from where it is farthest)? how do you justify this?).
We strongly suggest you to do the
Solution: Accompanying Figure below
derivations yourself for any other special
illustrates the location of the bubble.
case such as object placed in the denser
medium, virtual image, concave surface, etc.
It must be remembered that in any case you
will land up with the same expression as in
Eq. (9.4).
Lens makers’ equation: Relation between
refractive index (n), focal length (f) and radii
of curvature R1 and R2 for a thin lens.
According to the symbols used in the Eq. Consider a lens of radii of curvatureR1 and
(9.4), we get, R2 kept in a medium such that n is refractive

169
index of material of the lens with respect to the  1 1  1 1
medium. Assuming the lens to be thin, P is the  n  1    
common pole for both the surfaces. O is a point  R1 R2  v u
object on the principal axis at a distance u from For
P. First refracting surface of the lens of radius
1  1 1 
of curvature R1 faces the object (Fig 9.13).    n  1    --- (9.7)
f R
 1 R2 
For preparing spectacles, it is necessary
to grind the glass (or acrylic, etc.) for having
the desired radii of curvature. Equation (9.7)
can be used to calculate the radii of curvature
for the lens, hence it is called the lens makers’
equation. (It should be remembered that while
Fig. 9.13: Lens maker's equation. solving problems when you are using equations
Axial ray OP travels undeviated. Paraxial 9.1, 9.2, 9.4, 9.7, etc., we will be substituting the
ray OA deviates towards normal and would values of the corresponding quantities. Hence
intersect axis at I1, in the absence of second this time it is algebraic substitution, i.e., with
refracting surface. PI1 = v1 is the image distance proper sign)
for intermediate image I1.
Special cases:
Thus, the symbols to be used in Eq. (9.4) are
Most popular and most common special
n2 n, n1 1, R R1 , u u v = v1 case is the one in which we have a thin,
n 1 n 1 symmetric, double lens. In this case, R1 and R2
∴   --- (9.5) are numerically equal.
R1 v1  u 
(A) Thin, symmetric, double convex lens: R1
(Not that, in this case, we are not substituting is positive, R2 is negative and numerically
the algebraic values but just using different equal. Let R1 R2 R .
symbols.)
1  1 1  2  n  1
Before reaching I1, the ray PI1 is intercepted    n  1   
f  R  R  R
at B by the second refracting surface. In this
case, the incident rays AB and OP are in the Further, for popular variety of glasses,
medium of refractive index n and converging n 1.5 . In such a case, f R .
towards I1. Thus, I1 acts as virtual object for (B) Thin, symmetric, double concave lens:
second surface of radius of curvature (R2) and R1 is negative, R2 is positive and numerically
object distance is  u  v1  . As the incident rays equal. Let R1 R2 R .
are in the medium of refractive index n, this
1  1 1  2  n  1
is the medium of (virtual) object ∴ n1 = n and    n  1   
refractive index of the other medium is n2 = 1. f  R R  R
Further if
After refraction, the ray bends away from
(C) Thin, planoconvex lenses: One radius is
the normal and intersects the principal axis at I 1 n 1
which is the real image of object O formed due R and the other is .  
to the lens. ∴ PI = v. f R
Further if
Substituting all these symbols in Eq. (9.4),
we get Example 7: A dense glass double convex lens
1 n n 1 1 n  n  2  designed to reduce spherical aberration
   --- (9.6) has |R1|:|R2|=1.5. If a point object is kept 15 cm
R2  R2 v  v1 
Adding Eq. (9.5) and (9.6), we get, in front of this lens, it produces its real image at
7.5 cm. Determine R1 and R2.

170
Solution: u = - 15 cm, v = + 7.5 cm (real image detectable, the parallel surfaces must be
is on opposite side). separated over very large distance.
1 1 1 1 1 1
      f  5 cm
f v u f 7.5 15
The lens is double convex. Hence, R1 is positive
and R2 is negative. Also, R2 5 R1 and n 2.
 1 1  1
 n  1   
 R1 R2  f
 1 1  1
  2  1   
 R   5 R   5
 1 1 

 6  1
 1     R1  6 cm  R2  30 cm Fig. 9.15: Lateral dispersion due to plane
 5 R1  5 parellal slab.
9.8 Dispersion of light and prisms: Example 8: A fine beam of white light is
The colour of light that we see depends incident upon the longer side of a plane parallel
upon the frequency of that ray (wave). The glass slab of breadth 5 cm at angle of incidence
refractive index of a material also depends 600. Calculate lateral deviation of red and violet
upon the frequency of the wave and increases rays and lateral dispersion between them as
with frequency. Obviously refractive index they emerge from the opposite side. Refractive
of light is different for different colours. As a indices of the glass for red and violet are 1.51
result, for an obliquely incident ray, the angles and 1.53 respectively.
of refraction are different for each colour and Solution: As shown in the Fig. 9.15 above,
they separate (disperse) as they travel along VM LV and RT LR give respective lateral
different directions. This phenomenon is called deviations for violet and red colours and LVR
angular dispersion Fig 9.14. LV LR is the lateral dispersion between these
colours.
sin i sin 600
 sin rR    0.5735
nR 1.51
sin i sin 600
sin rV    0.566
nV 1.53
 rR  350 and rV  340 28’
Fig. 9.14: Angular dispersion at a single
 i  rR  250 , i  rV  250 32’
surface.
If a polychromatic beam of light (bundle
of rays of different colours) is obliquely
incident upon a plane parallel transparent
slab, emergent beam consists of all component
colours separated out. However, in this case all
those are parallel to each other and also parallel LR  RT  AR  sin i  rR   2.58 cm
to initial direction. This is lateral dispersion
LV  VM  AV  sin i  rV   2.58 cm
which is measured as the perpendicular
distance between the direction of incident ray
and respective directions of dispersed emergent
It shows that lateral dispersion is too small
rays (LR and LV) Fig 9.15. For it to be easily
to detect.

171
 In order to have appreciable and observable reflecting surface AB. Normal passing through
dispersion, two parallel surfaces are not useful. the point of incidence Q is MQN. Angle of
In such case we use prisms, in which two incidence at Q is i. After refraction at Q, the ray
refracting surfaces inclined at an angle are deviates towards the normal and strikes second
used. Popular variety of prisms are having refracting surface AC at R which is the point
three rectangular surfaces forming a triangle. of emergence. MRN is the normal through R.
At a time two of these are taking part in the Angles of refraction at Q and R are r1 and r2
refraction. The one, not involved in refraction is respectively.
called base of the prism. Fig 9.16.

Fig. 9.16: Prism consisting of three plane

surfaces. Fig. 9.18: Deviation through a prism.
Any section of prism perpendicular to the base After R, the ray deviates away from normal and
is called principal section of the prism. Usually finally emerges along RS making e as the angle
we consider all the rays in this plane. Fig 9.17 a of emergence. Incident ray PQ is extended as
and 9.17 b show refraction through a prism for QT. Emergent ray RS meets QT at X if traced
monochromatic and white beams respectively. backward. Angle TXS is angle of deviation .
Angular dispersion is shown for white beam. AQN  ARN  900 …… (Angles at
normal)
∴ From quadrilateral AQNR,
A QNR 1800 --- (9.8)
From QNR, r1 r2 QNR 1800 --- (9.9)
∴ From Eqs. (9.8) and (9.9),
A  r1  r2 --- (9.10)
Fig. 9.17 (a): Refraction through a prism Angle is exterior angle for triangle XQR.
(monocromatic light).  XQR   XRQ  
  i  r1    e  r2   
  i  e    r1  r2   
Hence, using Eq. (9.10),  i  e    A   
i  e  A   --- (9.11)
Fig. 9.17 (b): Angular dispersion through a Deviation curve, minimum deviation and
prism. (white light). prism formula: From the relations (9.10) and
Relations between the angles involved: (9.11), it is clear that , e, r1 and r2 depend upon
Figure 9.18 shows principal section ABC of a i, A and n. After a certain minimum value of
prism of absolute refractive index n kept in air. angle of incidence imin, the emergent ray is
Refracting surfaces AB and AC are inclined at possible. This is because of the fact that for
angle A, which is refracting angle of prism or i< imin r2 > ic and there is total internal reflection
simply ‘angle of prism’. Surface BC is the base. at the second surface and there is no emergent
A monochromatic ray PQ obliquely strikes first ray. This will be shown later. Then onwards,

172
 sin i
as i increases, r1 increases as sin r n but r2 (I) Grazing emergence and minimum angle
1
and e decrease. However, variation in with of incidence: At the point of emergence, the
increasing i is different. It is as plotted in the ray travels form a denser medium into rarer
Fig. 9.19. (popular prisms are of denser material, kept
1  1 
in rarer). Thus if r2  sin  n  is the critical
  0
angle, the angle of emergence e 90 . This
is called grazing emergence or we say that
the ray just emerges. Angle of prism A is
constant for a given prism and A  r1  r2 .
Hence the corresponding r1 and i will have
their minimum possible values.
Fig. 9.19: Deviation curve for a prism.
It shows that, with increasing values of i,
the angle of deviation decreases initially to
a certain minimum  m  and then increases.
It should also be noted that the curve is not a
symmetric parabola, but the slope in the part
towards right is less. It is clear that except at
   m , (Angle of minimum deviation) there (II) For commonly used glass prisms,
are two values of i for any given .� By applying
1  1 
the principle of reversibility of light to path n = 1.5, sin 1    sin 1  
PQRS it is obvious that if one of these values n  1.5 
is i, the other must be e and vice versa. Thus at  410 49'   r2 max
   m , we have i e.� Also, in this case, r1 = r2
A If prism is symmetric (equilateral),
and A = r1 + r2 = 2r r  A  600  r1  600  410 49’  18011’
2
Only in this case QR is parallel to base BC and
the figure is symmetric.  imin  27055’  280.
Using these in Eq. (9.11), we get,
(III) For a symmetric (equilateral) prism,
i  i  A  m
i 
 A  m  the prism formula can be written as
2  60   m    
According to Snell’s law, sin  sin  30  m 

 A  m  n  2   2 
sin    60  sin  30 
n   2  sin  
 A  2 
sin   --- (9.12)
2   
 2sin  30  m 
Equation (9.12) is called prism formula.  2 
Example 9.9: For a glass (n=1.5) prism having
refracting angle 600, determine the range of (IV) For a prism of denser material,
angle of incidence for which emergent ray is kept in a rarer medium, the incident ray
possible from the opposite surface and the deviates towards the normal during the
corresponding angles of emergence. Also first refraction and away from the normal
calculate the angle of incidence for which during second refraction. However, during
i = e. How much is the corresponding angle of both the refractions it deviates towards the
minimum deviation? base only.

173
Solution: As shown in the box above, separated. This is angular dispersion (Fig. 9.20).
imin 27055' . Angle of emergence for this is
emax 900 .
From the principle of reversibility of light,
imax 900 and emin 27055’
Also, from the box above,
 60   m 
sin  
n  2  Fig. 9.20: Angular dispersion through a
 60  prism.
sin  
 2  It is measured for any two component
   colours. Normally we do it for extreme colours.
sin  30  m   21   2  1
 2   m 
  2sin  30  
sin  30   2  For white light, violet and red are the
extreme colours.
 VR   V   R
Using deviation for thin prism (Eq. 9.13), we
can write
 21   2  1  A  n2  1  A  n1  1
 A  n2  n1 
where n1 and n2 are refractive indices for the
i  e  A and i  e for    m two colours.
Also,
Thin prisms: Prisms having refracting angle  VR   V   R  A  nV  1  A  nR  1
 
less than 100 A  100 are called thin prisms.  A  n  n 
V R
--- (9.14)
For such prisms we can comfortably use
Yellow is practically chosen to be the mean
sin    . For such prisms to deviate the incident
colour for violet and red.
ray towards the base during both refractions, it
is essential that i should also be less than 100 so This gives mean deviation
that all the other angles will also be small.  
 VR  V R   Y  A  nY  1 --- (9.15)
Thus 2

Do you know ?
 i  nr1 and e  nr2
If you see a rainbow widthwise, yellow
Using these in Eq. (9.11), we get,
appears to be centrally located. Hence
i  e  nr1  nr2  n  r1  r2   nA  A   angular deviation of yellow is average for
  A  n  1  --- (9.13) the entire colour span. This may be the reason
A and n are constant for a given prism. Thus, for choosing yellow as the mean colour.
for a thin prism, for small angles of incidences, Remember, red band is widest and violet is
angle of deviation is constant (independent of much thinner than blue.
(ii) While obtaining the expression for , we
angle of incidence).
have used thin prism formula for . However,
Angular dispersion and mean deviation:
the expression for (equation 9.16) is valid
As discussed earlier, if a polychromatic beam
as well for equilateral prisms or right-angled
is incident upon a prism, the emergent beam
prisms.
consists of all the individual colours angularly

174
Dispersive power: Ability of an optical is called a mirage (Fig. 9.21).
material to disperse constituent colours is its
dispersive power. It is measured for any two
colours as the ratio of angular dispersion to the
mean deviation for those two colours. Thus, for
the extreme colours of white light, dispersive
power is given by


 V   R  
V  R
V  R  Y Fig. 9.21: The Mirage.
 2  On a hot day the air in contact with the
 
road is hottest and as we go up, it gets gradually
A  nV  nR  nV  nR
  --- (9.16) cooler. The refractive index of air thus decreases
A  nY  1 nY  1 with height. As shown in the figure, due to this
gradual change in the refractive index, the
As is the ratio of same physical quantities,
ray of light coming from the top of an object
it is unitless and dimensionless quantity. From
becomes more and more horizontal as it almost
the expression in terms of refractive indices
touches the road. For some reason (mentioned
it should be understood that dispersive power
later) it bends above. Then onwards, upward
depends only upon refractive index (hence
bending continues due to denser air. As a result,
material only) and not upon the dimensions of
for an observer, it appears to be coming from
prism. For commonly used glasses it is around
below thereby giving an illusion of reflection
0.03.
from an (imaginary) water surface.
Example 10: For a dense flint glass prism of
Rainbow: Undoubtedly, rainbow is an eye-
refracting angle 100, obtain angular deviation
catching phenomenon occurring due to rains
for extreme colours and dispersive power of
and Sunlight. It is most popular because it is
dense flint glass. (
observable from anywhere on the Earth. A
few lucky persons might have observed two
rainbows simultaneously one above the other.
Some might have seen a complete circular
 Angular dispersion, VR  V   R  0.80 rainbow from an aeroplane (Of course, this time
dispersive power, = it’s not a bow!). Optical phenomena discussed
 R till now are sufficient to explain the formation
 V of a rainbow.
 V   R 
 2  The facts to be explained are:
 
(i) It is seen during rains and on the opposite
 7.92  7.12 
 2  side of the Sun.
 7.92  7.12  (ii) It is seen only during mornings and
2  0.8 evenings and not throughout the day.
  0.11064
15.04 (iii) In the commonly seen rainbow red arch is
(This is much higher than popular crown glass) outside and violet is inside.
9.9 Some natural phenomena due to Sunlight: (iv) In the rarely occurring concentric
Mirage: On a hot clear Sunny day, along secondary rainbow, violet arch is outside
a level road, a pond of water appears to be and red is inside.
there ahead. However, if we physically reach (v) It is in the form of arc of a circle.
the spot, there is nothing but the dry road and (vi) Complete circle can be seen from a higher
water pond again appears ahead. This illusion altitude, i.e. from an aeroplane.

175
 (vii) Total internal reflection is not possible in emerge from V and R and can be seen by an
this case. observer on the ground. For the observer they
Conditions necessary for formation of a appear to be coming from opposite side of
rainbow: Light shower with relatively large the Sun. Minimum deviation rays of red and
raindrops, morning or evening time and enough violet colour are inclined to the ground level at
Sunlight. R
= 42.8 43 and V = 40.8 41 respectively.
As a result, in the ‘bow’ or arch, the red is above
Optical phenomena involved: During the
or outer and violet is lower or inner.
formation of a rainbow, the rays of Sunlight
incident on water drops, deviate and disperse
during refraction, internally (NOT total
internally) reflect once (for primary rainbow)
or twice (for secondary rainbow) and finally
refract again into air. At all stages there
is angular dispersion which leads to clear
separation of the colours.
Primary rainbow: Figure 9.22 (a) shows the
optical phenomena involved in the formation of
Fig. 9.22 (a): Formation of primary rainbow.
a primary rainbow due to a spherical water drop.
R'
Do you know ? V'
Possible reasons for the upward bending
at the road could be:
(i) Angle of incidence at the road is
glancing. At glancing incidence, the
reflection coefficient is very large
which causes reflection.
(ii) Air almost in contact with the road is
not steady. The non-uniform motion of Fig. 9.22 (b): Formation of secondary
the air bends the ray upwards and once rainbow.
it has bent upwards, it continues to do Secondary rainbow: Figure 9.22 (b) shows
so.
some optical phenomena involved in the
(iii) Using Maxwell’s equations for EM
formation of a secondary rainbow due to a
waves, correct explanation is possible
spherical water drop. White ray AB from the
for the reflection.
Sun strikes from lower portion of a water drop
It may be pointed out that total internal
at an incident angle i. On entering into water, it
reflection is NEVER possible here because
the relative refractive index is just less than deviates and disperses into constituent colours.
1 and hence the critical angle (discussed in Extreme colours violet(V) and red(R) are shown.
the next article) is also approaching 900. Refracted rays BV and BR finally emerge the
drop from V' and R' after suffering two internal
White ray AB from the Sun strikes from upper reflections and can be seen by an observer on
portion of a water drop at an incident angle i. the ground. Minimum deviation rays of red and
On entering into water, it deviates and disperses violet colour are inclined to the ground level at
into constituent colours. Extreme colours 51 and V 53 respectively. As a result,
R
violet(V) and red(R) are shown. Refracted rays in the ‘bow’ or arch, the violet is above or outer
BV and BR strike the opposite inner surface and red is lower or inner.
of water drop and suffer internal (NOT total
internal) reflection. These reflected rays finally

176
 Do you know ? . Second derivative of comes out to be
(I) Why total internal reflection is not negative, which shows that it is the minima
possible during formation of a rainbow? condition. Equating first derivative to zero
Angle of incidence i in air, at the water we can obtain corresponding values of i
drop, can’t be greater than 90 . As a result, and r. Again, by using Figs. a and b, we can
angle of refraction r in water will always less obtain the corresponding angles R and V at
than the critical angle. From Fig a and b and the horizontal, which is the visible angular
by simple geometry, it is clear that this r itself position for the rainbow.
is the angle of incidence at any point for one (III) Why is the rainbow a bow or an arch?
or more internal reflections. Obviously, total Can we see a complete circular rainbow?
internal reflection is not possible. Figure c illustrates formation of
primary and secondary rainbows with their
common centre O is the point where the line
joining the sun and the observer meets the
Earth when extended. P is location of the
observer. Different colours of rainbows are
seen on arches of cones of respective angles
described earlier.

Smallest half angle refers to the cone of

b violet colour of primary rainbow, which is
(II) Why is rainbow seen only for a definite 410. As the Sun rises, the common centre of
angle range with respect to the ground? the rainbows moves down. Hence as the Sun
For clear visibility we must have a beam comes up, smaller and smaller part of the
of enough intensity. From the deviation curve rainbows will be seen. If the Sun is above
(Fig 9.19) it is clear that near minimum 410, violet arch of primary rainbow cannot
deviation the curve is almost parallel to x-axis, be seen. Obviously beyond 530, nothing will
i.e., for majority of angles of incidence in this be seen. That is why rainbows are visible
range, the angle of deviation is nearly the only during mornings and evenings.
same and those are almost parallel forming However, if observer moves up (may be in
a beam of enough intensity. Thus, the rays an aeroplane), the line PO itself moves up
in the near vicinity of minimum deviation are making lower part of the arches visible.
almost parallel to each other. Rays beyond this After a certain minimum elevation, entire
range suffer wide angular dispersion and thus circle for all the cones can be visible.
will not have enough intensity for visibility. (IV) Size of water drops convenient for
By using simple geometry for Figs. rainbow: Water drops responsible for the
a and b it can be shown that the angle of formation of a rainbow should not be too
deviation between final emergent ray and the small. For too small drops the phenomenon
incident ray is     2i  4 r during primary of diffraction (redistribution of energy due
rainbow and during secondary rainbow it is to obstacles, discussed in XIIth standard)
  2  2i  6 r . These relations and Snell’s dominates and clear rainbow can’t be seen.
law sini nsinr , we can obtain derivatives of

177
9.10 Defects of lenses (aberrations of optical
images):
As mentioned in the section 9.4 for
aberration for curved mirrors, while deriving
various relations, we assume most of the rays
to be paraxial by using lenses of small aperture.
In reality, we have objects of finite sizes. Also,
we need optical devices of large apertures Fig. 9.24: Chromatic aberration: (a)
(lenses and/or mirrors of size few meters for Convex lens.
telescopes, etc.). In such cases the beam of rays
is no more paraxial, quite often not parallel
also. As a result, the defect discussed for
spherical mirrors can occur in the same way
for lenses also. Only one defect is mentioned
corresponding to monochromatic beam of light.
Chromatic aberration: In case of mirrors
there is no dispersion of light due to refractive
index. However, lenses are prepared by using
a transparent material medium having different Fig. 9.24: Chromatic aberration: (b)
refractive index for different colours. Hence Concave lens
angular dispersion is present. A convex lens can Reducing/eliminating chromatic aberration:
be approximated to two thin prisms connected Eliminating chromatic aberration
base to base and for a concave lens those are simultaneously for all the colours is impossible.
vertex to vertex. (Fig. 9.23 (a) and 9.23 (b)) We try to eliminate it for extreme colours which
reduces it for other colours. Convenient methods
to do it use either a convex and a concave
lens in contact or two thin convex lenses with
proper separation. Such a combination is called
achromatic combination.
Achromatic combination of two lenses in
contact: Let 1 & 2 be the dispersive powers
of materials of the two component lenses used
in contact for an achromatic combination.
Fig. 9.23: (a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens Their focal lengths f for violet, red and yellow
If the lens is thick, this will result into (assumed to be the mean colour) are suffixed
notably different foci corresponding to each by respective letters V, R and Y.
colour for a polychromatic beam, like a
 1 1 
white light. This defect is called chromatic Also, let K1     for lens 1 and
aberration, violet being focused closest to pole  R1 R2 1
as it has maximum deviation. (Fig 9.24 (a) and  1 1 
9.24 (b)) Longitudinal chromatic aberration, K 2   R  R  for lens 2.
 1 2 2
transverse chromatic aberration and circle of For two thin lenses in contact,
least confusion are defined in the same manner
1 1 1 ……
as that of spherical aberration for spherical  
mirrors. f f1 f 2
To be used separately for respective colours.
For the combination to be achromatic, the

178
resultant focal length of the combination must Example 9.11: After Cataract operation, a
be the same for both the colours, i.e., person is recommended with concavo-convex
1 1 spectacles of curvatures 10 cm and 50 cm.
fV f R or
fV fR Crown glass of refractive indices 1.51 for red
1 1 1 1 and 1.53 for violet colours is used for this.
    Calculate the lateral chromatic aberration
f1V f 2V f1 R f 2 R
occurring due to these glasses.
(n1V-1) K1 + (n2V-1) K2 = (n1R-1) K1 + (n2R-1) K2 Solution: For a concavo-concave lens, both
…… using lens makers’ Eq. (9.7) the radii of curvature are either positive or both
K1 n2V  n2 R negative. If convex shape faces object, both
  --- (9.17) will be positive. See the accompanying figure.
K 2 n1V  n1R
For mean colour yellow,
1 1 1
 
fY f1Y f 2Y
1
with   n1Y  1 K1 Fig. Concavo-convex
f1Y lens with convex face
1 receiving incident rays
  n2Y  1 K 2
f 2Y
K1  n2Y  1   f 2Y   R1  10 cm and R2  50 cm
    --- (9.18)
K 2  n1Y  1   f1Y   1 1   1 1  1
Equating R.H.S. of (9.17) and (9.18) and     
R R 10

50   0.08 cm
 1 2   
rearranging, we can write
f 2Y  n  n2 R   n1R  n1R 
   2V   
f1Y  n2Y  1   n1Y  1 

 2 --- (9.19)
1
Equation (9.19) is the condition for achromatic 1  1 1 
and   nV  1   
combination of two lenses, in contact. fV  R1 R2 
Dispersive power is always positive. Thus,  1.53  1  0.08  0.0424
one of the lenses must be convex and the other
concave.  fV  23.58 cm

If second lens is concave, f 2Y is negative. ∴ Longitudinal chromatic aberration

1 1 1 = fV - fR=25.51 - 23.58
∴   = 1.93 cm,... (quite appreciable!)
fY f1Y f 2Y
For this combination to be converging, fY Verify that you get the same answer even
should be positive. if you consider the concave surface facing the
Hence, f1Y f 2Y and 1  2 incident rays.
Thus, for an achromatic combination if there Spherical aberration: Longitudinal spherical
is a choice between flint glass ( n 1.655) aberration, transverse spherical aberration and
and crown glass ( n 1.517 ), the convergent circle of least confusion are defined in the same
(convex) lens must be of crown glass and the manner as that for spherical mirrors. (Fig 9.25
divergent (concave) lens of flint glass. (a) and 9.25 (b))

179
 9.11 Optical instruments:
Introduction: Whether an object appears
bigger or not does not necessarily depend upon
its own size. Huge mountains far off may appear
smaller than a small tree close to us. This is
because the angle subtended by the mountain
at the eye from that distance (called the visual
angle) is smaller than that subtended by the tree
from its position. Hence, apparent size of an
Fig. 9.28 (a): Spherical aberration, Convex object depends upon the visual angle subtended
lens. by the object from its position. Obviously, for
an object to appear bigger, we must bring it
closer to us or we should go closer to it.
However, due to the limitation for focusing
the eye lens it is not possible to take an object
closer than a certain distance. This distance is
called least distance of distance vision D. For
a normal, unaided human eye D =25cm. If an
object is brought closer than this, we cannot
see it clearly. If an object is too small (like
Fig. 9.28 (b): Spherical aberration, Concave the legs of an ant), the corresponding visual
lens angle from 25 cm is not enough to see it and
Methods to reduce/eliminate spherical if we bring it closer than that, its image on the
aberration of lenses: retina is blurred. Also, the visual angle made by
(i) Cheapest method to reduce the spherical cosmic objects far away from us (such as stars)
aberration is to use a planoconvex or is too small to make out minor details and we
planoconcave lens with curved side facing cannot bring those closer. In such cases we
the incident rays (real object). Reversing it need optical instruments such as a microscope
increases the aberration appreciably. in the former case and a telescope in the latter.
(ii) Certain ratio of radii of curvature for a It means that microscopes and telescopes help
given refractive index almost eliminates us in increasing the visual angle. This is called
the spherical aberration. For n 1.5, the angular magnification or magnifying power.
R1 1 1 Magnifying power: Angular magnification or
ratio is and for n 2, it is magnifying power of an optical instrument is
R2 6 5
(iii) Use of two thin converging lenses defined as the ratio of the visual angle made
separated by distance equal to difference by the image formed by that optical instrument
between their focal lengths with lens of ( ) to the visual angle subtended by the object
larger focal length facing the incident rays when kept at the least distance of distinct vision
considerably reduces spherical aberration. ( ). (Figure 9.26 (a) and 9.26 (b)) In the case
of telescopes, is the angle subtended by the
(iv) Spherical aberration of a convex lens is object from its own position as it is not possible
positive (for real image), while that of a to get it closer.
concave lens is negative. Thus, a suitable
combination of them (preferably a double Simple microscope or a reading glass: In
convex lens of smaller focal length and order to read very small letters in a newspaper,
a planoconcave lens of greater focal sometimes we use a convex lens. You might
length) can completely eliminate spherical have seen watch-makers using a special type
aberration. of small convex lens while looking at very tiny

180
parts of a wrist watch. Convex lens used for D D
this purpose is a simple microscope.  M max  1 
u f
(ii) For minimum magnifying power, v  ,
i.e., u f (numerically)
D D
Fig. 9.26: (a) Visual Angle  M min  
u f
Thus the angular magnification by a lens of
D  D
focal length f is between  f  and  1  f 
   
only.
For common human eyesight, D = 25 cm.
Fig. 9.26: (b) Visual Angle . Thus, if f = 5 cm,
Figure 9.26 (a) shows visual angle D  D
made by an object, when kept at the least M min     5 and M max   1    6
 f   f  .
distance of distinct vision D. Without an Hence image appears to be only 5 to 6 times
optical instrument this is the greatest possible bigger for a lens of focal length 5 cm.
visual angle as we cannot get the object closer
D v
than this. Figure 9.26 (b) shows a convex lens For M min   f   5 , v   . ∴ m  u   .
forming erect, virtual and magnified image of  
Thus, the image size is infinite times that of the
the same object, when placed within the focus. object, but appears only 5 times bigger.
The visual angle of the object and the image
For
in this case are the same. However, this time
the viewer is looking at the image which is not D
M max  1     6 ,
closer than D. Hence the same object is now at  f 
25
a distance smaller than D. It makes greater v  25 cm. Corresponding u 
then and the same object appears bigger. 6 cm
v
Angular magnification or magnifying ∴ m 6 . Thus, image size is 6 times
u
power, in this case, is given by that of the object, and appears also 6 times
larger.
Example 9.12: A magnifying glass of focal
For small angles  and  , we can write, length 10 cm is used to read letters of thickness
0.5 mm held 8 cm away from the lens. Calculate
 BA 
the image size. How big will the letters appear?
 tan     PA  D
M    Can you read the letters if held 5 cm away from
 tan    BA  u the lens? If yes, of what size would the letters
 D  - (numerically)
  appear? If no, why not?
Limiting cases: f  10 cm , u  8 cm , v  ?
(i) For maximum magnifying power, the
1 1 1 1 1 1
image should be nearest possible, i.e., at       v  40 cm
D. f v u 10 v 8
1 1 1
For a thin lens,  
f v u
In this case, u  u
and M M max
1 1 1 D D D D 25
      M 3.125
f  D u f D u u 8

181
 rmediate) image A B is within its focus. Hence,
for this object A B , the eye lens behaves as a
simple microscope and produces its virtual and
For magnified image A B , which is inverted with
For an average human being to see clearly, respect to original object AB.
the image must be at or beyond 25 cm. Thus, it Magnifying power of a compound
will not possible to read the letters if held 5 cm microscope with two lenses: From its position,
away from the lens. the final image A B makes a visual angle
Compound microscope: As seen above, the at the eye (jammed at the eye lens). Visual angle
magnifying power of a simple microscope made by the object from distance D is .
is inversely proportional to its focal length. A " B " A'B'
tan   
However, if we need focal length to be smaller ve ue
and smaller, the corresponding lens becomes AB
thicker and thicker. For such a lens both tan   (Fig. 9.29 (a))
D
spherical as well as chromatic aberrations are ∴Angular magnification or magnifying power,
dominant. Thus, if higher magnifying power is
needed, we go for using more than one lenses.  tan   AB   D 
M   
The instrument is then called a compound  tan   ue   AB 
microscope. It is used to view very small objects
 AB   D 
(sizes . Also, whether   
the image is erect or inverted is immaterial.  AB   ue 
A compound microscope essentially uses  M  mo  M e
two convex lenses of suitable focal lengths fit
 A'B'  v
into a cylindrical tube with some adjustment Where,    mo  o is the linear (lateral)
possible for its length. The smaller lens ( 4 mm  AB  uo
magnification of the objective and
to 6 mm aperture) facing the object is called the
objective. Other lens with which the observer D
jams her/his eye is litter larger and called as    M e is the angular magnification or
 ue 
the eye lens. (Fig 9.27) During this discussion magnifying power of the eye lens. Length
we consider the eye lens to be a single lens, but of the compound microscope then becomes
in practice it is an eyepiece, itself consisting of L = distance between the two lenses v0 + ue.
two planoconvex lenses. Remarks:
(i) In order to increase mo , we need to decrease
uo . Thereby, the object comes closer
and closer to the focus of the objective.
This increase v0 and hence length of the
microscope. Thus mo can be increased
only within the limitation of length of the
microscope.
D
(ii) Minimum value of M e is   for final
 fe 
Fig. 9.27: Compound Microscope. image at infinity and maximum value of
As shown in the Fig. 9.27, a tiny object  D
M e is  1  for final image at D
AB is placed between f and 2f of the objective  fe 
which produces its real, inverted and magnified respectively. M e and mo together decide
image A B in front of the eye lens. Position the minimum and maximum magnifying
of the eye lens is so adjusted that the (inte- power of the microscope.

182
Example 9.13: The pocket microscope used by Such telescopes use convex lens as eye lens.
a student consists of eye lens of focal length (Fig. 9.27).
6.25 cm and objective of focal length 2 cm.
At microscope length 15 cm, the final image
appears biggest. Estimate distance of the object
from the objective and magnifying power of the
microscope.
Solution:
Fig. 9.28: Telescope.
Magnifying power of a telescope: Objects
to be seen through a telescope cannot be
1 1 1 1 4 brought to distance D from the objective, like
    in microscopes. Hence, for telescopes, is the
f e v e ue 6.25 25
visual angle of the object from its own position,
1 1 which is practically at infinity. Visual angle of
   ue  5 cm
25 ue the final image is and its position can be
adjusted to be at D. However, under normal
 v o  L  ue  15  5  10cm
adjustments, the final image is also at infinity
1 1 1 1 1 1 but making a greater visual angle than that of
      uo  2.5 cm the object. (If the image is really at infinity,
f o v o uo 2 10 uo
there will not be any parallax at the cross wires).
 v  D  Beam of incident rays is now inclined at an
M  mo  M e   0   
 uo   ue  angle with the principal axis while emergent
beam is inclined at a greater angle with the
 10   25 
     4  5  20 principal axis causing angular magnification.
 2.5   5  (Fig. 9.28)
Telescope: Telescopes are used to see terrestrial Objective of focal length fo focusses the
or astronomical bodies. A telescope essentially parallel incident beam at a distance fo from the
uses two lenses (or one large parabolic mirror objective giving an inverted image AB. For
and a lens). The lens facing the object (called normal adjustment, the eye lens is so adjusted
objective) is of aperture as large as possible. For that the intermediate image AB happens to be at
Newtonian telescopes, a large parabolic mirror the focus of the eye lens. Rays refracted beyond
faces the object. the eye lens form a parallel beam inclined at an
For terrestrial telescopes the objects to be angle with the principal axis resulting into
seen are on the Earth , like mountains, trees, the image also at infinity.
players playing a match in a stadium, etc. In ∴Angular magnification or magnifying power,
such case, the final image must be erect. Eye  BA   BA 
lens used for this purpose must be concave    
and such a telescope is popularly called a
 tan   Pe B   f e 
M   
binocular. A variety of binoculars use three  tan   BA   BA 
   
convex lenses with proper separation. The  Po B   f o 
third lens again inverts the second intermediate
fo
image and makes final image erect with respect M 
to the object. In this text we shall be discussing fe
astronomical telescope. Length of the telescope for normal adjustment
For an astronomical telescope, the objects is L  f o  f e
to be seen are planets, stars, galaxies, etc. In Under the allowed limit of length objective of
this case there is no necessity of erect image.

183
maximum possible focal length f o and eye lens L= f0 + fe ∴1.05 = 1 + f0 ∴ fe = 0.05 m = 5 cm
of minimum possible focal length f e can be Under normal adjustments,
chosen for maximum magnifying power. fo 1
Example 14: Focal length of the objective of M 20
f e 0.05
an astronomical telescope is 1 m. Under normal
adjustment, length of the telescope is 1.05
m. Calculate focal length of the eyepiece and
magnifying power under normal adjustment.
Solution: For astronomical telescope,

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option v. Which of the following aberrations will
i. As per recent understanding light consists NOT occur for spherical mirrors?
of (A) Chromatic aberration
(A) rays (B) Coma
(B) waves (C) Distortion
(C) corpuscles (D) Spherical aberration
(D) photons obeying the rules of waves vi. There are different fish, monkeys and
ii. Consider the optically denser lenses P, water of the habitable planet of the star
Q, R and S drawn below. According to Proxima b. A fish swimming underwater
Cartesian sign convention which of these feels that there is a monkey at 2.5 m on the
have positive focal length? top of a tree. The same monkey feels that
the fish is 1.6 m below the water surface.
Interestingly, height of the tree and the
depth at which the fish is swimming are
exactly same. Refractive index of that
(A) Only P water must be
(B) Only P and Q (A) 6/5 (B) 5/4
(C) Only P and R (C) 4/3 (D) 7/5
(D) Only Q and S vii. Consider following phenomena/
applications: P) Mirage, Q) rainbow,
iii. Two plane mirrors are inclined at angle
R) Optical fibre and S) glittering of a
400 between them. Number of images
diamond. Total internal reflection is
seen of a tiny object kept between them is
involved in
(A) Only 8 (B) Only 9
(A) Only R and S (B) Only R
(C) 8 or 9 (D) 9 or 10
(C) Only P, R and S (D) all the four
iv. A concave mirror of curvature 40 cm,
viii. A student uses spectacles of number -2 for
used for shaving purpose produces image
seeing distant objects. Commonly used
of double size as that of the object. Object
lenses for her/his spectacles are
distance must be
(A) bi-concave
(A) 10 cm only
(B) double concave
(B) 20 cm only
(C) concavo-convex
(C) 30 cm only
(D) convexo-concave
(D) 10 cm or 30 cm

184
ix. A spherical marble, of refractive index 2. Answer the following questions.
1.5 and curvature 1.5 cm, contains a tiny i) As per recent development, what is the
air bubble at its centre. Where will it nature of light? Wave optics and particle
appear when seen from outside? nature of light are used to explain which
(A) 1 cm inside (B) at the centre phenomena of light respectively?
(C) 5/3 cm inside (D) 2 cm inside ii) Which phenomena can be satisfactorily
x. Select the WRONG statement. explained using ray optics? State the
(A) Smaller angle of prism is assumptions on which ray optics is based.
recommended for greater angular iii) What is focal power of a spherical mirror
dispersion. or a lens? What may be the reason for
(B) Right angled isosceles glass prism is 1
using P as its expression?
f
commonly used for total internal
reflection. iv) At which positions of the objects do
(C) Angle of deviation is practically spherical mirrors produce (i) diminished
constant for thin prisms. image, (ii) magnified image?
(D) For emergent ray to be possible from v) State the restrictions for having images
the second refracting surface, certain produced by spherical mirrors to be
minimum angle of incidence is appreciably clear.
necessary from the first surface. vi) Explain spherical aberration for spherical
xi. Angles of deviation for extreme colours mirrors. How can it be minimized? Can it
are given for different prisms. Select the be eliminated by some curved mirrors?
one having maximum dispersive power vii) Define absolute refractive index and
of its material. relative refractive index. Explain in brief
(A) 7 , 10 (B) 8 , 11 with an illustration for each.
(C) 12 , 16 (D) 10 , 14 viii) Explain ‘mirage’ as an illustration of
xii. Which of the following is not involved in refraction.
formation of a rainbow? ix) Under what conditions is total internal
(A) refraction reflection possible? Explain it with a
suitable example. Define critical angle of
(B) angular dispersion
incidence and obtain an expression for it.
(C) angular deviation
x) Describe construction and working of
(D) total internal reflection an optical fibre. What are the advantages
xiii. Consider following statements regarding of optical fibre communication over
a simple microscope: electronic communication?
(P) It allows us to keep the object within xi) Why is a prism binoculars preferred
the least distance of distant vision. over traditional binoculars? Describe its
(Q) Image appears to be biggest if the working in brief.
object is at the focus. xii) A spherical surface separates two
(R) It is simply a convex lens. transparent media. Derive an expression
(A) Only (P) is correct that relates object and image distances
with the radius of curvature for a point
vB) Only (P) and (Q) are correct
object. Clearly state the assumptions, if
(C) Only (Q) and (R) are correct any.
(D) Only (P) and (R) are correct

185
xiii) Derive lens makers’ equation. Why is it ix) Derive the expressions for the magnifying
called so? Under which conditions focal power and the length of a compound
length f and radii of curvature R are microscope using two convex lenses.
numerically equal for a lens? x) What is a terrestrial telescope and an
2. Answer the following questions in astronomical telescope?
detail. xi) Obtain the expressions for magnifying
i) What are different types of dispersions of power and the length of an astronomical
light? Why do they occur? telescope under normal adjustments.
ii) Define angular dispersion for a prism. xii) What are the limitations in increasing
Obtain its expression for a thin prism. the magnifying powers of (i) simple
Relate it with the refractive indices of the microscope (ii) compound microscope
material of the prism for corresponding (iii) astronomical telescope?
colours. 3. Solve Numerical examples
iii) Explain and define dispersive power i) A monochromatic ray of light strike the
of a transparent material. Obtain its water (n = 4/3) surface in a cylindrical
expressions in terms of angles of vessel at angle of incidence 530. Depth of
deviation and refractive indices. water is 36 cm. After striking the water
iv) (i) State the conditions under which a surface, how long will the light take to
rainbow can be seen. reach the bottom of the vessel? [Angles
(ii) Explain the formation of a primary of the most popular Pythagorean triangle
rainbow. For which angular range with of sides in the ratio 3:4:5 are nearly 370,
the horizontal is it visible? 530 and 900]
(iii) Explain the formation of a secondary [Ans: 0.2 µs]
rainbow. For which angular range with ii) Estimate the number of images produced
the horizontal is it visible? if a tiny object is kept in between two
(iv) Is it possible to see primary and plane mirrors inclined at 350, 360, 400 and
secondary rainbow simultaneously? 450.
Under what conditions? [Ans: 10, 9, 9 or 8, 7 respectively]
v) (i) Explain chromatic aberration for iii) A rectangular sheet of length 30 cm and
spherical lenses. State a method to breadth 3 cm is kept on the principal axis
minimize or eliminate it. of a concave mirror of focal length 30 cm.
(ii) What is achromatism? Derive a Draw the image formed by the mirror on
condition to achieve achromatism for a the same diagram, as far as possible on
lens combination. State the conditions scale.
for it to be converging. [Ans: Inverted image starts from 50
vi) Describe spherical aberration for cm and ends at 90 cm. Its height in the
spherical lenses. What are different ways beginning is 2 cm and at the end it is
to minimize or eliminate it? 6 cm. At 60 cm, image height is 3 cm.
vii) Define and describe magnifying power of Thus, outer boundary if the image is a
an optical instrument. How does it differ curve]
from linear or lateral magnification? iv) A car uses a convex mirror of curvature
viii) Derive an expression for magnifying 1.2 m as its rear-view mirror. A minibus
power of a simple microscope. Obtain its of cross section 2.2 m × 2.2 m is 6.6 m
minimum and maximum values in terms away from the mirror. Estimate the image
of its focal length. size.
[Ans: Nearly a square of edge 0.2 m]

186
v) A glass slab of thickness 2.5 cm having ix) A monochromatic ray of light is incident
refractive index 5/3 is kept on an ink spot. at 370 on an equilateral prism of refractive
A transparent beaker of very thin bottom, index 3/2. Determine angle of emergence
containing water of refractive index 4/3 and angle of deviation. If angle of prism
up to 8 cm, is kept on the glass block. is adjustable, what should its value be for
Calculate apparent depth of the ink spot emergent ray to be just possible for the
when seen from the outside air. same angle of incidence.
[Ans: 7.5 cm] [Ans: e = 63 = 40 , A = 65 24' for
vi) A convex lens held some distance above e = 90 (just emerges)]
a 6 cm long pencil produces its image
x) From the given data set, determine
of SOME size. On shifting the lens by a
angular dispersion by the prism and
distance equal to its focal length, it again
dispersive power of its material for
produces the image of the SAME size as
extreme colours. nR = 1.62 nV = 1.66,
earlier. Determine the image size.
R
= 3.1
[Ans: 12 cm] 1
[Ans: VR = 0.2 = = 0.0625]
vii) Figure below shows the section ABCD of VR
16
a transparent slab. There is a tiny green xi) Refractive index of a flint glass varies
LED light source at the bottom left corner from 1.60 to 1.66 for visible range. Radii
B. A certain ray of light from B suffers of curvature of a thin convex lens are 10
total internal reflection at nearest point P cm and 15 cm. Calculate the chromatic
on the surface AD and strikes the surface aberration between extreme colours.
CD at point Q. Determine refractive index [Ans: 10/11 cm]
of the material of the slab and distance xii) A person uses spectacles of ‘number’
DQ. At Q, the ray PQ will suffer partial 2.00 for reading. Determine the
or total internal reflection? [You may use range of magnifying power (angular
the approximation given in Q 1 above]. magnification) possible. It is a concavo-
[Ans: n = 5/4, DQ = 1.5 cm, Partial convex lens (n = 10.5) having curvature
internal reflection at Q] of one of its surfaces to be 10 cm.
Estimate that of the other.
[Ans: Mmin = 0.5, Mmax = 1.5 R2 = 50/3 cm]
xiii) Focal power of the eye lens of a compound
microscope is 6 dioptre. The microscope
is to be used for maximum magnifying
power (angular magnification) of at least
12.5. The packing instructions demand
viii) A point object is kept 10 cm away from that length of the microscope should be
one of the surfaces of a thick double 25 cm. Determine minimum focal power
convex lens of refractive index 1.5 and of the objective. How much will its radius
radii of curvature 10 cm and 8 cm. Central of curvature be if it is a biconvex lens of
thickness of the lens is 2 cm. Determine n = 1.5.
location of the final image considering [Ans: 40 dioptre, 2.5 cm]
paraxial rays only.
[Ans: 4 cm away from the other surface]
***

187
 10. Electrostatics
Can you recall?
1. Have you experienced a shock while getting up from a plastic chair and shaking hand with your
friend?
2. Ever heard a crackling sound while taking out your sweater in winter?
3. Have you seen the lightning striking during pre-monsoon weather?
10.1 Introduction: electrons surround the nucleus so as to make
Electrostatics deals with static electric an atom electrically neutral. Thus most matter
charges, the forces between them and the around us is electrically neutral.
effects produced in the form of electric fields
and electric potentials. We have already
studied some aspects of electrostatics in earlier
standards. In this Chapter we will review some
of them and then go on to study some aspects
in details.
Current electricity, which plays a major
role in our day to day life, is produced
by moving charges. Charges are present Fig. 10.1 a Fig. 10.1 b
everywhere around us though their presence
can only be felt under special circumstances.
For example, when we remove our sweater in
winter on a dry day, we hear some crackling
sound and the sweater appears to stick to our
body. This is because of the electric charges
produced due to friction between our body and
the sweater. Similarly the lightening that we Fig. 10.1 c Fig. 10.1 d
see in the sky is also due to the flow of large
amount of electric charges that develop on the Fig. 10.1 (a): Insulated conductor
clouds due to friction. Fig. 10.1 (b): +ve charge is neutralized by
10.2 Electric Charges: electron from Earth
Historically opposite electric charges Fig. 10.1 (c): Earthing is removed -ve
were known to the Greeks in the 600 BC. charge still stays m conductor due to +ve
They realized that equal and opposite charges charged rod
develop on amber and fur when rubbed against Fig. 10.1 (d): Rod removed -ve charge is
each other. Now we know that electric charge distributed over the surface of the conductor
is a basic property of elementary particles of When certain dissimilar substances, like
which matter is made of. These elementary fur and amber or comb and dry hair, are rubbed
particles are proton, neutron and electron. against each other, electrons get transferred
Atoms are made of these particles and matter to the other substance making them charged.
is made from atoms. A proton is considered The substance receiving electrons develops a
to be positively charged and electron to be negative charge while the other is left with an
negatively charged. Neutron is electrically equal amount of positive charge. This can be
neutral i.e. it has no charge. An atomic nucleus called charging by conduction as charges are
is made up of protons and neutrons and hence transfered from one body to another. Charges
is positively charged. Negatively charged can be separated by other means as well, like

188
chemical reactions (in cells), convection (in
clouds), diffusion (in living cells) etc. Gold Leaf Electroscope:
If an uncharged conductor is brought near This is a classic instrument for detecting
a charged body, (not in physical contact) the presences of electric charge. A metal disc
nearer side of the conductor develops opposite is connected to one end of a narrow metal
charge to that on the charged body and the far rod and a thin piece of gold leaf is fixed to
side of the conductor develops charge similar the other end. The whole of this part of the
to that on the charged body. This is called electroscope is insulted from the body of
induction. This happens because the electrons the instrument. A glass front prevents air
in a conductor are free and can move easily draughts but allows to observe the effect of
in presence of charged body. This can be seen charge on the leaf.
from Fig. 10.1. When a charge is put on the disc at the
A charged body attracts or repels electrons top it spreads down to the plate and leaf
in a conductor depending on whether the charge moves away from the plate. This happens
on the body is positive or negative respectively. because similar charges repel. The more the
Positive and negative charges are redistributed charge on the disc, more is the separation of
and are accumulated at the ends of the conductor the leaf from the plate.
near and away from the changed body. From The leaf can be made to fall again by
the above discussion it can be inferred that touching the disc. This is done by earthing
there are only two types of charges found in the electroscope. An earth terminal prevents
nature, namely, positive and negative charges. the case from accumulating any stray
In induction, there is no transfer of charges charge. The electroscope can be charged in
between the charged body and the conductor. two ways.
So when the charged body is moved away from (a) by contact- a charged rod is brought
the conductor, the charges in the conductor are in contract with the disc and charge
free again. is transferred to the electroscope. This
method gives the gold leaf the same
Can you tell? charge as that on the conductor. This is
1. When a petrol or a diesel tanker is not a very effective method of charging
emptied in a tank, it is grounded. the electroscope.
2. A thick chain hangs from a petrol or a (b) by induction- a charged rod is brought
diesel tanker and it is in contact with close to the disc (not touching it) and
ground when the tanker is moving. the electroscope is earthed. The rod
is then removed. This method give the
10.3 Basic Properties of Electric Charge: gold leaf opposite charges.
10.3.1 Additive Nature of Charge: The following diagrams show you how
Electric charge is additive, similar to mass. the charges spread over the plate and gold
The total electric charge on an object is equal leaf in different conditions.
to the algebraic sum of all the electric charges
distributed on different parts of the object.
It may be pointed out that while taking the
algebraic sum, the sign (positive or negative) of
the electric charges must be taken into account.
Thus if two bodies have equal and opposite
charges, the net charge on the system of the two
bodies is zero. This is similar to that in case of
atoms where the nucleus is positively charged
and this charge is equal to the negative charge

189
of the electrons making the atoms electrically Example 10.1: How much positive and
neutral . negative charge is present in 1gm of water?
It is interesting to compare the additive How many electrons are present in it? Given,
property of charge with that of mass. molecular mass of water is 18.0 g.
1) The masses of the particles constituting Solution: Molecular mass of water is 18.0 gm,
an object are always positive, whereas the that means the number of molecules in 18.0 gm
charges distributed on different parts of the of water is 6.02×1023.
abject may be positive or negative. ... Number of molecules in 1gm of water
2) The total mass of an object is always = 6.02×1023/18. One molecule of water (H2O)
positive whereas, the total charge on the contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
object may be positive, zero or negative. atom. Thus the number of electrons in H2O
10.3.2 Quantization of Charge: is sum of the number of electrons in H2 and
oxygen. There are 2 electrons in H2 and 8
The minimum value of the charge on an electrons oxygen.
electron as determined by the Milikan's oil drop
experiment is e = 1.6×10-19 C. This is called the ∴Number of electrons in H2O = 2+8 = 10.
elementary charge. Here, C stands for coulomb Total number of protons / electrons in 1.0
which is the unit of charge in SI system. Unit of 6.02  1023
gm of water   10  3.34  1023
charge is defind in article 10.4.3. Since protons 18
(+ve) and electrons (-ve) are the charged Total positive charge = 3.34×1023 × charge
particles constituting matter, the charge on on a proton
an object must be an integral multiple of e. = 3.34×1023 ×1.6×10-19 C = 5.35×104 C
q = ne, where n is an integer. This positive charge is balanced by equal
Further, charge on an object can be amount of negative charge so that the water
increased or decreased in multiples of e. It molecule is electrically neutral.
is because, during the charging process an
integral number of electrons can be transferred Do you know ?
from one body to the other body. This is known According to recent advancement in physics,
as quantization of charge or discrete nature of it is now believed that protons and neutrons
charge. are themselves built out of more elementary
The discrete nature of electric charge is units called quarks. They are of six types,
usually not observable in practice. It is because having fractional charge (-e/3) or (+2/3e). A
the magnitude of the elementary electric charge, proton or a neutron consists of a combination
e, is extremely small. Due to this, the number of three quarks. It may be clearly understood
of elementary charges involved in charging an that even in the quark model, quantization
object becomes extremely large. Suppose, for of charge is not affected. It is only the step
example, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, size of the charge that decreases from e to
a charge of the order of one C (10-6 C) appears e/3. Quarks are always present in bound
on the glass rod or silk. Since elementary charge states and no free quarks are known to exist.
e = 1.6×10-19 C, the number of elementary In modern day experiments it is possible to
charges on the glass rod (or silk) is given by observe the discrete nature of charge in very
106 C sensitive divides such as single electron
n=  6.25  1012
1.6  1019 C transistor
Since it is tremendously large number, 10.3.3 Conservation of Charge:
the quantization of charge is not observed and We know that when a glass rod is rubbed
one usually observes a continuous variation of with silk, it becomes positively charged and
charge. silk becomes negatively charged. The amount

190
of positive charge on glass rod is found to be proportional to the square of the distance
exactly the same as negative charge on silk. between them. This force acts along the line
Thus, the systems of glass rod and silk together joining the two charges.
possesses zero net charge after rubbing. Let q1 and q2 be two point charges at
Result and conclusion of this experiment rest with respect to each other and separated
can be generalized and we can say that "in by a distance r. The magnitude F of the force
any given physical process, charge may get between them is given by,
transferred from one part of the system to q1q2
another, but the total charge in the system F
r2
remains constant" or, for an isolated system
q1q2
total charge cannot be created nor destroyed. F=K 2 --- (10.1)
In simple words, the total charge of an isolated r
system is always conserved. where K is the constant of proportionality. Its
10.3.4 Forces between Charges: magnitude depends on the units in which F, q1,
It was observed in carefully conducted q2 and r are expressed and also on the properties
experiments with charged objects that they of the medium around the charges.
experience force when brought close (not The force between the two charges will be
touching) to each other. This force can be attractive if they are unlike (one positive and one
attractive or repulsive. Like charges repel negative). The force will be repulsive if charges
each other and unlike charges attract each are similar (both positive or both negative).
other. Figure 10.2 descirbes this schematically. Figure 10.3 describes this schematically.
This is the reason for charging by induction as
describe in section 10.2 and Fig. (10.1).

Fig. 10.2: Attractive and repulsive force.

10.4 Coulomb’s Law:
The electric interaction between two
charged bodies can be expressed in terms of the
forces they exert on each other. Coulomb (1736-
1806) made the first quantitative investigation
of the force between electric charges. He used Fig. 10.3: Coulomb’s law.
point charges at rest to study the interaction. 10.4.2 Relative Permittivity or Dielectric
A point charge is a charge whose dimensions Constant:
are negligibly small compared to its distance While discussing the coulomb’s law it was
from another bodies. Coulomb’s law is a assumed that the charges are held stationery
fundamental law governing interaction in vacuum. When the charges are kept in
between charges at rest. a material medium, such as water, mica or
10.4.1 Scalar form of Coulomb’s Law: parafined paper, the medium affects the force
Statement : The force of attraction or between the charges. The force between the two
repulsion between two point charges at rest charges placed in a medium may be written as,
is directly proportional to the product of 1  q1q 2 
Fmed =  r2  --- (10.2)
the magnitude of the charges and inversely 4  

191
where is called the absolute permittivity of force between charges by a factor of 0, its
the medium. The force between the same two relative permittivity.
charges placed in free space or vacuum at While using Eq. (10.5) we assume that
distance r is given by, the medium is homogeneous, isotropic and
1  q1q 2  infinitely large.
Fvac = --- (10.3)
4 0  r 
2
10.4.3 Definition of Unit Charge from the
Dividing Eq. (10.3) by (10.2) Coulomb’s Law:
1  q1q 2  The force between two point charges q1
Fvac 4 0  r  
2
and q separated by a distance r in free space is
= = 2
Fmed 1 q q
 1 2  0 written by using Eq. (10.2),
4 0  r 
2
1 qq qq
F  1 2 2  9  109  1 2 2
4 0 r r
The ratio is the relative permittivity
0 If q = q = 1C and r = 1.0 m
or dielectric constant of the medium and is 1 2

denoted by r or K. Then F = 9.0Í10 N 9

 F From this, we define, coulomb (C) the unit

K or  r   vac --- (10.4) of charge in SI units.
 0 Fmed
One coulomb is the amount of charge
Thus, which, when placed at a distance of one
(i) r is the ratio of absolute permittivity of a metre from another charge of the same
medium to the permittivity of free space. magnitude in vacuum, experiences a force of
(ii) r is the ratio of the force between two point 9.0 × 10 N. This force is a tremendously large
9

charges placed a certain distance apart in force realisable in practical situations. It is,
free space or vacuum to the force between therefore, necessary to express the charge in
the same two point charges when placed at smaller units for practical purpose. Subunits
the same distance in the given medium. of coulomb are used in electrostatics. For
example, micro-coulomb (10-6 C, C), nano-
is a dimensionless quantity.
r coulomb (10-9 C, nC) or pico-coulomb. (10-12 C,
(iii) r is also called specific inductive capacity. pC) are normally used units.
The force between two point charges q1
and q2 placed at a distance r in a medium of Do you know ?
relative permittivity r, is given by
Force between two charges of 1.0 C each,
1 q1q 2 separated by a distance of 1.0 m is 9.0×109 N
F 2 --- (10.5)
4 0 r r or, about 10 million metric tonne. A normal
For water, r = 80 then from Eq. (10.4) truck-load is about 10 metric tonne. So, this
Fvac force is equivalent to about one million truck-
  r  80
F loads. A tremendously large force indeed !
water

Fvac Example 10.2: Charge on an electron is

Fwater  1.6×10-19 C. How many electrons are required
80
This means that when two point charges to accumulate a charge of one coulomb?
are placed some distance apart in water, the Solution: 1.6Í10-19 C = 1 electron
th
1
force between them is reduced to  1  of the 1C  electrons
 80  1.6  1019
 0.625  1019  6.25  1018 electron
ns
force between the same two charges placed at
the same distance in vacuum. 6.25×1018 electrons are required to
Thus, a material medium reduces the accumulate a charge of one coulomb.

192
 It is now possible to measure a very Here, q1 = q2 = +1.6×10-19 C, r = 10-15m
small amount of current in otto-amperes (1.6  1019 ) (1.6  1019 )
 Fe  9  109
which measures flow of single electron. (1015 ) 2
10.4.4 Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form:  9  1.6  1.66  101 N
As shown in Fig (10.4), q1 and q2 are two Fe  2.3  102 N --- (10.8.a)
similar point charges situated at points A and The gravitational force between the
B. r12 uris the distance of separation between protons is given by
mm
them. F 21 denotes the force exerted on q2 by q1 Fg = G 1 2 2
r
r 1 q1q 2 $
F21    r2 --- (10.6) 6.674  1011  1.67  1027  1.67  1027
2 
4 0 r12 (1015 ) 2
Fg  1.86  1034 N --- (10.8.b)

Comparing 10.8. (a) and 10.8.(b)

Fe 2.30  102 N
 = 1.23  1036
Fg 1.86  1034 N

Thus, the electrostatic force is about

36 orders of magnitude stronger than the
gravitational force.
Fig. 10.4: Coulomb’s law in vector form
Comparison of gravitational and
r12 is the unit vector along AB , away electrostatic forces:
form B. Similarly, the force F12 exerted on q1 Similarities
by q2 is given by 1. Both forces obey inverse square law :
r 1 qq 1
F12   1 22  $r 21 --- (10.7) F
4 0 r12 r2
2. Both are central forces : act along the
line joining the two objects.
r 21 is the unit vector along BA , away form
Differences
A. F12 acts on q1at A and is directed along BA, 1. Gravitational force between two objects
away from A. The unit vectors r12 and r 21 are is always attractive while electrostatic
oppositely directed i.e., r12   r 21 hence, force between two charges can be
ur
F 21 = - F12 either attractive or repulsive depending
Thus, the two charges experience force on the nature of charges.
of equal magnitude and opposite in direction. 2. Gravitational force is about 36
These orders of magnitude weaker than the
ur two forces form an action- reaction pair.
As F 21 and F12 act along the line joining electrostatic force.
the two charges, the electrostatic force is a 10.5 Principle of Superposition:
central force. The principle of superposition states that
Example 10.3: Calculate and compare the when a number of charges are interacting, the
electrostatic and gravitational forces between resultant force on a particular charge is given
two protons which are 10-15 m apart. Value of by the vector sum of the forces exerted by
G = 6.674×10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 and mass of the individual charges.
proton is 1.67×10-27 kg Consider a number of point charges q1, q2,
Solution: The electrostatic force between the q3 ------- kept at points A1, A2, A3--- as shown
1 q1q 2 in Fig. (10.5 ). The force exerted on the charge
protons is given by Fe 
4 0 r 2 q1 by q2 is F12 . The value of F12 is calculated

193
by ignoring the presence of other charges. 2 C 3 CB
Similarly, we find F13 , F14 etc, one at a time, A
using the coulomb’s law.
F14
F15 4 C
F13
C
Fig. a:
q2 q1 Solution : Given,
F12
A2 A1 AB = 4.0 cm, BC = 3.0 cm
 AC = 4 2  32  5.0 cm
q3 q5 ur
Magnitude of force F AB on A due to B is,
A3 q4 A5
ur  1  2  106  3  106
A4 F AB    2 2
Fig. 10.5: Principle of superposition.  4 0  (4  10 )
ur
Total force F 1 on charge q1 is the vector 9  109  6
 4
 1012
sum of all such forces. 16  10
r r r r
F1  F12  F13  F14  ... = 3.37  10
q q  = 33.7 N
1 qq
  1 22 $r 21  1 23 $r 31  ... This
4 0  r21 r31  uuurforce acts at point A and is directed
along BA (Fig. (b)).
ur
Where r 21 , r 31 etc., are unit vectors directed to F ur
q1 from q2, q3 etc., and r21, r31 r41,etc., are the F AC
distances from q1 to q2, q3 etc respectively.
Let there be urN point charges q1, q2,q3 ur A
etc., qN. The force F exerted by these charges F AB
on a test charge q0 can be written using the Fig. b: Forces acting at point A.
summation notation as follows, ur
Magnitude of force F AC on A due to C is,
F test  F1  F2  F3      F N --- (10.9)
ur  1  2  106  4  106
N
1 N
q 0q n F AC   
  Fn =  rn --- (10.10)  4 0  (5  102 ) 2
n=1 4 0 n=1 r 2
n
9  109  8.0  1012
Where r n is a unit vector directed from the 
nth charge to the test charge qo and rn is the 25  104
72
separation between them, r n rn r� n   10  28.8 N
25
Can you tell? This
uuurforce acts at point A and is directed
Three charges, q each, are placed at the along CA . (Fig. 10.6.(b))
vertices of an equilateral triangle. What will F = F AB + F AC
be the resultant force on charge q placed at Magnitude of resultant force is,
the centroid of the triangle?
= {(2.88) 2 + (3.37) 2 + 2  2.88  3.37  cos(36.87) 0 }1/ 2
Example 10.4: Three charges of 2 C, 3 C
= {(2.88) 2 + (3.37) 2 + 2  2.88  3.37  0.8}1/ 2
and 4 C are placed at points A, B and C
respectively, as shown in Fig. a. Determine the  59.3 N
force on A due to other charges.

194
 Direction of the resultant force is 36.87 electric field of a charge is also a vector and
north of west. (Fig. c) is directed along the direction of the coulomb
N force, experienced by a test charge.
The magnitude of electric field at a distance
ur
F r from a point charge Q is same at all points
ur on the surface of a sphere of radius r as shown
F AC
in Fig. 10.6. Its direction is along the radius of
36.87 the sphere, pointing away from its centre if the
W ur A
F AB charge is positive.
ur
Fig. c: Direction of the resultant force. E
10.6 Electric Field:
Space around a charge Q gets modified so
Q
that when a test charge is brought in this region, E
it experiences a coulomb force. This region 4 0 r 2
around a charged object in which coulomb
force is experienced by another charge is called
electric field.
Mathematically, electric field is defined Fig. 10.6: Electric field due to a point charge
as the force experienced per unit charge. Let Q (+Q).
and q be two charges separated by a distance r. SI unit of electric intensity is newton per
The coulomb force between them is given coulomb (NC-1). Practically, electric field
ur 1 Qq $ is expressed in volt per metre(Vm-1). This is
by F  r , where, r is the unit vector
4 0 r 2 discussed in article 10.6.2.
Dimensional formula of E is,
along the line joining Q to q.
Therefore, electric field due to charge Q is F [LMT  2 ]
E= 
given by, q0 [AT]
ur
ur F Q $ E = [LMT 3 A 1 ]
E  r --- (10.11)
q 4 0 r 2 10.6.1 Electric Field Intensity due to a Point
The coulomb force acts across an empty Charge in a Material Medium:
space (vacuum) and does not need any Consider a point charge q placed at point O
intervening medium for its transmission. in a medium of dielectric constant K as shown
The electric field exists around a charge in Fig. 10. 7
irrespective of the presence of other charges.
Since the coulomb force is a vector, the
q0
A precise definition of electric field is:
Electric field is the force experienced by a
test charge in presence of the given charge at q
the given distance from it.
ur
F
E  lim Fig. 10.7: Field in a material medium.
q 0 q

Test charge is a positive charge so Consider the point P in the electric field of
small in magnitude that it dose not affect the point charge at distance r from q. A test charge
surroundings of the given charge. q0 placed at the point P will experience a force
which is given by the Coulomb’s law,

195
 r 1 q q0 $
F r
4 0 K r 2
where r is the unit vector in the direction of
force i.e., along OP. Fig. 10.9 (a):
By the definition of electric field intensity uniform electric
r field.
ur F 1 q $
E  r
q 0 4 0 K r 2
ur
The direction of E will be along OP when
q is positive and along PO when q is negative. Fig. 10.9 (b):
non uniform
The magnitude of electric field intensity in
electric field.
a medium is given by
1 q
E --- (10.12 ) 10.6.2 Practical Way of Calculating Electric
4 0 K r2
Field
For air or vacuum K = 1 then
A pair of parallel plates is connected as
1 q shown in Fig. 10.10. The electric field between
E=
4 0 r 2 them is uniform. Fig. 10.10. A potential
The coulomb force between two charges difference V is applied between two parallel
and electric field E of a charge both follow the plates separated by a distance ‘d’. The electric
inverse square law. (F 1/r2, E 1/r2) Fig. 10.8 field between them is directed from plate A to
plate B as shown.

F 1/r2, E 1/r2
Fig 10.10: Electric field
between two parallel
plates.

A charge +q placed between the plates

Fig. 10.8: Variation of Coulomb force/ experiences a force F due to the electric field. If
Electric field due to a point charge. we have to move the charge against the direction
1. Uniform electric field: A uniform of field, i.e., towards the positive plate, we have
electric field is a field whose magnitude to do some work on it. If we move the charge
and direction is same at all points. For +q from the negative plate B to the positive
example, field between two parallel plates. plate A, the work done against the field is W
Fig 10.9.a = Fd; where ‘d’ is the separation between the
2. Non uniform electric field: A field whose plates. The potential difference V between the
magnitude and direction is not the same two plates is given by
at all points. For example, field due to a W = Vq, but W = Fd
point charge. In this case, the magnitude ∴Vq = Fd ∴ F/q = V/d = E
of field is same at distance r from the point ∴ Electric field can be defined as
charge in any direction but the direction of
the field is not same. Fig 10.9.b E = V/d --- (10.13)
This is the commonly used definition of
electric field.

196
Example 10.5: Gap between two electrodes of magnitudes
ur ur
and are opposite in direction,
ur ur
the spark-plug used in an automobile engine E A = - EC . E A + EC 0 . Thus, the field at P is
is 1.25 mm. If the potential of 20 V is applied only to the charge at B and can be written as
across the gap, what will be the magnitude of ur ur 2  106
Ep  EB 
electric field between the electrodes? 4 0 (BP) 2
ur 2  106  9  109
Solution: Ep 
(5 / 2 ) 2
V
E 2  9  103  2
d 
25
20V 3 4 V 36
E  16  10  1.6  10   103
1.25  103 m m 25
uuur
 1.44  1015 NC-1 along BP
This electric field is sufficient to ionize
the gaseous mixture of fuel compressed in the To calculate BP
uuur 5
cylinder and ignite it. BP  (BA) cos (45) 
2
Can you tell? Example 10.7: A simplified model of hydrogen
atom consists of an electron revolving about a
Why a small voltage can produce a
proton at a distance of 5.3×10-11m. The charge
reasonably large electric field?
on a proton is +1.6×10-19 C. Calculate the
Example 10.6: Three point charges are placed intensity of the electric field due to proton at
at the vertices of a right isosceles triangle as this distance.
shown in the Fig. a.What is the magnitude and Solution:
direction of the resultant electric field at point P q
which is the mid point of its hypotenuse? E
4 r 2
C+10 c ur
o

ur EB q  1.6  1019 C
EA
r  5.3  1011 m
P 1
5cm ur  9.0  109 Nm2C 1
4 o
EC
1.6  1019
E  9.0  109  5.1 1011 NC 1
(5.3  1011 ) 2
B 5cm A+10 c
The force between electron and proton in
Fig: (a). hydrogen atom can be calculated by using the
ur F
EB electric field. We have, E   F  qE
ur q
EA F = -1.6×10-19 C× 5.1×1011 NC-1
= -8.16×108 N.
This force is attractive.
P
Using the Coulomb's law,
ur 1 q1q2
EC F
4 0 r 2
Fig: (b). Electric field at point P. (1.6  1019 C )  (1.6  1019 C )
 9.0  109 Nm2C 1 
Solution: Electric field is the force an a unit (5.33  1011 m) 2
positive charge, the fields at P due to theurcharges  8.6  108 N
at A, B and C are shown in the Fig. ur
b. E A is the Knowing electric field at a point is useful
field at P due to charge at A and EC is the field to estimate the force experienced by a charge
at P due to charge at C. Since P is the midpoint at that point.
of AC and the fields at A and C are equal in

197
10.6.3 Electric Lines of Force: (6) Electric lines of force are crowded in a
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) introduced region where electric intensity is large.
the concept of lines of force for visualising (7) Electric lines of force are widely separated
electric and magnetic fields. An electric line from each other in a region where electric
of force is an imaginary curve drawn in such intensity is small
a way that the tangent at any given point on (8) The lines of force of an uniform electric
this curve gives the direction of the electric field field are parallel to each other and are
at that point. See Fig.10.11. If a test charge is equally spaced.
placed in an electric field it would be acted The lines of force are purely a geometric
upon by a force at every point in the field and construction which help us visualise the nature
will move along a path. The path along which of electric field in a region. The lines of force
the unit positive charge moves is called a line have no physical existence.
of force.
Fig. 10.13 (a): Lines
of force due to positive
charge.
Fig. 10.11: Electric line of force.
A line of force is defined as a curve such
that the tangent at any point to this curve gives Fig. 10.13 (b): Lines of
the direction of the electric field at that point. force due to negative
The density of field lines indicates the charge.
strength of electric fields at the given point in
space. Figure 10.12. Fig. 10.13 (c): Lines
of force due to
opposite charge.
Fig. 10.12: density Fig. 10.1; (d):
of field lines and Lines of force
strength of electric due to similar
field. charge.
Characteristics of electric lines of force
(1) The lines of force originate from a Fig. 10.13 (e): Lines
positively charged object and end on a of force terminate
negatively charged object. on a conductor.
(2) The lines of force neither intersect nor meet
each other, as it will mean that electric Fig. 10.13 (f): Intensity
field has two directions at a single point. of a electric field is more
(3) The lines of force leave or terminate on a at point A and less at B.
conductor normally. More lines cross the area
(4) The lines of force do not pass through at A and less at the same
conductor i.e. electric field inside a area at B.
Fig. 10.13: The lines of force due to various
conductor is always zero, but they pass
geometrical arrangement of electrical charges.
through insulators.
(5) Magnitude of the electric field intensity
is proportional to the number of lines of Can you tell?
force per unit area of the surface held Lines of force are imaginary, can they
perpendicular to the field. have any practical use?

198
10.7 Electric Flux: charges (Fig. 10.15). To prove Gauss’ theorem,
As discussed previously, the number of imagine a small charge +q present at a point O
lines of forceurper unit area is the intensity of the inside closed surface. Imagine an infinitesimal
electric field E . area dA of the given irregular closed surface.
Number of lines of force
... E =Area enclosing the lines of force - (10.14)

Fig. 10.15: Gauss' law.

The magnitude of electric field intensity at
Fig. 10.14: Flux through area S. point P on dS due to charge +q at point O is,
Number of lines of force = (E).(Area) 1 q
E=
When the area is inclined at an angle with 4 0  r 2 
the direction of electric field, Fig. 10.14, the
The direction of E is away from point O.
electric flux can be calculated as follows.
ur Let be the angle subtended by normal drawn
Let the angle between electric field E to area dS and the direction of E. Electric flux
uur
and area vector dS be then the electric flux passing through area dS, = Ecos dS
passing through are dS is given by q
ur uur  2
cos  dS
d = (component of dS along E ) (area of dS )
. 4  0 r
d = E (dS cos  q   dS cos 
  2 
d = EdS cos  4 0   r 
ur . uur
d = E dS --- (10.15)  q 
d    d --- (10.17)
Total flux through the entire surface  4 0 
ur ur ur ur
   d   E. d S  E. S --- (10.16) dS cos
s
where, d = is the solid angle
The SI unit of electric flux can be calculated r2
subtended by area dS at point O.
using, ur r
  E  S =(V/m) m2 =Vm Total electric flux crossing the given
closed surface can be obtained by integrating
10.8 Gauss' Law:
Eq. (10.17) over the total area. Thus,
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) one
of the greatest mathematician of all times,
formulated a law expressing the relationship
between the electric charge and its electric field
But  d  4  solid angle subtended by
which is called the Gauss’ law. Gauss' law is
entire closed surface at point O
analongous to Coulomb’s law in the sense that
it too expresses the relationship between electric
field and electric charge. Gauss' law provides
equivalent method for finding electric intensity.
It relates values of field at a closed surface and --- (10.18)
the total charges enclosed by that surface. This is true for every electric charge
Consider a closed surface of any shape enclosed by a given closed surface.
which encloses number of positive electric Total flux due to charge q1, over the given

199
closed surface = + q1/ surface of regular or irregular shape.
Total flux due to charge q2, over the given Example 10.8: A charge of 5.0 C is kept at the
closed surface = + q2/ centre of a sphere of radius 1 m. What is the flux
Total flux due to charge qn, over the given passing through the sphere? How will this value
closed surface = + qn/ change if the radius of the sphere is doubled?
Positive sign in Eq. (10.18) indicates that Solution: Flux per unit area is given by Eq.
the flux is directed outwards, away form the 10.16.
charge. If the charge is negative, the flux will According to Gauss law, the total flux
be is directed inwards as shown in Fig 10.16 through the sphere , where the
(b). If a charge is outside the closed surface the integration is over the surface of the sphere. As
net flux through it will be zero Fig 10.16 (c). the electric field is same all over the sphere i.e.
| E | = constant and the direction of E as well as
that of ds is along the radius, we get
flux =  = | E | 4 R 2
q 5.0 C
E 2
 9  109 
4 r (1.0 m) 2
E  9  109  5  4.5  1010 NC-1
ur r
Fig. 10.16 (a): Flux due to positive charge.   E S
 flux = 4.5  1010  4 (1) 2
 5.65  1011 Vm
Thus the total flux is independent of radius.
E 1/r2 and area r2. This can also be
seen from Gauss' law, where the net flux
Fig. 10.16 (b): Flux due to negative charge. crossing an enclosed surface is equal to q/
where q is the net charge inside the closed
surface. As the charge inside the sphere is
unchanged, the flux passing through a sphere
of any radius is the same. Thus, if the radius of
the sphere is increased by a factor of 2, the flux
Fig. 10.16 (c): Flux due to charge outside a passing through is surface remains unchanged.
closed surface is zero. As shown in Fig. (10.17), same number of lines
According to the superposition principle, of force cross both the surfaces. The total flux
the total flux due to all charges enclosed is independent of shape of the closed surface
within the given closed surface is because Eq. 10.18 does not involve any radius
q q q q i=n
q Q
 E = 1 + 2 + 3 + ---- + n =  i 
0 0 0  0 i=1  0  0

Statement of Gauss' law

The flux of the net electric field through a
closed surface equals the net charge enclosed by
the surface divided by 0

where Q is the total charge within the surface. Fig. 10.17: Flux is independent of the shape
Gauss' law is applicable to any closed

200
 ur
Do you know ? dipole moment p .
Gaussian surface Dipole moment
ur is defined as
All the lines of force originating from p = q( 2l ) --- (10.19)
a point charge penetrate an imaginary A dipole moment is a vector whose
three dimensional surface. The total flux magnitude is q (2l) and the direction is from
E
= q/ 0. The same number of lines of force the negative to the positive charge. The unit of
will cross the surface of any shape. The dipole moment is Columb-meter (Cm) or Debye
total flux through both the surfaces is the (D). 1D = 3.33×10-30 Cm. If two charges +e and
same. Calculating flux involves calculating -e are separated by 1.0A0, the dipole moment is
, hence it is convenient to consider a 1.6×10-29 Cm or 4.8 D. For example, a water
regular surface surrounding the given charge molecule has a permanent dipole moment of
distribution. A surface enclosing the given
charge distribution and symmetric about it Natural dipole:
is a Gaussian surface. The water molecule is non-linear, i.e.,
For example. if we have a point charge the two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
the Gaussian surface will be a sphere. If the are not in a straight line. The two hydrogen-
charge distribution is linear, the Gaussian oxygen bonds in water molecule are at an
surface would be a cylinder with the charges angle of 105 . The positive charge of water
distributed along its axis. Gaussian surface molecules is effectively concentrated on the
offers convenience of calculating the hydrogen side and the negative charge on
integral . the oxygen side of the molecule. Thus, the
Remember that a Gaussian surface positive and negative charges of the water
is purely imaginary and does not exist molecule are inherently separated by a small
physically. distance. This separation of positive and
and size of closed surface. negative charges gives rise to the permanent
dipole moment of a water molecule.
10.9 Electric Dipole: Molecules of water,
A pair of equal and opposite charges ammonia, sulphur di-
separated by a finite distance is called an electric oxide, sodium chloride
dipole. It is shown in Fig. (10.18). etc. have an inherent
separation of centers of positive and
negative charges. Such molecules are called
polar molecules.
Polar molecules are the molecules in
which the center of positive charge and
Fig. 10.18: Electric dipole. x-y axial line, the negative charge is naturally separated.
P-Q equatorial line. Molecules such as H2, Cl2, CO2 CH4 and
Line joining the two charges is called the many others have their positive and negative
dipole axis. A line passing through the dipole charges effectively centered at the same
axis is called axial line. A line passing through point and are called non-polar molecules.
the centre of the dipole and perpendicular to the Non-polar molecules are the
axial line is called the equatorial line as shown molecules in which the center of positive
in (Fig. 10.18). charge and the negative charge is one and
Strength of a dipole is measured in terms the same. They do not have a permanent
of a quantity called the dipole moment. Let electric dipole. When an external electric
q be the magnitude of each charge and 2l be field is applied to such molecules the centers
the distance from negative charge to positive of positive and negative charge are displaced
and a dipole is induced.
charge. Then the product q ( 2l ) is called the

201
6.172×10-30 Cm or 1.85 D. Its direction is from Example 10.9: An electric dipole of length 2.0
oxygen to hydrogen. See box on Natural dipole. cm is placed with its axis making an angle of
10.9.1 Couple Acting on an Electric Dipole in 30 with a uniform electric field of 105 N/C. as
a Uniform Electric Field: shown in figure. If it experiences a torque of
Consider an electric dipole placed in a 10 3 Nm, calculate the magnitude of charge on
uniform electric field E. The axis of electric the dipole.
dipole makes an angle with the direction of
electric field as shown in Fig. (10.20 a).

P
Solution: Given
  10 3, Nm, E  105 N / C ,
Fig. 10.19 (a): Dipole in uniform electric field. 2l  2.0  102 m,   300
  qE 2l sin 
1
10 3Nm  q105 N / C 2.0  102 m  
2
10 3
q =  3  102 C
103
Fig. 10.19 (b): Couple acting on a dipole.
= 1.73  102 C
Figure (10.20. b) shows the couple acting 10.9.2 Electric Intensity at a Point due to an
on an electric dipole in uniform electric field. Electric Dipole:
The force acting on charge - q at A is Case 1 : At a point on the axis of a dipole.
ur ur ur
F A = - qE in the direction of urE and urthe Consider an electric dipole consisting of
force acting on charge +q at B is FurB = + qE ur in
two charges -q and +q separated by a distance
ur
the direction opposite to E . Since F A = - F B , 2l as shown in Fig. 10.20. Let P be a point at a
the two equal and opposite forces separated by distance r from theur centre C of the dipole. The
a distance form a couple. Moment of the electric intensity Ea at P due to the dipole is the
r couple
ur ur
is called torque and is defined by   d  F vector sum of the field due to the charge - q at
where, d is the perpendicular distance between A and + q at B.
the two equal and opposite forces.
...Magnitude of Torque =
Magnitude of force × Perpendicular distance
r uuur ur
... Torqre on the dipole =   BP  qE
... = qE2lsin --- (10.20) Fig. 10.20: Electric field of a dipole along
ur r its axis.
but p  q  2l
Electric field intensity at P due to the
... = pEsin --- (10.21) charge -q at A
r r ur
In vector form   p  E --- (10.22)
If =90 sin =1, then = pE =
When the axis of electric dipole is uuur
where PD� is unit vector directed along PD
perpendicular to uniform electric field, torque
of the couple acting on the electric dipole is Electric intensity at P due to charge +q at B
maximum, i.e., = pE. It = 0 then = 0, this
=
is the minimum torque on the dipole. Torque
tends to align its axis along the direction of uuur
�
where PQ is a unit vector directed along PQ
electric field.

202
 ur uur
The magnitude of E B is greater than that of where �
PQ is the unit vector directed along PQ
uur
E A . (Because BP < AB) or BP
ur
Resultant field Ea at P on the axis, due to Electric field at p is the sum of and
ur ur ur
the dipole is ∴ Eeq = E A + E B
ur ur
Ea = EB + E A Consider ACP
ur
The magnitude of Ea is given by (AP)2 = (PC)2 + (AC)2 = r2 + l2 = (BP)2
ur 1  q q  ur 1 q
| Ea |    EA 
4 0  (r  l ) (r  l ) 2 
 2
4 0 ( r  l 2 )
2 --- (10.25)
r q  r 2 + l 2  2lr - r 2  2lr  l 2  ur 1 q
| Ea | =   EB  --- (10.26)
4 0  (r 2  l 2 ) 2  4 0 (r  l 2 )
2
ur ur
r 2(2lq )r EA EB
| Ea | = ur
4 0 (r 2  l 2 ) 2
The resultant of fields E A and E B acting
But 2lq = p, the dipole moment at point P can be calculated by resolving these
ur
1 2 pr vectors E A and E B along the equatorial line
| Ea | = and along a direction perpendicular to it.
4 0 (r  l 2 ) 2
2
--- (10.23)
ur
Ea , is directed along PQ,ur which is the
direction of the dipole moment p i.e. from the Fig. 10.21 (b):
negative to the positive charge, parallel to the Components of
axis. If r>> l, l2 can be neglected compared to r2, the field at point
ur 1 2p P.
Ea = --- (10.24)
4 0 r 3
Consider Fig. 10.21 (b). Let the y-axis
The field will
ur be along the direction of the coincide with the equator of the dipole x-axis
dipole moment p . will be parallel to dipole axis, as shown. The
Case 2: At a point on the equatorial line. As origin is at point P.
shown in Fig. 10.21 (a) The y-components of EA and EB are EAsin
and EBsin respectively. They are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction and cancel
Fig. 10.21 (a): each other. There is no contribution from them
Electric field of a towards the resultant.
r dipole at a point on The x-components of EA and EB are EAcos
the equatorial line. and EBcos respectively. They are of equal
magnitude and are in the same direction
ur
Electric field at point P due to charge -q ∴| Eeq | E A cos   E B cos  --- (10.27)
at A is By using Eq. 10.25 and 10.26
� uuur ur
where PA is the unit vector direction along PA
Eeq = 2E A cos
.
Similarly, Electric field at P due to charge + q  q  l
 2 2 
at B is 2
 4 0 (r  l )  r  l
2 2

2ql

4 0 (r 2  l 2 )3/ 2

203
 2
If r>>l then l is very small compared to r2 (b) Surface charge density ( )
ur 1 p 1 p Suppose a charge q is uniformly distributed
Eeq  2 3/ 2
 3 --- (10.28)
4 0 (r ) 4 0 r over a surface of area A As shown in Fig. 10.23,
ur then the surface charge density is defined as
The direction of this field is along - p (anti- q
ur  --- (10.30)
parallel to p ) as shown in Fig. 10.21 (c). A
Fig. 10.21 (c): SI unit of is (C/m2)
Electric field at For example, charge distributed uniformly
point P is uranti- on a thin disc or a synthetic cloth. If the charge
parallel to p . is not distributed uniformally over the surface
Comparing Eq. 10.28 and 10.24 we find of a conductor, then charge dq on small area
that the electric intensity at an axial point is element dA can be written as dq = dA.
twice that at a point on the equatorial position,
lying at the same distance from the centre of
the dipole.
10.10 Continuous Charge Distribution:
A system of charges can be considered as Fig. 10.23: Surface charge.
a continuous charge distribution, if the charges (c) Volume charge density ( )
are located very close together, compared
Suppose a charge q is uniformly distributed
to their distances from the point where the
throughout a volume V, then the volume charge
intensity of electric field is to be found out.
density is defined as the charge per unit
The charge distribution is continuous volume.
in the sense that, a system of closely spaced q
charges is equivalent to a total charge which  --- (10.31)
v
is continuously distributed along a line or a
S.I. unit of is (C/m3)
surface or a volume. To find the electric field
For example, charge on a plastic sphere or
due to continuous charge distribution, we define
a plastic cube.
following terms for different types of charge
distribution. If the charge is not distributed uniformaly
over the volume of a material, then charge dq
(a) Linear charge density ( ).
over small volume element dV can be written
As shown in Fig. 10.22 charge q is as dq = dV.
uniformly distributed along a liner conductor of
length l. The linear charge density is defined
as,
q
 --- (10.29)
l Fig. 10.24.Volume charge.
SI unit of is (C/m).
Electric field due to a continuous charge
For example, charge distributed uniformly
distribution can be calculated by adding electric
on a straight thin rod or a thin nylon thread. If
fields due to all these small charges.
the charge is not distributed uniformly over the
length of thin conductor then charge dq on small
element of length dl can be written as dq = dl Can you tell?
The surface charge density of Earth is
= -1.33 n C/m2. That is about 8.3×109
Fig. 10.22. Linear charge. electrons per sqare meter. If that is the case
why don't we feel it?

204
 Do you know ? iii. One can get static shock if charge
transferred is large.
Static charge can be useful
iv. Dust or dirt particles gathered on
Static charges can be created whenever
computer or TV screens can catch static
there is a friction between an insulator and
charges and can be troublesome.
other object. For example, when an insulator
Precautions against static charge
like rubber or ebonite is rubbed against
i. Home appliances should be grounded.
a cloth, the friction between them causes
ii. Avoid using rubber soled footwear.
electrons to be transferred from one to the
iii. Keep your surroundings humid. (dry air
other. This property of insulators is used
can retain static charges).
in many applications such as Photocopier,
Inkjet printer, Panting metal panels,
Electrostatic precipitation/separators etc. Internet my friend
Static charge can be harmful 1. h t t p s : / / w w w. p h y s i c s c l a s s r o o m .
i. When charge transferred from one body com>class
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refuelling your vehicle.

Ex
erc
ises Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. (A) 1:4 (B) 1:2
i. A positively charged glass rod is brought (C) 1:1 (D) 1:16
close to a metallic rod isolated from iv. Two charges of 1.0 C each are placed
ground. The charge on the side of the one meter apart in free space. The force
metallic rod away from the glass rod will between them will be.
be (A) 1.0N (B) 9×109N
(A) same as that on the glass rod and equal (C) 9×10 N-9
(D) 10N
in quantity v. Tow point charges of +5 C are so
(B) opposite to that on the glass of and placed that they experience a force of
equal in quantity 8.010-3N. They are then moved apart,
(C) same as that on the glass rod but lesser so that the force is now 2.010-3N. The
in quantity distance between them is now
(D) same as that on the glass rod but more (A) 1/4 the previous distance
in quantity (B) double the previous distance
ii. An electron is placed between two (C) four times the previous distance
parallel plates connected to a battery. If (D) half the previous distance
the battery is switched on, the electron vi. A metallic sphere A isolated from ground
will is charged to +50 C. This sphere is
(A) be attracted to the +ve plate brought in contact with other isolated
(B) be attracted to the -ve plate metallics sphere B of half the radius of
(C) remain stationary sphere A. The charge on the two sphere
(D) will move parallel to the plates will be now in the ratio
iii. A charge of + 7 C is placed at the centre (A) 1:2 (B) 2:1
of two concentric spheres with radius 2.0 (C) 4:1 (D) 1:1
cm and 4.0 cm respectively. The ratio of vii. Which of the following produces uniform
the flux through them will be electric field?

205
 (A) point charge the line BA.
(B) linear charge [Ans: w = 4.5×10-2J]
(C) two parallel plates iv. Four charges of + 6×10-8 C each are
(D) charge distributed an circular any placed at the corners of a square whose
viii. Two point charges of A = +5.0 C and sides a are 3 cm each. Calculate the
B = -5.0 C are separated by 5.0 cm. resultant force on each charge and shows
A point charge C = 1.0 C is placed in direction an a digram drawn to scale.
at 3.0 cm away from the centre on the [Ans: 6.89×10-2N]
perpendicular bisector of the line joining v. The electric field in a region is given by
the two point charges. The charge at C . Calculate the electric flux
will experience a force directed towards Through a square of side 10.0 cm in the
(A) point A following cases
(B) point B (i) the square is along the XY plane
(C) a direction parallel to line AB [Ans: = 5.0×10-2Vm]
(D) a direction along the perpendicular (ii) The square is along XZ plane
bisector [Ans: Zero]
2. Answer the following questions. (iii) The normal to the square makes an
i. What is the magnitude of charge on an angle of 450 with the Z axis.
electron? [Ans: 3.5×10-2Vm]
ii. State the law of conservation of charge. vii. Three equal charges of 10×10-8 C
iii. Define a unit charge. respectively, each located at the corners
iv. Two parallel plates have a potential of a right triangle whose sides are 15 cm,
difference of 10V between them. If the 20cm and 25cm respectively. Find the
plates are 0.5 mm apart, what will be the force exerted on the charge located at the
strength of electric charge. 90 angle.
v. What is uniform electric field? [Ans: 4.59.×10-3N]
vi. If two lines of force intersect of one viii. A potential difference of 5000 volt is
point. What does it mean? applied between two parallel plates 5cm
vii. State the units of linear charge density. a part a small oil drop having a charge
viii. What is the unit of dipole moment? of 9.6 ×10-19 C falls between the plates.
ix. What is relative permittivity? Find (a) electric field intensity between
3. Solve numerical examples. the plates and (b) the force on the oil
i. Two small spheres 18 cm apart have drop.
equal negative charges and repel each [Ans: (a) 1.0.×105N/C
other with the force of 6×10-8 N. Find the (b) 9.6.×10-14C]
total charge on both spheres. ix. Calculate the electric field due to a charge
[Ans: q = 2.93×10-7C] of -8.0×10-8 C at a distance of 5.0 cm
ii. A charge +q exerts a force of magnitude from it.
-0.2 N on another change -2q. If they [Ans: -1.8×104 N/C]
are separated by 25.0 cm, determine the
value of q. ***
[Ans: q = 1.18 C]
iii. Two charge 5 C and -4 C are kept 5.0
m apart at points A and B respectively.
How much work will have to be done to
move the charge at A through a distance
of 5.0 m further away from point B along

206
 11. Electric Current Through Conductors
Can you recall?
1. Do you recall that the flow of charged particles in a conductor constitutes a current?
2. An electric current in a metallic conductor such as a wire is due to flow of electrons, the
negatively charged particles in the wire.
3. What is the role of the valence electrons which are the outermost electrons of an atom?
11.1 Introduction: the plane P from time t to t + t, i.e. during the
The valence electrons become de-localized time interval t. Then the current is given by
when a large number of atoms come together q
I (l) = lim --- (11.2)
in a metal. These are the conduction electrons t  o t

or free electrons constituting an electric current Here, the current is expressed as the limit
when a potential difference is applied across the of the ratio q/ t as t tends to zero.
conductor. The current during lightening could be
11.2 Electric current : as high as 10,000 A, while the current in the
house hold circuit could be of the order of a few
Consider an imaginary gas of both
amperes. Currents of the order of a milliampere
negatively and positively charged particles.
(mA), a microampere (µA) or a nanoampere
Fig. 11.1 shows the negatively and positively
(nA) are common in semiconductor devices.
charged particles flowing randomly in various
directions across a plane P. In a time interval 11.3 Flow of current through a conductor :
t, let the amount of positive charge flowing A current can be generated by positively
in the forward direction be q+ and the amount or negatively charged particles. In an
of negative charge flowing in the forward electrolyte, both positively and negatively
direction be q-. charged particles take part in the conduction.
In a metal, the free electrons are responsible
for conduction. These electrons flow and
generate a net current under the action of an
applied electric field. As long as a steady
field exists, the electrons continue to flow
in the form of a steady current. Such steady
electric fields are generated by cells and
batteries.

Fig. 11.1: Flow of charged particles. Do you know ?

Thus the net charge flowing in the forward Sign convention : The direction of the
direction is q = q+- q-. For a steady flow, this current in a circuit is drawn in the direction
quantity is proportional to the time t. The ratio in which positively charged particles would
q move, even if the current is constituted by
is defined as the current I.
t the negatively charged particles, electrons,
q
I= --- (11.1) which move in the direction opposite to that
t the electric field. We use this as a convention.
SI unit of the current is ampere (A), that of the
charge and time is coulomb (C) and second (s) 11.4 Drift speed :
respectivly. Imagine a copper rod with no current
Let I be the current varying with time. Let flowing through it. Fig 11.2 shows the
q be the amount of net charge flowing across schematic of a conductor with the free electrons

207
in random motion. There is no net motion of L
these electrons in any direction. If electric field t= --- (11.4)
Vd
is applied along the length of the copper rod,
and a current is set up in the rod, these electrons From the Eq. (11.1), and Eq. (11.3), the current
still move randomly, but tend to 'drift' in a q n ALe
I= = = n AVd e --- (11.5)
particular direction. Their direction is opposite t L / Vd
Hence
to that of the applied electric field.
I J
Direction of electric field : Direction of an V d = = --- (11.6)
nAe ne
electric field at a point is the direction of the where J = I/A is current density. J is uniform
force on the test charge placed at that point. over the cross sectional area A of the wire. Its
The electrons under the action of the unit is A/m
2

applied electric field drift with a drift speed Vd.

Here, J =
I --- (11.7)
The drift speed in a copper conductor is of the A
order of 10-4 m/s-10-5 m/s, whereas the electron From Eq. (11.6),
random speed is of the order of 106 m/s. ur ur
J =(ne) V d --- (11.8)
ur ur
For electrons, ne is negative
ur and J and V d
have opposite directions, V d is the drift velocity.
Example 11.1: A metallic wire of diameter
0.02m contains 1028 free electrons per cubic
Fig. 11.2: Free electrons in random motion meter. Find the drift velocity for free electrons,
inside the conductor. having an electric current of 100 amperes
How is the current through a conductor flowing through the wire.
related to the drift speed of electrons? Figure (Given : charge on electron = 1.6 × 10-19C)
11.3 shows a part of conducting wire with its
Solution: Given
free electrons having the drift speed V urd in the
direction opposite to the electric field E . e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
n = 1028 electrons/m3
D = 0.02m r = D/2 = 0.01m
I = 100 A
J I
Vd = =
ne n Ae
where A is the cross sectional area of the wire.
Fig. 11.3: Conducting wire with the applied A = r2 = 3.142 ×
electric field.
× m
It is assumed that all the electron move with
100
the same drift speed Vd and that, the current I is Vd =
the same throughout the cross section (A) of the 3.142  10  10281.6  10-19
-4

wire. Consider the length L of the wire. Let n be 102 4 9


the number of free electrons per unit volume of 5.027
the wire. Then the total number of electrons in Vd = 10-3 × × m/s
the length L of the conducting wire is nAL. The
total charge in the length L is, Example 11.2: A copper wire of radius 0.6 mm
q=nALe --- (11.3) carries a current of 1A. Assuming the current to
where e is the electron charge. be uniformly distributed over a cross sectional
This is total charge that moves through area, find the magnitude of current density.
any cross section of the wire in a certain time
interval t,
208
Solution: Given Reciprocal of resistance is called
r = 0.6 mm = 0.6 ×10-3 m conductance.
I = 1A 1
C= --- (11.10)
J=? R
Area of copper wire = r2 The unit of conductance is siemens or ( )-1
= 3.142 × × Example 11.3: A Flashlight uses two 1.5V
3.142 × 0.36 × batteries to provide a steady current of 0.5A in
= 1.1311 × m2 the filament. Determine the resistance of the
I 1 glowing filament.
J= 
A 1.1311 106 Solution:
J = 0.884 × A/m2 V 3
R=   6.0
11.5 Ohm’s law : I 0.5

The relationship between the current ∴ Resistance of the glowing filament is 6.0
through a conductor and applied potential Physical origin of Ohm’s law :
difference was first discovered by German We know that electrical conduction in a
scientist George Simon Ohm in 1828 AD. This conductor is due to mobile charge carriers, the
relationship is known as Ohm’s law. electrons. It is assumed that these conduction
It states that “The current I through electrons are free to move inside the volume
a conductor is directly proportional to the of the conductor. During their random motion,
potential difference V applied across its two electrons collide with the ion cores within the
ends provided the physical state of the conductor conductor. It is assumed that electrons do not
is unchanged”. collide with each other. These random motions
The graph of current versus potential average to zero. On the application of an
difference across the conductor is a straight line electric field E, the motion of the electron is a
as shown in Fig. 11.4 combination of the random motion of electrons
due tour collisions and that due to the electric
field E . The
ur electrons drift under the action of
the field E and move in aur direction opposite to
the direction of the field E .
Consider an electron of mass m subjected
to an electric field E.urThe force
ur experienced by
the electron will be F = e E . The acceleration
Fig. 11.4: I-V curve for a conductor. experienced by the electron will then be
ur
In general, I V r eE
a= --- (11.11)
V m
or V= I R or R = I , --- (11.9)
The type of collision the conduction
where R is a proportionality constant and is
electrons undergo is such that the drift velocity
called the resistance of the conductor. The unit
attained before the collision has nothing to do
of resistance is ohm ( ),
with the drift velocity after the collision. After
1Volt
1 = the collision, the electron will move in random
1Ampere direction, but
ur will still drift in the direction
If potential difference of 1Volt across opposite to E
a conductor produces a current of 1Ampere
Let be the average time between two
through it, then the resistance of the conductor
successive collisions. Thus on an average, the
is 1

209
electrons will acquire a drift speed Vd = a , vacuum tubes, junction diodes, thermistors etc.
where a is the acceleration given by Eq (11.11). Resistance R for such non-linear devices at a
Also, at any given instant of time, the average particular value of the potential difference V is
drift speed of the electron will also be Vd = a . given by,
From Eq. (11.11), V dV
R = lim = --- (11.16)
I 0 I
eE dI
Vd = a  --- (11.12)
m where V is the potential difference between
From the Eq. (11.6) and Eq. (11.12), the two values of potential
J eE V V
Vd = = --- (11.13) V to V + ,
ne m 2 2
which gives and I is the corresponding change in the
current.
 m 
E = 2  J --- (11.14) 11.7 Electrical Energy and Power:
 e n 
Consider a resistor AB connected to a
or, E = J, where is the resistivity of the cell in a circuit shown in Fig. 11.6 with current
material and flowing from A to B. The cell maintains a
m
 2 --- (11.15) potential difference V between the two terminals
ne  of the resistor, higher potential at A and lower
For a given material, m, n, e and will at B. Let Q be the charge flowing in time t
2

be constant and urwill also be constant, through the resistor from A to B. The potential
is independent of E , the externally applied difference V between the two points A and B, is
electric field. equal to the amount of work W, done to carry a
unit positive charge from A to B. It is given by
11.6 Limitations of the Ohm’s law:
W
Ohm’s law is obeyed by various materials V = Q , W = VQ --- (11.17)
and devices. The devices for which potential
difference (V) versus current (I) curve is a
straight line passing through origin, inclined
to V-axis, are called linear devices or ohmic
devices (Fig. 11.4). Resistance of these devices
is constant. Several conductors obey the Ohms
law. They follow the linear I-V characteristic.

Fig. 11.6: A simple circuit with a cell and a

resistor.
The cell provides this energy through the
charge Q, to the resistor AB where the work is
performed. When the charge Q flows from the
higher potential point A to the lower potential
Fig. 11.5: I-V curve for non-Ohmic point B, i.e. through a decrease in potential of
devices. value V, its potential energy decreases by an
The devices for which the I-V curve is not amount
a straight line as shown in Fig. 11.5 are called U = QV = I tV --- (11.18)
non-ohmic devices. They do not obey the where I is current due to the charge Q flowing
Ohm’s law and the resistance of these devices in time t. Where will this energy go? By
is a function of V or I; e.g. liquid electrolytes, the principle of conservation of energy, it is

210
converted into some other form of energy. 11.8 Resistors:
In the limit as t 0, Resistors are used to limit the current
dU following through a particular path of a circuit.
dt = I.V --- (11.19) Commercially available resistors are mainly of
two types :
dU
Here, Carbon resistors and Wire wound
dt is power, the time rate of transfer of resistors. High value resistors are mostly carbon
energy and is given by,
resistors. They are small and inexpensive. The
dU
P= --- (11.20) values of these resistors are colour coded to
dt = I.V
We can also say that this power is mark their values in ohms. The colour coding
transferred by the cell to the resistor or any is standardized by Electronic Industries
other device in place of the resistor, such as a Association (EIA). One such resistor is shown
motor, a rechargeable battery etc. in Fig. 11.7.
Because of the presence of an electric
field, the free electrons move across a resistor
and there would be an increase in their kinetic
energy as they move. When the electrons collide
with the ion cores the energy gained by them
is shared among the ion cores. Consequently, Fig. 11.7: Carbon composition resistor.
vibrations of the ions increase, resulting in Colour code:
heating up of the resistor. Thus, some amount Colours 1st 2nd Multiplier Tolerance
of energy is dissipated in the form of heat in a
digit digit
resistor. The energy dissipated in time interval
Black 0 0 ×100
t is given by Eq. (11.18). The energy dissipated
per unit time is actually the power dissipated Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1%
and is given by Eq. (11.20). Red 2 2 ×102 ±2%
Using Eq. (11.20), and using Ohm’s law, V=IR, Orange 3 3 ×103

V2 Yellow 4 4 ×104
∴P = = I 2R --- (11.21)
R Green 5 5 ×105
It is the power dissipation across a resistor Blue 6 6 ×106
which is responsible for heating it up. For Violet 7 7 ×107
example, the filament of an electric bulb heats Gray 8 8 ×108
up to incandescence, radiating out heat and
White 9 9 ×109
light.
For Gold ×10-1 ±5%
Example 11.4 : An electric heater takes 6A
current from a 230V supply line, calculate For Silver × 10 -2
±10%
the power of the heater and electric energy No colour - ±20%
consumed by it in 5 hours. Easy Bytes:
Solution : Given Finding it difficult to memorize the colour
I = 6A, V = 230V code sequence? No need to worry, we have a
We know that, one liner which will help you out “B. B. Roy in
P = I × V = (6A) (230V) = 1380 W Great Britain has Very Good Wife”
P = 1.38 kW
B B R O Y G B V G W
Energy consumed = Power × time
= (1.38 kW) × (5 h) This funny one liner makes it easy to recall
= 6.90kWh (1.0 Kwh = 1 unit of power) the sequence, of digits and multipliers.
= 6.9 units of electrical energy.

211
 In the four band resistor colour code Because of series combination, the supply
illustrated in the above table, the first three voltage between two resistors R1 and R2 is V1
bands (closest together) indicate the value in and V2, respectively and the same current I
ohms. The first two bands indicate two numbers flows through the resistor R1 and the resistor
and third band often called decimal multiplier. R2. i.e. in series combination, supply voltage is
The fourth band separated by a space from the divided and the current remains the same in all
three value bands, (so that you know which end the resistors.
to start reading from), indicates tolerance of the
resistor.
Example
i. Colour code of resistor is
Yellow Violet Orange Gold
Value : 4 7 103 ±5%
i.e. 47×10 = 47000 = 47k
3

The value of the resistor is 47k

ii From given values of resistor; find the colour
bands of this resistor Fig. 11.9: Series combination of two
330 × resistors R1 and R2.
3 3 101 According to Ohm’s law,
Orange Orange Brown tolerance band V V
11.8.1 Rheostat: R 1 = 1 , R2 = 2 --- (11.22)
I I
A rheostat shown in Fig. 11.8 is an
adjustable resistor used in applications that Total voltage V=V1+V2 --- (11.23)
require adjustment of current or resistance in From equation .... (11.22) and (11.23)
an electric circuit. The rheostat can be used to we write
adjust potential difference between two points V = I(R1+R2) --- (11.24)
in a circuit, change the intensity of lights and ∴V = I Rs --- (11.25)
control the speed of motors, etc. Its resistive
Thus the equivalent resistance of the series
element can be a metal wire or a ribbon, carbon
circuit Rs = R1+R2
films or a conducting liquid, depending upon
the application. In hi-fi equipment, rheostats are When a number of resistors are connected
used for volume control. in series, the equivalent resistance is equal to
the sum of individual resistances.
For n number of resistors,
i=n

Rs = R1+ R2 + R2+...........+Rn= Ri -- (11.26)

i=1
II. Parallel Combination of Resistors:
In the parallel combination, the resistors
are connected in such a way that the same
Fig . 11.8: Rheostat. voltage is applied across each resistor.
11.8.2 Combination of Resistors: A number of resistors are said to be
I. Series combination of Resistors: connected in parallel if all of them are connected
In series combination of resistors, these are between the same two electrical points each
connected in single electrical path as shown in having individual path as shown in Fig. 11.10.
Fig 11.9. Hence the same electric current flows In parallel combination the total current I
through each resistor in a series combination. is divided into I1 and I2 as shown in the circuit

212
diagram Fig.11.10, whereas voltage V across Example 11.5: Calculate i) total resistance and
them remains the same, ii) total current in the following circuit.
R1 = 3 R2 = 6 , R3 = 5 V = 14V

Fig. 11.10 : Two resistors in parallel Circuit diagram

combination. Solution:
I = I1+ I2 -- (11.27) i) Total resistance = RT = RP+R3
where I1 is current flowing through R1 and I2 is RR 3 6
RP = 1 2   2
current flowing through R2. R1 + R2 9
When Ohm’s law is applied to R1 R T= 2 + 5 = 7
V Total Resistance = 7
V = I1R1 i.e. I 1 = R --- (11.28a)
1 ii) Total current :
Ohm’s law applied to R2 V 14 V
V I= 
V =I2R2 i.e. I 2 = --- (11.28b) RT 7
R2
I = 2A
From Eq. (11.27) and Eq. (11.28), 11.9 Specific Resistance (Resistivity):
∴ I=
V V
+ ,
At a particular temperature, the resistance
R1 R2 of a given conductor is observed to depend on
V the nature of material of conductor, the area of
If, I= , its cross-section, and its length.
Rp
V V V It is found that resistance R of a conductor
= + , of uniform cross section is
Rp R1 R2
i. directly proportional to its length l,
1 1 1
∴ = + , --- (11.29) i.e. R l
R p R1 R2
ii. inversely proportional to its area of
where Rp is the equivalent resistance in parallel
cross section A,
combination.
i.e. R l
If n resistors R1, R2, R3........., Rn are A
connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance From i and ii
of the combination is given by l
R= --- (11.31)
1 1 1 1 1 n
1 A
= + + +............ = where is a constant of proportionality and
R p R1 R2 R3 Rn i=1 R --(11.30) it is called specific resistance or resistivity
Thus when a number of resistors are of the material of the conductor at a given
connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the temperature.
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the From Eq. (11.31), we write
reciprocals of individual resistances. RA
 --- (11.32)
l
213
 SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter. Conductivity : Reciprocal of resistivity is
Resistivity of a conductor is numerically the called conductivity of a material.
resistance per unit length, and per unit area of 1
cross-section of material of the conductor. 

i.e. when, R = 1 , A =1m2 and l = 1m,
 1 
then, =1 m SI unit of is:   i.e. siemens/meter
 ohm.m 
Table 11.1 : Resistivity of various materials
Material Resistivity Material Resistivity
(Ω.m) (Ω.m)
Conductors Semiconductors
Silver 1.59 × 10-8 Carbon 3.5 × 10-5
Copper 1.72 × 10-8 Germanium 0.5
Gold 2.44 × 10-8 Silicon 3 × 104
Aluminium 2.82 × 10-8 Insulators
Tungsten 5.6 × 10-8 Glass 1011-1013
Iron 9.7 × 10-8 Mica 1011-1015
Mercury 95.8 × 10-8 Rubber (hard) 1013-1016
Nichrome (alloy) 100 × 10-8 Teflon 1016
Wood (maple) 3 × 108
Example 11.6: Calculate the resistance per Again, the SI unit of is
metre, at room temperature, of a constantan unit(E ) V/m V
(alloy) wire of diameter 1.25mm. The resistivity unit(J ) = A/m 2 = A m= .m
of constantan at room temperature is 5.0 × 10-7
m. In terms of conductivity of a material, from
Solution: × m (11.33),
ur 1 ur ur
d = 1.25 × m J  E  E --- (11.34)
r = .625 × m 
Cross-sectional Area = r
For a particular resistor, we had (Eq. 11.9)
RA
Resistivity   the resistance R given by
l R V
Resistance per meter = R=
l I
R  5  107 Compare this with the above Eq (11.33).
i.e.  
l A (0.625  103 ) 2  3.142 11.10 Variation of Resistance with
R Temperature:
 0.41 m1 Resistivity of a material varies with
l
temperature. It is a property of material. Fig.
∴ Resistance per metre= 0.41 m-1
11.11 shows the variation of resistivity of
Resistivity is a property of a material,
copper as a function of temperature (K). It can
while the resistance R refers to ur a particular
be seen that the variation is linear over a certain
object. Similarly, the electric field E at a point range of temperatures. Such a linear relation
is specified in a material with the potential can be expressed as,
difference across the resistance, and the current
ur T - T0 --- (11.35)
density J in a material instead of the current I
in the resistor. Then for an isotropic material, where T0 is the chosen reference temperature and
E ur ur in the resistivity at the chosen temperature,
 or E   J ---- (11.33) for example, To can be 0 oC.
J

214
 RT = 2.5 ×
R

Superconductivity :
We know that the resistivity of a
metal decreases as the temperature decreases.
In case of some metals and metal alloys,
the resistivity suddenly drops to zero at a
particular temperature (Tc). This temperature
is called critical temperature, for example,
Fig. 11.11: Resistivity as a function of
mercury loses its resistance completely to
temperature (K).
zero at 4.2K.
In the above Eq. (11.35), Superconductivity can be harnessed so as to
  0 R - R0 be useful for mankind. It is already in use in
 
0 (T -T0 ) R0 (T -T0 ) --- (11.36) obtaining very high magnetic field (a few
Here, is called the temperature coefficient Tesla) in superconducting magnet. These
of resistivity. Table (11.1) shows the resistivity of magnets are used in research quality NMR
some of the metals. The temperature coefficient spectrometers. For its operation, the current
of resistance is defined as the increase in carrying coils are required to be kept at a
resistance per unit original resistance at the temperature less than the critical temperature
chosen reference temperature, per degree rise in of the coil material.
temperature. The unit of is oC-1 or oK-1 (per 11.11 Electromotive force (emf):
degree celcius or per degree kelvin). When charges flow through a conductor,
From Eq. (11.36) a potential difference has to be established
R = R0 [1+ (T - T0)] --- (11.37) between the two ends of the conductor. For a
For small difference in temperatures, steady flow of charges, this potential difference
1 dR is required to be maintained across the two ends
  --- (11.38) of the conductor, the terminals. There is a device
R0 dT
that does so by doing work on the charges,
thereby maintaining the potential difference.
Do you know ?
Such a device is called an emf device and it
Here, the temperature difference is more provides the emf . The charges move in the
important than the temperature alone. conductor owing to the energy provided by the
Therefore, as the sizes of degrees on the emf device. The device supplies this energy
Celsius scale and the Absolute scale are through the work it does.
identical, any scale can be used. You must have used some of these emf
Example 11.7: A piece of platinum wire has devices. Power cells, batteries,Solar cells, fuel
resistance of 2.5 at 0 C. If its temperature cells, and even generators, are same examples
o

coefficient of resistance is 4 ×10-3/oC. Find the of emf devices familiar to you.

resistance of the wire at 80o C.
Solution:
R0= 2.5
o
C
T - 0 = T = 80o C
RT = R0(1+ T )
RT = 2.5 (1+ 0.004 × ) = 2.5 (1 + 0.32) Fig. 11.12: Circuit with emf device.

215
 Fig. 11.12 shows a circuit with an emf form the potential difference across its two
device and a resistor R. Here, the emf device terminals (V).
keeps the positive terminal (+) at a higher V= - (I) (r) --- (11.40)
electric potential than the negative terminal (-). The negative sign is due to the fact that the
The emf is represented by an arrow from current I flows through the emf device from the
the negative terminal to the positive terminal. negative terminal to the positive terminal.
When the circuit is open, there is no net flow By the application of Ohm’s law Eq. (11.9),
of charge carriers within the device. When V = IR
connected in a circuit, there is a flow of carriers Hence IR = - Ir --- (11.41)
from one terminal to the other terminal inside Or
the emf device. The positive charge carriers I= --- (11.42)
move towards the positive terminal which acts R +r
as cathode inside the emf device. Thus the Thus, the maximum current that can be
positive charge carriers move from the region of drawn from the emf device is when R = 0, i.e.
lower potential energy, to the region of higher
potential energy which is cathode inside the I max = --- (11.43)
r
emf device. Here, the energy source is chemical
This is the maximum allowed current
in nature. In a Solar cell, it is the photon energy
from an emf device (or a cell). This decides the
in the Solar radiation.
maximum current rating of a cell or a battery.
Now suppose that a charge dq flows
11.12 Cells in Series:
through the cross section of the circuit (Fig.
11.12), in time dt. In a series combination, cells are connected
in single electrical path, such that the positive
It is clear that the same amount of charge
terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
dq flows throughout the circuit, including the
terminal of the next cell, and so on. The terminal
emf device. It enters the negative terminal (low
voltage of battery/cell is equal to the sum of
potential terminal) and leaves the positive
voltages of individual cells in series, as shown
terminal (higher potential terminal). Hence,
in Fig 11.13 a.
the device must do work dw on the charge dq,
Figure shows two 1.5V cells in series. This
so that it moves in the above manner. Thus we
combination provides total voltage of 3.0V
define the emf of the emf device.
(1.5×2).
dw
= --- (11.39)
dq
The SI unit of emf is joule/coulomb
(J/C).
In an ideal device, there is no internal
Fig. 11.13 (a): Cells in parallel.
resistance to the motion of charge carriers. The
emf of the device is then equal to the potential
difference across the two terminals of the
device. In a real emf device, there is an internal
resistance to the motion of charge carriers.
If such a device is not connected in a circuit, Fig. 11.13 (b): Cells in parallel.
there is no current through it. In that case the The equivalent emf of n number of cells
emf is equal to the potential difference across in series combination is the algebraic sum of
the two terminals of the emf device connected their individual emf. The equivalent internal
in a circuit, there is no current through it. If a resistance of n cells in a series combination is
current (I) flows through an emf device, there is the sum of their individual internal resistance.
an internal resistance (r) and the emf ( ) differs V =   i  I.  ri --- (11.44)
i i

216
• Advantages of cells in series. Considering Eq. (11.49) and Eq. (11.50) we can
(i) The cells connected in series produce a write,
larger resultant voltage.  r  r
 eq = 1 2 2 1
(ii) Cells which are damaged can be easily r1 +r2
identified, hence can be easily replaced.
r1r2
11.13 Cells in parallel: req 
Consider two cells which are connected r1 +r2
in parallel. Here, positive terminals of all the 1 1 1
i.e.  
cells are connected together and the negative req r1 r2
terminals of all the cells are connected together.
 eq 1  2
In parallel connection, the current is divided   --- (11.51)
among the branches i.e. I1 and I2 as shown in req r1 r2
Fig. 11.13b. Consider points B1 and B2 having For n number of cells connected in parallel with
potentials VB and VB , respectively. emf 1, 2, 3, and internal resistance r1,
1 2 n
For the first cell the potential difference r2, r3, rn
across its terminals is,
1 1 1 1 1
V = VB - VB = Ir --- (11.45)     ...........  --- (11.52)
1 2 req r1 r2 r3 rn
 -V
 I1 = 1 --- (11.46)
r1  eq 1  2 
Point B1 and B2 are connected exactly similarly and    .............  n
to the second cell. req r1 r2 rn
Hence, considering the second cell we write, --- (11.53)
V = VB - VB = Ir --- (11.47) Substitution of emfs should be done
1 2
We know that I = I1+ I2 algebraically by considering proper signs
Combining the last three equations, according to polarity.
 V  V • Advantages of cells in parallel : For cells
 I = 1  2 --- (11.48) connected in parallel in a circuit, the circuit
r1 r1 r2 r2 will not break open even if a cell gets
   1 1 damaged or open.
  1  2  V   
 r1 r2   r1 r2  • Disadvantages of cells in parallel : The
voltage developed by the cells in parallel
 1 1   1  2  connection cannot be increased by
Thus, V         I
 r1 r2   r1 r2  increasing number of cells present in circuit.
 r +r   r   r 11.14 Types of Cells:
 V 1 2  1 2 2 1 I Electrical cells can be divided into several
 r1r2  r1r2
categories like primary cell, secondary cell,
 r  r rr fuel cell, etc.
V= 1 2 2 1 I 1 2 A primary cell cannot be charged again. It
r1 +r2 r1 +r2 ---(11.49)
If we replace the cells by a single cell can be used only once. Dry cells, alkaline cells
connected between points B1 and B2 with the are different examples of primary cells. Primary
emf eq and the internal resistance req as in Fig. cells are low cost and can be used easily.
(11.13b), But these are not suitable for heavy loads.
Secondary cells are used for such applications.
then,
The secondary cell are rechargeable and can be
V = eq - Ireq --- (11.50) reused. The chemical reaction in a secondary
cells is reversible. Lead acid cell, and fuel cell

217
are some examples of secondary cells. Lead ii. Current in each resistor :
acid battery is used widely in vehicles and other Total current I in the circuit is,
applications which require high load currents. 14
Solar cells are secondary cells that convert I= = = 2A
RT +r 6 +1
Solar energy into electrical energy.
Consider resistors between A and B.
Fuel cells vehicles (FCVs) are electric
vehicles that use fuel cells instead of lead acid Let I1 be the current through one of the
batteries to power the vehicles. Hydrogen is 4 resistors and I2 be the current in the other
used as a fuel in fuel cells. The by- product resistor
after its burning is water. This is important I1 × 4 = I2 × 4
in terms of reducing emission of greenhouse that is, I1 = I2 from symmetry of the two arms.
gases produced by traditional gasoline fueled But I1 + I2 = I = 2A
vehicles. The hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are ∴ I1 = I2 =1A
thus more environment friendly. that is, the current in each 4 resistor is 1A, the
Example 11.8: A network of resistors is current in 1 resistor between B and C would
connected to a 15 V battery with internal be 2A.
resistance 1 as shown in the circuit Now, consider the resistances between C
diagram. and D
i. Calculate the equivalent resistance, Let I3 be the current through one of the 6
ii. Current in each resistor, resistors and I4 be the current in the other
iii. Voltage drops VAB, VBC and VDC. resistor.
I3 × 6 = I4 × 6
∴ I3 = I4 = 1A
That is, current in each 6 resistor is 1A
iii. Voltage drop across BC is VBC
VBC = I × 1 = 2 × 1 = 2V
Voltage drop across CD is VCD
VCD = I × RCD = 2 × 3 =6V
Solution : [Note : Total voltage drop across AD is =
i) Equivalent Resistance (Req) =RAB+RBC+RDC 4V+2V+6V=12V, while its emf is 14V. The
4×4 6×6 loss of the voltage is 2V].
RAB =  2, RCD =  3
4+4 6+6
RBC = 1 Internet my friend
RT= Req = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6 https://www.britannica.com/science/
∴ Equivalent Resistance is 6 superconductivityphysics

218
 Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose correct alternative number of cells. The number of rows
i) You are given four bulbs of 25 W, 40 W, should be
60 W and 100 W of power, all operating (A) 2 (B) 4
at 230 V. Which of them has the lowest (C) 5 (D) 100
resistance? viii) Five dry cells each of voltage 1.5 V are
(A) 25 W (C) 40 W connected as shown in diagram
(C) 60 W (D) 100 W
ii) Which of the following is an ohmic
conductor?
(A) transistor (B)vacuum tube
(C) electrolyte (D) nichrome wire What is the overall voltage with this
arrangement?
iii) A rheostat is used
(A) 0V (B) 4.5V
(A) to bring on a known change of
resistance in the circuit to alter the current (C) 6.0V (D) 7.5V
(B) to continuously change the resistance 2. Give reasons / short answers
in any arbitrary manner and there by alter i) In given circuit diagram two resistors are
the current connected to a 5V supply.
(C) to make and break the circuit at any
instant
(D) neither to alter the resistance nor the
current
iv) The wire of length L and resistance R is
stretched so that its radius of cross-section
is halved. What is its new resistance?
(A) 5R (B) 8R a] Calculate potential difference across
(C)4R (D) 16R the 8 resistor.
v) Masses of three pieces of wires made of b] A third resistor is now connected
the same metal are in the ratio 1:3:5 and in parallel with 6 resistor. Will the
their lengths are in the ratio 5:3:1. The potential difference across the 8 resistor
ratios of their resistances are the larger, smaller or the same as before?
Explain the reason for your answer.
(A) 1:3:5 (B) 5:3:1
ii) Prove that the current density of a metallic
(C) 1:15:125 (D) 125:15:1 conductor is directly proportional to the
vi) The internal resistance of a cell of emf drift speed of electrons.
2V is 0.1 it is connected to a resistance 3. Answer the following questions.
of 0.9 . The voltage across the cell will
be i) Distinguish between Ohmic and non-
ohmic substances; explain with the help
(A) 0.5 V (B) 1.8 V of example.
(C) 1.95 V (D) 3V ii) DC current flows in a metal piece of non-
vii) 100 cells each of emf 5V and internal uniform cross-section. Which of these
resistance 1 are to be arranged so as quantities remains constant along the
to produce maximum current in a 25 conductor: current, current density or
resistance. Each row contains equal drift speed?

219
4. Solve the following problems. vii) A silver wire has a resistance of 4.2
i) What is the resistance of one of the rails of at 27 C and resistance 5.4 at 100 C.
a railway track 20 km long at 20 C? The Determine the temperature coefficient of
cross section area of rail is 25 cm2 and the resistance.
rail is made of steel having resistivity at [Ans: 3.91×10-3/ C]
20 C as 6×10-8 m. viii) A 6m long wire has diameter 0.5 mm. Its
[Ans: 0.48 ] resistance is 50 . Find the resistivity and
ii) A battery after a long use has an emf conductivity.
24 V and an internal resistance 380 . [Ans: 1.57×10-5 /m, 6.37×104m/ ]
Calculate the maximum current drawn
ix) Find the value of resistances for the
from the battery? Can this battery drive
following colour code.
starting motor of car?
1. Blue Green Red Gold
[Ans: 0.068 A]
[Ans: 6.5 k 5%]
iii) A battery of emf 12 V and internal
resistance 3 is connected to a resistor. 2. Brown Black Red Silver
If the current in the circuit is 0.5 A, [Ans: 1.0 k 10%]
a] Calculate resistance of resistor. 3. Red Red Orange Gold
b] Calculate terminal voltage of the [Ans: 2.2 k 5%]
battery when the circuit is closed. 4. Orange White Red Gold
[Ans: a) 21 , b) 10.5 V] [Ans: 3.9 k 5%]
iv) The magnitude of current density in a 5. Yellow Violet Brown Silver
copper wire is 500 A/cm2. If the number
[Ans: 4.70 k 10%]
of free electrons per cm3 of copper is
8.47×1022 calculate the drift velocity of x) Find the colour code for the following
the electrons through the copper wire value of resistor having tolerance 10%
(charge on an e = 1.6×10-19 C) a) 330 b) 100 c) 47k
[Ans: 3.69×10-4 m/s] d) 160 e) 1k
v) Three resistors 10 20 and 30 are xi) A current 4A flows through an automobile
connected in series combination. headlight. How many electrons flow
through the headlight in a time 2hrs.
i] Find equivalent resistance of series
combination. [Ans : 1.8 ×1023]
ii] When this series combination is xii) The heating element connected to 230V
connected to 12V supply, by neglecting draws a current of 5A. Determine the
the value of internal resistance, obtain amount of heat dissipated in 1 hour
potential difference across each resistor. (J = 4.2 J/cal.).
[Ans : 985.8 Kcal]
[Ans: i) 60 ii) 2 V, 4 V, 6 V]
vi) Two resistors 1k and 2k are connected
in parallel combination. ***
i] Find equivalent resistance of parallel
combination
ii] When this parallel combination is
connected to 9 V supply, by neglecting
internal resistance calculate current
through each resistor.
[Ans: i) 0.66 k ii) 9 A, 4.5 A]

220
 12. Magnetism
Can you recall?
1. What is a bar magnet? force?
2. What are the magnetic lines of force? 4. If you freely hang a bar magnetic horizontally,
3. What are the rules concerning the lines of in which direction will it become stable?

12.1 Introduction: and we always have a magnetic dipole or a

The history of magnetism dates back quadrupole. In this Chapter the main focus
to earlier than 600 B.C., but it is only in the will be on elementary aspects of magnetism and
twentieth century that scientists began to terrestrial magnetism.
understand it and developed technologies based 12.2 Magnetic Lines of Force and Magnetic
on this understanding. William Gilbert (1544- Field:
1603) was the first to systematically investigate You have studied properties of electric lines
the phenomenon of magnetism using scientific of force earlier in the Chapter on electrostatics.
method. He also discovered that Earth is a weak In a similar manner, magnetic lines of force
magnet. Danish physicist Hans Oersted (1777- originate from the North pole and end at the
1851) suggested a link between electricity and South pole. The magnetic lines of force have
magnetism. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) the of a magnet following properties:
proved that electricity and magnetism represent i) The magnetic lines of force of a magnet
different aspects of the same fundamental force or a solenoid form closed loops. This is in
field. contrast to the case of an electric dipole,
In electrostatics you have learnt about the where the electric lines of force originate
relationship between the electric field and force from the positive charge and end on the
due to electric charges and electric dipoles. negative charge.
Analogous concepts exist in magnetism except
that magnetic poles do not exist in isolation, ii) The direction of the net magnetic field B
at a point is given by the tangent to the
Do you know ? magnetic line of force at that point.
Some commonly known facts about iii) The number of lines of force crossing per
magnetism. unit area decides the magnitude of the
(i) Every magnet regardless of its size and magnetic filed B .
shape has two poles called north pole iv) The magnetic lines of force do not intersect.
and south pole. This is because had they intersected, the
(ii) If a magnet is broken into two or more direction of magnetic field would not be
pieces then each piece behaves like an unique at that point.
independent magnet with somewhat
weaker magnetic field. Try this
Thus isolated magnetic monopoles You can take a bar magnet and a small
do not exist. The search for magnetic compass needle. Place the bar magnet at a
monopoles is still going on. fixed position on a paper and place the needle
(iii) Like magnetic poles repel each other, at various positions. Noting the orientation
whereas unlike poles attract each other. of the needle, the magnetic field direction at
(iv) When a bar magnet/ magnetic needle is various locations can be traced.
suspended freely or is pivoted, it aligns
itself in geographically North-South Density of lines of force i.e., the number of
direction. lines of force per unit area around a particular

221
point determines the strength of the magnetic is called the equatorial circle. The popularly
field at that point. The number of lines of force
known ‘equator’ in Geography is actually
is called magnetic flux ( ). SI unit of magnetican ‘equatorial circle’. Such a circle with any
flux ( ) is weber (Wb). diameter is an equator.
The magnitude of magnetic field strength Magnetic length (2l):- It is the distance
B at a point in a magnetic field is given by between the two poles of a magnet.
Magnetic Field = magnetic flux 5
Magnetic length (2l) = × Geometric length
area 6
--- (12.2)
i.e. B = --- (12.1) 12.3.1 Magnetic field due to a bar magnet
A
SI unit of magnetic field (B) is expressed at a point along its axis and at a point
as weber/m or Tesla.
2 along its equator:
1 Tesla = 104 Gauss.
12.3 The Bar magnet:
A bar magnet is said to have magnetic pole
strength +qm and - qm at the north and south Fig. 12.2 (a): Magnetic field at a point
poles, respectively. The separation of magnetic along the axis of the magnet.
poles inside the magnet is 2l. As the bar magnet ur
ur  m
has two poles, with equal and opposite pole B eq   0 3
4 r
strength, it is called a magnetic dipole. This is
analogous to an electric dipole. The urmagneticr
dipole moment, therefore, becomes m qm .2l
( 2l is a vector from south pole to north pole)
in analogy with the electric dipole moment.
SI unit of pole strength (qm) is A m.
SI unit of magnetic dipole moment m is A m2.
Axis:- It is the line passing through both the
poles of a bar magnet. Obviously, there is only
one axis for a given bar magnet.
Fig. 12.2 (b): Magnetic field along the
equatorial point.
Consider a bar magnet of dipole
ur length 2l
and magnetic dipole moment m as shown in
Fig. 12.2 (a). We will now find magnetic field
at a point P along the axis of the bar magnet.
Let r be the distance of point P from the
centre O of the magnetic dipole.
Fig. 12.1: Bar magnet OS = ON = l
Equator:- A line passing through the centre ... NP = (r - l) and SP = r + l
of a magnet and perpendicular to its axis is We now use the electrostatic analogy to
called magnetic equator. The plane containing obtain the magnetic field due to a bar magnet
all equators is called the equatorial plane. The at a large distance r >> l. Consider the electric
locus of points, on the equatorial plane, which field due to an electric dipole with a dipole
are equidistant from the centre of the magnet moment p.

222
The Electrostatic Analogue: compared with charge q in electrostatics.
As suggested by Maxwell, electricity Accordingly, we can write the equivalent
and magnetism could be studied analogously. physical quantities in electrostatics and
The pole strength (qm) in magnetism can be magnetism as shown in table 12.1.
Table 12.1: The Electrostatic Analogue
Quantity Electrostatics Magnetism
Basic physical quantity Electrostatic charge Magnetic pole
Field ur
Electric Field E Magnetic Field B

Constant 1 0
4 0 4

Dipole moment ur ur
p = q ( 2l ) m = qm ( 2l ) (bar magnet)
along (-ve) (+ve) charge along S N pole
Force ur ur ur
F = qE F = qm B
Energy (In external field) r ur ur ur
U = - p.E U = -m.B
of a dipole
Coulomb’s law  1  q1q 2 No analogous law as
F  2 magnetic monopoles
 4 0  r
do not exist
Axial field for a short ur ur
2p  0 2m
dipole along p
4 0 r 3 4 r 3
Equatorial field for a short ur ur
p  0 m
dipole opposite to p
4 0 r 3 4 r 3

You have studied the electric field due to an Similarly, the equatorial
ur magnetic field
electric dipole of length 2l (p = 2ql) at a distance ur  m
r along the dipolar axis (Eq. 10.24) which is B eq   0 3 --- (12.4)
4 r
given by,
ur 1 2p ur Negative sign urshows that the direction of
Ea  , r  l B eq is opposite to m .
4 0 r 3 For the same distance from centre O of a
The electric field bar magnet,
ur on the equator (Eq. 10.28) Baxis = 2Beq --- (12.5)
is antiparallel to p and is given by
ur 1 p 12.3.2 Magnetic field due to a bar magnet at
E eq  , r  l an arbitrary point:
4 0 r 3
Fig. 12.3 Shows a bar magnet of magnetic
Using the analogy given in Table 12.1, moment m with centre at O. P is any point
we can thus write the axial magnetic field of a in its magnetic field. Magnetic moment m is
bar magnet at a distance r, r >> l, 2l being the resolved (about the centre of the magnet) into
length of bar magnet,ur components along r and perpendicular to r.�
ur  2m For the component mcos along r , the point P
Ba   0 3 --- (12.3) is an axial point.
4 r

223
 0 m
Beq =
4 r 3
107  0.5 5  108
   0.625  105 Wb / m 2
P (0.2)3 8  103

12.4 Gauss' Law of Magnetism:

The Gauss' law for electric field is known
to you. It states that the net electric flux through
a closed Gaussian surface is proportional to the
Fig. 12.3: Magnetic field at an arbitrary point. net electric charge enclosed by the surface (Eq.
Also, for the component msin (10.18)). The Gauss' law for magnetic fields
perpendicular to r , the point P is an equatorial states that the net magnetic flux B through a
point at the same distance r . Using the results closed Gaussian surface is zero, i.e.,
of axial and equatorial fields, we get (Gauss' law for magnetic
o 2m cos  fields)
Ba  --- (12.6)
4 r3 The magnetic force lines of (a) bar
directed along m cos and magnet, (b) current carrying finite solenoid,
 m sin  and (c) electric dipole are shown in Fig.12.4(a),
Beq  o --- (12.7)
4 r 3 12.4(b) and 12.4(c), respectively. The curves
directed opposite to msin labelled (i) and (ii) are cross sections of three
Thus, the magnitude of the resultant magnetic dimensional closed Gaussian surfaces.
field B, at point P is given by
B  Ba 2  Beq 2
o m
 2 cos    sin  
2 2
∴ B
4 r 3
o m
B  3 cos 2   1 --- (12.8)
4 r 3
Let be the angle made by the direction of B with
r . Then, by using eq (12.6) and eq (12.7),
--- (12.9)

Fig. 12.4 (a): Bar magnet.

The angle between directions of B and m
is then     .
Example 12.1: A short magnetic dipole has
magnetic moment 0.5 A m2. Calculate its
magnetic field at a distance of 20 cm from the
centre of magnetic dipole on (i) the axis (ii) the
equatorial line (Given 0 = 4 Í10-7 SI units)
Solution :
m = 0.5 Am 2 , r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
0 2m 107  2  0.5 1 107
Ba =  
4 r 3 (0.2)3 8  103
1
  104  1.25  105 Wb / m 2
8 Fig. 12.4 (b): Current (I) carrying solenoid.

224
 This fact clearly indicates that there is
some magnetic field present everywhere on the
Earth . This is called Terrestrial Magnetism. It
is extremely useful during navigation.
Magnetic parameters of the Earth are
described below.
Unless and otherwise stated, the directions
mentioned (South, North, etc.) are always,
Geographic.

Fig. 12.4 (c): Electric dipole.

If we compare the number of lines of force
entering in and leaving out of the surface (i), it
is clearly seen that they are equal. The Gaussian
surface does not include poles. It means that the
flux associated with any closed surface is equal
to zero. When we consider surface (ii), in Fig.
12.4 (b), we are enclosing the North pole. As Fig. 12.5: Earth's magnetism.
even a thin slice of a bar magnet will have North Magnetic Axis :- The Earth is considered to
and South poles associated with it, the closed be a huge magnetic dipole. Fictitious magnetic
Gaussian surface will also include a South pole. north pole (N) of the Earth is located below
However in Fig. 12.4(c), for an electric dipole, Antarctica while the south pole (S) is below
the field lines begin from positive charge and Norway. The straight line NS joining these two
end on negative charge. For a closed surface poles is called the magnetic axis, MM'.
(ii), there is a net outward flux since it does Magnetic equator :- A great circle in the plane
include a net (positive) charge. According to the perpendicular to magnetic axis is magnetic
Gauss' law of electrostatics as studied earlier, equatorial circle, AA'. It happens to pass
through India near Thiruvananthapuram.
, where q is the positive charge
enclosed. Thus, situation is entirely different Geographic Meridian:- A plane perpendicular
from magnetic lines of force, which are shown to the surface of the Earth (vertical plane)
in Fig. 12.4(a) and Fig. 12.4(b). Thus, Gauss' law perpendicular to geographic axis is geographic
of magnetism can be written as . meridian. (Fig.12.6)
From the above we conclude that for Magnetic Meridian:- A plane perpendicular
electrostatics, an isolated electric charge exists to surface of the Earth (Vertical plane) and
but an isolated magnetic pole does not exist. In passing through the magnetic axis is magnetic
short, only dipoles exist in case of magnetism. meridian. Direction of resultant magnetic field
of the Earth is always along or parallel to
12.5 Earth’s Magnetism:
magnetic meridian. (Fig.12.6)
It is common experience that a bar magnet
Magnetic declination:- Angle between the
or a magnetic needle suspended freely in air
geographic and the magnetic meridian at a
always aligns itself along geographic N-S
place is called ‘magnetic declination’ ( ). The
direction. If it has a freedom to rotate about
declination is small in India. It is 0 58 west at
horizontal axis, it inclines with some angle with
Mumbai and 0041 east at Delhi. Thus, at both
the horizontal in the vertical N-S plane.
these places, magnetic needle shows true North

225
accurately (Fig.12.6). (magnetic equator) B = BH along South to
North, BV= 0 and = 0
Magnetic maps of the Earth:-
Magnetic elements of the Earth (BH, and
) vary from place to place and also with time.
The maps providing these values at different
locations are called magnetic maps. These
are extremely useful for navigation. Magnetic
maps drawn by joining places with the same
value of a particular element are called Iso-
magnetic charts.
Fig. 12.6: Magnetic declination.
Lines joining the places of equal horizontal
Magnetic inclination or angle of dip ( ):-
components (BH) are known as ‘Isodynamic
Angle made by the direction of resultant
lines’
magnetic field with the horizontal at a place
is inclination or angle of dip at the place (Fig. Lines joining the places of equal declination
12.7). ( ) are called Isogonic lines.
Lines joining the places of equal inclination
or dip ( ) are called Aclinic lines.
Example 12.2: Earth's magnetic field at the
equator is approximately 4×10-5 T. Calculate
Earth's dipole moment. (Radius of Earth =
6.4×106 m, 0 = 4 ×10-7 SI units)
Solution: Given
Beq = 4 ×10-5 T
Fig. 12.7: Magnetic inclination. r = 6.4 ×106 m
Earth’s magnetic field:- Magnetic force Assume that Earth is a bar magnet with N and
experienced per unit pole strength is magnetic S poles being the geographical South and North
field B at that place. It can be resolved in poles, respectively. The equatorial magnetic
ur field due to Earth's dipole can be written as
components ur
along the horizontal, B H and along
vertical, BV . The vertical component can be m
Beq  0 3
conveniently determined. The two components 4 r
can be related with the angle of dip ( ) as, m  4 Beq  r 3 / 0
BH = B cos , BV = B sin
 4  105  (6.4  106 )3  107
BV
 tan  --- (12.10)  1.05  1020 A m 2
BH
Example 12.3: At a given place on the Earth,
B 2  BV 2  BH 2 a bar magnet of magnetic moment m is kept
--- (12.11) horizontal in the East-West direction. P and
2 2
 B  BV  BH
Q are the two neutral points due to magnetic
Special cases field of this magnet and BH is the horizontal
ur
1) At the magnetic urNorth pole, B = BV , component of the Earth's magnetic field.
directed upward, B H = 0 and = 900. (A) Calculate the angles between position
ur vectors of P and Q with the direction of m .
2) At the magnetic south pole, B = BV ,-
ur (B) Points P and Q are 1 m from the centre of
directed downward, B H = 0 and = 2700.
the bar magnet and BH  3.5  105 T . Calculate
3) Anywhere on the magnetic great circle

226
magnetic dipole moment of the bar magnet. (B)
Neutral point is that point where the tan 2  2
resultant magnetic field is zero.
 sec 2  1  tan 2  1  2  3
Solution: (A) As seen from the figure, the
direction of magnetic field B due to the bar 1
cos 2 
magnet is opposite to BH at the points P and 3
Q. Also,     900 at P and it is 2700 at Q. r  1m and B  BH  3.5  105 T (Given)
we have,
 m
B  0 3 3cos 2  1
4 r
BH  r 3
m 
 0  2
 4  3cos   1
 
3.5  105  13

1
107  3  1
3
350
m   247.5 A m 2
2

Internet my friend

https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. Earth
i) Let r be the distance of a point on the (D) passing through the geographic axis
axis of a bar magnet from its center. The iii) The horizontal and vertical component
magnetic field at r is always proportional of magnetic field of Earth are same at
to some place on the surface of Earth. The
(A) 1/r2 (B) 1/r3 (C) 1/r magnetic dip angle at this place will be
(D) not necessarily 1/r at all points
3
(A) 30o (B) 45o
ii) Magnetic meridian is the plane (C) 0o (D) 90o
(A) perpendicular to the magnetic axis of iv) Inside a bar magnet, the magnetic field
Earth lines
(B) perpendicular to geographic axis of (A) are not present
Earth (B) are parallel to the cross sectional area
(C) passing through the magnetic axis of of the magnet

227
 (C) are in the direction from N pole to S 4. Solve the following Problems.
pole i) A magnetic pole of bar magnet with pole
strength of 100 A m is 20 cm away from
(D) are in the direction from S pole to N
the centre of a bar magnet. Bar magnet has
pole pole strength of 200 A m and has a length
v) A place where the vertical components of 5 cm. If the magnetic pole is on the axis
Earth's magnetic field is zero has the angle of the bar magnet, find the force on the
of dip equal to magnetic pole.

(A) 0o (B) 45o [Ans: 2.5×10-2N]

(C) 60o (D) 90o ii) A magnet makes an angle of 45o with the
horizontal in a plane making an angle of
vi) A place where the horizontal component 30o with the magnetic meridian. Find the
of Earth's magnetic field is zero lies at true value of the dip angle at the place.
(A) geographic equator [Ans: tan-1 (0.866)]
(B) geomagnetic equator iii) Two small and similar bar magnets have
(C) one of the geographic poles magnetic dipole moment of 1.0 Am2
each. They are kept in a plane in such a
(D) one of the geomagnetic poles
way that their axes are perpendicular to
vii) A magnetic needle kept nonparallel to the each other. A line drawn through the axis
magnetic field in a nonuniform magnetic of one magnet passes through the center
field experiences of other magnet. If the distance between
(A) a force but not a torque their centers is 2 m, find the magnitude of
magnetic field at the mid point of the line
(B) a torque but not a force joining their centers.
(C) both a force and a torque
[Ans: 5  107 T ]
(D) neither force nor a torque
iv) A circular magnet is made with its north
2. Answer the following questions in brief. pole at the centre, separated from the
i) What happens if a bar magnet is cut into surrounding circular south pole by an air
two pieces transverse to its length/ along a gap. Draw the magnetic field lines in the
its length? gap.

ii) What is the unit of Magnetic Intensity ? Draw a diagram to illustrate the magnetic
lines of force between the south poles of
iii) What could be the equation for Gauss' two such magnets.
law of magnetism, if a monopole of pole
strength p is enclosed by a surface? v) Two bar magnets are placed on a horizontal
surface. Draw magnetic lines around
3. Answer the following questions in detail. them. Mark the position of any neutral
i) Explain the Gauss' law for magnetic fields. points (points where there is no resultant
magnetic field) on your diagram.
ii) What is a geographic meridian. How does
the declination vary with latitude? Where
is it minimum? ***
iii) Define the Angle of Dip. What happens to
angle of dip as we move towards magnetic
pole from magnetic equator?

228
 13. Electromagnetic Waves and Communication System
Can you recall?
1. What is a wave? 4. What are Lenz's law, Ampere's law and
2. What is the difference between longitudinal Faraday's law?
and transverse waves? 5. By which mechanism heat is lost by hot
3. What are electric and magnetic fields and bodies ?
what are their sources?
13.1 Introduction : with the circuit changes.
The information age in which we live (4) Ampere’s law gives the relation between
is based almost entirely on the physics of the induced magnetic field associated with
electromagnetic (EM) waves. We are now a loop and the current flowing through
globally connected by TV, cellphone and the loop. Maxwell (1831-1879) noticed
internet. All these gadgets use EM waves as a major flaw in the Ampere’s law for
carriers for transmission of signals. Energy time dependant fields. He noticed that the
from the Sun, an essential requirement for life magnetic field can be generated not only
on Earth, reaches us by means of EM waves by electric current but also by changing
that travel through nearly 150 million km of electric field. Therefore in the year 1861,
empty space. There are EM waves from light he added one more term to the equation
bulbs, heated engine blocks of automobiles, describing this law. This term is called
x-ray machines, lightning flashes, and some the displacement current. This term is
radioactive materials. Stars, other objects in our extremely important and the EM waves
milky way galaxy and other galaxies are known which are an outcome of these equations
to emit EM waves. Hence, it is important for us would not have been possible in absence
to make a careful study of the properties of EM of this term.
waves. As a result, the set of four equations
13.2 EM wave: describing the above four laws is called
There are four basic laws which describe Maxwell’s equations.
the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields, In 1888, H. Hertz (1857-1894) succeeded
the relation between them and their generation in producing and detecting the existence of EM
by charges and currents. These laws are as waves. He also demonstrated their properties
follows. namely reflection, refraction and interference.
(1) Gauss' law for electrostatics which is In 1895, an Indian physicist Sir Jagdish
essentially the Coulomb’s law describes Chandra Bose (1858-1937) produced EM
the relationship between static electric waves ranging in wavelengths from 5 mm to 25
charges and the electric field produced by nm. His work, however, remained confined to
them. laboratory only.
(2) Gauss' law for magnetism, which is In 1896, an Italian physicist G. Marconi
similar to the Gauss' law for electrostatics (1874-1937) became pioneer in establishing
as mentioned above states that "magnetic wireless communication. He was awarded the
monopoles which are thought to be Nobel prize in physics in 1909 for his work in
magnetic charges equivalent to the electric developing wireless telegraphy, telephony and
charges, do not exist". Magnetic poles broadcasting.
always occur in pairs. 13.2.1 Sources of EM waves:
(3) Faraday’s law which gives the relation According to Maxwell’s theory, "accelerated
between electromotive force (emf) induced charges radiate EM waves". Consider a charge
in a circuit when the magnetic flux linked oscillating with some frequency. This produces

229
an oscillating electric field in space, which
produces an oscillating magnetic field which in 3)
turn is a source of oscillating electric field. Thus
(Faraday’s law with Lenz’s law)
varying electric and magnetic fields regenerate
each other. Here m is the magnetic flux and the
Waves that are caused by the acceleration integral is over a closed loop. Time varying
of charged particles and consist of electric magnetic field induces an electromotive
and magnetic fields vibrating sinusoidally at force (emf) and hence, an electric field. The
right angles to each other and to the direction direction of the induced emf is such that the
of propagation are called EM waves or EM change is opposed.
radiation. Figure 13.1 shows an EM wave 4)
propagating along z-axis. The time varying
(Ampere-Maxwell law)
electric field is along the x-axis and time varying
magnetic field is along the y-axis. Here is the permeability of vacuum
and the integral is over a closed loop, I is
the current flowing through the loop. E
is the electric flux linked with the circuit.
Magnetic field is generated by moving
charges and also by varying electric fields.
Fig. 13.1: EM wave propagating along z-axis.
13.2.2 Characteristics of EM waves: ur
Do you know ? 1) The electric and magnetic fields, E and
In 1865, Maxwell proposed that an B are always perpendicular to each other
oscillating electric charge radiates energy and also to the direction of propagation
in the form of EM wave. EM waves are of the EM wave. Thus the EM waves are
periodic changes in electric and magnetic transverse waves. ur ur
fields, which propagate through space. 2) The cross product E ×B gives theurdirection
ur
Thus, energy can be transported in the form in which the EM wave travels. E ×B also
of EM waves. givesurthe energy
ur carried by EM wave.
Maxwell’s Equations for Charges and 3) The E and B fields vary sinusoidally and
Currents in Vacuum are in phase.
4) EM waves are produced by accelerated
1) (Gauss’ law) electric charges.
ur
Here E is the electric field and is 5) EM waves can travel through free space
0
the permittivity of vacuum. The integral is as well as through solids, liquids and
over a closed surface S. The law states that gases.
electric flux through any closed surface S is 6) In free space, EM waves travel with
equal to the total electric charge Qin enclosed velocity c, equal to that of light in free
by the surface divided by 0. Gauss’ law space.
describes the relation between an electric 1
c  3  108 m / s ,
charge and electric field it produces.  0 0
2) (Gauss’ law for magnetism). where 0 (4 ×10-7 Tm/A) is permeability
ur
Here B is the magnetic field. The and 0 (8.85×10-12 C2/Nm2) is permittivity
integral is over a closed surface S. The law of free space.
states that magnetic flux through a closed 7) In a given material medium, the velocity
surface is always zero, i.e., the magnetic 1
(vm) of EM waves is given by v m 
field lines are continuous closed curves, 
having neither beginning nor end. where is the permeability and is the

230
 permittivity of the given medium. Do you know ?
8) The EM waves obey the principle of According to quantum theory, an
superposition. electron, while orbiting around the nucleus
9) The ratio of the amplitudes of electric and in a stable orbit does not emit EM radiation
magnetic fields is constant at any point and even though it undergoes acceleration. It
is equal to the velocity
uur of the EM wave. will emit an EM radiation only when it falls
uur uur |E | 1
| E0 |= c | B0 | or uur0 = from an orbit of higher energy to one of
--- (13.1)
| B0 | 0  0 lower energy.
uur uur ur EM waves (such as X-rays) are
E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of E and produced when fast moving electrons hit
ur
B respectively. ur a target of high atomic number (such as
10) As the electric field vector ( E 0 ) is more molybdenum, copper, etc.).
prominent than the magnetic field vector An electric charge at rest has an
ur electric field in the region around it but has
( B 0 ), it is responsible for optical effects
no magnetic field. When the charge moves,
due to EM waves. For this reason, electric
it produces both electric and magnetic
vector is called light vector.
fields. If the charge moves with a constant
11) The intensity of a wave is proportional to
velocity, the magnetic field will not change
the square of its amplitude and is given by
with time and as such it cannot produce an
the equations
EM wave. But if the charge is accelerated,
1 1 B0 2 both the magnetic and electric fields change
I E   0 E0 2 , I B  --- (13.2)
2 2 0 with space and time and an EM wave is
12) The energy of EM waves is distributed produced. Thus an oscillating charge emits
equally between the electric and magnetic an EM wave which has the same frequency
fields. IE = IB as that of the oscillation of the charge.
Example 13.1: Calculate the velocity of EM perpendicular to both x- andury-axes. As per
ur
waves in vacuum. property (2) of EM waves, E ×B should be
Solution: The velocity of EM wave in free along the direction of propagation which is
space is given by along the x- axis
1 1 Since (+ j ) ×(+ k ) = i , B is along the k ,
c  i.e., along the z-direction.
 0 0 C2 T.m
(8.85  1012 2
)(4  107 ) Thus, the amplitude of B = 3.2×10-8 T and
Nm A
its direction is along the z-axis.
c  3.00  108 m / s
Example 13.3: A beam of red light has an
Example 13.2: In free space, an EM wave of amplitude 2.5 times the amplitude of second
frequency 28 MHz travels along the x-direction. beam of the same colour. Calculate the ratio of
The amplitude of the electric field is E = 9.6 the intensities of the two waves.
V/m and its direction is along the y-axis. What
Solution: Intensity (Amplitude)2
is amplitude and direction of magnetic field B?
I2 (a)2 and I1 (2.5a)2
Solution : We have,
I1 (2.5a ) 2
| E | 9.6 V / m    (2.5) 2  6.25
| B |  I2 a2 .
c 3  108 m / s
B  3.2  108 T In an EM wave, the magnetic field and
electric field both vary sinusoidally with
ur x. For
It is given that E is along y-direction
a wave travelling along x-axis having E along
and the wave propagates along x-axis. The
y-axis and B along the z axis, with reference to
magnetic induction, B should be in a direction
Chapter 8, we can write Ey and Bz as

231
 Ey= E0 sin (kx- t) --- (13.2) x 
Ey  E0 sin 2   t 
and Bz= B0 sin (kx- t), --- (13.3)  
where E0 is the amplitude of the electric field Ey  x 
Ey  E0 sin 2  2  3  1010 t 
and B0 is the amplitude of the magnetic induction 10 
2
Bz. k  is the propagation constant and Ey  E0 sin 2 100 x  3  1010 t  V / m

is the wavelength of the wave. = 2 is the Example 13.6: The magnetic field of
angular frequency of oscillations, being the an EM wave travelling along x-axis is
frequency of the wave. B = k 4×10-4 sin ( t - kx). Here B is in tesla, t is
Both the electric and magnetic fields in second and x is in m. Calculate the peak value
attain their maximum (and minimum) values at of electric force acting on a particle of charge 5
the same time C travelling with a velocity of 5×105 m/s along
ur ur and at the same point in space, the y-axis.
i.e., E and B oscillate in phase with the same
frequency. Solution :
Example 13.4: An EM wave of frequency B0= 4×10-4 T, q = 5 C = 5×10-6 C
50 MHz travels
ur in vacuum along the positive v = 5×105 m/s
x-axis and E at a particular point, x and at a E0= cB0=(3×108) × (4×10-4)
particular instant of time t is 9.6 j V/m. Find =12×104 N/C
ur
the magnitude and direction of B at this point x Maximum electric force = qE0
and at instant of time t. = (5×10-6) (12×104)
E 9.6 8 = 60×10-2
Solution : B = c  3  108  3.2  10 T
= 0.6 N
As the wave propagates along +x axis and 13.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum:
E is along +y axis, direction of B will be along The orderly distribution (sequential
+z-axis i.e. B = 3.2×10-8 k T. arrangement) of EM waves according to their
Example 13.5: For an EM wave propagating wavelengths (or frequencies) in the form of
along x direction, the magnetic field oscillates distinct groups having different properties
along the z-direction at a frequency of 3×1010 is called the EM spectrum (Fig. 13.2). The
Hz and has amplitude of 10-9 T. properties of different types of EM waves are
given in Table 13.1.
a) What is the wavelength of the wave?
b) Write the expression representing the
corresponding electric field.
Solution :
c 3  108 m / s
a)  =  10
 102 m
 3  10 / s
b) E0= cB0= (3×108 m/s) × (10-9 T) = 0.3 V/m.
Since B acts along z-axis, E acts along y-axis.
Fig. 13.2: Electromagnetic spectrum.
Expression representing the oscillating electric
We briefly describe different types of EM
field is
waves in the order of decreasing wavelength (or
Ey  E0 sin (kx -  t ) increasing frequency).
 2   13.3.1 Radio waves :
Ey  E0 sin   x  ( 2 ) t  Radio waves are produced by accelerated
    motion of charges in a conducting wire. The

232
frequency of waves produced by the circuit Notation used for high frequencies
depends upon the magnitudes of the inductance 1 kHz = one kilo Hertz =1000 Hz = 103 Hz
and the capacitance (This will be discussed 1 MHz = one mega Hertz = 106 Hz
in XIIth standard). Thus, by choosing suitable 1 GHz = one giga Hertz =109 Hz
values of the inductance and the capacitance, Notation used for small wavelengths
radio waves of desired frequency can be 1 m = one micrometer = 10-6 m
produced. 1 Å= one angstrom = 10-10 m= 10-8 cm
Properties : 1nm = one nanometer = 10-9 m
1) They have very long wavelengths ranging
Uses :
from a few centimetres to a few hundreds
1) Radio waves are used for wireless
of kilometres.
communication purpose.
2) The frequency range of AM band is 530
2) They are used for radio broadcasting and
kHz to 1710 kHz. Frequency of the waves
transmission of TV signals.
used for TV-transmission range from 54
3) Cellular phones use radio waves to
MHz to 890 MHz, while those for FM radio
transmit voice communication in the ultra
band range from 88 MHz to 108MHz.
high frequency (UHF) band.
Table 13.1: Properties of different types of EM waves
Name Wavelength Frequency Generated By
range in m range in Hz
Gamma 6×10-13 to 1×10-10 5×1020 to 3×1018 a) Transitions of nuclear energy levels
rays b) Radioactive substances
X-rays 1×10-11 to 3×10-8 3×1019 to 1×1016 a) Bombardment of high energy
electrons (keV) on a high atomic
number target (Cu, Mg, Co)
b) Energy level transitions of
innermost orbital electrons
Ultraviolet 3×10-8 to 4×10-7 1×10 to 8×10
16 14 Rearrangement of orbital electrons of
(UV waves) atom between energy levels. As in high
voltage gas discharge tube, the Sun and
mercury vapour lamp, etc.
Visible light 4×10-7 to 8×10-7 8×1014 to 4×1014 Rearrangement of outer orbital
electrons in atoms and molecules e.g.,
gas discharge tube
Infrared (IR) 8×10-7 to 3×10-4 4×10 to 1×10
14 12 Hot objects
radiations
Microwaves 3×10-4 to 6×10-2 1×1012 to 5×109 Special electronic devices such as
klystron tube
Radio waves 6×10-4 to 1×105 5×1011 to 8×1010 Acceleration of electrons in circuits
13.3.2 Microwaves : they are incident.
These waves were discovered of by H. 2) They can be detected by crystal detectors.
Hertz in 1888. Microwaves are produced by Uses
oscillator electric circuits containing a capacitor 1) Used for the transmission of TV signals.
and an inductor. They can be produced by 2) Used for long distance telephone
special vacuum tubes. communication.
Properties 3) Microwave ovens are used for cooking.
1) They heat certain substances on which 4) Used in radar systems for the location of

233
 distant objects like ships, aeroplanes etc, Do you know ?
5) They are used in the study of atomic and
Stars and galaxies emit different types
molecular structure.
of waves. Radio waves and visible light can
13.3.3 Infrared waves
pass through the Earth’s atmosphere and
These waves were discovered by William
reach the ground without getting absorbed
Herschel (1737-1822) in 1800. All hot bodies
significantly. Thus the radio telescopes
are sources of infrared rays. About 60% of
and optical telescopes can be placed on the
the solar radiations are infrared in nature.
ground. All other type of waves get absorbed
Thermocouples, thermopile and bolometers are
by the atmospheric gases and dust particles.
used to detect infrared rays.
Hence, the -ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, infrared,
Properties
and microwave telescopes are kept aboard
1) When infrared rays are incident on any
artificial satellites and are operated remotely
object, the object gets heated.
from the Earth. Even though the visible
2) These rays are strongly absorbed by glass.
radiation reaches the surface of the Earth,
3) They can penetrate through thick columns
its intensity decreases to some extent due
of fog, mist and cloud cover.
to absorption and scattering by atmospheric
Uses
gases and dust particles. Optical telescopes
1) Used in remote sensing.
are therefore located at higher altitudes.
2) Used in diagnosis of superficial tumours
The Indian Giant Metrewave Radio
and varicose veins.
Telescope (GMRT) near Pune is an important
3) Used to cure infantile paralysis and to
milestone in the field of Radio-astronomy.
treat sprains, dislocations and fractures.
Also, Indian Astronomical Observatory
4) They are used in Solar water heaters and
houses the Himalayan Chandra Telescope
cookers.
(HCT), the 2 m optical-IR Telescope, which
5) Special infrared photographs of the body
is situated at Hanle, Ladakh, at an altitude of
called thermograms, can reveal diseased
4500 m.
organs because these parts radiate less
heat than the healthy organs. Table 13.2: Wavelenths of colours in
6) Infrared binoculars and thermal imaging visible light
cameras are used in military applications Colour Wavelength
for night vision. violet 380-450 nm
7) Used to keep green house warm. blue 450-495 nm
8) Used in remote controls of TV, VCR, etc
green 495-570 nm
13.3.4 Visible light :
It is the most familiar form of EM waves. yellow 570-590 nm
These waves are detected by human eye. orange 590-620 nm
Therefore this wavelength range is called the red 620-750 nm
visible light. The visible light is emitted due to 13.3.5 Ultraviolet rays :
atomic excitations. Ultraviolet rays were discovered by
Properties : J. Ritter (1776-1810) in 1801. They can be
1) Different wavelengths give rise to different produced by the mercury vapour lamp, electric
colours. These are given in Table 13.2. spark and carbon arc lamp. They can also be
2) Visible light emitted or reflected from obtained by striking electrical discharge in
objects around us provides us information hydrogen and xenon gas tubes. The Sun is the
about those objects and hence about the most important natural source of ultraviolet
surroundings. rays, most of which are absorbed by the ozone
layer in the Earth’s atmosphere.

234
Properties : Properties
1) They produce fluorescence in certain 1) They are high energy EM waves.
materials, such as 'phosphors'. 2) They are not deflected by electric and
2) They cause photoelectric effect. magnetic fields.
3) They cannot pass through glass but pass 3) X-rays ionize the gases through which
through quartz, fluorite, rock salt etc. they pass.
4) They possess the property of synthesizing 4) They have high penetrating power.
vitamin D, when skin is exposed to them. 5) Their over dose can kill living plant and
Uses : animal overdose tissues and hence are
1) Ultraviolet rays destroy germs and bacteria harmful.
and hence they are used for sterilizing Uses
surgical instruments and for purification 1) Useful in the study of the structure of
of water. crystals.
2) Used in burglar alarms and security 2) X-ray photographs are useful to detect
systems. bone fracture. X-rays have many other
3) Used to distinguish real and fake gems. medical uses such as CT scan.
4) Used in analysis of chemical compounds. 3) X-rays are used to detect flaws or cracks in
5) Used to detect forgery. metals.
4) These are used for detection of explosives,
Do you know ? opium etc.
13.3.7 Gamma Rays ( -rays)
1. A fluorescent light bulb is coated from Discovered by P. Villard (1860-1934) in
with a powder inside and contains a gas; 1900. Gamma rays are emitted from the nuclei
electricity causes the gas to emit ultraviolet of some radioactive elements such as uranium,
radiation, which then stimulates the tube radium etc.
coating to emit light. Properties
2. The pixels of a television or computer 1) They are highest energy EM waves.
screen fluoresce when electrons from an (energy range keV - GeV)
electron gun strike them. 2) They are highly penetrating.
3. What we call 'visible light' is just the part 3) They have a small ionising power.
of the EM spectrum that human eyes see. 4) They kill living cells.
Many other animals would define 'visible' Uses
somewhat differently. For instance, many 1) Used as insecticide disinfection for wheat
animals including insects and birds, see and flour.
in the UV region. Natural world is full of 2) Used for food preservation.
signals that animals see and humans cannot. 3) Used in radiotherapy for the treatment of
Many birds including bluebirds, budgies, cancer and tumour.
parrots and even peacocks have ultraviolet 4) They are used to produce nuclear
patterns that make them even more vivid to reactions.
each other than they are to us. 13.4 Propagation of EM Waves:
13.3.6 X-rays: You must have seen a TV antenna used to
German physicist W. C. Rontgen (1845- receive the TV signals from the transmitting
1923) discovered X-rays in 1895 while studying tower or from a satellite. In communication
cathode rays (which is a stream of electrons using radio waves, an antenna in the transmitter
emitted by the cathode in a vacuum tube). radiates the EM waves, which travel through
X-rays are also called Rontgen rays. X-rays space and reach the receiving antenna at the
are produced when cathode rays are suddenly other end. As the EM wave travels away from
stopped by an obstacle. the transmitter; the strength of the wave keeps

235
on decreasing. Several factors influence the
propagation of EM waves and the path they
follow. It is also important to understand the
composition of the Earth’s atmosphere as
it plays a vital role in the propagation of EM
waves. Different layers of Earth’s atmosphere
are shown in Fig. 13.3.

Do you know ?
Ionizing radiations :
Ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma rays Fig. 13.4: Propagation of EM waves.
have sufficient energy to cause ionization 13.4.1 Ground (surface) wave:
i.e. they strip electrons from atoms and When a radio wave from a transmitting
molecules lying along their path. The atoms antenna propagates near surface of the Earth
lose their electrons and are then known as so as to reach the receiving antenna, the wave
ions. Ionization is harmful to human beings propagation is called ground wave or surface
because it can kill or damage living cells, wave propagation.
or make them grow abnormally as cancers. In this mode, radio waves travel close to
Fluorescent lamps are based on ionization of the surface of the Earth and move along its
curved surface from transmitter to receiver.
gas. Ionizing radiation is also used in various
equipments in laboratory and industry. The radio waves induce currents in the
ground and lose their energy by absorption.
Therefore, the signal cannot be transmitted over
large distances. Radio waves having frequency
less than 2 MHz (in the medium frequency band)
are transmitted by ground wave propagation.
This is suitable for local broadcasting only.
For TV or FM signals (very high frequency),
ground wave propagation cannot be used.
13.4.2 Space wave:
When the radio waves from the transmitting
antenna reach the receiving antenna either
directly along a straight line (line of sight) or
after reflection from the ground or satellite or
after reflection from troposphere, the wave
Fig 13.3: Earth and atmospheric layers. propagation is called space wave propagation.
Different modes of propagation of EM The radio waves reflected from troposphere are
waves are described below and are shown in called tropospheric waves. Radio waves with
Fig. 13.4. frequency greater than 30 MHz can pass through
the ionosphere (60 km - 1000 km) after suffering
Do you know ? a small deviation. Hence, these waves cannot be
transmitted by space wave propagation except
X-rays have many practical applications
by using a satellite. Also, for TV signals which
in medicine and industry. Because X-ray
have high frequency, transmission over long
photons are of such high energy, they can
distance is not possible by means of space wave
penetrate several centimetres of solid matter
propagation.
and can be used to visualize the interiors of
The maximum distance over which a signal
materials that are opaque to ordinary light.
can reach is called its range. For larger TV

236
coverage, the height of the transmitting antenna Example 13.8: If the height of a TV transmitting
should be as large as possible. This is the reason antenna is 128 m, how much square area can be
why the transmitting and receiving antennas are covered by the transmitted signal if the receiving
mounted on top of high rise buildings. antenna is at the ground level? (Radius of the
Range is the straight line distance from the Earth = 6400 km)
point of transmission (the top of the antenna) Solution:
to the point on Earth where the wave will hit Range = d  2 Rh
while travelling along a straight line. Range is
shown by d in Fig. 13.5. Let the height of the = 2(6400  103 )(128)
transmitting antenna (AA') situated at A be h. B = 16.384  105  103
represents the point on the surface of the Earth
at which the space wave hits the Earth. The = 16.384  108
triangle OA'B is a right angled triangle. From = 4.047  104
OA' B we can write
 40.470 km
OA'2 = A'B2 + OB2
(R+h)2 = d2 + R2 Area covered =  d 2  3.14  (40) 2
or R2 + h2 + 2Rh = d2 + R2 = 5144 .58 k4m 2
As h << R, we can ignore h2 and write Example 13.9: The height of a transmitting
d 2 Rh antenna is 68 m and the receiving antenna is
The range can be increased by mounting at the top of a tower of height 34 m. Calculate
the receiver at a height h' say at a point C on the the maximum distance between them for
surface of the Earth. The range increases to d + satisfactory transmission in line of sight mode.
d' where d' is 2Rh ' Thus (radius of Earth = 6400 km)
Total range = d  d '  2 Rh  2 Rh ' ht = 68 m, hr = 34m, R = 6400 km = 6.4×106m
Solution:
dmax  2 Rht  2 Rhr
= 2  6.4  106  68  2  6.4  106  34
= 870  103  435  103
= 29.5  103  20.9  103
 50.4  103 m
Fig. 13.5: Range of the signal (not to scale). = 50.4 km
Example 13.7: A radar has a power of 10 kW 13.4.3 Sky wave propagation:
and is operating at a frequency of 20 GHz. It When radio waves from a transmitting
is located on the top of a hill of height 500 m.
antenna reach the receiving antenna after
Calculate the maximum distance upto which itreflection in the ionosphere, the wave
can detect object located on the surface of the
propagation is called sky wave propagation.
Earth . (Radius of Earth = 6.4×106 m) The sky waves include waves of frequency
Solution: between 3 MHz and 30 MHz. These waves
Maximum distance (range) = can suffer multiple reflections between the
d = 2 Rh ionosphere and the Earth. Therefore, they can
be transmitted over large distances.
= 2  (6.4  106 )  500 m Critical frequency : It is the maximum value
= 8  104  80 km, of the frequency of radio wave which can be
reflected back to the Earth from the ionosphere
where R is radius of the Earth and h is the when the waves are directed normally to
height of the radar above Earth’s surface.

237
ionosphere. place and the receiver at another place. The
Skip distance (zone) : It is the shortest distance communication channel is a passage through
from a transmitter measured along the surface which signals transfer in between a transmitter
of the Earth at which a sky wave of fixed and a receiver. This channel may be in the form
frequency (if grater than critical frequency) will of wires or cables, or may also be wireless,
be returned to the Earth so that no sky waves depending on the types of communication
can be received within the skip distance. system.
13.5 Introduction to Communication System: There are two basic modes of
Communication is exchange of information. communication: (i) point to point communication
Since ancient times it is practiced in various and (ii) broadcast.
ways e.g., through speaking, writing, singing, In point to point communication mode,
using body language etc. After the discovery communication takes place over a link between a
of electricity in the late 19th century, human single transmitter and a receiver e.g. Telephony.
communication systems changed dramatically. In the broadcast mode there are large number of
Modern communication is based upon the receivers corresponding to the single transmitter
discoveries and inventions by a number of e.g., Radio and Television transmission.
scientists like J. C. Bose (1858-1937), S. F. B. 13.5.2 Commonly used terms in electronic
Morse (1791-1872), G. Marconi (1874-1937) communication system:
and Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) in the Following terms are useful to understand
19th and 20th centuries. any communication system:
In the 20th century we could send messages 1) Signal :- The information converted into
over large distances using analogue signals, electrical form that is suitable for transmission
cables and radio waves. With the advancements is called a signal. In a radio station, music and
of digitization technologies, we can now speech are converted into electrical form by a
communicate with the entire world almost in microphone for transmission into space. This
real time. electrical form of sound is the signal. A signal
The ability to communicate is an important can be analog or digital as shown in Fig. 13.7.
feature of modern life. We can speak directly to
others all around the world and generate vast
amount of information every day.
Here we will briefly discuss how
communication systems work. A communication (a) (b)
system is a device or set up used in transmission
Fig 13.7: (a) Analog signal. (b) Digital signal.
and reception of information from one place to (i) Analog signal: A continuously varying
another. signal (voltage or current) is called
13.5.1 Elements of a communication system: an analog signal. Since a wave is a
There are three basic (essential) elements fundamental analog signal, sound and
of every communication system: a) Transmitter, picture signals in TV are analog in nature
b) Communication channel and c) Receiver. (Fig 13.7 a)
(ii) Digital signal : A signal (voltage or current)
that can have only two discrete values
is called a digital signal. For example, a
square wave is a digital signal. It has two
values viz, +5 V and 0 V. (Fig- 13.7 b)
Fig. 13.6: Block diagram of the basic 2) Transmitter :- A transmitter converts the
elements of a communication system. signal produced by a source of information
In a communication system, as shown into a form suitable for transmission through a
in Fig. 13.6, the transmitter is located at one channel and subsequent reception.

238
3) Transducer :- A device that converts one used to increase the range of a communication
form of energy into another form of energy is system. These are shown in Fig. 13.8.
called a transducer. For example, a microphone
converts sound energy into electrical energy.
Therefore, a microphone is a transducer.
Similarly, a loudspeaker is a transducer which
converts electrical energy into sound energy.
4) Receiver :- The receiver receives the message
signal at the channel output, reconstructs it in
recognizable form of the original message for
delivering it to the user of information. Fig.13.8: Use of repeater station to increase
5) Noise :- A random unwanted signal is called the range of communication.
noise. The source generating the noise may be Do you know ?
located inside or outside the system. Efforts
should be made to minimise the noise level in a To transmit a signal we need an antenna
communication system. or an aerial. For efficient transmission and
6) Attenuation :- The loss of strength of the reception, the transmitting and receiving
signal while propagating through the channel antennas must have a length at least /4
is known as attenuation. It occurs because the where is the wavelength of the signal.
channel distorts, reflects and refracts the signals For an audio signal of 15kHz, the
as it passes through it. required length of the antenna is /4 which
7) Amplification :- Amplification is the can be seen to be equal to 5 km.
process of raising the strength of a signal, using The highest TV tower in Rameshwaram,
an electronic circuit called amplifier. Tamilnadu, is the tallest tower in India and
8) Range :- The maximum (largest) distance is ranked 32nd in the world with pinnacle
between a source and a destination up to which height of 323 metre. It is used for television
the signal can be received with sufficient broadcast by the Doordarshan.
strength is termed as range. 13.6 Modulation:
9) Bandwidth :- The bandwidth of an electronic As mentioned earlier, an audio signal has
circuit is the range of frequencies over which it low frequency (< 20 KHz). Low frequency
operates efficiently. signals can not be transmitted over large
10) Modulation :- The signals in communication distances. Because of this, a high frequency
system (e.g. music, speech etc.) are low wave, called a carrier wave, is used. Some
frequency signals and cannot be transmitted characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or
over large distances. In order to transmit the phase) of this wave is changed in accordance
signal to large distances, it is superimposed on with the amplitude of the signal. This process
a high frequency wave (called carrier wave). is known as modulation. Modulation also
This process is called modulation. Modulation helps avoid mixing up of signals from different
is done at the transmitter and is an important transmitters as different carrier wave frequencies
part of a communication system. can be allotted to different transmitters. Without
11) Demodulation :- The process of regaining the use of these waves, the audio signals, if
signal from a modulated wave is called transmitted directly by different transmitters,
demodulation. This is the reverse process of would have got mixed up.
modulation. Modulation can be done by modifying
12) Repeater :- It is a combination of a the (i) amplitude (amplitude modulation)
transmitter and a receiver. The receiver receives (ii) frequency (frequency modulation), and (iii)
the signal from the transmitter, amplifies it and phase (phase modulation) of the carrier wave
transmits it to the next repeater. Repeaters are in proportion to the amplitude or intensity of the

239
signal wave keeping the other two properties Phase modulation (PM) is easier than
same. Figure 13.9 (a) shows a carrier wave frequency modulation. It is used in determining
and (b) shows the signal. The carrier wave is the velocity of a moving target which cannot be
a high frequency wave while the signal is a done using frequency modulation.
low frequency wave. Amplitude modulation, a
frequency modulation and phase modulation
of carrier waves are shown in Fig. 13.9 (c), (d) b
and (e) respectively.

Displacement
Amplitude modulation (AM) is simple c
to implement and has large range. It is also
cheaper. Its disadvantages are that (i) it is not d
very efficient as far as power usage is concerned
e
(ii) it is prone to noise and (iii) the reproduced
signal may not exactly match the original signal. Time
In spite of this, these are used for commercial Fig. 13.9: (a) Carrier wave, (b) signal (c)
broadcasting in the long, medium and short AM (d) FM and (e) PM.
wave bands.
Frequency modulation (FM) is more Internet my friend
complex as compared to amplitude modulation
and, therefore is more difficult to implement.
However, its main advantage is that it https://www.iiap.res.in/centers/iao
reproduces the original signal closely and is
less susceptible to noise. This modulation is
used for high quality broadcast transmission.

Ex
erc
ises Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. vi) The waves used by artificial satellites for
i) The EM wave emitted by the Sun and communication purposes are
responsible for heating the Earth’s (A) Microwave
atmosphere due to green house effect is (B) AM radio waves
(A) Infra-red radiation (B) X ray (C) FM radio waves
(C) Microwave (D) Visible light (D) X-rays
ii) Earth ’s atmosphere is richest in vii) If a TV telecast is to cover a radius of
(A) UV (B) IR 640 km, what should be the height of
(C) X-ray (D) Microwaves transmitting antenna?
iii) How does the frequency of a beam of (A) 32000 m (B) 53000 m
ultraviolet light change when it travels (C) 42000 m (D) 55000 m
from air into glass? 2. Answer briefly.
(A) No change (B) increases i) State two characteristics of an EM wave.
(C) decreases (D) remains same ii) Why are microwaves used in radar?
iv) The direction of EM wave is given
ur ur by iii) What are EM waves?
ur ur
(A) E ×B ur (B) E . B ur iv) How are EM waves produced?
(C) along E (D) along B v) Can we produce a pure electric or
v) The maximum distance upto which TV magnetic wave in space? Why?
transmission from a TV tower of height h vi) Does an ordinary electric lamp emit EM
can be received is proportional to waves?
(A) h1/2 (B) h vii) Why light waves travel in vacuum
(C) h3/2 (D) h2 whereas sound wave cannot?

240
viii) What are ultraviolet rays? Give two uses. iii) The speed of light is 3×108 m/s. Calculate
ix) What are radio waves? Give its two the frequency of red light of wavelength of
uses. 6.5×10-7 m.
x) Name the most harmful radiation [Ans: = 4.6×1014 Hz]
entering the Earth's atmosphere from the iv) Calculate the wavelength of a microwave
outer space. of frequency 8.0 GHz.
xi) Give reasons for the following: [Ans: 3.75 cm]
(i) Long distance radio broadcast uses v) In a EM wave the electric field oscillates
short wave bands. sinusoidally at a frequency of 2×1010 Hz.
(ii) Satellites are used for long distance What is the wavelength of the wave?
TV transmission. [Ans: 1.5×10-2 m]
xii) Name the three basic units of any vi) The amplitude of the magnetic field part
communication system. of a harmonic EM wave in vacuum is
xiii) What is a carrier wave? B0= 5×10-7 T. What is the amplitude of the
xiv) Why high frequency carrier waves are electric field part of the wave?
used for transmission of audio signals? [Ans: 150V/m]
xv) What is modulation? vii) A TV tower has a height of 200 m.
xvi) What is meant by amplitude modulation? How much population is covered by TV
xvii) What is meant by noise? transmission if the average population
xviii) What is meant by bandwidth? density around the tower is 1000/km2?
xix) What is demodulation? (Radius of the Earth = 6.4×106 m)
xx) What type of modulation is required for [Ans: 8×106]
television broadcast? viii) Height of a TV tower is 600 m at a given
xxi) How does the effective power radiated place. Calculate its coverage range if the
by an antenna vary with wavelength? radius of the Earth is 6400 km. What
xxii) Why should broadcasting programs use should be the height to get the double
different frequencies? coverage area?
xxiii) Explain the necessity of a carrier wave [Ans: 87.6 km, 1200 m]
in communication. ix) A transmitting antenna at the top of a tower
xxiv) Why does amplitude modulation give has a height 32 m and that of the receiving
noisy reception? antenna is 50 m. What is the maximum
xxv) Explain why is modulation needed. distance between them for satisfactory
2. Solve the numerical problem. communication in line of sight mode ?
i) Calculate the frequency in MHz of a radio Given radius of Earth is 6.4×106 m.
wave of wavelength 250 m. Remember [Ans: 45 537 km]
that the speed of all EM waves in vacuum
is 3.0×108 m/s. ***
[Ans: 1.2 MHz]
ii) Calculate the wavelength in nm of an
X-ray wave of frequency 2.0×1018 Hz.
[Ans: 0.15 nm]

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 14. Semiconductors
Can you recall?
1. Your mobile handset is very efficient gadget. 3. A LED TV screen produces brighter and
2. International Space Station works using vivid colours.
solar energy. 4. Good and bad conductor of electricity.

14.1 Introduction: number of electrons available for electrical

Modern life is heavily dependent on many conduction. (A typical metal will have 1028
electronic gadgets. It could be a cell phone, a electrons per m3). These electrons are called
smart watch, a computer or even an LED lamp free electrons. Metals are good conductors
or a tube light, they all have one common of electricity due to the large number of free
factor, semiconductor devices that make them electrons present in them.
work. Semiconductors have made our life very 2. Insulators: Glass, wood or rubber are some
comfortable and easy. common examples of insulators. Insulators
Semiconductors are materials whose have very small number (1023 per m3) of free
electrical properties can be tailored to suit electrons.
our requirements. Before the discovery of 3. Semiconductors: Silicon, germanium,
semiconductors, electrical properties of gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, cadmium
materials could be of two types, conductors or Sulphide are some of the commonly used
insulators. Conductors such as metals have a semiconductors. The electrical conductivity of
very high electrical conductivity, for example, a semiconductor is between the conductivity
conductivity of silver is 6.25x107 Sm-1 whereas of a metal and that of an insulator. The number
an insulator or a bad conductor like glass has of charge carriers in a semiconductor can
a very low electrical conductivity of the order be controlled as per our requirement. Their
of 10-10 Sm-1. Electrical conductivity of silicon, structure can also be designed to suit our
a semiconductor, for example is 1.56x10-3 requirement. Such materials are very useful
Sm-1. It lies between that of a good conductor in electronic industry and find applications in
and a bad conductor. A semiconductor can be almost every gadget of daily use such as a cell
customised to have its electrical conductivity as phone, a solar cell or a complex system such as
per our requirement. Temperature dependence a satellite or the International Space Station.
of electrical conductivity of a semiconductor Table 14.1: Electrical conductivities of
can also be controlled. Table 14.1 gives some commonly used materials
electrical conductivity of some materials which
are commonly used.
14.2 Electrical conduction in solids:
Silver 6.30 × 107
Electrical conduction in a solid takes place Copper 5.96 × 107
by transport of charge carriers. It depends on
Aluminium 3.5 × 107
its temperature, the number of charge carriers,
Gold 4.10 × 107
how easily these carries can move inside a solid
Nichrome 9.09 × 105
(mobility), its crystal structure, types and the
nature of defects present in a solid etc. There Platinum 9.43 × 106
can be three types of electrical conductors. It Germanium 2.17
could be a good conductor, a semiconductor or Silicon 1.56 × 10-3
a bad conductor. Air 3 × 10-15 to 8 × 10-15
1. Conductors (Metals): The best example of Glass 10-11 to 10-15
a conductor is any metal. They have a large Teflon 10-25 to 10-23

242
 Electrical properties of semiconductors are
Do you know ?
different from metals and insulators due to their
Electrical conductivity of a solid is unique conduction mechanism. The electronic
given by = nq , where, configuration of the elemental semiconductors
n = charge carrier density silicon and germanium plays a very important
(number of carriers per unit volume) role in their electrical properties. They are from
q = charge on the carriers the fourth group of elements in the periodic
  mobility of carriers table. They have a valence of four. Their atoms
Mobility of a charge carrier is the are bonded by covalent bonds. At absolute
measure of the ease with which a carrier can zero temperature, all the covalent bonds are
move in a material under the action of an completely satisfied in a single crystal of pure
external electric field. It depends upon many silicon or germanium.
factors such as mass of the carrier, whether The conduction mechanism in a
the material is crystalline or amorphous, the semiconductor can be better understood with
presence of structural defects in a material, the help of the band theory of solids.
the nature of impurities in a material and so 14.3 Band theory of solids, a brief
on. introduction:
Figure 14.1 shows the temperature We begin with the way electron energies
dependence of the electrical conductivity of a in an isolated atom are distributed. An isolated
typical metal and a semiconductor. When the atom has its nucleus at the center which is
temperature of a semiconductor is increased, surrounded by a number of revolving electrons.
its electrical conductivity also increases. The These electrons are arranged in different and
electrical conductivity of a metal decreases discrete energy levels.
with increase in its temperature.
When a solid is formed, a large number
of atoms are packed in it. The outermost
electronic energy levels in a solid are occupied
by electrons from all atoms in a solid. Sharing
of the outermost energy levels and resulting
formation of energy bands can be easily
Fig. 14.1: Temperature dependence of understood by considering formation of solid
electrical conductivity of metals and sodium.
semiconductors.
The electronic configuration of sodium
Variation of electrical conductivity of
(atomic number 11) is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1. The
semiconductors with change in its temperature
outermost level 3s can take one more electron
is a very useful property and finds applications
but it is half filled in sodium.
in a large number of electronic devices. A broad
classification of semiconductors can be: When solid sodium is formed, atoms
interact with each other through the electrons
a. Elemental semiconductors: Silicon,
in each atom. The energy levels are filled
germanium
according to the Pauli’s exclusion principle.
b. Compound Semiconductors: Cadmium According to this principle, no two electrons
sulphide, zinc sulphide, etc. can have the same set of quantum numbers, or
c. Organic Semiconductors: Anthracene, in simple words, no two similar spin electrons
doped pthalocyanines, polyaniline etc. can occupy the same energy level.
Elemental semiconductors and compound Any energy level can accommodate only
semiconductors are widely used in electronic two electrons (one with spin up state and the
industry. Discovery of organic semiconductors other with spin down state). According to this
is relatively new and they find lesser principle, there can be two states per energy
applications. level. Figure 14.2 (a) shows the allowed energy

243
levels of an isolated sodium atom by horizontal band. The valence band is half filled in sodium.
lines. The curved lines represent the potential Figure 14.3 shows the energy bands in sodium.
energy of an electron near the nucleus due to
Coulomb interaction.

Fig. 14.3: Energy bands in sodium.

When sufficient energy is provided to
electrons from the valence band they are
Fig. 14.2: Potential energy diagram, energy raised to higher levels. The immediately next
levels and bands. energy level that electrons from valence band
Consider two sodium atoms close enough can occupy is called conduction level. The
so that outer 3s electrons are equally likely to band formed by conduction levels is called
be an any atom. The 3s electrons from both conduction band. In sodium valence and
the sodium atoms need to be accommodated conduction bands overlap.
in the same level. This is made possible by In a semiconductor or an insulator, there is
splitting the 3s level into two sub-levels so that gap between the bottom of the conduction band
the Pauli’s exclusion principle is not violated. and the top of the valence band. This is called
Figure 14.2 (b) shows the splitting of the 3s the energy gap or the band gap.
level into two sub levels. When solid sodium
is formed, the atoms come close to each other
(distance between them 2 - 3Å). Therefore,
the electrons from different atoms interact
with each other and also with the neighbouring
atomic cores. The interaction between the outer
most electrons is more due to overlap while the Fig. 14.4: Energy bands for a typical solid.
inner come electrons remain mostly unaffected. Figure 14.4 shows the conduction band,
Each of these energy levels is split into a large the energy gap and the valence band for a
number of sub levels, of the order of Avogadro’s typical solid which is not a good conductor. It
number. This is because the number of atoms in is important to remember that this structure
solid sodium is of the order of this number. The is related to the energy of electrons in a
separation between the sublevels is so small that solid and it does not represent the physical
the energy levels appear almost continuous. This structure of a solid in any way.
continuum of energy levels is called an energy All the energy levels in a band, including
band. The bands are called 1s band, 2s band, the topmost band, in a semiconductor are
2p band and so on. Figure 14.2 c shows these completely occupied at absolute zero. At
bands in sodium metal. Broadening of valence some finite temperature T, few electrons gain
and higher bands is more since interaction of thermal energy of the order of kT, where k is the
these electrons stronger. Boltzmann constant.
For sodium atom, the topmost occupied Electrons in the bands between the valence
energy level is the 3s level. This level is called band cannot move to higher band since these
the valence level. Corresponding energy band is are already occupied. Only electrons from
called the valence band. Thus the valence band the valence band can be excited to the empty
in solid sodium is the topmost occupied energy conduction band, if the thermal energy gained

244
 Formation of energy bands in a solid is a the conduction band.
result of the small distances between atoms, The magnitude of the band gap plays a
the resulting interaction amongst electrons very important role in electronic properties of
and the Pauli’s exclusion principle. a solid.
by these electrons is greater than the band gap. Table 14.2: Magnitude of energy gap in
In case of sodium, electrons from the 3s band silicon, germanium and diamond.
can gain thermal energy and occupy a slightly Material Energy gap (eV)
higher energy level because the 3s band is only
At 300 K
half filled.
Silicon 1.12
Electrons can also gain energy when an
external electric field is applied to a solid. Germanium 0.66
Energy gained due to electric field is smaller, Diamond 5.47
hence only electrons at the topmost energy level 1 eV is the energy gained by an electron
gain such energy and participate in electrical while it overcomes a potential difference of
conduction. one volt. 1 ev = 1.6 × 10-19 J.
14.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A pure semiconductor such as pure silicon
or pure germanium is called an intrinsic
semiconductor. Silicon (Si) has atomic number
14 and its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s2 3p2. Its valence is 4. Each atom of Si forms
(a) (b) (c) four covalent bonds with its neighbouring
Fig. 14.5: Band structure of a metal, atoms. One Si atom is surrounded by four Si
semiconductor and an insulator. atoms at the corners of a regular tetrahedron
The difference in electrical conductivities (Fig. 14.6).
of various solids can be explained on the basis
of the band structure of solids. Band structure
in a metal, semiconductor and an insulator
is different. Figure 14.5 shows a schematic
representation of band structure of a metal,
semiconductor and an insulator.
For metals, the valence band and the
conduction band overlap and there is no band gap
\
as shown in Fig.14.5 (a). Electrons, therefore,
find it easy to gain electrical energy when some
external electric field is applied. They are, Fig. 14.6: Structure of silicon.
therefore, easily available for conduction.
At absolute zero temperature, all valence
In case of semiconductors, the band gap is
electrons are tightly bound to respective atoms
fairly small, of the order of one electron volt
and the covalent bonds are complete. Electrons
or less as shown in Fig.14.5 (b). When excited,
are not available to conduct electricity through
electrons gain energy and occupy energy levels
the crystal because they cannot gain enough
in conduction band easily and can take part in
energy to get into higher energy levels. At room
electric conduction.
temperature, however, a few covalent bonds
Insulators, on the contrary, have a wide gap
are broken due to thermal agitation and some
between valence band and conduction band as
valence electrons can gain energy. Thus we
shown in Fig.14.5 (c). Diamond, for example,
can say that a valence electron is moved to the
has a band gap of about 5.0 eV. In an insulator,
conduction band. It creates a vacancy in the
therefore, electrons find it very difficult to gain
valence band as shown in (Fig. 14.7).
sufficient energy and occupy energy levels in

245
 hence no electronic devices can be fabricated
using them. Addition of a small amount of a
suitable impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor
increases its conductivity appreciably. The
Fig. 14.7: Creation of vacancy in the process of adding impurities to an intrinsic
valence band. semiconductor is called doping. The
These vacancies of electrons in the valence semiconductor with impurity is called a doped
band are called holes. The holes are thus absence semiconductor or an extrinsic semiconductor.
of electrons in the valence band and they carry The impurity is called the dopant. The parent
an effective positive charge. atoms are called hosts. The dopant material
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number is so selected that it does not disturb the
of holes per unit volume, (the number density, crystal structure of the host. The size and the
nh) and the number of free electrons per unit electronic configuration of the dopant should
volume, (the number density, ne) is the same. be compatible with that of the host. Silicon or
nh = ne germanium can be doped with a pentavalent
Electric conduction through an intrinsic impurity such as phosphorus (P) arsenic (As) or
semiconductor is quite interesting. There antimony (Sb) . They can also be doped with a
are two different types of charge carriers in a trivalent impurity such as boron (B) aluminium
semiconductor. One is the electron and the other (Al) or indium (In).
is the hole or absence of electron. Electrical Addition of pentavalent or trivalent
conduction takes place by transportation of impurities in intrinsic semiconductors gives
both carriers or any one of the two carriers rise to different conduction mechanism. This
in a semiconductor. When a semiconductor is very useful in designing many electronic
is connected in a circuit, electrons, being devices. Extrinsic semiconductors can be of
negatively charged, move towards positive two types a) n-type semiconductor or b) p-type
terminal of the battery. Holes have an effective semiconductor.
positive charge, and move towards negative a) n-type semiconductor: When silicon or
terminal of the battery. Thus the current through germanium crystal is doped with a pentavalent
a semiconductor is carried by two types of impurity such as phosphorus, arsenic, or
charge carriers move in opposite directions. This antimony we get n-type semiconductor.
conduction mechanism makes semiconductors Figure 14.9 shows the schematic electronic
very useful in designing a large number of structure of antimony.
electronic devices. Figure 14.8 represents the
current through a semiconductor.

Fig. 14.9: Schematic electronic structure of

antimony.
When a dopant atom of 5 valence electrons
Fig. 14.8: Current through a semiconductor, occupies the position of a Si atom in the crystal
transport of electrons and holes. lattice, 4 electrons from the dopant form bonds
14.5 Extrinsic semiconductors: with 4 neighbouring Si atoms and the fifth
electron from the dopant remains very weakly
The electric conductivity of an intrinsic bound to its parent atom. Figure 14.10 shows a
semiconductor is very low at room temperature; pentavalent impurity in silicon lattice.

246
 and holes are the minority carriers. Therefore,
it is called n-type semiconductor. For n-type
semiconductor, ne � nh .
The free electrons donated by the impurity
atoms occupy energy levels which are in the
band gap and are close to the conduction band.
They can be easily available for conduction.
Figure 14.11 shows the schematic band
structure of an n-type semiconductor.
Fig. 14.10: Pentavalent impurity in silicon
crystal.
To make this electron free even at room
temperature, very small energy is required. It is
0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
Fig.14.11: Schematic band structure of an
Do you know ? n-type semiconductor.
One cm3 specimen of a metal or Extrinsic semiconductors are thus far better
semiconductor has of the order of 1022 atoms. conductors than intrinsic semiconductors. The
In a metal, every atom donates at least one free conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor
electron for conduction, thus 1 cm3 of metal can be controlled by controlling the amount of
contains of the order of 1022 free electrons, impurities added. The amount of impurities is
whereas a 1 cm3 of pure germanium at 20 °C expressed as part per million or ppm, that is,
contains about 4.2×1022 atoms, but only one impurity atom per one million atoms of the
2.5×1013 free electrons and 2.5×1013 holes. host.
Addition of 0.001% of arsenic (an impurity) Features of n-type semiconductors: These
donates 1017 extra free electrons in the same are materials doped with pentavalent impurity
volume and the electrical conductivity is (donors) atoms . Electrical conduction in these
increased by a factor of 10,000. materials is due to majority charge carriers i.e.,
Since every pentavalent dopant atom 1. The donor atom lose electrons and become
donates one electron for conduction, it is called are positively charged ons.
a donor impurity. As this semiconductor has 2. Number of free electrons is very small
large number of electrons in conduction band compared to the number of holes, ne>> nh .
and its conductivity is due to negatively charged Electrons are majority charge carriers.
carriers, it is called n-type semiconductor. The 3. When energy is supplied externally,
n-type semiconductor also has a few electrons negatively charged free electrons (majority
and holes produced due to the thermally broken charges carries) and positively charged holes
bonds. The density of conduction electrons (majority charges carries) are available for
(ne) in a doped semiconductor is the sum total conduction.
of the electrons contributed by donors and the b) p-type semiconductor: When silicon or
thermally generated electrons from the host. The germanium crystal is doped with a trivalent
density of holes (nh) is only due to the thermal impurity such as boron, aluminium or indium,
breakdown of some covalent bonds of the host we get a p-type semiconductor. Figure 14.12
Si atoms. Some electrons and holes recombine shows the schematic electronic structure of
continuously because they carry opposite boron.
charges. The number of free electrons exceeds The dopant trivalent atom has one valence
the number of holes. Thus, in a semiconductor electron less than that of a silicon atom. Every
doped with pentavalent impurity, electrons trivalent dopant atom shares its three electrons
(negatively charge) are the majority carriers with three neighbouring Si atoms to form

247
covalent bonds. But the fourth bond between These vacancies of electrons are created
silicon atom and its neighbour is not complete. in the valence band; therefore we can say that
the holes are created in the valence band. The
impurity levels are created just above the valence
band in the band gap. Electrons from valence
band can easily occupy these levels and conduct
electricity. Figure 14.14 shows the schematic
band structure of a p-type semiconductor.
Features of p-type semiconductor: These are
Fig. 14.12: Schematic electronic structure materials doped with trivalent impurity atoms
of boron. (acceptors). Electrical conduction in these
Figure 14.13 shows a trivalent impurity materials is due to majority charge carriers i.e.,
in a silicon crystal. The incomplete bond of holes.
can be completed by another electron in the 1. The acceptor atoms acquire electron and
neighbourhood from Si atom. Since each donar become negatively charged-ions.
trivalent atom can accept an electron, it is caleed 2. Number of holes is very large compared to
an acceptor impurity. The shared electron the number of free electrons. nh � ne. Holes
creates a vacancy in its place. This vacancy or are majority charge carriers.
the absence of electron is a hole. 3. When energy is supplied externally,
positively charged holes (majority
charge carriers) and negatively
charged free electrons (majority charge
carriers) are available for conduction.
c) Charge neutrality of extrinsic
semiconductors: The n-type semiconductor
has excess of electrons but these extra electrons
are supplied by the donor atoms which
become positively charged. Since each atom
of donor impurity is electrically neutral, the
Fig. 14.13: A trivalent impurity in a silicon
semiconductor as a whole is electrically neutral.
crystal.
Here, excess electron refers to an excess with
Thus, a hole is available for conduction reference to the number of electrons needed to
from each acceptor impurity atom. Holes are complete the covalent bonds in a semiconductor
majority carriers and electrons are minority crystal. These extra free electrons increase the
carriers in such materials. Acceptor atoms conductivity of the semiconductor.
negatively charged and majority carriers are
Similarly, a p-type semiconductor has
holes (positively charged). Therefore, extrinsic
holes or absence of electrons in some energy
semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity
levels. When an electron from a host atom fills
is called a p-type semiconductor. For a p-type
this level, the host atom is positively charged
semiconductor, nh>>ne.
and the dopant atom is negatively charged but
the semiconductor as a whole is electrically
neutral.
Thus n-type as well as p-type
semiconductors are electrically neutral.
Example 14.1: A pure Si crystal has 4 × 1028
atoms m-3. It is doped by 1ppm concentration
Fig. 14.14: Schematic band structure of a of antimony. Calculate the number of electrons
p-type semiconductor. and holes. Given ni = 1.2 x 1016/m3.

248
Solution: 1 ppm = 1 part per million = 1/106 Example 14.2: A pure silicon crystal at
28
∴ no. of Sb atoms = 4  10  4  1022 temperature of 300 K has electron and hole
106 concentration 1.5 × 1016 m-3 each. (ne = nh).
As one pentavalent impurity atom donates Doping by indium increases nh to 4.5× 1022 m-3 .
one free electron to the crystal, Calculate ne for the doped silicon crystal.
Solution: We know,
Number of free electrons in the crystal  
2
ni
ne = 4 x 1022 m-3 ne nh = ni2 and ne =
nh
Number of holes, Given
ni = 1.5 x 1016m-3 and nh = 4.5 × 1022 m-3
n 
2

nh = i = (1.5 x1016 ) 2
ne ne = = 5 × 109 m-3
4.5 x1022
nh = 3.6 x 109 m-3 14.6 p-n junction:
When n-type and p-type semiconductor
Do you know ? materials are fused together, a p-n junction is
formed. A p-n junction shows many interesting
Transportation of holes
properties and it is the basis of almost all
Consider a p-type semiconductor
modern electronic devices. Figure 14.15 shows
connected to terminals of a battery as shown.
a schematic structure of a p-n junction.
When the circuit is switched on, electrons at
1 and 2 are attracted to the positive terminal
of the battery and occupy nearby holes at x
and y. This generates holes at the positions
1 and 2 previously occupied by electrons.
Next, electrons at 3 and 4 move towards
the positive terminal and create holes in the Fig. 14.15: Schematic structure of a p-n
positions they occupied previously. junction.
Diffision: When an n-type and a p-type
semiconductor materials are fused together,
initially, the number of electrons in the n-side
of a junction is very large compared to the
number of on the p-side. The same is true for the
number of holes electrons on the p-side and on
the n-side. Thus, the density of carriers on both
Finally the hole is captured at the sides is different and a large density gradient
negative terminal by the electron supplied exists on both sides of the p-n junction. This
by the battery at that end. This keeps the density gradient causes migration of electrons
density of holes constant and maintains the from the n-side to the p-side of the junction.
current so long as the battery is working. They fill up the holes in the p-type material and
Thus, physical transportation is of produce negative ions.
the electrons only. However, we feel that
the holes are moving towards the negative When the electrons from the n-side of a
terminal of the battery. Positive charge is junction migrate to the p-side, they leave behind
attracted towards negative terminal. Thus positively charged donor ions on the n-side.
holes, which are not actual charges, behave Effectively, holes from the p-side migrate into
like a positive charge. In this case, there is the n-region.
an indirect movement of electrons and their As a result, in the p-type region near the
drift speed is less than that in the n-type junction the are negatively charged acceptor
semiconductors. The mobility of holes is, ions, and in the n-type region near the junction
therefore, less than that of the electrons. there are positively charged donor ions. The
transfer of electrons and holes across the p-n

249
junction is called diffusion. The extent up to The n-side near the boundary of a p-n
which the electrons and the holes can diffuse junction becomes positive with respect to
across the junction depends on the density of the p-side because it has lost electrons and
the donor and the acceptor ions on the n-side the p-side has lost holes. Thus the presence
and the p-side respectively, of the junction. of impurity ions on both sides of the junction
Figure 14.16 shows the diffusion of charge establishes an electric field across this region
carriers across the junction. such that the n-side is at a positive voltage
relative to the p-side. Figure 14.18 shows the
electric field thus produced.

Fig. 14.16: Diffusion of charge carriers

across a junction.
Depletion region: The diffusion of carriers
across the junction and resultant accumulation
of positive and negative charges across the Fig. 14.18: Electric field across a junction.
junction builds a potential difference across theBiasing a p-n junction: As a result of potential
junction. This potential difference is called thebarrier across depletion region, charge carriers
potential barrier. The magnitude of the potentialrequire some extra energy to overcome the
barrier for silicon is about 0.6 – 0.7 volt and barrier. A suitable voltage needs to be applied
for germanium, it is about 0.3 – 0.35 volt. This to the junction externally, so that these charge
potential barrier always exists even if the device
carriers can overcome the potential barrier and
is not connected to any external power source. Itmove across the junction. Figure 14.19 shows
prevents continuous diffusion of carriers across two possibilities of applying this external
the junction. A state of electrostatic equilibrium
voltage across the junction.
is thus reached across the junction. Figure 14.19 (a) shows a p-n junction
Free charge carriers cannot be present in connected in an electric circuit where the
a region where there is a potential barrier. The p-region is connected to the positive terminal
regions on either side of a junction, therefore, and the n-region is connected to the negative
becomes completely devoid of any carriers. terminal of an external voltage source. This
This region across the p-n junction where there external voltage effectively opposes the built-in
are no charges is called the depletion layer or potential of the junction. The width of potential
the depletion region. Figure 14.17 shows the barrier is thus reduced. Also, negative charge
potential barrier and the depletion layer. carriers (electrons) from the n-region are
pushed towards the junction. A similar effect is
experienced by positive charge carriers (holes)
in the p-region and they are pushed towards
the junction. Both the charge carriers thus find
it easy to cross over the barrier and contribute
towards the electric current. Such arrangement
of a p-n junction in an electric circuit is called
Fig. 14.17: Potential barrier and the forward bias.
depletion layer. Figure 14.19 (b) shows the other possibility,
The potential across a junction and width where, the p-region is connected to the negative
of the potential barrier can be controlled. This terminal and the n-region is connected to the
is very interesting and useful property of a p-n positive terminal of the external voltage source.
junction. This external voltage effectively adds to the

250
built-in potential of the junction. The width of 4. There are no charges in this region.
potential barrier is thus increased. Also, the 5. The depletion region has higher potential
negative charge carriers (electrons) from the on the n-side and lower potential on the
n-region are pulled away from the junction. p-side of the junction.
Similar effect is experienced by the positive
charge carriers (holes) in the p-region and Do you know ?
they are pulled away from the junction. Both
the charge carriers thus find it very difficult to Fabrication of p-n junction diode:
cross over the barrier and thus donot contribute It was mentioned previously, for easy
towards the electric current. Such arrangement understanding, that a p-n junction is formed
of a p-n junction in an electric circuit is called by fusing a p-type and a n-type material
reverse bias. together. However, in practice, a p-n junction
is formed from a crystalline structure of
silicon or germanium by adding carefully
controlled amounts of donor and acceptor
impurities.

The impurities grow on either side of the

crystal after heating in a furnace. Electrons
and holes combine at the center and the
depletion region develops. A junction is thus
formed. Electrodes are inserted after cutting
Fig. 14.19: Forward biased and reverse transverse sections and hundreds of diodes
biased junction. are prepared. All semiconductor devices,
Therefore, when used in forward bias including ICs, are fabricated by ‘growing’
mode, a p-n junction allows a large current to junctions at the required locations.
flow across. This current is normally of the Mobility of a hole is less than that of
order of a few milliamperes, (10-3 A). A reverse an electron and the hole current is lesser.
biased p-n junction on the other hand carries This imbalance between the two currents is
a very small current that is normally a few removed by increasing the doping percentage
microamperes (10-6 A). in the p-region. This ensures that the same
A p-n junction can be thus used as a one current flows through the p-region and the
way switch or a gate in an electric circuit. It n-region of the junction.
conducts easily in forward bias and acts as an 14.7 A p-n junction diode:
open switch in reverse bias. A p-n junction, when provided with
Features of the depletion region: metallic connectors on each side is called a
1. It is formed by diffusion of electrons junction diode or simply, a diode. (Diode is a
from n-region to the p-region. This leaves device with two electrodes or di-electrodes).
positively charged ions in the n-region. Figure 14.20 shows the circuit symbol for a
2. The p-region accumulates electrons junction diode.
(negative charges) and the n-region
accumulates the holes (positive charges).
3. The accumulation of charges on either sides
of the junction results in forming a potential Fig. 14.20: Circuit symbol for a p-n junction
barrier and prevents flow of charges. diode.

251
 The ‘arrow’ indicates the direction of the The width of the depletion layer decreases
conventional current. The p-side is called the with an increase in the application of a forward
anode and the n-side is called the cathode of voltage. It increases when a reverse voltage is
the diode. When a diode is connected across a applied. We have discussed the reasons for this
battery, the carriers can gain additional energy difference earlier. When the polarity of bias
to cross the barrier as per biasing. voltage is reversed, the width of the depletion
A diode can be connected across a battery layer changes. This results in asymmetrical
in two different ways, forward bias and reverse current flow through a diode as shown in (Fig.
bias as shown in the (Fig. 14.21). 14.22).
A diode can be thus used as a one way switch
in a circuit. It is forward biased when its anode
is connected to be at a higher potential that the
cathode. When the anode is at lower potential
that the cathode, it is reverse biased. A diode
Fig. 14.21: (a) Forward bias, (b) Reverse bias. can be, zero biased if no external voltage is
The behavior of a diode in both cases is applied across the p-n junction diode.
different. This is because the barrier potential a) Forward biased: The positive terminal
is affected differently in both cases. The barrier of the external voltage is connected to
potential is reduced in forward biased mode the anode (p-side) and negative terminal to the
and it is increased in reverse biased mode. cathode (n-side) across the diode.
Carriers find it easy to cross the junction in In case of forward bias the width of the
forward bias and contribute towards current for depletion region decreases and the p-n junction
two reasons; first the barrier width is reduced offers a low resistance path allowing a high
and second, they are pushed towards the junction current to flow across the junction (Fig. 14.23).
and gain extra energy to cross the junction.
The current through the diode in forward bias
is, therefore, large. It is of the order of a few
milliamperes (10-3 A) for a typical diode.
When connected in reverse bias, width of
the potential barrier is increased and the carriers
are pushed away from the junction so that very Fig. 14.23: Decrease in width of depletion
few thermally generated carriers can cross the region.
junction and contribute towards current. This Figure 14.24 shows the I-V characteristic
results in a very small current through a reverse of a forward biased diode. Initially, the current
biased diode. The current in reverse biased diode is very low and then there is a sudden rise in
is of the order of a few microamperes (10-6 A). the current. The point at which current rises
sharply is shown as the ‘knee’ point on the I-V
characteristic curve. The corresponding voltage
is called the ‘knee voltage’. It is about 0.7 V for
silicon and 0.3 V for germanium.

Fig. 14.22: Asymmetrical current flow Fig. 14.24: I-V characteristic of a forward
through a diode. biased diode.

252
 A diode effectively becomes a short circuit
above this knee point and can conduct a very Zero Biased Junction Diode Figure B 14.
large current. Resistors are, therefore, used in When a diode is connected in a zero
series with diode to limit its current flow. If the bias condition, no external potential energy
current through a diode exceeds the specified is applied to the p-n junction. When the
value, it can heat up the diode due to the Joule diode terminals are shorted together, some
heating and results in its physical damage. holes (majority carriers) in the p-side have
b) Reverse biased: The positive terminal enough thermal energy to overcome the
of the external voltage is connected to potential barrier. Such carriers cross the
the cathode (n-side) and negative terminal to barrier potential and contribute to current.
the anode (p-side) across the diode. In case of This current is known as the forward
reverse bias the width of the depletion region current. .
increases and the p-n junction behaves like a Similarly, some holes generated in the
high resistance Fig. 14.25. Practically no current n-side (minority carriers), also move across
flows through it with an increase in the reverse the junction in the opposite direction and
bias voltage. However, a very small leakage contribute to current. This current is known
current does flow through the junction which as the reverse current. This transfer of
is of the order of a few micro-amperes, ( µA ). electrons and holes back and forth across
the p-n junction is known as diffusion, as
discussed previously.
Zero biased p-n junction diode

Fig. 14.25: Increase in width of depletion

region.
When the reverse bias voltage applied to
a diode is increased to sufficiently large value,
The potential barrier that exists in a
it causes the p-n junction to overheat. The
junction prevents the diffusion of any more
overheating of the junction results in a sudden
majority carriers across it. However, some
rise in the current through the junction. This
minority carriers (few free electrons in the
is because covalent bonds break and a large
p-region and few holes in the n-region) do
number of carries are available for conduction.
drift across the junction.
The diode thus no longer behaves like a diode.
An equilibrium is established when the
This effect is called the avalanche breakdown.
majority carriers are equal in number (ne=nh)
The reverse biased characteristic of a diode is
and both moving in opposite directions. The
shown in (Fig 14.26).
net current flowing across the junction is zero.
This is a state of ‘dynamic equilibrium’.
The minority carriers are continuously
generated due to thermal energy. When the
temperature of the p-n junction is raised, this
state of equilibrium is changed. This results
in generating more minority carriers and an
increase in the leakage current. An electric
current, however, cannot flow through the
Fig. 14.26: Reverse biased characteristic of diode because it is not connected in any
a diode. electric circuit.

253
c) Static and dynamic resistance of a diode: Example 14.3 Refer to the figure a shown
One of the most important properties of below and find the resistance between point A
a diode is its resistance in the forward biased and B when an ideal diode is (1) forward biased
mode and in the reverse biased mode. Figure and (2) reverse biased.
14.27 shows the I-V characteristics of an ideal (a)
diode.
An ideal diode offers zero resistance in
forward biased mode and infinite resistance in
reverse biased mode. (b)

(c)

Fig. 14.27: I-V characteristics of an ideal diode. Solution: We know that for an ideal diode,
the resistance is zero when forward biased and
The I-V characteristics of a forward biased
infinite when reverse biased.
diode (Fig. 14.24) is used to define two of its
resistances i) the static (DC) resistance and ii) i) Figure b shows the circuit when the diode
the dynamic (AC) resistance. is forward biased. An ideal diode behaves
as a conductor and the circuit is similar to
i) Static (DC) resistance: When a p-n junction
two resistances in parallel.
diode is forward biased, it offers a definite
resistance in the circuit. This resistance is called RAB = (30 x 30)/(30+30) = 900/60 = 15
the static or DC resistance (Rg) of a diode. The ii) Figure c shows the circuit when the
DC resistance of a diode is the ratio of the diode is reverse biased. It does not
DC voltage across the diode to the DC current conduct and behaves as an open switch,
flowing through it at a particular voltage. path ACB. Therefore, RAB= 30 , the
V only resistance in the circuit along the path
Rg ADB.
I
14.8 Semiconductor devices:
ii) Dynamic (AC) resistance: The dynamic
Semiconductor devices find applications in
(AC) resistance of a diode, rg, at a particular
variety of fields. They have many advantages.
applied voltage, is defined as
They also have some disadvantages. Here we
V
rg  discuses some advantages and disadvantages.
I
14.8.1 Advantages:
The dynamic resistance of a diode depends
1. Electronic properties of semiconductors
on the operating voltage. It is the reciprocal of
can be controlled to suit our requirement.
the slope of the characteristics at that point.
Figure 14.28 shows how the DC and the AC 2. They are smaller in size and light weight.
resistance of a diode are found out. 3. They can operate at smaller voltages (of the
order of few mV) and require less current
(of the order of µA or mA), therefore,
consume lesser power.
4. Almost no heating effects occur, therefore
these devices are thermally stable.
5. Faster speed of operation due to smaller
size.
Fig. 14.28: DC and the AC resistance of a 6. Fabrication of ICs is possible.
diode.

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14.8.2 Disadvantages: the Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
1. They are sensitive to electrostatic charges. and the Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC).
2. Not vary useful for controlling high power. Resistance of a NTC thermistor decreases
3. They are sensitive to radiation. with increase in its temperature. Its temperature
4. They are sensitive to fluctuations in coefficient is negative. They are commonly used
temperature. as temperature sensors and also in temperature
5. They need controlled conditions for their control circuits.
manufacturing. Resistance of a PTC thermistor increases
6. Very few matreials are semiconductors. with increase in its temperature. They are
14.9 Applications of semiconductors and p-n commonly used in series with a circuit. They are
junction diode: generally used as a reusable fuse to limit current
A p-n junction diode is the basic block passing through a circuit to protect against over
of a number of semiconductor devices. A current conditions, as resettable fuses.
semiconductor device can have more than one Thermistors are made from thermally
junction. Properties of a device can be controlled sensitive metal oxide semiconductors.
by controlling the concentration of dopants. Thermistors are very sensitive to changes in
1. Solar cell: Converts light energy into electric temperature. A small change in surrounding
energy. Useful to produce electricity temperature causes a large change in their
in remote areas and also for providing resistance. They can measure temperature
electricity for satellites, space probes and variations of a small area due to their small
space stations. size. Both types of thermistors have many
2. Photo resistor: Changes its resistance when applications in industry.
light is incident on it.
3. Bi-polar junction transistor: These are Do you know ?
devices with two junctions and three Electric and electronic devices
terminals. A transistor can be a p-n-p or
n-p-n transistor. Conduction takes place Electric devices: These devices convert
with holes and electrons. Many other types electrical energy into some other form.
of transistors are designed and fabricated to Fan, refrigerator, geyser etc. are some
suit specific requirements. They are used in examples. Fan converts electrical energy
almost all semiconductor devices. into mechanical energy. A geyser converts it
4. Photodiode: It conducts when illuminated into heat energy. They use good conductors
with light. (mostly metals) for conduction of electricity.
5. LED: Light Emitting Diode: Emits light Common working range of currents for
when current passes through it. House hold electric circuits is milli ampers (mA) to
LED lamps use similar technology. They amperes. Their energy consumption is also
consume less power, are smaller in size and moderate to high. A typical geyser consumes
have a longer life and are cost effective. about 2.0 to 2.50 kW of power. They are
6. Solid State Laser: It is a special type of moderate to large in size and are costly.
LED. It emits light of specific frequency. It Electronic devices: Electronic circuits work
is smaller in size and consumes less power. with control or sequential changes in current
7. Integrated Circuits (ICs): A small device through a cell. A calculator, a cell phone
having hundreds of diodes and transistors a smart watch or the remote control of a
performs the work of a large number of TV set are some of the electronic devices.
electronic circuits. Semiconductors are used to fabricate such
14.10 Thermistor: devices. Common working range of currents
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive for electronic circuits it is nano-ampere to
resistor. Its resistance changes with change in its A. They consume very low energy. They
temperature. There are two types of thermistors, are very compact, and cost effective.

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1. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws>diode 2. https://www.hitachi-hightech.com
3. https://ntpel.ac.in>courses 4. https://physics.info>semiconductors
5. https://www.hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu>semcn

Ex
erc
ises Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. 2. Answer the following questions.
i) Electric conduction through a i) What is the importance of energy gap in a
semiconductor is due to: semiconductor?
(A) Electrons ii) Which element would you use as an
(B) holes impurity to make germanium an n-type
(C) none of these semiconductor?
(D) both electrons and holes iii) What causes a larger current through a p-n
junction diode when forward biased?
ii) The energy levels of holes are:
iv) On which factors does the electrical
(A) in the valence band
conductivity of a pure semiconductor
(B) in the conduction band depend at a given temperature?
(C) in the band gap but close to valence v) Why is the conductivity of a n-type
band semiconductor greater than that of p-type
(D) in the band gap but close to conduction semiconductor even when both of these
band have same level of doping?
iii) Current through a reverse biased p-n 3. Answer in detail.
junction, increases abruptly at: i) Explain how solids are classified on the
(A) Breakdown voltage (B) 0.0 V basis of band theory of solids.
(C) 0.3V (D) 0.7V ii) Distinguish between intrinsic
iv) A reverse biased diode, is equivalent to: semiconductors and extrinsic
(A) an off switch semiconductors.
(B) an on switch iii) Explain the importance of the depletion
region in a p-n junction diode.
(C) a low resistance
iv) Explain the I-V characteristic of a forward
(D) none of the above
biased junction diode.
v) The potential barrier in p-n diode is due to:
v) Discuss the effect of external voltage on the
(A) depletion of positive charges near the width of depletion region of a p-n junction
junction
(B) accumulation of positive charges near
***
the junction
(C) depletion of negative charges near the
junction,
(D) accumulation of positive and negative
charges near the junction

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