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CHAPTER 13 - BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

 In 1854, George Boole developed Boolean algebra.
 Combination of Boolean variables/constants with logical operators is called as Boolean algebra.
 Since Boolean algebra deals with binary values, we also call it as switching algebra.
Binary decision
 The decision which results in either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ is called Binary addition
Algebraic Expressions
 Variables combined with the help of mathematical operators like +, -, *, / form algebraic
expressions.
Logical statements
 Statements that are determined to be true or false are called logical statements.
 Statements that are combined with the help of logical operators like AND, OR and NOT is also
called a logical statement or logical functions.
 Logical statements are also called as truth functions
 True or false values are called truth values.
 Logical operators are used to combine logical variables or logical constants.
 Combination of logical variables, constants and operators is called a logical expression.
 Ex: X AND Y OR Z
Truth Table
 Truth table is a table with all possible combinations of input values along with its results.
 In truth table, 1 denotes TRUE and 0 denotes FALSE.
Tautology
 If the result of any logical statement or expression is always true or 1, it is called tautology.
Fallacy
 If the result of any logical statement or expression is always false or 0, it is called fallacy.
Logical operators
 NOT
 OR
 AND
NOT operator
 This operator operates on a single variable. So it is a unary operation.
 Operation performed by NOT is called complementation.
 Symbol used is bar [ x = complement of x]
 Complement of 0 is 1 [0 =1]
 Complement of 1 is 0 [ 1 = 0 ]
 Truth table of NOT is

X X
0 1
1 0

 Venn diagram of X is,

X X

OR OPERATOR
 This operator denotes logic addition
 Symbol used is +
 For ‘n’ input variables, there will be 2n possible combinations of inputs.
 If any one input is true, then the output of OR operation will be true.
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 Truth table is,

X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 Venn diagram of X+Y is,

AND Operation
 This operator denotes logical multiplication
 Symbol used is dot (.)
 If any one input is false, output will be false.
 Truth table is
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Venn diagram of X.Y is,

Boolean expression
 Logical variables + logical operator = Boolean expression
 Ex: X+Y.Z+Y
 Boolean expression can be evaluated using truth tables
 Precedence order for evaluating Boolean expression is
NOT
AND
OR
If there is parenthesis, the expression in parenthesis is evaluated first.
Ex-1: X + YZ
X Y Z Z Y.Z X+YZ
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1
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EX-2: Evaluate X(Y+Z)+XY using truth table

X Y Z Y Z Y+Z X(Y+Z) XY X(Y+Z)+ XY

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Logic Gate

Logic gate is an electronic circuit that operates on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal.
 Gates are 2-state digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low or high voltage.
 There are 3 types of logic gates
NOT gate
OR gate
AND gate
NOT Gate
 It’s a gate with only 1input signal and one output signal
 Output state is always opposite to the input state. So we also call NOT gate as an inverter
 Truth table of NOT gate is,
X X
True False
False True
 Symbol of NOT gate is,

OR Gate
 It’s a gate with 2 or more input signals & only 1 output signal.
 If any of the input signals are high, then the output signal is high.
 If all inputs are low, only then the output is low.
 Truth Table is
X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
(2 Inputs)
X Y Z X+Y+Z
False False False False
False False True True
False True False True
False True True True
True False False True
True False True True
True True False True
True True True True
(3 Inputs)
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 Symbol of OR gate is
=A+B

AND Gate
 It’s a gate with 2 or more inputs and only 1 output.
 Only when all the inputs are high, output will be high.
 If any one input is low, then the output will be low.
 Truth Table is
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
(2 Inputs)
X Y Z X.Y.Z
False False False False
False False True False
False True False False
False True True False
True False False False
True False True False
True True False False
True True True True
(3 Inputs)
 Symbol of AND gate is
=A.B

POSTULATES of Boolean Algebra

 The fundamental laws of Boolean algebra are known as the basic postulates of Boolean algebra
 Postulates are,
1. If x ≠ 0, x = 1 & if x ≠ 1, x = 0
2. OR relations (Logical Addition)
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
3. AND Relations (Logical Multiplication)
0.0=0
0.1=0
1.0=0
1.1=1
4. Complement Rules
0=1
1=0
Principal of duality
 A Boolean relation can be derived from another Boolean relation by,
Changing each OR sign to AND
Changing each AND sign to OR
Replacing each 0 by 1 and 1 by 0
 The relation that is derived using duality principal is called dual of original expression
 Ex: Derive a relation from 0+1=1 using duality principal
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Ans: 0 + 1 = 1
1.0=0
Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
 Boolean postulates are used for defining Boolean algebra theorems
 Boolean algebra theorems are used for manipulating Boolean expressions
1. Properties of 0 & 1
a) 0+X=X
Proof using Truth Table
0 X Result
0 0 0
0 1 1
b) 1+X=1
Proof using Truth Table
1 X Result
1 0 1
1 1 1
 It’s a tautology
c) 0.X=0
Proof using Truth Table
0 X Result
0 0 0 It’s a fallacy
0 1 0
d) 1.X=X
Proof using Truth Table
1 X Result
1 0 1
1 1 1
2. Indempotence Law
a) X+X=X
Proof using Truth Table
X X Result 0+0=0
0 0 0 1+1=1 As per postulate II
1 1 1 So X+X=X

b) X.X=X
Proof using Truth Table
X X Result 0.0=0
0 0 0 1.1=1 As per postulate III
1 1 1 So X.X=X

3. Involution

X =X
X X X
0 1 0
1 0 1

 This is also known as double inversion rule

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4. Complementarity law
a) X+X =1
Proof using Truth Table

X X Result
0 1 1 0+1=1
1 0 1 1+0=1 As per postulate II
 It’s a tautology

b) X.X=0
0.1=0
X X Result =0 As per postulate III
0 1 0
1 0 0
 It’s a fallacy

5. Commutative Law
a) X+Y =Y+X
X Y X+Y Y+X
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

b) X.Y=Y.X
X Y X.Y Y.X
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1

6. Associative Law
a) X+(Y+Z) = (X+Y) + Z
X Y Z Y+Z X+(Y+Z) X+Y (X+Y)+Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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b) X(YZ)=(XY)Z
Proof same as above

7. Distributive Law
a) X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ

 Proof Using TRUTH TABLE

b) X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
Algebraic Proof
R.H.S = (X+Y)(X+Z)
=XX+XZ+XY+YZ
=X+XZ+XY+YZ [As X.X=X]
=X(1+Z)+XY+YZ
=X.1+XY+YZ [As 1+Z=1]
=X+XY+YZ[As X.1=X]
=X(1+Y)+YZ
=X.1+YZ [1+Y=1]
=X+YZ [As X.1=X]
=L.H.S
Truth table can also be used for proving
8. Absorption Law
a) X+XY=X
Algebraic Proof is,
L.H.S=X+XY
=X(1+Y)
=X.1 [As 1+y=1]
=X [As X.1=X]
=R.H.S
Truth Table Proof
X Y XY X+XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

b) X(X+Y)=X
Algebraic Proof is,
L.H.S=X(X+Y)
=XX+XY
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=X+XY [As X.X=X]

=X(1+Y)
=X.1 [As 1+Y=1]
=X [As X.1=X]
=R.H.S
9. X+XY = X+Y - Third Distributive Law
Algebraic Proof is,
L.H.S= X+XY
=X.1+XY [As X=X.1]
=X(1+Y)+XY [As 1=1+Y]
= X+XY+XY
=X+Y.1 [AS X+X=1]
=X+Y [AS Y.1=Y]
= R.H.S
Demorgan’s Theorem
 It is derived by Augustus DeMorgan
DeMorgan’s First Theorem
X+Y = X Y
It states that the complement of the sum of two variables is equal to the product of the complement of
individual variables.
Proof
To prove this we need the complementarity laws X+X = 1 & X.X=0
Suppose P=X+Y, then according to complementarity laws

P+P=1 & P.P=0

So we need to prove P+P=1 & P.P=0

P=X+Y
So P = X.Y
To prove the first part i.e P+P=1

(X+Y) + ( X.Y)

=((X+Y)+X)((X+Y)+Y)
= (X+X+Y) (X+Y+Y)
=(1+Y)(X+1) [As X+X=1 & Y+Y=1]
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To prove the second part i.e. P.P=0

(X+Y). (X.Y)

= XXY + XYY
0+0=0
Therefore demorgans first theorem is proved
DeMorgan’s Second Theorem

X.Y = X+Y
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Proof Suppose
P=X.Y, then P= X.Y=X+Y Here also
we need to prove P+P=1 & P.P=0

P+P=1
(X.Y) + (X+Y)

= (X+Y)+ (X.Y)

= (X+Y+X)(X+Y+Y) [As X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)]

=(1+Y)(X+1)
= 1.1=1

P.P = 0
(X.Y)(X+Y)
=X.Y.X + X.Y.Y = 0.0=0
Therefore DeMorgans second theorem is proved.

Minterm
 A minterm is the product of all variables in the logic system with or without bar.
 Ex: If X & Y are the variables in the logic system, then XY+XY is the sum of products of all the
variables within the system. Since each term contains the product of all variables with or without
bar, each term is considered as the minterm
 Here 0 denotes bar Minterm
 If X=0 and Y=1, then the minterm will be XY Is product of all variables
Minterm expansion of expression 0 denotes bar
Steps are,
 Convert the given expression into sum of products form
 In each term multiply missing term + missing term
 Expand the expression
 Remove all duplicate terms
Ex: convert X + Y to minterms
X.(Y+Y) + Y.(X+X)
XY+XY+XY+XY
XY+ XY+XY
Shorthand notation
 Minterm is denoted using ‘m’
 Write the binary equivalent of each minterm (0 denotes bar & 1 denotes variable without bar)
 Write the decimal equivalent of each binary as the subscript of ‘m’.
 Ex: Shorthand notation of XYZ+XYZ+XYZ is
F(X, Y, Z)= m7 + m5 + m1
OR
F(X, Y, Z)= ∑(7, 5, 1)
Maxterm
 A Maxterm is the sum of all the variables within the logic system with or without bar.
 Ex: If X, Y & Z are the variables in the logic system, then (X+Y+Z)(X+Y+Z) is the product of the
sum of all the variables within the system. Since each term contains the sum of all variables with
or without bar, each term is considered as the Maxterm
 Here 1 denotes bar Maxterm
Is the sum of all variables
 If X=0 and Y=1, then the maxterm will be X+Y
1 denotes bar
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Shorthand notation
 Maxterm is denoted using ‘M’
 Write the binary equivalent of each maxterm (1denotes bar & 0 denotes variable without bar)
 Write the decimal equivalent of each binary as the subscript of ‘M’.
 Ex: Shorthand notation of (X+Y+Z)(X+Y+Z)(X+Y+Z) is
F(X, Y, Z)= M0.M2.M1 OR F(X, Y, Z)= π(0.2.1.)

Canonical expression
 A Boolean expression composed entirely either of minterms or of maxterms is referred to as
canonical expression.
 Canonical expression can be represented in two forms
1. S.O.P form
2. P.O.S form
Canonical S.O.P Form
 A Boolean expression represented completely as the sum of minterms is said to be in canonical
sum of products form.
Example 1
A logical network has two inputs X & Y and an output Z. the relationship between inputs and output is as
follows
When X=0 and Y=0, Z=1
When X=0 and Y=1, Z=0
When X=1 and Y=0, Z=1
When X=1 and Y=1, Z=1
Express this in canonical sum of products form
Answer:
Draw the truth table with inputs and outputs and add a column for minterms
X Y Z Minterm

0 0 1 XY

0 1 0 XY

1 0 1 XY

1 1 1 XY

Add all the minterms with output 1

XY+XY+XY
Example 2
Convert the following three input function F denoted by the expression F=∑(0, 1, 2, 5) into its canonical
sum of products form
Answer
X Y Z Output Minterm

0 0 0 1 XYZ

0 0 1 1 XYZ

0 1 0 1 XYZ

0 1 1 0 XYZ

1 0 0 0 XYZ
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1 0 1 1 XYZ

1 1 0 0 XYZ

1 1 1 0 XYZ

X Y Z+X Y Z+X Y Z+X Y Z

Canonical P.O.S Form

 A Boolean expression represented completely as the product of maxterms is said to be in canonical
product of sums form.
 There are two methods for transforming a Boolean expression into canonical product of sums form
1. Truth Table method
2. Algebraic method
Truth table method
 Prepare a truth table of inputs and outputs
 Add a column for maxterms
 Multiply the maxterms with output 0

Example 1
Consider the truth table given below and express the Boolean function in product of sums form.
X Y Z Output
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Answer
Add a new column for maxterms
X Y Z Output Maxterms

0 0 0 1 X+Y+Z

0 0 1 0 X+Y+Z

0 1 0 1 X+Y+Z

0 1 1 0 X+Y+Z

1 0 0 1 X+Y+Z

1 0 1 0 X+Y+Z

1 1 0 1 X+Y+Z

1 1 1 1 X+Y+Z
Multiply the maxterms with output 0

(X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z)

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Algebraic method
1. Simplify the expression using Boolean theorems
2. Convert into P.O.S form using X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
3. In each sum term add missing variable . missing variable
4. Keep on expanding using X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z) to get maxterms
5. Remove all duplicate terms
Example
Express XY+Y(Z(Z+Y)) into canonical P.O.S form
Refer the following example from textbook 13.15

Sum term Vs Maxterm

 Sum term just means sum of the variables. It’s not necessary that all the variables must be included
in a sum term. But maxterm is the sum term with all the variables
Product term Vs minterm
 Product term just means the product of the variables. It’s not necessary that all the variables must
be included in a product term. But minterm is the product of all the variables
Canonical SOP Vs SOP expression
 SOP expression is the one with sum of products and is not necessary that the products are
minterms. But in a canonical SOP expression each product term will be a minterm
Canonical POS Vs POS expression
 POS expression is the one with product of sums and is not necessary that the sums are maxterms.
But in a canonical POS expression each sum term will be a maxterm

Minimizing Boolean expression

 There are two methods
1. Algebraic method
2. K-Map method
Algebraic method
Refer the following examples from textbook 13.17, 13.18, 13.19 and 13.20
K-Map method
 It stands for Karnaugh Map
 It is also called Veitch diagrams
 K-Map is a rectangle made up of certain number of squares, each square representing a maxterm or
minterm.
 For ‘n’ variables, 2n squares will be there in K-Map
 Binary numbers in K-Map differ only by one place. It is done so that only one variable changes its
state. So circuit designing becomes easy.
 The binary code in which each successive number differs only in one place is called gray code

Sum Of Products reduction using K-Map

Two variable K-Map

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Three variable K-Map

Four variable K-Map

Reduction using K-Map

Steps are,
 Prepare the truth table for the given function
 Draw an empty K-Map for the function
 Enter 1’s in the corresponding squares for the output 1’s in the truth table
 Enter 0’s in all the left out squares
 Group adjacent 1’s in form of octets, quads and pairs
 Write the reduced expression for all the groups and + them

Rules
 Groups may not include any cell containing a zero
 Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.
 Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, or in general 2n cells.
 Groups should be as large as possible.
 Every 1 must be in at least one group.
 Overlapping allowed.
 Wrap around allowed.
 Fewest numbers of groups possible.

Grouping
Pairs
 It’s a group of 2 one’s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent.
 Pair eliminates a variable and its complement.
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Quad
 It’s a group of 4 one's that are horizontally or vertically adjacent.
 A quad eliminates two variables and their complements.

X=AC
Octet
 It’s a group of 8 one's that are horizontally or vertically adjacent.
 An octet eliminates three variables and their complements.
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Map Rolling: Map rolling means rolling the map as if its left edges are touching the right edges and top
edges are touching bottom edges.

Overlapping Groups: Overlapping means same 1 can be encircled more than once. Overlapping always
leads to simpler expressions.

Redundant Group: It is a group whose all 1's are overlapped by other groups. Redundant groups must be
removed. Removal of redundant group leads to much simpler expression.

Few examples of grouping

Ex_1:

Ex_2: Ex_3:
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Ex_4: Ex_5:

Ex_6: Ex_7:

Ex_8:

Product Of Sums reduction using K-Map

2 variable K-Map using Maxterms

A+B A+B’

A’+B A’+B’
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3 variable K-Map using maxterms

4 variable K-Map using maxterms

Steps are,
 Prepare the truth table for the given function
 Draw an empty K-Map for the function
 Enter 0’s in the corresponding squares for the output 0’s in the truth table
 Enter 1’s in all the left out squares
 Group adjacent 0’s in form of octets, quads and pairs
 Write the reduced expression for all the groups and multiply them
More about gates
 NOR
 NAND
 XOR
 XNOR

NOR Gate
 It’s a gate with 2 or more input signals and one output signal
 It’s an inverted OR gate. That is NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter
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NAND Gate
 It’s a gate with 2 or more input signals and one output signal
 It’s an inverted AND gate. That is NAND gate is a combination AND gate followed by an inverter

XOR Gate
 It stands for Exclusive OR gate
 It’s a gate with 2 or more input signals and one output signal
 Here odd number of input1’s produce output 1

XNOR Gate
 It stands for Exclusive NOR gate
 It’s an inverted XOR gate
Ic

Universal gates
 NAND and NOR gates are the universal gates as any other gate can be made using NAND and
NOR.
NAND TO NAND Logic
NOT using NAND

A NAND A = A.A = A
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AND using NAND

A NAND B = A B = A + B

(A + B) NAND (A + B) = (A+B). (A+B) = (A.B) + (A.B) = A.B

OR using NAND

(A NAND A) NAND (B NAND B)

= A.A NAND B.B

= A NAND B = A . B = A + B

NOR TO NOR Logic

NOT using NOR gate

A NOR A = A+A = A
OR using NOR gate

A NOR B = A+B

A+B NOR A+B = A+B + A+B = A+B = A+B

AND using NOR gate

(A NOR A) NOR (B NOR B)

= A+A NOR B+B
= A NOR B = A + B = A.B
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Designing circuits using NAND gate

 Derive simplified sum of products expression
 Draw a circuit diagram using AND, OR, NOT gates
 Replace all basic gates with NAND gates

Refer the examples 13.30, 31, 32, 33 & 34 in page 683, 684, 685

Simplification using K-MAP – Solved Examples

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