WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AC AND DC CURRENTS?

ELECTRICAL

In the today’s world electricity is most important next to the oxygen in the human. When the
electricity was invented many changes have taken place over the years. Dark planet turned into a
planet of lights. In fact, it made life so simple in all circumstances. All the devices, industries, offices,
houses, technology, computers run on electricity. Here energy will be in two forms, i.e. alternating
current (AC) and direct current (DC). Regarding these currents and the difference between AC and
DC will be discussed in detail, its basic function and uses of it. Its properties are also discussed in a
tabular column.

Working and Difference between AC and DC

The difference between AC and DC mainly includes the following

Difference
between AC and DC

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current is defined as the flow of charge that changes direction
periodically. The result obtained will be, the voltage level also reverses along
with the current. Basically, AC is used to deliver power to industries, houses,
office buildings, etc.
 AC Source
Generation of AC
AC is produced by using called an alternator. It is designed to produce
alternating current. Inside of a magnetic field, a loop of wire is spun, from
which induced current will flow along the wire. Here the rotation of the wire
may come from any no of means i.e. from, a steam turbine, flowing water, a
wind turbine and so on. This is because of the wire spins and enters into
different magnetic polarity periodically, the current and voltage alternate in
the wire.

Generation of AC
From this, the generated current can be of many waveforms like sine, square
and triangle. But in most of the cases, the sine wave is preferred because it
is easy to generate and calculations can be done with ease. However, the
rest of the wave requires an additional device to convert them into respective
waveforms or the shape of the equipment has to be changed and the
calculations will be too difficult. Description of Sine waveform is discussed
below.

Describing a Sine Wave

Generally, the AC waveform can be understood easily with the help of
mathematical terms. For this sine wave, the three things which are required
are amplitude, phase, and frequency.

By looking at just voltage, a sine wave can be described like the below
mathematical function:

V(t) = VP Sin (2πft + Ø)

V(t): It is a function of time a voltage. This means that as time changes our
voltage also changes. In the above equation, the term which is right of the equal
sign describes how the voltage changes over time.
VP: It is the amplitude. This states how maximum the voltage the sine wave
could reach in either direction, i.e. -VP volts, +VP volts, or somewhere in
between.
The function of sin( ) states that the voltage will be in the form of a periodic
sine wave and will act as a smooth oscillation at 0V.

Here 2π is constant. It converts the frequency from cycles in hertz to angular

frequency in radians per second.

Here f describes the sine wave frequency. This will be in the form of units per
second or hertz. The frequency tells how many times a particular waveform
occurs within one second.

Here t is a dependent variable. It is measured in seconds. When the time varies

the waveform also varies.

The φ describes the phase of the sine wave. Phase is defined as how the
waveform is shifted with respect to time. It is measured in degrees. The periodic
nature of the sine wave shifts by 360° it becomes the same waveform when
shifted by 0°.
For the above formula, the real-time application values are added by taking the
United States as a reference

Root mean square (RMS) is another small concept which helps in calculating
the electrical power.

V(t) = 170 Sin ( 2π60t )

The other waves, i.e. triangle and square are shown below:

RMS Sine Waveform

 Triangle Waveform

Square Waveform

Applications of AC
 Home and office outlets are used AC.
 Generating and transmission of AC power for long distances are easy.
 Less energy is lost in electrical power transmission for high voltages (>
110kV).
 For higher voltages imply lower currents, and for lower currents, less heat is
generated in the power line which is obviously due to low resistance.
 AC can be easily converted from high voltage to low voltage and vice versa
with the help of transformers.
 AC power the electric motors.
 It is also useful for many large appliances like refrigerators, dishwashers, etc.
 Direct Current
Direct current (DC) is the movement of electric charge carriers, i.e. electrons in
a unidirectional flow. In DC the intensity of the current will vary along with
time, but the direction of movement stays the same in all time. Here DC is
referred to a voltage whose polarity never reverses.

DC Source
In a DC circuit, electrons emerge from the minus or negative pole and move
towards the plus or positive pole. Some of the physicists define DC as it travels
from plus to minus.

DC Source

Generally, the basic source of direct current is produced by batteries,

electrochemical, and photovoltaic cells. But AC is most preferred across the
world. In this scenario, AC can be converted to DC. This will happen in multiple
steps. Initially, power supply consists of a transformer, which later converted
into DC with the help of a rectifier. It prevents the flow of current from
reversing and a filter is used to eliminate current pulsations in the output of the
rectifier. The is the phenomenon of how AC is converted into DC
Example of a Recharging Battery
However, all electronic and computer hardware to function they need DC. Most
of the solid-state equipment requires voltage range between 1.5 and 13.5 volts.
Current demands vary accordingly with the devices which are used. For
example the range from practically zero for an electronic wristwatch, to more
than 100 amperes for a radio communications power amplifier. Equipment
using, a high-power radio or broadcast transmitter or television or a CRT
(cathode-ray tube) display or vacuum tubes require from about 150 volts to
several thousand volts DC.
 Example of a
Recharging Battery

The main Difference between AC and DC is discussing in the following

comparison chart

S No Alternating Current Direct Current

Practically the
It is safe to transfer voltage of DC cannot
The amount of over longer city travel very far until
energy that can be distances and will it begins to lose
1
carried provide more power. energy.

The cause of the It is denoted rotating It is denoted steady

direction of flow of magnet along the magnetism along the
2
electrons wire. wire

The frequency of
alternating current
will be either 50Hz The frequency of
or 60Hz depending direct current will be
3
Frequency upon the country. zero.

It reverses its It only flows in one

direction while direction in the
4
Direction flowing in a circuit. circuit.

It is the current of
magnitude which is It is the current of
5
Current varying with time constant magnitude.

6 Here electrons will Electrons move

Flow of Electrons
keep switching the steadily in one
 directions – forward direction or
and backward. ‘forward’.

The source of
availability is A.C The source of
Generator and availability is either
7
Obtained from mains. Cell or Battery.

8
Passive Parameters It is Impedance. Only Resistance

It basically Lies
9
Power Factor between 0 & 1. It will be always 1.

It will of different
types like Sinusoidal,
Square Trapezoidal, It will be of Pure and
10
Types and Triangular. pulsating.

In this article What Is the Difference between AC and DC currents is explained

in detailed. I hope that every point is understood clearly about the alternating
current, direct current, waveforms, about the equation, differences of AC and
DC in tabular columns along with their properties. Still unable to understand
any of the topics in the articles or to implement the latest electrical projects,
feel free to raise a question in the comment box below. Here is a question for
you, what is the power factor of an alternating current?

Difference Between Torque and Power

Power defines the rate of work done while torque is the energy that is applied while rotating
an object about an axis or pivot point. Torque and power may seem like difficult concepts to
understand, but on the contrary they are interesting and we apply them in our day to day life.
Here, in this article let us look at more differences between torque and power.

What is Torque?
Torque is aslo known as moment or moment of force is a measure of force that rotates an
object about its axis. For example, when you turn the knob of a door, torque is being used.
Torque is a vector quantity and has both magnitude and direction. Torque is represented by
the symbol τ. The torque is calculated as follows:
τ=Frsin(θ)
Where,

 F is the force applied

 r is the distance between pivot and the point at which force is applied
 θ is the angle between F and r
The unit of torque is newton meter represented as N-m or N m

What is Power?
Power defines the rate of at which work is done. The SI unit of power is Watt, named after
the Scottish inventor James Watt. By definition, one watt is equal to one joule of work done
per second. Power is given by the following equation:
P=ΔEΔt
Where,

 P is the power
 ∆E is the change in energy
 ∆t is the change in time

Differences Between Torque and Power

The differences between torque and power is given in a tabular column below.

Torque Power

It is the tendency of force to rotate an

It defines the rate of work done.
object in a particular direction.

It is a vector quantity. It is a scalar quantity.

The SI unit of torque is newton- meter (N-

The SI unit of power is Watt (W).
m).

Torque can be calculated using the Power can be calculated using the
equation equation

τ=Frsin(θ) P=ΔEΔt

Torque can be measured using a torque Power can be measured using an

sensor or a torque meter. energy meter and multimeter.

Thermodynamics
Introduction:
In Physics, thermodynamics deals with temperature, heat and their relation to energy,
radiation, work, and properties of matter. The energy can be of any forms such as electrical,
mechanical, or chemical energy. William Thomson coined the term thermodynamics in 1749.
It is derived from two Greek words “thermes” meaning heat, and “dynamikos” meaning
powerful.
When we say the word dynamic we think of motion or movement and energy. Thus, the term
thermodynamics means heat movement or heat flow.

Table of Contents
What is Thermodynamics?Thermodynamics TimelineZeroth Law of ThermodynamicsFirst Law of
ThermodynamicsSecond Law of ThermodynamicsThird Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamic
PropertiesWhat is Enthalpy?What is Entropy?Solved Problem on ThermodynamicsSummaryFAQs

What is Thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is the branch of Physics which is concerned with the relationship between
other forms of energy and heat. We can define thermodynamics as:
The branch of Physics that deals with heat and temperature, and their relation to
energy, work, radiation, and properties of matter.
To be specific, it explains how thermal energy is converted to or from other forms of energy
and how matter is affected by this process. Thermal energy is the energy that comes from
heat. This heat is generated by the movement of tiny particles within an object. The faster
these particles move, the more heat is generated.

What is thermodynamic process?

A thermodynamic process is a passage of a thermodynamic system from an initial to a final
state of thermodynamic equilibrium.

Thermodynamics Timeline
Thermodynamics has many sections under it and is considered as a broad subject because it
deals with topics that exist all around us and thus classification becomes necessary.
Classical Thermodynamics:
In this section, the behaviour of matter is analyzed with a macroscopic approach. Units such
as temperature and pressure are taken into consideration which helps the individuals to
calculate other properties and to predict the characteristics of the matter that is undergoing the
process.

Statistical Thermodynamics:
In this section, every molecule is under the spotlight i.e. the properties of each and every
molecule and ways in which they interact are taken into consideration to characterize the
behaviour of a group of molecules.

Pure Component Thermodynamics:

As the name itself states, this section tries to describe the behaviour of a system that has an
unadulterated or pure constituent.

Solution Thermodynamics:
This section attempts to describe the behaviour of a system that contains more than one
chemical in the mixture.

What are Laws of Thermodynamics?

The laws of thermodynamics define the fundamental physical quantities like energy, temperature
and entropy that characterise thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. The laws represent
how these quantities behave under various circumstances.

How many laws of thermodynamics are there?

There are four laws of thermodynamics and are given below:

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics

 First law of thermodynamics
 Second law of thermodynamics
 Third law of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law is the basis for the measurement of temperature. It states that:
Two bodies which are in thermal equilibrium with a third body are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics Examples:

 consider two cups A and B with boiling water.

 When a thermometer is placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by the water until it reads
100°C.
 When it read 100°C, we say that the thermometer is in equilibrium with cup A.
 Now when we move the thermometer to cup B to read the temperature, it continues to
read 100°C.
 The thermometer is also in equilibrium with cup B.
 From keeping in mind the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we can conclude that
cup A and cup B are in equilibrium with each other.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics enables us to use thermometers to compare the temperature
of any two objects that we like.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics which is also known as the conservation of energy principle
states that:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.
This law may seem abstract but if we look at a few examples of the first law of thermodynamics,
we will get a clearer idea.

First Law Of Thermodynamics Examples:

 Fans convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.

 Plants convert the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy through photosynthesis.
We eat plants and convert the chemical energy into kinetic energy while we swim, walk,
breathe and when we scroll through this page.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that:
Energy in the form of heat only flows from regions of higher temperature to that of lower
temperature.
Many individuals take this statement lightly and for granted, but it has an extensive impact and
consequence. This is why it costs money to run an air conditioner. The human body obeys the
second law of thermodynamics too.

Second Law Of Thermodynamics Examples

One of the examples of the second law of thermodynamics can be sweating in a crowded room.
Assume yourself to be in a small room full of people. You are very likely to feel warm and start
sweating. Sweating is a mechanism the human body uses to cool itself. Here, the heat from your
body is transferred to sweat. As the sweat absorbs more and more heat from the body it
evaporates and transfers heat to the surrounding air, thereby, heating up the temperature of the
room.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

The Third Law states that:
The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of the crystal is equal to absolute
zero (0 K)
Entropy is sometimes called “waste energy” i.e., the energy that is unable to do work, and since
there is no heat energy whatsoever at absolute zero, there can be no waste energy.

Third Law Of Thermodynamics Examples:

Let us consider steam as an example to illustrate the third law of thermodynamics step by step:
We know that steam is a gaseous state of water at higher temperatures. In this state:

1. The molecules within it move freely and have high entropy.

2. If one decreases the temperature below 100°C, the steam gets converted to water,
where the movement of molecules is restricted, decreasing the entropy of water.
3. When water is further cooled below 0°C, it gets converted to solid ice. In this state, the
movement of molecules is further restricted and the entropy of the system reduces more.
4. As the temperature of the ice further reduces, the movement of the molecules in them
are restricted further and the entropy of the substance goes on decreasing.
5. When the ice is cooled to absolute zero, ideally the entropy should be zero. But in reality,
it is impossible to cool any substance to zero.

To learn in details about all the laws of thermodynamics visit the links given below:

Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics Second Law Of Thermodynamics

First Law Of Thermodynamics Third Law Of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Properties:
Thermodynamic properties may be extensive or intensive.

 Intensive properties are properties that do not depend on the quantity of matter.
For example, pressure and temperature are intensive properties.

 In the case of extensive properties, their value depends on the mass of the system.
For example, volume, energy, and enthalpy are extensive properties.

What is Enthalpy?
Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. The quantity
of enthalpy equals the total content of heat of a system, equivalent to the system’s internal
energy plus the product of volume and pressure.
Mathematically, the enthalpy, H, equals the sum of the internal energy, E, and the product of the
pressure, P, and volume, V, of the system.

H = E + PV

What is Entropy?
The entropy is a thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the physical state or condition
of a system. In other words, it is a thermodynamic function used to measure the randomness or
disorder of a system.
For example, the entropy of a solid, where the particles are not free to move, is less than the
entropy of a gas, where the particles will fill the container.

What are the Different Types Of Energy?

Different forms of energy along with formulas is tabulated below:

Internal Energy U=∫TdS−PdV+∑iμidNi

 Helmholtz free energy F = U – TS

Enthalpy H = U + PV

Gibbs Free Energy G = U + PV – TS

Solved Problem on Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics – Summary and Overview

→ In simple terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one form to another.
→ The laws of thermodynamics are:

 First law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can
only be transferred from one form to another.
 Second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of any isolated system always increases.
 Third law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value
as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
→ Entropy is the measure of the number of possible arrangements the atoms in a system can
have.
→ Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system.

Frequently Asked Questions On Thermodynamics

What are the three laws of thermodynamics?

The three laws of thermodynamics (first, second and third) define physical quantities i.e.
temperature, energy & entropy that characterize thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium.

What is the importance of thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is important for both Chemistry and Physics as it deals with the study of
energy, the conversion of energy between different forms and the ability of energy to do work.

How is thermodynamics used in everyday life?

Thermodynamics has several types of applications in our daily life:

 all types of vehicles

 refrigerators and deep freezers
 evaporators
 radiators
 air-conditioning systems
 heat pumps

Who is regarded as the Father of Thermodynamics?

Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot is often described as the “Father of Thermodynamics”.

What is an example of negative work?

When you’re pushing an object along the floor, the work done by Kinetic Friction is negative.

Can energy be destroyed or lost?

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only be transferred from one form to
another.

Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

Zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the four laws of thermodynamics. The credit for
formulating the law goes to Ralph H. Fowler. Interestingly, the zeroth law of
thermodynamics was actually developed much later than the original three laws. However,
there were few confusions regarding the nomenclature whether it should be named the fourth
law or some other name. The complication arose because the new law gave a much clearer
definition of the temperature and basically replaced what the other three laws had to
state. Fowler finally came up with the name to end this conflict.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics frames an idea of temperature as an indicator of thermal
equilibrium.

What is Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics?

When a body ‘A’ is in thermal equilibrium with another body ‘b’, and also separately in
thermal equilibrium with a body ‘C’, then body ‘B’ and ‘C’ will also be in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This statement defines the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The
law is based on temperature measurement.
There are also various ways to state the zeroth law of thermodynamics. However, in simple
terms, it can be said, “Systems that are in thermal equilibrium exist at the same temperature”.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics takes into account that temperature is something worth
measuring because it predicts whether the heat will transfer between objects or not. This is
true regardless of how the objects interact. Even if two objects are not in physical contact,
heat still can flow between them, by means of radiation mode of heat transfer. Whereas,
zeroth law of thermodynamics states that, if the systems are in thermal equilibrium, no heat
flow will take place.
Also Read:

First Law of Thermodynamics

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Thermal Equilibrium
Temperature is a property that distinguishes thermodynamics from other sciences. This
property can distinguish between hot and cold. When two or more bodies at different
temperatures are brought into contact then after some time they attain a common temperature
and they are said to exist in thermal equilibrium.
Systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no heat transfer, even if they are in a
position to transfer heat, based on other factors. For Example, If we put food in the
refrigerator overnight then that food is in thermal equilibrium with the air of that refrigerator.
Heat no longer flows from food to the air or from the air to the food this state is known as
thermal equilibrium.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Example and Applications

The law is important for the mathematical formulation of thermodynamics or more precisely
for stating the mathematical definition of temperature. This law is mostly used to compare
temperatures of different objects.
If we want to measure the accurate temperature, a reference body is required and a certain
characteristic of that body which changes with temperature. The change in that characteristic
may be taken as an indication of a change of temperature. That selected characteristic is
known as thermodynamic property.
Also Read: Intensive and Extensive Properties of Matter
Nonetheless, the most common application of the zeroth law of thermodynamics can be seen
in thermometers. We can observe the zeroth law in action by taking a very common
thermometer having mercury in a tube. As the temperature is increased this mercury expands
since the area of the tube is constant. Due to this expansion, the height is increased. Now, the
increase in the height of the mercury label shows the changes in temperature and basically
helps us to measure it.
There are different kinds of thermometer that can be used depending on their thermometric
property. They are as follows.

Thermometer Thermometric Property

 Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure

Constant pressure gas thermometer Volume

Electrical resistance thermometer Resistant

Thermocouple Thermal e.m.f

Mercury -in -glass thermometer Length

Similarly, another example of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is when you have two
glasses of water. One glass will have hot water and the other will contain cold water. Now if
we leave them in the table for a few hours they will attain thermal equilibrium with the
temperature of the room.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Before we get into the first law of thermodynamics we need to understand the relation
between heat and work and the concept of internal energy. Just like mass, energy is always
conserved i.e. it can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be transformed from one form
to another. Internal energy is a thermodynamic property of the system that refers to the
energy associated with the molecules of the system which includes kinetic energy and
potential energy.
Whenever a system goes through any change due to interaction of heat, work and internal
energy, it is followed by numerous energy transfer and conversions. However, during these
transfers, there is no net change in the total energy. Similarly, if we look at the first law of
thermodynamics it affirms that heat is a form of energy. What it means is that the
thermodynamic processes are governed by the principle of conservation of energy.

Table of Content
 What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?
 First Law of Thermodynamics Equation
 First Law of Thermodynamics Limitations
 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System

What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?

The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of the universe remains the same.
Though it may be exchanged between the system and the surroundings, it can’t be created or
destroyed. The law basically relates to the changes in energy states due to work and heat
transfer. It redefines the conservation of energy concept.
Also Read: Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics Equation

The equation for the first law of thermodynamics is given as;
ΔU = q + W
Where,

 ΔU = change in internal energy of the system.

 q = algebraic sum of heat transfer between system and surroundings.
 W = work interaction of the system with its surroundings.

Points to Remember
 For an isolated system, energy (E) always remains constant.
 Internal Energy is a point function and property of the system. Internal energy is an
extensive property (mass-dependent) while specific energy is an intensive property
(independent of mass).
 For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of temperature only.

First Law of Thermodynamics Limitations

The first law of thermodynamics states that whenever a system undergoes any
thermodynamic process it always holds certain energy balance. However, the first law fails to
give the feasibility of the process or change of state that the system undergoes.
Also Read: Second Law of Thermodynamics
For instance, the first law fails to explain why heat flows from hot end to cold end when a
metallic rod is heated at one end and not on other and vice-versa. The first law only quantifies
the energy transfer that takes place during this process. It is the second law of
thermodynamics which provides the criterion for the feasibility of the various processes. We
will take an example and understand the concept further.

Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind (PMM1)

It is impossible to construct a machine that can continuously supply mechanical work without
consuming any energy simultaneously. Such a hypothetical machine is known as the
perpetual motion machine of the first kind. These types of machines violate the 1st law of
thermodynamics and do not exist in reality.

First law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System

Work done for a closed system is the product of pressure applied and the change in volume
that occurs due to applied pressure :
w = − P ΔV
where P is the constant external pressure on the system, and ΔV is the change in volume of
the system. This is specifically called “pressure-volume” work.
The internal energy of a system increases or decreases depending on work interaction that
takes place across its boundaries. The internal energy would increase if work is done on the
system and decreases if work is done by the system. Any heat interaction that takes place in
the system with its surroundings also changes its internal energy. But since energy remains
constant ( from the first law of thermodynamics ), the total change in internal energy is
always zero. If energy is lost by the system, then it is absorbed by the surroundings. If energy
is absorbed into a system, then it implies that the energy was released by the surroundings:
ΔUsystem = −ΔUsurroundings
where ΔUsystem is the change in the total internal energy of the system, and ΔUsurroundings is the
change in the total energy of the surrounding.
Also Read: Third Law of Thermodynamics
Carefully study the table given below:

Process Sign Convention for Sign Convention for

heat(q) work(w)

Work done by the system N/A –

Work done on the system N/A +

Heat extracted from the – N/A

system

Heat added to the system + N/A

For a closed system;

Process Internal Heat (q) Work(w) Example

energy
change

Adiabatic (q=0) +/- 0 +/- An isolated system in which

heat neither enters nor
leaves

Constant +/- +/- 0 A hard, pressure isolated

Volume(ΔV) system like a bomb
calorimeter
(isochoric)

Constant +/ – Enthalpy − p ΔV Most processes occur in

pressure constant external pressure
(isobaric)
 Isothermal 0 +/- -/+ There is no change of
temperature like a
temperature bath

Second Law Of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics put restrictions upon the direction of heat transfer and
achievable efficiencies of heat engines. The first law of thermodynamics states that the
energy of the universe remains constant, though energy can be exchanged between system
and surroundings, it can’t be created or destroyed.
While the first law of thermodynamics gives information about the quantity of energy
transfer is a process, it fails to provide any insights about the direction of energy transfer and
the quality of the energy. The first law cannot indicate whether a metallic bar of uniform
temperature can spontaneously become warmer at one end and cooler at others. All that the
law can state is that there will always be energy balance if the process occurs.
It is the second law of thermodynamics that provides the criterion for the feasibility of any
process. A process cannot occur unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.

Table of Content
 What is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?
 Second Law of Thermodynamics Equation
 Different Statements of the Law
 Kelvin-Planck Statement
 Clausius’s Statement
 Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind

What is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

The second law of thermodynamics states that any spontaneously occurring process will
always lead to an escalation in the entropy (S) of the universe. In simple words, the law
explains that an isolated system’s entropy will never decrease over time.
Nonetheless, in some cases where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium or going
through a reversible process, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings remains
constant. The second law is also known as the Law of Increased Entropy.

econd Law of Thermodynamics Equation

Mathematically, the second law of thermodynamics is represented as;
ΔSuniv > 0
where ΔSuniv is the change in the entropy of the universe.
Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the system or it is the measure of energy or chaos
within an isolated system. It can be considered as a quantitative index that describes the quality
of energy.
Meanwhile, there are few factors that cause an increase in entropy of the closed system. Firstly,
in a closed system, while the mass remains constant there is an exchange of heat with the
surroundings. This change in the heat content creates a disturbance in the system thereby
increasing the entropy of the system.
Secondly, internal changes may occur in the movements of the molecules of the system. This
leads to disturbances which further causes irreversibilities inside the system resulting in the
increment of its entropy.
Also Read: Third Law of Thermodynamics

Different Statements of The Law

There are two statements on the second law of thermodynamics which are;

1. Kelvin- Plank Statement

2. Clausius Statement

Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for a heat engine to produce a network in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat
only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.
Exceptions:
If Q2 =0 (i.e., Wnet = Q1, or efficiency=1.00), the heat engine produces work in a complete cycle
by exchanging heat with only one reservoir, thus violating the Kelvin-Planck statement.
Also Read: Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

Clausius’s Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle that can transfer heat from a colder
body to warmer without consuming any work.
In other words, unless the compressor is driven by an external source, the refrigerator won’t be
able to operate.

Heat pump and Refrigerator works on Clausius’s statement.

Both Clausius’s and Kelvin’s statements are equivalent i.e a device violating Clausius’s
statement will also violate Kelvin’s statement and vice versa.

In addition to these statements, a French physicist named Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot also
known as”father of thermodynamics,” basically introduced the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
However, as per his statement, he emphasized the use of caloric theory for the description of the
law. Caloric (self repellent fluid) relates to heat and Carnot observed that some caloric was lost in
the motion cycle.

Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind (PMM2)

The device that produces work while interacting with a single heat reservoir is known as a
perpetual motion machine of the second kind (PMM2). Also, a device that violates the second
law of thermodynamics is a perpetual motion machine of the second kind.

Thus, a heat engine has to interact with at least two thermal reservoirs at different temperatures
to produce work in a cycle. So long as there is a difference in temperature, motive power (i.e.,
work) can be produced. If the bodies with which the heat engine exchange heat are of finite heat
capacities, work will be produced by the heat engine until the temperature of the two bodies is
equalised.
Third Law Of Thermodynamics
What is the Third Law of Thermodynamics?
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at a
temperature of zero Kelvin (absolute zero) is equal to zero.
Entropy, denoted by ‘S’, is a measure of the disorder/randomness in a closed system. It is
directly related to the number of microstates (a fixed microscopic state that can be occupied by
a system) accessible by the system, i.e. the greater the number of microstates the closed system
can occupy, the greater its entropy. The microstate in which the energy of the system is at its
minimum is called the ground state of the system.
At a temperature of zero Kelvin, the following phenomena can be observed in a closed system:

 The system does not contain any heat.

 All the atoms and molecules in the system are at their lowest energy points.
Therefore, a system at absolute zero has only one accessible microstate – it’s ground state. As
per the third law of thermodynamics, the entropy of such a system is exactly zero.
This law was developed by the German chemist Walther Nernst between the years 1906 and
1912.

Alternate Statements of the 3rd Law of Thermodynamics

The Nernst statement of the third law of thermodynamics implies that it is not possible for a
process to bring the entropy of a given system to zero in a finite number of operations.
The American physical chemists Merle Randall and Gilbert Lewis stated this law in a different
manner: when the entropy of each and every element (in their perfectly crystalline states) is
taken as 0 at absolute zero temperature, the entropy of every substance must have a positive,
finite value. However, the entropy at absolute zero can be equal to zero, as is the case when a
perfect crystal is considered.
The Nernst-Simon statement of the 3rd law of thermodynamics can be written as: for a
condensed system undergoing an isothermal process that is reversible in nature, the associated
entropy change approaches zero as the associated temperature approaches zero.
Another implication of the third law of thermodynamics is: the exchange of energy between
two thermodynamic systems (whose composite constitutes an isolated system) is bounded.

Why is it Impossible to Achieve a Temperature of Zero Kelvin?

For an isentropic process that reduces the temperature of some substance by modifying some
parameter X to bring about a change from ‘X2’ to ‘X1’, an infinite number of steps must be
performed in order to cool the substance to zero Kelvin.
This is because the third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy change at absolute zero
temperatures is zero. The entropy v/s temperature graph for any isentropic process attempting
to cool a substance to absolute zero is illustrated below.

From the graph, it can be observed that – the lower the temperature associated with the
substance, the greater the number of steps required to cool the substance further. As the
temperature approaches zero kelvin, the number of steps required to cool the substance further
approaches infinity.
Mathematical Explanation of the Third Law
As per statistical mechanics, the entropy of a system can be expressed via the following
equation:
S – S0 = 𝑘B ln𝛀
Where,

 S is the entropy of the system.

 S0 is the initial entropy.
 𝑘B denotes the Boltzmann constant.
 𝛀 refers to the total number of microstates that are consistent with the system’s macroscopic
configuration.
Now, for a perfect crystal that has exactly one unique ground state, 𝛀 = 1. Therefore, the
equation can be rewritten as follows:
S – S0 = 𝑘B ln(1) = 0 [because ln(1) = 0]
When the initial entropy of the system is selected as zero, the following value of ‘S’ can be
obtained:
S–0=0⇒S=0
Thus, the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.

Applications of the Third Law of Thermodynamics

An important application of the third law of thermodynamics is that it helps in the calculation
of the absolute entropy of a substance at any temperature ‘T’. These determinations are based
on the heat capacity measurements of the substance. For any solid, let S0 be the entropy at 0 K
and S be the entropy at T K, then
ΔS = S – S0 = ∫T0CpdTT
According to the third law of thermodynamics, S0= 0 at 0 K,
S = ∫T0CpT dT
The value of this integral can be obtained by plotting the graph of Cp/ T versus T and then
finding the area of this curve from 0 to T. The simplified expression for the absolute entropy
of a solid at temperature T is as follows:
S = ∫T0CpT dT =∫T0Cp d lnT
= Cp ln T = 2.303 Cp log T
Here Cp is the heat capacity of the substance at constant pressure and this value is assumed to
be constant in the range of 0 to T K.
To learn more about the third law of thermodynamics and other laws of thermodynamics,
register with BYJU’S and download the mobile application on your smartphone.

Pascal's Law
Consider the image given below. The column is filled with water. The ends of each column A
and B have been blocked by a piston. If piston A is pressed, what do you think will happen to
piston B? Piston B is going to rise up. We have just applied Pascal’s law to our fluid pressure.
So what is Pascal’s law?
What is Pascal’s Law?
According to Pascal’s law,
The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or transmitted
evenly throughout the liquid in all directions.
The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid. Pascal also
found that the pressure at a point for a static fluid would be same across all planes passing
through that point in that fluid. Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s principle.
Related Articles:

 Hydraulic Machines And Their Applications

 Hydrostatic Pressure

Pascal Law Formula

Following is the formula of Pascal law:

F = PA

Where,

 F is the force applied

 P is the pressure transmitted
 A is the cross sectional area

Example of Pascal’s Law

Let us understand the working principle of Pascal’s law with an example.
A pressure of 2000 Pa is transmitted throughout a liquid column due a force being applied on
a piston. If the piston has an area of 0.1 m2, what is the force applied?
This can be calculated using Pascal’s Law formula.
F = PA
Here,
P = 2000 Pa = N/m2
A = 0.1 m2
Substituting values, we arrive at F = 200 N

Applications of Pascal’s Law

 Hydraulic Lift: The image you saw at the beginning of this article is a simple line diagram of a
hydraulic lift. This is the principle of working of hydraulic lift. It works based on the principle
of equal pressure transmission throughout a fluid (Pascal’s Law).
 The construction is such that a narrow cylinder (in this case A) is connected to a wider
cylinder (in this case B). They are fitted with airtight pistons on either end. The inside of the
cylinders are filled with an incompressible fluid.
 Pressure applied at piston A is transmitted equally to piston B without diminishing, on use of
an incompressible fluid. Piston B effectively serves as a platform to lift heavy objects like big
machines or vehicles. Few more applications include a hydraulic jack and hydraulic press and
forced amplification is used in the braking system of most cars.

Pascal’s Law Derivation

Consider an arbitrary right angled prismatic triangle in the liquid of density rho. Since the
prismatic element is very small, every point is considered to be at the same depth from the
liquid surface. The effect of gravity is also same at all these points.

Let ad, bd, and cd be the area of the faces ABFE, ABDC, and CDFE respectively.
Let P1, P2, and P3 be the pressure on the faces ABFE, ABDC, and CDFE.
Pressure exerts force which is normal to the surface. Let P1 exert force F1 on the surface
ABFE, P2 exert force F2 on the surface ABDC, and P3 exert force F3 on the surface CDFE.
Therefore, Force F1, F2, and F3 is given as:
F1 = P1 × area of ABFE = P1 ad
F2 = P2 × area of ABDC = P2 bd
F3 = P3 × area of CDFE = P3 cd
Also, sinθ=ba sinθ=ca
The net force on the prism will be zero since the prism is in equilibrium.
F1 sin θ = F2
F1 cos θ = F3
P1 ad ba = P2 bd (equ 1)
P1 ad ca = P3 cd (equ 2)
From 1 and 2
P1 = P2 and P1 = P3
∴ P1= P2= P3

Hydraulic Machines And Their Applications

These are machinery and tools that use fluid power for its functioning. In these machines,
a large amount of power is transferred through small tubes and hoses. Here, fluid is
transmitted throughout the machine to motors and hydraulic cylinders where it gets
pressurized and further transferred to the end effectors through control valves and tubes.

Pascal’s Law
According to Pascal’s law for the transmission of fluids, whenever external pressure is
applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted undiminished and equally
in all directions.
Following are a few related links that might interest you:

Fluid Pressure

Bernoulli’s Principle

Applications
 Hydraulic lifts

The hydraulic lift is an elevator which is operated by fluid pressure generated by a suitable
fluid. It is used to raise automobiles in service stations and garages. In a hydraulic lift, two
pistons are separated by the space filled with a liquid. A piston of small cross section A1 is
used to exert a force F1 directly on the liquid. The pressure P =F/A is transmitted throughout
the liquid to the larger cylinder attached to a larger piston of area A2, which results in an
upward force of P × A2.
Therefore, the piston is capable of supporting a large force (large weight of, say a car, or a
truck, placed on the platform).

By changing the force at A1, the platform can be moved up or down. Thus, the applied force
has been increased by a factor of A2/A1 and this factor is the mechanical advantage of the
device.
 Hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brake is an arrangement of the braking mechanism in which suitable brake fluid is
used to transfer pressure from the control mechanism to the brake mechanism. Hydraulic
brakes in automobiles also work on the same principle. When we apply a little force on the
pedal with our foot, the master piston moves inside the master cylinder, and the pressure
caused is transmitted through the brake oil to act on a piston of the larger area. A large force
acts on the piston and is pushed down expanding the brake shoes against brake lining. In this
way, a small force on the pedal produces a large retarding force on the wheels. An important
advantage of the system is that the pressure set up by pressing a pedal is transmitted equally
to all cylinders attached to the four wheels so that the braking effort is equal on all the
wheels.

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics, deals with the electromagnetic force that occurs
between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is one of the four
fundamental forces and exhibits electromagnetic fields such as magnetic fields, electric
fields, and light. It is the basic reason electrons bound to the nucleus and responsible for the
complete structure of the nucleus.

What is Electromagnetic Force?

Electromagnetic force ia a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically
charged particles. It acts between charged particles and is the combination of all magnetic
and electrical forces. The electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive.
Before the invention of electromagnetism, people or scientists used to think electricity and
magnetism are two different topics. The view has changed after James Clerk Maxwell
published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in the year 1873. The publication states
that the interaction of positive and negative charges are mediated by one force. This
observation laid a foundation for Electromagnetism. Later many scientists like Michael
Faraday, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz contributed their ideas in electromagnetism.

What is Electromagnetism?
Electromagnetism is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the current in the
conductor. When a conductor is electrically charged it generates magnetic lines of force of
conductor. For example, if current i.e., positive charges moving in a wire, it produces the
magnetic field along the wire and the direction of magnetic lines, and force can be determined
using Right Hand Rule. Refer to the image for a detailed explanation.
Explanation of Electromagnetism with an Example
Permanent Magnetic speakers commonly used in TV’s and Radios are perfect examples of
Electromagnetic devices. Let’s see the operation of these devices which are based on the
principle of electromagnetism. See the picture below.
In order to convert electrical waves into an audible sound, the speakers are designed. A metal
coil is attached to a permanent magnet and when current passes through the coil it generates a
magnetic field. The newly formed magnetic field is repelled by the permanent magnetic field
resulting in the vibrations. These vibrations are amplified by the cone-like structure causing the
sound. This is how speakers work based on electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic Induction
We have seen what happens when a conductor is electrically charged. Now, let’s see what
happens if we place conductor in between magnetic field.
When a conductor is placed or moved through the magnetic field it generates voltage i.e.,
electricity. This principle is called Electromagnetic Induction. The voltages generated will be
based on the speed of the conductor moving through the electric field. Faster the speed of the
conductor, the greater the induced electricity or voltage.

Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law states that whenever there is relative motion between magnetic field and
conductor, the flux linkage changes and this change in flux induces a voltage across the coil.

Explanation with an example

DC Generator works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. It is a
system that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

In the above figure, A rectangular conductor width sides are placed in between a magnetic field.
When the rectangular conductor rotates in between magnetics, it cuts magnetic field thereby
causing Electromagnetic field (e m f).

Frequently Asked Questions on Electromagnetism

What is Electromagnetism?
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that involves the study of electromagnetic force. It is a
type of interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles.

Define electromagnetic force?

The electromagnetic force is a force that acts between charged particles and is a combination of
electrical and magnetic forces.

State Faraday’s Law?

Faraday’s Law states that whenever there is relative motion between magnetic field and
conductor, the flux linkage changes and this change in flux induces a voltage across the coil.

Define electromagnetic induction?

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force across an electrical
conductor in a changing magnetic field.

List a few properties of the electromagnetic wave?

A few properties of electromagnetic waves are:

 Electromagnetic waves are propagated by oscillating waves electric and magnetic waves
oscillating at right angles to each other
 They exhibit the properties of interference and diffraction
 They travel at a speed of 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum.
 They are transverse waves.
 The relationship between the wavelength (λ) and frequency (c) of an electromagnetic
wave is given as follows:
c=vλ

List a few applications of electromagnetism?

A few applications of electromagnetism are:

 Electromagnetism serves as a fundamental working principle for many of the home

appliances in household applications.
 The Maglev trains or high-speed trains work on the principle of electromagnetism.
 Electromagnetic radiations are used in the communication system to transfer data from
the source to the receiver
 In industries, starting from small instruments to large power equipment,
electromagnetism is used at least at one stage of their working.