Math Formulas

Algebra

Special Products
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 − 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
(𝑥 − 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
(𝑥 + 𝑦)4 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑦 4
(𝑥 − 𝑦)4 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑦 4

Factoring Formulas
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦)
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2
𝑥 + 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
3

𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑥 4 − 𝑦 4 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )

Exponents and Radicals

𝑥𝑚
𝑥 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚+𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛
𝑥𝑛
1
(𝑥 𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑛 𝑥 −𝑛 =
𝑥𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥𝑛
(𝑥𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 ( ) = 𝑛
𝑦 𝑦
1 𝑚 𝑛 𝑚
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = √𝑥
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = √𝑥 𝑚 = ( √𝑥 )
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑥 √𝑥
√𝑥𝑦 = √𝑥 ∙ √𝑦 √ =𝑛
𝑦 √𝑦

Quadratic Formula
If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

[1]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Inequalities and Absolute value
If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐, then 𝑎 < 𝑐.
If 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐.
If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐.
If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐.
If 𝑎 > 0, then
|𝑥| = 𝑎 means 𝑥 = 𝑎 or 𝑥 = −𝑎.
|𝑥| < 𝑎 means −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎.
|𝑥| > 𝑎 means 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑎.

Summation Formulas
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 2)
∑𝑘 =
2
𝑘=1
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
∑ 𝑘2 =
6
𝑘=1
𝑛
𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
∑ 𝑘3 =
4
𝑘=1
𝑛
6𝑛5 + 15𝑛4 + 10𝑛3 − 𝑛
∑ 𝑘4 =
30
𝑘=1
Where 𝑛 is a natural number.

Arithmetic sequences and series

𝑛th term, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝑛 𝑛
Sum of 𝑛 terms, 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 ) or 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2 2

Geometric sequences and series

𝑛th term, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑎1 (1−𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎1 (𝑟 𝑛 −1)
Sum of 𝑛 terms, 𝑆𝑛 = or 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟 𝑟−1

Infinite geometric series

1 𝑎
Converges if |𝑟| < 1, 𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟

Diverges if |𝑟| > 1, 𝑆∞ = ∞

[2]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Harmonic sequence

Reciprocals of arithmetic sequence.

Mean of two real numbers 𝒂 and 𝒃

𝑎+𝑏
Arithmetic mean =
2

Geometric mean = ±√𝑎𝑏

Binomial Expansion Formula

𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
𝑛! 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 𝑏𝑘 = ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 𝑏𝑘
(𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘! 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑛−2 + ( ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + ( ) 𝑏 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛−2 𝑛−1 𝑛

Graphs of Basic Functions

Linear functions: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

Power functions: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒏

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3

[3]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 𝒏
Root functions: 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙

3
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
𝟏
Reciprocal functions: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒏

1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 𝑥2

Absolute value function

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|

Greatest integer function

𝑓(𝑥) = ⟦𝑥⟧

[4]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
Plane Analytic Geometry

Distance 𝒅 between two points

𝑷𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑷𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )

𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦2 )2

Slope 𝒎 of line joining two points

𝑷𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑷𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚 = tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Midpoint 𝑴(𝒙, 𝒚) of 𝑷𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and
𝑷𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑥= ,𝑦 =
2 2
General equation of a line
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
Point-Slope form of a line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
Intercept form of a line
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
Where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts, respectively (𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0).

Slope-Intercept form of a line

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Distance from a point 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) to a line 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪 = 𝟎
|𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶|
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
Distance between parallel lines 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 and 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐
|𝑏1 − 𝑏2 |
𝑑=
√1 + 𝑚2
Area of a triangle given three vertices (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ), (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ), 𝐚𝐧𝐝 (𝒙𝟑 , 𝒚𝟑 )
1
𝐴 = |𝑥1 (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 ) − 𝑥2 (𝑦1 − 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )|
2
or
[5]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 1
𝐴 = |𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 |
2
Angle 𝜶 between two lines having slopes 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
tan 𝛼 =
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
Lines are parallel or coincident → 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
1
Lines are perpendicular → 𝑚1 = −
𝑚2

Conic Sections
The general equation is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.

Circles
The simplified general equation is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.

Standard form center at the origin is

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2.
Standard form center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 .

Regular Parabolas
1
Length of latus rectum or focal chord is |𝑎|.
1
Focal distance from the vertex is 𝑝 = .
4𝑎

a) Horizontal Axis of Symmetry (𝐴 = 0):

The simplified general equation is
𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 or 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.
The standard form with vertex at origin is 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 2 .
The standard form with vertex at (ℎ, 𝑘) is 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + ℎ.
Focus is at (ℎ + 𝑝, 𝑘).
Directrix is 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝑝.
Axis of symmetry is 𝑦 = 𝑘.

[6]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
b) Vertical Axis of Symmetry (𝐶 = 0):
The simplified general equation is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 or 𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.
The standard form with vertex at the origin is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 .
The standard form with vertex at (ℎ, 𝑘) is 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘.
Focus is at (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑝).
Directrix is 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑝.
Axis of Symmetry is 𝑥 = ℎ.

Regular Ellipses
2𝑏²
Length of one of the latera recta or focal chords is | 𝑎
|.
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
Length of major axis is 2𝑎. Length of minor axis is 2𝑏.
The simplified general equation is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.
a) Horizontal Major Axis:
𝑥2 𝑦2
The standard form with center at the origin is 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1.
(𝑥 −ℎ)² (𝑦 −𝑘)²
The standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is + = 1.
𝑎² 𝑏²
Vertices are at (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘)
Foci are at (ℎ ± 𝑐, 𝑘)

b) Vertical Major Axis:

𝑦2 𝑥2
The standard form with center at the origin is + = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏2
(𝑦 −𝑘)² (𝑥 −ℎ)²
The standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is 𝑎²
+ 𝑏²
= 1.
Vertices are at (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎)
Foci are at (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑐)

Regular Hyperbolas
2𝑏2
Length of one of the latera recta or focal chords is | 𝑎
|.
𝑐² = 𝑎² + 𝑏 2
Length of transverse axis is 2𝑎. Length of conjugate axis is 2𝑏.
The simplified general equation is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.
a) Horizontal Transverse Axis:
𝑥2 𝑦2
The standard form with center at the origin is 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1.
(𝑥 − ℎ)² (𝑦 − 𝑘)²
The standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is − = 1.
𝑎² 𝑏²
Vertices are at (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘).
Foci are at (ℎ ± 𝑐, 𝑘).
𝑏
Asymptotes are 𝑦 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘.
𝑎

[7]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 b) Vertical Transverse Axis:
𝑦2 𝑥2
The standard form with center at the origin is − = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏2
2
(𝑦− 𝑘)² (𝑥 − ℎ)
The standard form with center at (ℎ, 𝑘) is − = 1.
𝑎² 𝑏2
Vertices are at (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎).
Foci are at (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑐).
𝑎
Asymptotes are 𝑦 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘.
𝑏

Polar Coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽)

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑦
𝑟= √𝑥 2 + 𝑦2, 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
Coordinates of Rotated Axes
The coordinates of point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) about the rotated axes 𝑋 and 𝑌
𝑥 = 𝑋 cos 𝜃 − 𝑌 sin 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑋 sin 𝜃 + 𝑌 cos 𝜃
𝑋 = 𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑦 sin 𝜃 , 𝑌 = −𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃
Rotated Conic Sections
The transformed equation about the 𝑋 and 𝑌 axes can be expressed as
𝐴′ 𝑋 2 + 𝐵′ 𝑋𝑌 + 𝐶 ′ 𝑌 2 + 𝐷 ′ 𝑋 + 𝐸 ′ 𝑌 + 𝐹 ′ = 0.

Where 𝐴′ = 𝐴 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝐵 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶 sin2 𝜃

𝐵′ = 𝐵 cos 2𝜃 − (𝐴 − 𝐶) sin 2𝜃

𝐶 ′ = 𝐴 sin2 𝜃 − 𝐵 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶 cos2 𝜃

𝐷 ′ = 𝐷 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸 sin 𝜃
𝐸 ′ = 𝐸 cos 𝜃 − 𝐷 sin 𝜃
𝐹′ = 𝐹

To eliminate the 𝑥𝑦-term in the conic equation, rotate the axes through the acute
angle 𝜃 that satisfies
𝐴−𝐶
cot 2𝜃 =
𝐵

[8]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
Trigonometric Formulas and Identities

Reciprocal
1 1
sin𝜃 = csc𝜃 =
csc𝜃 sin𝜃
1 1
cos𝜃 = sec𝜃 =
sec𝜃 cos𝜃
1 1
tan𝜃 = cot𝜃 =
cot𝜃 tan𝜃

Pythagorean
sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1 tan2 𝜃 + 1 = sec 2 𝜃 cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = csc 2 𝜃
Ratio
sin𝜃 cos𝜃
tan𝜃 = cot𝜃 =
cos𝜃 sin𝜃
Negative Angle
sin(−𝜃) = −sin𝜃 csc(−𝜃) = −csc𝜃
cos(−𝜃) = cos𝜃 sec(−𝜃) = sec𝜃
tan(−𝜃) = −tan𝜃 cot(−𝜃) = −cot𝜃
Co-function
𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − 𝜃) = cos𝜃 csc ( − 𝜃) = sec𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
cos ( − 𝜃) = sin𝜃 sec ( − 𝜃) = csc𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
tan ( − 𝜃) = cot𝜃 cot ( − 𝜃) = tan𝜃
2 2
Addition and Subtraction

sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin𝛼 cos𝛽 + cos𝛼 sin𝛽 sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin𝛼 cos𝛽 − cosα sin𝛽

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos𝛼 cos𝛽 − sin𝛼 sin𝛽 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos𝛼 cos𝛽 + sin𝛼 sin𝛽
tan𝛼 + tan𝛽 tan𝛼 − tan𝛽
tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) = tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 − tan𝛼 tan𝛽 1 + tanα tanβ
cot 𝛼 cot 𝛽 − 1 cot 𝛼 cot 𝛽 + 1
cot(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cot(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
cot 𝛽 + cot 𝛼 cot 𝛽 − cot 𝛼

[9]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Double-angle

sin(2𝜃) = 2sin𝜃 cos𝜃 cos(2𝜃) = cos 2 𝜃 – sin2 𝜃

2tan𝜃
tan(2𝜃) = = 2cos2 𝜃 – 1
1 − tan2 𝜃
= 1 – 2sin²𝜃
Half-angle
𝜃
𝜃 1− cos𝜃 + if is in quadrant 𝐼 or 𝐼𝐼
sin(2 ) = ±√ 2
,( 𝜃
2
)
− if is in quadrant 𝐼𝐼𝐼 or 𝐼𝑉
2

𝜃
𝜃 1+cos𝜃 + if is in quadrant 𝐼 or 𝐼𝑉
cos( ) = ±√ ,( 𝜃
2
)
2 2 − if is in quadrant 𝐼𝐼 or 𝐼𝐼𝐼
2

𝜃
𝜃 1− cos𝜃 + if is in quadrant 𝐼 or 𝐼𝐼𝐼
tan( ) = ±√ ,( 2
𝜃
)
2 1+cos𝜃 − if is in quadrant 𝐼𝐼 or 𝐼𝑉
2
𝜃 sin𝜃 1 −cos𝜃
tan(2 ) = 1+cos𝜃
= sin𝜃
= csc 𝜃 − cot 𝜃
Power Reducing
1 − cos(2𝜃) 1 + cos(2𝜃) 1 − cos(2𝜃)
sin2 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 = tan2 𝜃 =
2 2 1 + cos(2𝜃)
Product-to-Sum
1 1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)] sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2 2
1 1
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)] cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2 2

Sum-to-Product
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 2 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 2 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 2 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

Law of Sines
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
or
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

[10]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Law of Cosines
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
Law of Tangents
1 1 1
𝑎 − 𝑏 tan 2 (𝐴 − 𝐵) 𝑐 − 𝑎 tan 2 (𝐶 − 𝐴) 𝑏 − 𝑐 tan 2 (𝐵 − 𝐶)
= = =
𝑎 + 𝑏 tan 1 (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑐 + 𝑎 tan 1 (𝐶 + 𝐴) 𝑏 + 𝑐 tan 1 (𝐵 + 𝐶)
2 2 2

Mollweide’s Formula
𝐴−𝐵
𝑎 + 𝑏 cos ( 2 )
=
𝑐 𝐶
sin ( )
2

𝐴−𝐵
𝑎 − 𝑏 sin ( 2 )
=
𝑐 𝐶
cos ( )
2

Heron’s Formula

The area of a triangle given all sides is

𝐴 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

1
where 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐).
2

[11]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
Spherical Trigonometry

The area 𝐾 of a spherical triangle with spherical excess 𝐸 on a sphere of radius 𝑅 is

defined by the equation

𝜋𝑅 2 𝐸
𝐾=
180°
where 𝐸 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 − 180°

Napier’s Rules for Right Spherical Triangle:

1. Sin-Co-Op Rule
The sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the cosines of its opposite
parts.
sin 𝑎 = cos 𝐴̅ cos 𝑐̅
sin 𝑏 = cos 𝐵̅ cos 𝑐̅
sin 𝑐̅ = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏
sin 𝐴̅ = cos 𝑎 cos 𝐵̅
sin 𝐵̅ = cos 𝐴̅ cos 𝑏
2. Sin-Tan-Ad Rule
The sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the tangents of its adjacent
parts.
sin 𝑎 = tan 𝑏 tan 𝐵̅
sin 𝑏 = tan 𝑎 tan 𝐴̅
sin 𝑐̅ = tan 𝐴̅ tan 𝐵̅
sin 𝐴̅ = tan 𝑏 tan 𝑐̅
sin 𝐵 = tan 𝑎 tan 𝑐̅
where
𝐴̅ = 90° − 𝐴
𝐵̅ = 90° − 𝐵
𝑐̅ = 90° − 𝑐

[12]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Sine Law
sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶

Cosine Law
cos 𝑎 = cos 𝑏 cos 𝑐 + sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐 cos 𝐴
cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑐 + sin 𝑎 sin 𝑐 cos 𝐵
cos 𝑐 = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 + sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 cos 𝐶

cos 𝐴 = cos 𝐵 cos 𝐶 + sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 cos 𝑎

cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐶 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐶 cos 𝑏
cos 𝐶 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 cos 𝑐

Differentiation Formulas

Basic differentiation rules

𝑑
D1. Constant Function Rule 𝑎=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
D2. Identity Function Rule 𝑥=1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑛 𝑑𝑢
D3. Power Rule 𝑢 = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D4. Constant Multiple Rule 𝑎𝑢 = 𝑎 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
D5. Sum and Difference Rule (𝑢 ± 𝑣 ± 𝑤 ± ⋯ ) = ± ± ±⋯
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢 ∙ +𝑣 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D6. Product Rule
𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑢𝑣𝑤 = 𝑢𝑣 ∙ + 𝑢𝑤 ∙ + 𝑣𝑤 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 ∙ −𝑢∙
D7. Quotient Rule ( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣²
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
D8. Chain Rule = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

[13]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
D9. 𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑢 ln(𝑏) ∙ ,∀ 𝑏 > 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
D10. 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑢 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
D11. ln(𝑢) = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
D12. log 𝑏 (𝑢) = ∙ , ∀ 𝑏 > 0, & 𝑏 ≠ 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 ln 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
Trigonometric Functions
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D13. sin(𝑢) = cos(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D14. cos(𝑢) = −sin(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D15. tan(𝑢) = sec 2 (𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D16. cot(𝑢) = −csc 2(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D17. sec(𝑢) = sec(𝑢) tan(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
D18. csc(𝑢) = −csc(𝑢) cot(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝜋 𝜋
D19. sin−1 (𝑢) = ∙ , (− < sin−1 𝑢 < )
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 2 2

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 , (0 < cos −1 𝑢 < 𝜋)

D20. cos−1(𝑢) = − ∙
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝜋 𝜋
D21. tan−1 (𝑢) = 2 ∙ , (− < tan−1 𝑢 < )
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑥 2 2

[14]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 ,(0 < cot −1 𝑢 < 𝜋)
D22. cot −1 (𝑢) = − 2 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢 + if 0 < sec −1 𝑢 <
2
D23. sec −1(𝑢) = ∙ =± ,( 𝜋 )
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑢√𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 − if < sec −1 𝑢 < 𝜋
2

,
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢 𝜋
D24. csc −1 (𝑢) = − ∙ =∓ − if 0 < csc −1 𝑢 <
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑢√𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 ( ) 2
𝜋
+ if − < csc −1 𝑢 < 0
2

Hyperbolic Functions
D25. 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
sinh(𝑢) = cosh(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D26. 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
cosh(𝑢) = sinh(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D27. 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
tanh(𝑢) = sech2(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D28. 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
coth(𝑢) = −csch2 (𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D29. 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
sech(𝑢) = −sech(𝑢) tanh(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D30. 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
csch(𝑢) = −csch(𝑢) coth(𝑢) ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
D31. 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
sinh−1(𝑢) = ∙
𝑑𝑥 √𝑢2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
D32. 𝑑 ±1 𝑑𝑢 + if cosh−1 (𝑢) > 0, 𝑢 > 1
cosh−1(𝑢) = ∙ ,( )
𝑑𝑥 √𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 − if cosh−1 (𝑢) < 0, 𝑢 > 1

D33. 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 , (−1 < 𝑢 < 1)

tanh−1(𝑢) = 2
∙
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
D34. 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 , (𝑢 > 1 or 𝑢 < −1)
coth−1 (𝑢) = 2
∙
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
D35. 𝑑 ∓1 𝑑𝑢 − if sech−1(𝑢) > 0,0 < 𝑢 > 1
sech−1(𝑢) = ∙ ,( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑢√1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
2 + if sech−1(𝑢) < 0,0 < 𝑢 > 1

[15]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 D36. 𝑑 −1 𝑑𝑢 , (− if 𝑢 > 0, + if 𝑢 < 0)
csch−1 (𝑢) = ∙
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
∓1 𝑑𝑢
= ∙
𝑢√1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
Integration Formulas

Basic Integration Rules

I1. ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝐶

I2. ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝐶

I3. ∫(𝑢 ± 𝑣 ± 𝑤 ± ⋯ ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑤 𝑑𝑥 ± ⋯

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

𝑢𝑛+1
I4. ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 , ∀ 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
𝑏𝑢
I5. ∫ 𝑏 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ,∀ 𝑏 > 0 & 𝑏 ≠ 1
ln 𝑏

I6. ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶

𝑑𝑢
I7. ∫ = ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
𝑢

I8. ∫ ln(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢(ln|𝑢| − 1) + 𝐶

𝑢(ln|𝑢| − 1)
I9. ∫ log 𝑏 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 ,∀ 𝑏 > 0 & 𝑏 ≠ 1
ln 𝑏
Trigonometric Functions

I10. ∫ sin(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = − cos(𝑢) + 𝐶

I11. ∫ cos(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = sin(𝑢) + 𝐶

I12. ∫ tan(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = −ln|cos(𝑢)| + 𝐶 = ln|sec(𝑢)| + 𝐶

[16]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
I13. ∫ cot(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ln|sin(𝑢)| + 𝐶

I14. ∫ sec(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ln|sec(𝑢) + tan(𝑢)| + 𝐶 = ln |tan (𝑢) + 𝜋| + 𝐶

2 4

I15. ∫ csc(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ln|csc(𝑢) − cot(𝑢)| + 𝐶 = ln |tan (𝑢)| + 𝐶

2
I16. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = tan(𝑢) + 𝐶

I17. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = − cot(𝑢) + 𝐶

I18. ∫ sec(𝑢) tan(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = sec(𝑢) + 𝐶

I19. ∫ csc(𝑢) cot(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = − csc(𝑢) + 𝐶

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

I20. ∫ sin−1(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 sin−1(𝑢) + √1 − 𝑢2 + 𝐶

I21. ∫ cos −1(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 cos −1 (𝑢) − √1 − 𝑢2 + 𝐶

1
I22. ∫ tan−1 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 tan−1 (𝑢) − ln|𝑢2 + 1| + 𝐶
2
1
I23. ∫ cot −1 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 cot −1(𝑢) + ln|𝑢2 + 1| + 𝐶
2

I24. ∫ sec −1(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 sec −1(𝑢) − ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 1| + 𝐶

I25. ∫ csc −1(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 csc −1(𝑢) + ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 1| + 𝐶

Involving (𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 ) and (𝒖𝟐 ± 𝒂𝟐 ) Forms

I26. 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
∫ = tan−1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑢2 +𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎

I27. 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢−𝑎
∫ = ln | |+𝐶
𝑢2 − 𝑎2 2𝑎 𝑢 + 𝑎
I28. 𝑑𝑢
∫ = ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
√𝑢2 + 𝑎2

[17]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 I29. 𝑑𝑢
∫ = ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
√𝑢2 − 𝑎2
I30. 𝑑𝑢 𝑢
∫ = sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
√𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎

I31. 𝑢 𝑎2 𝑢
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 = √𝑎2 − 𝑢2 + sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
2 2 𝑎
I32. 𝑢 𝑎2
∫ √𝑢2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑢 = √𝑢2 + 𝑎2 + ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
2 2
I33. 𝑢 𝑎2
∫ √𝑢2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑢 = √𝑢2 − 𝑎2 − ln |𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
2 2
Integration by Parts

I34. ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

I35. ∫ sinh(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = cosh(𝑢)

I36. ∫ cosh(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = sinh(𝑢)

I37. ∫ tanh(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ln cosh(𝑢)

I38. ∫ coth(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ln sinh(𝑢)

I39. ∫ sech(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = sin−1[tanh(𝑢)] = 2 tan−1 (𝑒 𝑢 )

I40. ∫ csch(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = ln tanh (𝑢) = − coth−1 (𝑒 𝑢 )

2

I41. ∫ sech2 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = tanh(𝑢)

I42. ∫ csch2(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = −coth(𝑢)

I43. ∫ tanh2 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 − tanh(𝑢)

I44. ∫ coth2(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 − coth(𝑢)

[18]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 I45. sinh(2𝑢) 𝑢 1
∫ sinh2(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = − = [sinh(𝑢) cosh(𝑢) − 𝑢]
4 2 2
I46. sinh(2𝑢) 𝑢 1
∫ cosh2 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = + = [sinh(𝑢) cosh(𝑢) + 𝑢]
4 2 2
I47. ∫ sech(𝑢) tanh(𝑢) = − sech(𝑢)

I48. ∫ csch(𝑢) coth(𝑢) = − csch(𝑢)

Wallis’ Formula
2 2
𝜋 (𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 3) ⋯ (or) (𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 3) ⋯ (or)
2 1 1 ∙𝛼
∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
0
2
(𝑚 + 𝑛 )(𝑚 + 𝑛 − 2) ⋯ (or)
1
𝝅
where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are nonnegative integers, 𝜶 = 𝟐
if both 𝒎 and 𝒏 are even, and 𝜶 = 𝟏
if either one or both are odd values.

Arc Length

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑑𝑦

Radius of Curvature

3
𝑑𝑦 2 2
[1 + ( ) ]
𝑑𝑥
𝑟=
𝑑2𝑦
| |
𝑑𝑥 2

Center of Curvature 𝑪(𝒙𝒄 , 𝒚𝒄 ) at point 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 )

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2
[1 + ( ) ] 1+( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑥𝑐 = 𝑥1 − = 𝑥1 +
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2

[19]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
1+( ) [1 + ( ) ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑦1 + = 𝑦1 −
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2

First Order Differential Equations

I. Separable
𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
DE: 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution: ∫ 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶
II. Homogeneous`
𝑀(𝑟𝑥, 𝑟𝑦) = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑁(𝑟𝑥, 𝑟𝑦) = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
DE: 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution: Let 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑣, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑣. Solve as separable, then
𝑦
substitute back 𝑣 = 𝑥 .
III. Exact
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
DE: 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑦) and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑦 +
ℎ(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑦) and ℎ(𝑥) can be found by comparison of these two
possible solutions.
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶
IV. Non-exact
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
≠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
DE: 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution: Reduce the equation to exact by multiplying
𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦)[𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0]
1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
1. If 𝑁 ( 𝜕𝑦 − 𝜕𝑥 ) = ℎ(𝑥), then 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 ∫ ℎ(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 .
1 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
2. If 𝑀 ( 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦
) = 𝑔(𝑦), then 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 .
or

1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
If ( − ) = 𝑔(𝑦), then 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 .
𝑀 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1
3. If 𝑀 = 𝑦 ℎ(𝑥𝑦) and 𝑁 = 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥𝑦), then 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = .
𝑥𝑀−𝑦𝑁
[20]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 After multiplying the equation with 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦), then you can
solve it as exact.
V. Linear
DE: 𝑦 ′ + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
Solution: 𝐼(𝑥) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝐼(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑦=
𝐼(𝑥)
VI. Bernoulli Equation
DE: 𝑦 ′ + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑦 𝑛
Solution: Let 𝑧 = 𝑦1−𝑛 .
𝑧 ′ + 𝑃𝑟 (𝑥) 𝑧 = 𝑄𝑟 (𝑥)
where: 𝑃𝑟 (𝑥) = (1 − 𝑛)𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄𝑟 (𝑥) = (1 − 𝑛)𝑄(𝑥).
𝐼(𝑥) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑟 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝐼(𝑥) 𝑄𝑟 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑦1−𝑛 =
𝐼(𝑥)

Higher Order Differential Equations:

Elementary Differential Equations

𝑑𝑛𝑦
DE: 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
= ∅(𝑥)
Solution: Simply integrating both sides to the 𝑛 times.
Linear Homogeneous Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients
DE: 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 0
Solution: Convert to auxiliary equation
𝑎𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑟 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑟 + 𝑎0 = 0
and find the roots.
Roots of Auxiliary Equation General Solution

1. 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 both real and distinct. 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑟2 𝑥

Special case 𝑟2 = −𝑟1 . 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cosh(𝑟1 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sinh(𝑟1 𝑥)

2. 𝑟1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑟2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥) + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥)
are complex numbers.

3. Repeated real roots 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = ⋯ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 𝑟1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑥

[21]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations – Reduction of Order
DE: 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥)
Solution: Convert to differential operator form
∅(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑎0 (𝐷 − 𝑟1 )(𝐷 − 𝑟2 ) … (𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 )𝑦
Let (𝐷 − 𝑟2 ) … (𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 )𝑦 = 𝑧
𝑎0 (𝐷 − 𝑟1 )𝑧 = ∅(𝑥)
𝑑𝑧
𝑎0 − 𝑎0 𝑟1 𝑧 = ∅(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
This resulting equation is first order whose solution takes
the form 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥).
Substitute this back to the equation to give
(𝐷 − 𝑟2 )(𝐷 − 𝑟3 ) … (𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 )𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
and let (𝐷 − 𝑟3 ) … (𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 )𝑦 = 𝑣 which now reduces to
(𝐷 − 𝑟2 )𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥).
This is again linear of the first order which will have a
solution 𝑣 = ℎ(𝑥).
Repeat the procedure all over until the last factor is reduced,
that is, (𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 )𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥)
which will finally give the particular integral 𝑌𝑝 .
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑐
Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations – Method of Undetermined
Coefficients
DE: 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥)
(𝑛)

Solution:
Form of ∅(𝒙) Form of 𝒀𝒑
Constant 𝑘 𝐴
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1
Polynomial 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑜 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑥 + 𝑀
𝑘 sin(𝑎𝑥) or 𝑘 cos(𝑎𝑥) 𝐴 cos(𝑎𝑥) + 𝐵 sin(𝑎𝑥)
𝑎𝑥
𝑘𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑎𝑥
Combinations: 𝑌𝑝 = 𝑌𝑝1 + 𝑌𝑝2 + ⋯
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑐 .
Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations – Method of Variation of
Parameters
DE: 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥)
(𝑛)

Solution: 𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑦1 + 𝐶2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑌𝑝 = 𝑈1 𝑦1 + 𝑈2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑈𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑈1′ , 𝑈2′ , … , 𝑈𝑛′ are obtained by solving simultaneously the
following set of equations:
𝑈1′ 𝑦1 +𝑈2′ 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑈𝑛′ 𝑦𝑛 = 0,
[22]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 𝑈1′ 𝑦1′ +𝑈2′ 𝑦2′ + ⋯ + 𝑈𝑛′ 𝑦𝑛′ = 0,
⋮
∅(𝑥)
𝑈1′ 𝑦1 (𝑛−1) + 𝑈2′ 𝑦2 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑈𝑛′ 𝑦𝑛 (𝑛−1) = .
𝑎𝑛
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑐 .
DE: For Second Order DE
𝑎2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥)
Solution: 𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑦1 + 𝐶2 𝑦2
𝑌𝑝 = 𝑈1 𝑦1 + 𝑈2 𝑦2
0 𝑦2 𝑦1 0
[∅(𝑥) ] [ ∅(𝑥)]
𝑦2 ′ 𝑦1 ′
𝑈1 ′ = 𝑈2 ′ =
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦1 𝑦2
[ ′ ] [ ′ ]
𝑦1 𝑦2′ 𝑦1 𝑦2′
∅(𝑥) ∅(𝑥)
𝑦2 𝑦1
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑌𝑝 = −𝑦1 ∫ 𝑤(𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦2 ∫ 𝑤(𝑦 ,𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 ,𝑦2 ) 1 2
𝑦1 𝑦2
The Wronskain 𝑤(𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) = [𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ ] ≠ 0
1 2
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑐 .
Cauchy-Euler Differential Equation
DE: 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥)
Solution: Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑟 . Take the derivatives up to the 𝑛 times, then
substitute to the equation to solve for the auxiliary equation
and use table below for the complimentary solution.
Roots of Auxiliary Equation Complimentary Solution

1. 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 both real and distinct. 𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑟1 + 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑟2

2. 𝑟1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑟2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑎 cos(𝑏 ln 𝑥) + 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑎 sin(𝑏 ln 𝑥)
are complex numbers.

3. Repeated real roots 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = ⋯ 𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑟1 + 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑟1 ln 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑟1 (ln 𝑥)𝑛−1

Combinations: 𝑌𝑐 = 𝑌𝑐1 + 𝑌𝑐2 + ⋯
Use the desired method in solving 𝑌𝑝 .
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑐 .
DE: For Second Order DE
𝑎2 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎1 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥).
Solution: Find the complimentary solution 𝑌𝑐 by using the auxiliary
equation
𝑎2 𝑟 2 + (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )𝑟 + 𝑎0 = 0.
Use the method of variation of parameters to find 𝑌𝑝 .
The solution is 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑝 + 𝑌𝑐 .
[23]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 Table of Common Laplace Transforms
LT# 𝒇(𝒙) 𝓛{𝒇(𝒙)} = 𝑭(𝒔)
1
LT1 1 (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠
1
LT2 𝑥 (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠2
(𝑛 − 1)!
LT3 𝑥 𝑛−1 (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … ) (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠𝑛
1 −
3
LT4 √𝑥 √𝜋𝑠 2 (𝑠 > 0)
2
1 1
LT5 −
√ 𝜋𝑠 2 (𝑠 > 0)
√𝑥
1 1 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 … (2𝑛 − 1)√𝜋 −𝑛−1
LT6 𝑥 𝑛−2 (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … ) 𝑠 2 (𝑠 > 0)
2𝑛
1
LT7 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (𝑠 > 𝑎)
𝑠−𝑎
𝑎
LT8 sin(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
𝑠
LT9 cos(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
𝑎
LT10 sinh(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > |𝑎|)
𝑠 − 𝑎2
2
𝑠
LT11 cosh(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > |𝑎|)
𝑠 − 𝑎2
2
2𝑎𝑠
LT12 𝑥 sin(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > 0)
(𝑠 + 𝑎2 )2
2

𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
LT13 𝑥 cos(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > 0)
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2
(𝑛 − 1)!
LT14 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … ) (𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑏
LT15 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥) (𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2
𝑠−𝑎
LT16 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥) (𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2
2𝑎3
LT17 sin(𝑎𝑥) − 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑎𝑥) (𝑠 > 0)
(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )2 + 𝑏 2
1 −1 1
LT18 𝑒 𝑎
𝑎 1 + 𝑎𝑠
1 𝑎𝑥 1
LT19 (𝑒 − 1)
𝑎 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝑥 1
LT20 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎 𝑠(1 − 𝑎𝑠)
1 𝑥 1
LT21 𝑥𝑒 −𝑎
𝑎 2 (1 + 𝑎𝑠)2

[24]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering
 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 1
LT22
𝑎−𝑏 (𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)
𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑒 −𝑏
− 1
LT23
𝑎−𝑏 (1 + 𝑎𝑠)(1 + 𝑏𝑠)
𝑠
LT24 (1 + 𝑎𝑥)𝑒 𝑎𝑥
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2
1 −
𝑥 𝑠
LT25 (𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑒 𝑎
(1 + 𝑎𝑠)2
𝑎3
𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑥 𝑠
LT26
𝑎−𝑏 (𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)
𝑥 𝑥
𝑎𝑒 𝑏 − 𝑏𝑒 −𝑎
− 𝑠
LT27
𝑎−𝑏 (1 + 𝑎𝑠)(1 + 𝑏𝑠)
1 𝑎𝑥 1
LT28 (𝑒 − 1 − 𝑎𝑥) 2
𝑎2 𝑠 (𝑠 − 𝑎)
2𝑎2
LT29 sin2 (𝑎𝑥)
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 4𝑎2 )
2𝑎2
LT30 sinh2 (𝑎𝑥)
𝑠(𝑠 2 − 4𝑎2 )

[25]
Engr. Joel T. Lao, CE, M.ASCE
Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies
College of Mathematics and Engineering