Model Rocket Aerodynamics
Some Terminology
Free stream – the flow far away S – planform area (m2)
from a moving body µ – kinematic viscosity (kg/m-s)
Mach number – fraction of the Re – Reynolds number
local speed of sound A – frontal area (m2)
v∞ – free stream velocity (m/s) Boundary layer – thin region
M∞ – free stream Mach number around a body where flow
ρ – air density (kg/m3) speeds up to free stream
q – dynamic pressure (Pa) Angle of attack – orientation of a
CD – drag coefficient body with respect to the free
stream
Aerodynamic Drag
• Drag coefficient determined
analytically or experimentally
• Dynamic pressure required to
find drag force
q=1/2 ρv↓∞↑2
• Drag force changes with q, but
CD doesn’t
D=qC↓D A or D=qC↓D S
Types of Drag
Type Cause
Skin friction drag Kinematic viscosity of air
Pressure drag Body geometry
Base drag Exhaust and wake
Induced drag Left coefficient, aspect ratio, and efficiency
Wave drag Supersonic speeds
Aerodynamics & Stability
• Center of pressure – the point through which the
sum of all aerodynamic forces act
• For stable rockets, CP should be aft of CG
• Location can be approximated by the geometric
centroid of the body
• More accurately predicted by Barrowman equations
or other aerodynamic methods
The Barrowman Equations
Assumptions The Equations
• Small angle of attack • Normal force coefficient CN,α varies
• Flight speed lower than the speed from with component geometry
of sound • Each rocket component i has its
own center of pressure at xi from
• Smooth air flow over the body the nosecone tip
• Large length-to-diameter ratio • Total CP distance is a weighted
• No discontinuities in the rocket average of component CP
body distances
x↓CP =∑↑▒C
↓N,α ↓i x↓i /∑↑▒C
↓N,α
• Axial symmetry ↓i
• Thin flat plate fins
Why Stability Matters
• Unstable rockets – BAD
– Can spiral out of control under slight
disturbances
• Stable rockets – GOOD
– Trajectory not perturbed by wind
• Over-stable rockets – OKAY
– Tend to weathercock, or fly into the wind
– Not terrible, but can lead to horizontal
flight on windy days
• No active control in model rocketry
Aerodynamic Flight Regimes
Low
speed
Compressible
Transonic
Supersonic
Hypersonic
Mach 0.3 0.7 1.2 5
Low-Speed Flight
• Aerodynamic forces are minimal, thus light construction is
possible and preferred
• Lightweight materials like balsa are sufficient
• Simple building techniques like wall-mounted fins are
possible without compromising the integrity of the rocket
• Generally only applies to low power rockets because of
small thrust and short flight durations
High-Speed Flight
• As speed increases, so do
drag forces
• Drag forces tend to want to rip
apart rockets, so heavy-duty
construction is required
• Use thick materials, reinforced
structures, and heavy epoxy
fillets
• Asymmetry leads to moments
on the rocket
Supersonic Flight
• Extreme forces near Mach 1
necessitate hefty construction
and strong materials
• Supersonic rockets typically
built using phenolic, fiberglass,
or carbon fiber
• Avoid extreme aspect ratios
due to bending moments
Drag in Compressible Flows
• In subsonic flow
C↓D ≈C↓D,0 /√1−M↓∞↑2
• In supersonic flow
C↓D ≈C↓D,0 /√M↓∞↑2 −1
• Drag actually still increases in
supersonic flow because of
the dependence on v∞2!
Aerodynamic Phenomena – Laminar
Flow
• Streamlines relatively parallel
and flow is orderly
• Ideal flow condition
• Relatively low drag coefficient
compared to less orderly flows
• Occurs at Reynolds numbers
less than 500,000
Aerodynamic Phenomena – Turbulent
Flow
• Flow exhibit disorderly and
random patterns
• Occurs at Reynolds numbers
around 500,000
• Characterized by higher drag
coefficient than laminar flow
• Most flow around modern flight
vehicles is turbulent
Aerodynamic Phenomena – Flow
Transition
• Because Reynolds number
changes with position, the flow
will change from laminar to
turbulent
• Characterized by a region
where laminar and turbulent
flows mix
• Drag coefficient quickly rises
in the transition region
Aerodynamic Phenomena – Flow
Separation
• Airflow no longer follows the
contour of an aerodynamic
body
• Occurs when a large adverse
pressure gradient exists
• Leads to a rapid increase in
drag
• Fins area aft of separated flow
is not effective
Laminar vs. Turbulent Flows
• Low energy layer exists near
object (BL)
• Separation occurs when flow
“runs out of forward energy”
• Turbulent flow continuously
exchange energy between
free stream and BL (i.e. higher
drag, but suppressed
separation)
Dimpling
• Turbulent flow is draggy, but less
draggy than separated flow (and
safer)
• Laminar flow BL runs out of
energy and separates
• Turbulent flow separates less
readily than laminar
• Force transition to turbulent with
dimples
• Effective only at low speeds (high
speed flows usually turbulent
even without dimple)
Nose Cone Aerodynamics
• Various geometries have
different drag coefficients
• Minimum drag bodies like the
von Karman ogive have best
across-the-board performance
• Some shapes perform best in
certain Mach regimes
• Model rocketry nose cones are
generally ogives
Effect of Rocket Length
• Longer rockets lead to increases in skin friction drag
• Increased length-to-diameter ratio (fineness ratio) leads to
a decrease in pressure drag per rocket volume
• Longer rockets are subject to extreme bending moments
Fin Aerodynamics
Rectangular
cross
sec:on
• Simple
to
manufacture
• Rela:vely
high
drag
coefficient
for
airfoils
with
similar
thickness-‐to-‐chord
ra:os
Rounded
cross
sec:on
• Not
too
difficult
to
manufacture
• Decent
aerodynamic
performance,
but
not
the
best
Airfoil
cross
sec:on
• Op:mal
fin
cross
sec:on
for
subsonic
rockets,
but
prone
to
high
drag
and
shocks
at
supersonic
speeds
• Should
have
a
symmetric
cross
sec:on
Wedge
cross
sec:on
• Good
aerodynamic
performance
at
supersonic
speeds
• Decent
aerodynamic
performance
at
subsonic
speeds
Fin Sweep
• Sweep reduces the apparent
Mach number of flow over a fin
by the cosine of the sweep
angle
• Reduction in apparent Mach
number reduces fin drag
• Sweep angle measured by the
mean chord line
• Also brings CP aftward
Ballistics
• Drag forces tend to slow down
light, large objects more so
than heavy, compact objects
• Ballistic coefficient is a ratio of
inertial and aerodynamic
forces
β=m/C↓D A
• Higher β means higher
apogees since rockets gain
most altitude in coast
Fin Failure Modes: Static
• Divergence: e.g. forward-
swept fin deflect under
load, resulting in more
load, and even more
deflection
à structural failure.
• Aft-swept fins will not
diverge.
Fin Failure Modes: Dynamic
• Flutter: elastic fins and aero forces hit a resonance point.
Cause oscillations that rip fins off
• Buffeting: high-frequency vibrating loads caused by
moving separation and shock wave
• Transonic Aeroelasticity: flow features/shock waves
appear/move abruptly in transonic regime. Can cause
sudden destruction of entire rocket
Fin Failure Modes: Dynamic
Implications on Model Rocketry
• Aerodynamics is an crucial for performance in rocketry
• Geometric and material decisions must take aero forces
into consideration to achieve a successful mission
• Much is intuitive (streamlined shapes, smooth contours),
but advanced analysis can yield optimal designs
• Analysis can also yield back-of-the-envelope safety
calculations for rocket flight (stability, ability to withstand
drag and shocks, etc.)
