12/29/2019 Power Quality Analysis: Basic Theory and Applications Explained

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Power Quality Analysis:

Basic Theory and
Applications Explained
By testguy November 23, 2019 0 Comments

There are a number of

ways in which electric
power can be of poor
quality. Improper wiring,
incorrect grounding, and
unbalanced loads are just This guide covers the basic theory and
applications of power quality
a few examples of monitoring and analysis. Photo:
conditions that can TestGuy.

produce electrical noise

through an electrical system and compromise power
quality.

There is no such thing as perfect power quality in the real

world. Service interruptions, equipment malfunction, and
excess power consumption are all common symptoms of
poor power quality.

To minimize the risk of lost production and damage to

electrical equipment, power quality analysis is used to

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monitor a system for problems, find the cause, and initiate

corrective action. After system data is collected in the field,
a power quality engineer will look for unusual events and
determine the proper power conditioning equipment or
other steps needed to resolve the issue.

Contents

Ideal Power Conditions

Power Interruptions

Undervoltage, Overvoltage, Sags, Swells

Flicker, Transients and Noise

Power Factor, Unbalance and Harmonics

How Power Quality is Measured

Power Quality Reports

Techniques for Improving Power Quality

Power Quality Standards

Further Reading

Ideal Power Conditions

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It is important that power serving electrical loads is “clean,”

meaning voltage and current waveforms are relatively in
phase, free of distortion, and balanced between each
other. Low quality power can increase utility bills and
cause damage to critical power equipment, resulting in
higher production costs and greater chance of downtime.

An “ideal” three-phase power system has the following

characteristics:

The current is in phase with the voltage for each

phase. Power Factor = 1.

The phase voltage and currents are exactly 120

degrees apart and all equal to each other. No unbalance.

The voltage and current sine waves are not distorted

or interrupted in any way.

The source impedance is zero, so that events at the

load don’t affect the source voltage.

The actual frequency is equal to the nominal

frequency.

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In an ideal 3-phase system, voltage and current waveforms are relatively in

phase, free of distortion, and balanced between each other. Photo: Wikimedia.

No power system is “ideal” in the real world, but

understanding these characteristics can help identify non-
ideal power characteristics of real systems. There is some
acceptable range of deviation from “ideal” for each
application, which can be defined as “acceptable power.”

In the United States, acceptable limits for service voltage

and utilization voltage are defined in ANSI C84.1 . Power
quality monitoring is used to ensure that an electrical
power system is operating within acceptable limits, and to
capture waveform distortion and other anomalies that may
cause power interruptions or other system phenomena.

Power Interruptions
The most simple type of power quality problem occurs
when power delivered to an electrical load goes away, this
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is called a “power interruption.” The different types of

power interruptions are classified according to their
duration.

A momentary interruption is a complete loss of

voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time
period between 0.5 cycles and 3 seconds.

A temporary interruption is a complete loss of

voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time
period between 3 seconds and 1 minute.

A sustained interruption is a complete loss of

voltage on one or more phase conductors for more than
1 minute.

A power interruption occurs when power delivered to an electrical load goes

away. Photo: TestGuy.

Power interruptions are caused by many different sources,

such as lighting strikes utility switching operations,
physical damage to power lines, and human error. A

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momentary power interruption could have serious or even

dangerous results depending on the load connected, such
as microprocessor-based or hospital equipment.

Undervoltage, Overvoltage,
Sags, Swells
The second most simple type occurs when voltage at the
load drops below a minimum rated voltage or climbs above
a maximum rated voltage for some period of time.
Depending on how long these conditions last, they may be
referred to as undervoltage or overvoltage and sags or
swells.

An undervoltage occurs when the rms voltage drops

below 90% of the nominal rms voltage and stays at that
level for more than one minute. The term “brownout”
often refers to an intentional or unintentional drop in
voltage in an electrical power supply system.

An overvoltage is an event where the rms voltage

rises above 110% of the nominal rms voltage and stays
there for more than one minute.

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Undervoltage and overvoltage occur when voltage at the load drops below a
minimum rated voltage or climbs above a maximum rated voltage for longer than
a minute. Photo: TestGuy.

Sags occur when the rms voltage decreases between

10% and 90% for a duration of a half-cycle to one
minute. In a 60Hz power system, a complete sine wave
lasts approximately 16 milliseconds, a half cycle is
approximately 8 milliseconds.

Swells are defined as an increase in the rms voltage

to over 110% for a duration of a half-cycle to one minute.

Sags and Swells occur on the power system when voltage drops below or
exceeds nominal voltage for a short duration. Photo: TestGuy.

Reductions in voltage and sags usually occur when the

rms current to the load increases significantly. There are 3
categories of sags and swells, depending on their duration:

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0.5 cycles to 30 cycles: Instantaneous

30 cycles to 3 seconds: Momentary

3 seconds to 1 minute: Temporary

1 minute+: Sustained Undervoltage or Overvoltage

Flicker, Transients and Noise

Repetitive voltage reductions in lighting circuits can be
detected by the human eye, a phenomena known as
“flicker.” The term flicker refers to a very specific problem
related to human perception of light produced by
incandescent light bulbs, not necessarily general voltage
fluctuations.

Some common sources of flicker include: Arc welders,

Electric boilers, Industrial motors, Lasers, Photocopying
machines, Saw mills, and X-ray machines.

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Flicker, transients, and noise examples. Photo: Various Sources.

Transients occur when spikes are superimposed on a

voltage or current sine wave, ranging in amplitude from
just a few volts to several thousand volts. Lighting and
utility switching typically cause high energy impulsive
transients of short duration, while electronic devices, VFDs
and switching inductive loads typically cause low energy
transients continuously.

Impulsive Transients last anywhere from 50

nanoseconds to >1 milliseconds

Oscillatory transients last anywhere from 0.3

milliseconds to 5 microseconds

Noise refers to unwanted, high frequency oscillations that

are superimposed on an alternating voltage or current sine
wave. This phenomena is usually intensified by improper
grounding and is capable of disrupting electronic devices
such as computers and programmable controllers.
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Power Factor, Unbalance and

Harmonics
Electrical loads are often composed of more than just pure
resistance, the combination of resistance and reactance in
an AC system is called the impedance. Reactance comes
in two forms: inductive and capacitive, both of which do not
contribute to “useful” work on the power system.

Power Factor is a way to characterize how much

electrical power goes toward producing useful work such
as light, heating, or machinery. Low power factor means a
large amount of energy is being lost in the system in the
form of wasted heat, which generally equates to higher
energy bills and equipment degradation.

Three types of power - true, reactive, and apparent - relate to one another in
trigonometric form. Photo: TestGuy.

Motors, solenoids and pumps typically have impedances

that are combinations of resistance and inductive
reactance, which vary with the mechanical load on the
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machine. Capacitors have impedances that are

combinations of a typically small resistance and larger
capacitive reactance component.

When reactance is present in an AC system, the voltage

and current sine waves will shift out of phase from each
other. Voltage leads current with inductive reactance and
Current leads voltage with capacitive reactance, the two
cancel each other out.

When reactance is present in an AC system, the voltage and current sine waves
will shift out of phase from each other. Photo: Georgia State University.

Low power factor tends to occur in industrial facilities

that contain a large number of motors or other
inductive loads. Utility companies typically charge
large industrial and commercial customers a higher
rate for low power factor.

Unbalance occurs in three-phase power systems when

single phase loads (lighting, office equipment, etc.) do not

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draw the same amount of current on each phase, resulting

in greater stress on the neutral conductor. An ideal
condition occurs when the loads are balanced, meaning
that the voltage and current phases are exactly 120
degrees apart from each other, although the currents might
not be in-phase with the voltages.

Unbalance occurs in three-phase power systems when single phase loads do

not draw the same amount of current on each phase. Photo: Sonel.

A balanced three-phase 4-wire wye system will have zero

current on the neutral wire. The amount of current on the
neutral wire in an unbalanced system will increase as the
unbalance increases, this could result in overheating and
risk of fire.

Motors being driven by unbalanced voltages will result in a

small motor torque working in the opposite direction from
the motor rotation, a phenomena known as counter-torque.
When this condition occurs, part of the energy delivered to
the motor will work against itself.

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Harmonics are a form of waveform distortion that occurs

in circuits containing semiconductor based electronics
such as LED lighting, switching power supplies, electronic
ballasts, computers, robotics, test equipment, etc. These
“non-linear” loads impose higher frequency sine waves on
the system, which result in more power lost in the form of
wasted heat.

The excess heat produced by harmonics can have

detrimental effects on a power system. Transformers are
especially susceptible to damage caused by harmonics
due to stray “eddy currents” which circulate in the iron core
and produce excess heat.

Harmonics are identified by their frequency in multiples of the “fundamental” or

main frequency. Photo: Researchgate.

Harmonics are identified by their frequency in multiples of

the “fundamental” or main frequency (60Hz in the United
States). For example, the third harmonic in a 60 Hz system
would be 180 Hz (60×3 = 180) and the 5th harmonic would
be 300 Hz (60 x 5 = 300).

The magnitude of each harmonic frequency can be

measured using power quality meters and are generally
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displayed in the form of a harmonic spectrum. Total

harmonic distortion (THD) and total demand distortion
(TDD) are sometimes used with power quality meters to
simplify harmonic distortion as a single measurement
rather than an entire spectrum.

How Power Quality is Measured

Several types of instruments are available for power
quality measurement, each serving their own unique
purpose. Power quality analyzers are the most commonly
used tools to observe real-time readings and also collect
data at high speeds for downloading to computers for
analysis, opposed to a power recorder or “data logger”
which is mainly used for simple voltage and current
measurements.

Often times power interruptions are unpredictable and of

short duration, which can only be captured using a power
quality meter (PQM) installed over a period of days, weeks
or months. Each phase in the system has a voltage probe
and current sensor applied to monitor the magnitude and
polarity of each channel over the specified period.

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Several types of instruments are available for power quality measurement, each
serving their own unique purpose. Photo: Fluke Corporation.

The place where the PQM is connected is called the

measurement plane, everything to the right of the plane is
considered part of the load and everything to its left is
considered the source. The measurement plane can be
any point within the power system, not necessarily at the
incoming service.

A cycle is the time that the waveform takes to travel from

the zero line up to its positive peak, back down to its
negative peak, and then back to zero. Power quality
meters can be extremely high speed devices designed to
capture events down to the sub-cycle level.

In an ideal 60Hz system, one cycle takes 16.7

milliseconds, or 0.0167 seconds. This is called the
period of the wave, and is represented by the letter
T. Frequency is equal to the inverse of the period, f =
1/0.0167 = 60Hz.

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Power Quality Analyzer Connection Example. Photo: Fluke Corporation.

The type of meter to install will depend on the data to be

captured. For example, a simple ampere load evaluation
or utility bill audit would require a far less sophisticated
meter than trying to pinpoint the cause of a nuisance trip or
other power interruption.

The most important factor to consider when

performing power quality analysis is safety. Often
times meters are applied live with equipment in
service which can be an extremely dangerous task.

This type of work should only be performed by

qualified personnel while observing all appropriate
safety precautions. A local power outage at the
monitoring location is always the safest way to install
and remove a power quality meter.

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The most important factor to consider when performing power quality analysis is
safety. Photo: Fluke Corporation.

Power Quality Reports

A power quality meter can plot the voltage and current
waveforms as functions of time, this is called an
oscillogram. Data can be extracted from the power quality
recorder and analyzed to determine the overall condition of
the power system using various timeplots and tables.

The actual data analysis is usually performed by an

electrical engineer, who will generate a report that provides
a summary of the various power conditions, a list of events
that occurred during the analysis, and any corrective
action or recommendations that should be considered.

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Data can be extracted from the power quality recorder and analyzed to
determine the overall condition of the power system using specialized computer
software. Photo: Dranetz BMI Dranview

Power Quality Meters are capable of calculating a large

number of power measurements at extremely high speeds.
These measurements may include minimum, average, and
maximum values for parameters such as:

current and voltage RMS

phase relationship between waveforms

power factor and frequency

Active power (kW), reactive power (kVAr), apparent

power (kVA)

active energy (kWh), reactive energy (kVArh) and

apparent energy (kVAh)

Harmonic spectrum, THD, TDD

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Power Quality Meters are capable of calculating a large number of power

measurements at extremely high speeds. Photo: Fluke PowerLog.

Techniques for Improving

Power Quality
Depending on the results of the power quality analysis, a
number of recommendations can be made to improve the
quality of an electrical power system. Some of the
common solutions found in power quality reports are
briefly described below.

1. Voltage stabilizers (or regulators) may be used to

provide precise voltage regulation to protect equipment
from overvoltage, undervoltage, sags and swells.

2. Electronic equipment should be protected from

transients with surge suppressors or surge protection
devices, such as SPDs or transient voltage surge
suppression devices – TVSS. Surge suppressors may be
installed at the service entrance panels, distribution panels

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and/or individual loads to protect sensitive electronic

equipment.

Electronic equipment should be protected from transients with surge

suppressors. Photo: Square D.

3. Snubber circuits can be used on inductive loads to

suppress the transient that naturally occurs when de-
energizing the load. Typical snubber circuits use a resistor-
capacitor (RC) circuit, a metal oxide varistor (MOV) or a
diode.

4. Noise problems can be addressed by using line filters,

isolation transformers, and line conditioners. Line filters
are also called electromagnetic interference (EMI) filters or
radio frequency interference (RFI) filters. They should be
installed at branch panels or at any sensitive electronic
load such as computers and medical equipment.

5. Low power factor can be corrected with the use of

capacitor banks to cancel out inductive loads. The banks
may be placed at each inductive load or they may be

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installed upstream to protect a group of motors, or a single

compensation system may be installed at the origin of the
installation. In every case, the capacitor banks correct the
power factor upstream of the bank, but not downstream.

6. Unloaded synchronous motors can be used to

continuously correct a system’s power factor by adjusting
the excitation of the synchronous motor’s field. The motor
can be made to behave like a variable capacitor, a device
referred to as a synchronous condenser.

125MVA synchronous condenser at Templestowe substation in Melbourne,

Victoria, Australia. Photo: Wikimedia.

7. Unbalance can be corrected by redistributing single-

phase loads onto different circuits in order to minimize the
maximum unbalance over some period of time such as a
full week. Power quality meters are used to monitor current
draw on all three phases and the neutral wire for several
days or weeks at a time.

8. Harmonic filters can be used to attenuate harmonic

distortion to acceptable levels. Each stage of a harmonic
filter is composed of capacitors, inductors , and resistors
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that are designed to attenuate a specific harmonic

frequency.

Power Quality Standards

There are a number of industry standards available that
address the correct procedures and methods for
performing a power quality analysis. These standards
should be reviewed to help better understand the science
behind monitoring and correcting power quality:

ANSI C84.1 - American National Standard for

Electric Power Systems and Equipment—Voltage
Ratings (60 Hz)

IEC 61000 - IEC standards on Electromagnetic

compatibility

IEEE 519 IEEE Recommended Practice and

Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
Systems

IEEE 1159 - IEEE Recommended Practice for

Monitoring Electric Power Quality

IEEE 1250 - IEEE Guide for Identifying and

Improving Voltage Quality in Power Systems

IEEE 1668 - IEEE Trial-Use Recommended

Practice for Voltage Sag and Short Interruption Ride-

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Through Testing for End-Use Electrical Equipment Rated

Less than 1000 V

IEEE 1789 - IEEE Recommended Practices for

Modulating Current in High-Brightness LEDs for
Mitigating Health Risks to Viewers

References

Power Quality Measurement and Analysis Basics

Electric power quality

Why is Power Quality Analysis Done?

FlukeView Power Quality Analyzer Software

Fluke 1760 Power Quality Recorder Users Manual

FLUKE Power Quality Testing Resources &

Solutions

Introduction to Power Quality: Problems, Analysis &

Solutions

Seven categories of common power problems and

their solutions

Voltage Transients Causing Diode Failures

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Beware of asymmetry - causes, consequences,

measurement and control

Harmonic Analysis of Power Circuits by PowerSight

Meters

Technical Methods for the Prevention and Correction

of Voltage Sags and Short Interruptions inside the
Industrial Plants and in the Distribution Networks

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