Trad Climbing Basics

E-Book Edition

© VDiff 2019. All rights reserved. This publication is the property of VDiff.

Writer and Illustrator: Neil Chelton

Photographers:
- Fraser Harle
- Alex Ratson
- James Rushforth
- Will Nicholls
- Neil Chelton

Front Cover: The Octopus Garden, Smoke Bluffs, Squamish, Canada.

Photographer: Alex Ratson.
 Trad Climbing Basics
Placing Trad Gear and Building Safe Anchors
 Warning: Climbing is Dangerous

While this book explains everything you need to know to get started trad climbing,
it cannot assess the quality of your equipment or check your anchor before you
abseil. Mistakes are easy to make and accidents can be fatal.

This book is intended to be supplemented with practical instruction from qualified

professionals. Do not rely on this book as your primary source of rock climbing
information.

If you are unsure about any of the information given in this book, it is strongly
recommended that you seek qualified instruction. Failure to do this may result in
serious injury or death.

The writers and employees of VDiff disclaim all responsibility and liability for any
injuries or losses incurred by any person participating in the activities described in
this book.

Who is This Guide For?

Trad Climbing Basics is intended to help recreational climbers build upon their
trad climbing skills. The techniques described throughout this book focus on safe
and efficient climbing that give you the best chances of avoiding an accident.

Beginners will build up an understanding of trad climbing, intermediate climbers

will expand upon their existing knowledge and experienced trad climbers will
reinforce their knowledge and hopefully alter some bad habits.

This guide is intended for those who already have a solid understanding of the
following basic climbing skills:
- Wearing a harness
- Tying in to the rope
- Lead and top rope belaying
- Using the correct climbing calls

If you are unfamiliar with these techniques, or need a refresher, consider reading
our beginner’s guide; Rock Climbing Basics.

4 VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics

Contents

6 Introduction

14 Equipment

26 Protecting
the Climb

74 Building
Anchors

96 Belaying

110 Descending

124 Multi-Pitch

136 Technique:
Face Climbing

150 Technique:
Crack Climbing

164 Essential Knots

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics 5

Introduction

Photographer: Alex Ratson.

What is Trad Climbing?

When climbing indoors, or at a sport

crag, the leader clips their rope, via
quickdraws, into pre-existing bolts.

On a bolted route, it is generally safe

to fall at any time. Having this high
level of safety allows the leader to
focus on the physical aspect of
climbing up the rock.

When trad climbing, the leader must

place their own gear in the rock. To be
safe when trad climbing, the leader With a good understanding of trad
must focus on finding gear placements skills, you can branch out from the
and then select the right piece of gear indoor walls and sport crags to reach
to fit. This adds a technical and mental unique places that would otherwise be
aspect to the route. inaccessible.

Can I Trad Climb?

Yes! Learning to trad climb is similar to so you understand why each

learning to drive a car. It takes time, technique is used, and therefore you'll
effort and commitment. It can be be able to adapt them for any
dangerous if you don't know what situation.
you're doing, or very safe once you
become competent. Learn the skills and practise them
safely. Start with small adventures to
This book focuses on the physics build up your problem solving ability
behind trad gear and the reasons for before you move on to anything
using different rope techniques. This is bigger. And remember to have fun!
………..
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 8
Climbing Etiquette

There are different rules when you - Stick to recognized trails to avoid
venture outside of the climbing gym. trampling vegetation.
When you go to a new climbing venue, - Keep pets on a leash or leave them
ask the locals what the special at home.
considerations are. Generally, it all - Don’t alter the natural environment
comes down to being polite, (never chip holds).
respecting other climbers and having - If other climbers arrive at a route
common sense. Here are some basic before you, they get to climb first.
etiquette guidelines: - If you’re moving slow on a multi-pitch,
it is polite to allow faster teams to
- Avoid making excessive noise. pass – if you have plenty of time
- Keep your stuff in a small, tidy pile. and there is no danger of rockfall.
- Take your litter and human waste
home.

Finding a Climbing Partner

There are a few different ways to find both on belaying and lead skills before
a climbing partner, including: you climb together.
- At the indoor climbing gym
- On a climbing course Progress to a single pitch crag after
- At a climbing club the gym. Inspect the quality of their
- Through friends equipment and their anchor building
- On internet forums techniques carefully before you move
on to more committing multi-pitch
However you find a partner, it’s routes.
important to assess how safe they are.
Don’t blindly trust someone with your
A good ‘first date’ is to climb at the life until they have proven themselves
gym. Be upfront and honest about your trustworthy. Stop climbing with
skills but be aware that some people someone who does strange or
will exaggerate their abilities in order to dangerous things. Instead,
impress. If you are unsure of their recommend that they take a course, or
abilities, have a staff member test you read this book, or both.
….ooooooooo..

Where Should I Place Trad Gear?

Trad gear is normally placed in cracks, and some are incredibly unstable and
behind flakes and around blocks. The dangerous. To a beginner, these may
important thing to remember is that appear the same. You must pay close
these features are weaknesses in the attention to how solid the rock is. You
rock. Some of these features are solid, can test flakes and blocks by hitting
tttttttt

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 9

them with your fist; loose rock sounds friction to stay in position, you must
hollow. Look for fracture lines (super make sure the rock is clean and dry.
thin cracks) around features and Gear placed in a crack coated with
visualize how they are attached. If a dust, mud, ice or water is much less
block isn't securely attached to the reliable.
main part of the rock, then look for
something else. Gear placed behind There are no definite guidelines of
loose features is likely to be pulled out exactly which type of protection should
in a fall, along with the feature itself. be used for each particular situation.
This could potentially hit your belayer The important part of learning to use
or cut your rope. trad gear is understanding the physics
behind it; how and why each piece
Because most trad gear relies on generates force on the rock.
oooooooo

How Often Should I Place Trad Gear?

Here are some things to consider:

Trad Gear is Less Reliable than

Sport Climbing Bolts
It's generally safe to fall at any time on
a bolted sport route, whether indoors
or at the crag. However, if the same
attitude is applied to trad climbing,
you'll soon get injured.

Nuts can wiggle out, slings can lift off

and cams can walk out of position.
This is caused by movements in the
rope as you climb past.

As a general rule of thumb, you should

place two good pieces of trad gear for
every bolt you would clip on a sport
route.

Climbing Gear is Only as Strong as

Where is Your Next Gear? the Rock it is Placed in.
If gear placements are far apart, poor It is rare for trad protection to break.
quality and/or difficult to find, you More commonly, it is the rock around
should place gear at every opportunity. the placement which breaks during a
As a beginner, however, 'runout' climbs fall. See page 66 for more information
like these are best avoided. on rock quality.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 10

Bigger Falls Generate More Force
on Gear Placements
Most pieces of trad gear are strong
enough to hold an enormous
'whipper'. The gear itself probably
Fall Factor ≈ 0.4
won't break. However, the force of a Force ≈ 2 kN
huge fall is more likely to break the
rock which holds it in place.
Fall Factor ≈ 0.7
Force ≈ 5 kN
The higher you climb above a piece of
gear, the less reliable that piece
becomes. See page 68 for more
information about fall factors.

Consequences of a Fall
When you climb above a ledge, spiky
flake, or any other nasty rock feature,
make sure to place gear to stop you
from hitting it.

How Good is Your Last Protection?

If the pieces below you are sub-
optimal, place solid gear as soon as
you can.

The Likelihood of Falling

If the chance of falling is near zero
(because the rock is solid and the
moves are incredibly easy), you can
justify placing less gear. If the chance
of falling is high, because the moves Pulling Crux Moves
are insecure or the rock is brittle, you A crux move will be much harder if you
should place lots of gear close stop in the middle to place gear. If
together. possible, place a few pieces as high
as you can just before the crux, and
Be careful of getting into the bad habit then commit to the moves. Place gear
of placing minimal gear, even on super again once past the crux. Obviously
easy terrain. If you’re carrying the gear this is only safe if the gear is good and
anyway, you may as well use it. Holds the consequences are minimal.
can break or you might find a weird
move with no protection. If you placed If the crux section is long, you will
gear on the easy terrain below, it could need to seek out the best points to
save you from a long fall. Easier place gear during it. Utilize large hand
ground tends to be blocky and slabby holds or good stances and look for
– a long fall down this could be fatal. spots where the gear is quick to place.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 11

Safeguarding the Follower Easy Section Crux
When climbing traverses, make sure
to place enough gear to keep your
partner safe as they follow. If there is a
traversing crux, you’ll need to place
good gear immediately after it to
prevent them from taking a dangerous
swing if they fall.

Saving Gear for the Anchor

Make sure to ration out your gear so Easy Section Crux
you finish the pitch with a sufficient
amount of protection to build a solid
anchor.

The Golden Rule

Always keep at least two good pieces
between you and the hospital!

Route Finding

Some trad routes follow On popular routes, the clues are:

straightforward crack systems, and - Chalked handholds
others weave an intricate path through - Polished footholds
a labyrinth of small features. It is wise - Lichen and dirt free rock
to scope complex routes during the - Difficulty which matches the grade
approach and match the features you given
see with the guidebook description.
Plan the descent too. Be careful about continuing if you are
off-route. It is usually better to
Even if the main route is obvious, the downclimb to the last point when you
handholds, footholds and gear were definitely on-route and reassess
placements (micro route finding) may from there.
not be so clear.

Your First Trad Lead

Leading trad for the first time can be leading a sport route, or following a
pretty scary. Suddenly you're exposed trad route. Here are some tips for your
to greater dangers than you would first few times on the sharp end.
lllllllllllllll

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 12

Practise Placing Gear Follow the Leader
It is important to learn how to place Once you've practised placing gear at
trad gear well before you lead ground level, the next logical step is to
anything. A good way to start is to walk follow, or 'second', an experienced
along the base of your local crag and leader on a single pitch route. When
place every piece on your rack in as you are removing the gear, try to
many different spots as you can find. understand how they placed it and why
Get used to placing and removing they chose that exact place instead of
each size and type of gear. another. Remove each piece and then
place it back in the exact same spot.
Assess each piece carefully. Which
way will it be pulled if you fall? How
solid is the rock around the piece? Single Pitch
Could it be pulled out by movement in Try a short climb first. If something
the rope as you climb past? Could you goes wrong, it'll be much easier to get
remove it easily? When you find a down from a single pitch than a multi-
place which has three good pieces pitch.
close together, practise equalizing
them together with a cordelette or a
long sling to make an anchor. Make a Belay Plan
It's a good idea to assess the top of the
Have your experienced partner check crag first to find potential anchor points
the gear and give you critiques about and figure out your belay position.
whether it was placed correctly. The Remember what gear you will need for
fundamentals of placing gear are easy the anchor and make sure to still have
to learn. But recognising subtle it when you reach the top!
constrictions in cracks and maximising
rock-to-nut surface contact is an art
only learnt through experience. Take Your Time
Practise makes perfect! Have a look around for better gear
placements and take time to figure out
the moves. Focus on placing each
Lower Your Grade piece as perfectly as it can be. Make
Choose a route that you find very slow and controlled movements,
easy. A HVS (5.9) trad route may committing to holds only when you've
equate to a F5+ sport route on a grade explored the best way of holding them.
conversion chart, but in reality it's
much harder to climb the trad
equivalent. While the actual moves are Be Ready
the same physical difficulty, it takes It is strongly recommended that you
much longer to find potential gear take a course with a qualified climbing
placements, and to place gear well, instructor prior to leading. Once you
than it does to clip a quickdraw. Also, have gained approval from them, you
without a line of bolts and coloured can lead your first climb. Wait until
holds to follow, you'll often end up you're ready, but don't postpone it too
doing many more moves to reach the long or you may never try. Be brave,
same point, and not always going the take your time and focus on making the
easiest way. climb safe. And make sure to have fun!

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Introduction 13

Equipment

Climb: Surface Tension, Auchinstarry Quarry, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle.

Trad Protection

The leader places trad gear commonly used at your chosen

(protection) in cracks and features as climbing area before you buy a full set.
they climb up. It is then removed by
their partner when they follow, so all Tailor your rack to suit each climb.
that is left on the rock are a few chalk Carrying too much gear will weigh you
prints. down and make the climbing harder.
Carrying too little will force you into
Cams, nuts and slings are used on dangerous runouts or constructing
most trad routes. Hexes, tricams, ball poor anchors. Consult the guide book
nuts and big bros could be either to determine what sizes of gear may
essential or useless depending on the be needed for your chosen route.
area. Check which types are most
cccccccccc

Cams
Available in sizes from the thickness of
your little finger to the width of your
head, cams are reliable and versatile
pieces of trad protection. They're also
quite expensive.

You don't need to buy a full set to start

with though, just choose the three or
four sizes which you use most
commonly at your local crag. When
you advance to harder climbs, or climb
at different places, you'll probably
need to buy more.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 16

Nuts and Hexes
Ranging in size from the thickness of a
matchstick to the size of your clenched
fist, nuts (also known as chocks, wires
or stoppers) and hexes are
inexpensive pieces of trad protection. A
typical trad rack will contain 10-12 nuts
and maybe one or two mid-size hexes.

Slings
Slings are strongly-sewn loops of
nylon or dyneema tape which are
available in a range of lengths. A
typical trad rack will have a few 60cm
and 120cm slings on it and maybe a
240cm, but bigger and smaller ones
are also available.

The length is given as the end to end When buying slings, try to get a
distance, so the actual length of fabric different colour for each size. This
will be double this. They are incredibly makes it much quicker to grab the right
useful for extending gear and size when you need it.
equalizing anchors.

Big Bros
Big Bros are expandable tubes which
protect wide cracks (approx 8-46cm).
They are lighter and more compact
than large cams but are harder to
place, cannot be shuffled up the crack
and do not work as well in flares. Big to climb a lot of off-width cracks and
Bros are only worth buying if you plan squeeze chimneys.
pppppppp

Ball Nuts
Ball nuts are specialist pieces of gear
which you are unlikely to need when
starting out. They offer protection in
thin cracks (approx 3-18mm), filling the
void where even the smallest cams
are too big to fit.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 17

Tricams
Tricams are designed to work the
same as a nut, but can also be placed
to 'cam' into cracks. They are most
useful at crags which have many A typical trad rack will contain one or
pods, pockets or horizontal cracks. two mid-size tricams.

Nut Tool
Nut tools are used to remove gear
while following, or cleaning dirt from
gear placements when leading
obscure routes. They are also useful
for leading when you get the wrong Nut tools are easily dropped, so it’s
sized nut stuck in a placement and worth attaching a short loop of thin
need to remove it in order to get the cord to it. This can be clipped to the
right one in. rope or gear while you use the tool.

Climbing Ropes

Single Ropes
Most beginners start with a single
rope. They are thick, durable and easy
to belay with. Single ropes are marked
with a symbol at the end of the
rope. A 60m length with a diameter of
between 9.4 – 10.2mm will suit most
beginners and last well into your
climbing career.

Uses:
- Gym climbing
- Sport climbing
- Top-roping
- Uncomplicated trad

Static Ropes
Static ropes have very little stretch, so They are usually marked with a
they cannot absorb the force of a fall EN1891 code. Never lead climb on a
like other ropes. They are mainly used static rope!
as a 'fixed' rope to ascend or descend.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 18

Half Ropes
Many trad climbers use half ropes
(also known as double ropes) instead
of a single rope to help reduce rope
drag on wandering routes. They also
double the length of the abseil you can
make – essential for epic retreats!
Safety is increased on complicated
terrain where there are sharp edges
that risk cutting the rope. If one rope is
cut, you still have the other to catch
you.

Half ropes need to be used as a pair

– climbing with just one isn't safe.
Half ropes are marked by a symbol.
60m ropes will be great for most trad
routes. When buying half ropes, make
sure the colours are very different.
Ideally, you will be able to tell them
apart in the dark.

Uses:
- Trad climbing
- Alpine climbing

Twin Ropes
Twin ropes are designed to be clipped
together into the same carabiners as
you climb. They are marked with a
symbol.

It's important not to get these

confused with half ropes. Twin ropes
cannot be clipped to gear individually.

Uses:
- Ice and mixed climbing

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 19

Things To Consider when Buying a Climbing Rope
Diameter Number of Falls
Climbing ropes come in many different Every climbing rope is rated for a
diameters. Basically, thinner ropes are certain number of falls. This is the
lighter, whereas thicker ropes are more number of falls using a specific UIAA
durable. test which indicates how many falls a
rope can take before it breaks.
Be aware that the diameter of your
rope may affect which belay devices Every UIAA certified rope is tested far
you can use with it. Some devices are more severely than you are likely to
not compatible with very thin or very experience when climbing, so you
thick ropes. don’t need to retire your rope just
because it’s rated to six falls and
Single rated ropes can be as thin as you’ve taken seven.
8.5mm, making them great for alpine
routes. .Skinny ropes are safe – they In real climbing situations, a rope will
pass the UIAA lab tests. But at the withstand hundreds of falls. They don’t
crag, they are more susceptible to fail unless they run over a sharp edge
abrasion on rough rock or being cut of rock, which cuts it, or if they have
over a sharp edge. been stored amongst sharp objects or
acidic chemicals such as bleach or
For high-use situations (e.g: big leaking batteries. They do, however,
walling, top-roping or working a sport wear out over time, especially if you
route) a thicker, more durable rope is take a lot of falls, so make sure to
much better. Your rope is your most inspect your rope regularly (see page
critical piece of gear – it’s better to 25).
carry a bit more weight than to skimp
on safety.
Maximum Impact Force
Ropes stretch to absorb energy. The
Middle Markers more energy a rope can absorb, the
Most ropes have some kind of mark lower the force on your protection.
on their sheath to identify the middle.
This is useful in many situations such This isn’t much of a concern for sport
as gauging how much rope a leader climbing, where protection is always
has left, or when setting up an abseil bomber bolts. However, for trad
where you need the rope to be climbing, a rope with a low impact
perfectly centred at the anchor. Some force will generate less force on your
ropes even have a different colour or gear, making it more likely to hold the
pattern on each half to identify the fall. Lower impact forces are better.
middle.
After a big fall, let your rope ‘rest’ for
Remember that if you shorten your five minutes to recover its elasticity. If
rope (such as to remove a frayed end), you get straight back on the rock and
the middle marker will no longer be then fall immediately, the impact forces
correct. will be much higher.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 20

Dry Treatment
Some climbing ropes are made with a The treatment also helps to stop dirt
special treatment which helps to and sand getting into the rope's fibres,
prevent water being absorbed into which means the rope will run across
them. the rock and through carabiners with
less friction than if it was untreated.
Untreated ropes can soak up more
than their own weight in water during a It's worth the extra cost for a dry
storm, which dramatically increases treated rope if you plan on climbing in
the impact force in a fall. wet or snowy environments.

Other Trad Equipment

Helmet
A climbing helmet is the first thing you
should buy when you start trad
climbing. They protect your head from
things falling on you (rocks, Rigid
equipment, etc..) and also from your Shell
head hitting the rock if you fall.

Climbing helmets are generally not

worn in the gym or on steep sport
routes. The main reason is that sport
crags tend to be overhanging, making
both the leader and belayer safely
sheltered from rockfall. Although it’s
possible to injure your head in a leader
fall, this rarely happens on
Foam
overhanging rock because the leader
Shell
will fall into ‘space'.

In any other situation, it is worth

wearing a helmet when climbing or
belaying. Rocks can fall and gear can
be dropped. If you knock your belayer
unconscious, they won't be able to type but generally do not protect from
belay you! side impact (you falling off) as well.
They also tend to be cheaper than
There are two main types of helmet – foam helmets
rigid shell and foam. Rigid shell
helmets are made of hard plastic, with The foam shell type closely resemble
an inner cradle of foam or webbing so a bike helmet (don't use your bike
the plastic sits away from your head. helmet – they're designed for
They are more durable than the foam different impacts). They tend to be
ttttttttttt ooooooooo
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 21
lighter than the rigid shell, but are less ability to protect your head. Your
durable. The most important factor helmet should adjust to accommodate
when buying a helmet is getting one a hat, and a ponytail if you have long
that fits your head snugly – it hair. Also, make sure the headlamp
shouldn't move when you tip your attachments are compatible with your
head. A sloppy fit reduces the helmet’s headlamp.

Shoes
For beginners, the right climbing shoe
is one that fits your foot and your
wallet the best. Look for discounts,
and get a general use shoe. A
beginner with sloppy foot technique
will wear out this first pair of shoes
fast.

For your second pair of shoes, it

largely depends on what type of
climbing you will be doing.

For slabs, a shoe with a soft sole and them on before you buy. Only shop
a low-cut upper works well. For steep online if you’re certain which type and
routes, you’ll be better with a tight- size you need. Whichever shoes you
fitting shoe that has a pointy toe, good get, your foot should not rotate, nor
lateral support and a very low-cut should your toes be painfully crushed
upper for ankle flexibility. up in the toe-box. A good fitting shoe
is more important than one designed
Different brands favour a wider or for the style of climbing you want to
narrower foot, so make sure to try do.
tttttttttttttttt

Chalk
An excessively chalked route can be
an eyesore. It also reveals all the key
holds, making the route much less
exploratory for the next climbers.

Rain usually cleans away chalk marks

from exposed rock. Overhanging
routes tend to stay sheltered and so
the chalk remains through all but the
windiest storms. In some areas, you
must use specific rock-coloured chalk. Using 5mm cord to tie your chalk bag
Consider your impact on the around your waist means you will
environment before you ‘chalk up’. always have a spare prusik cord.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 22

Harness
You can use any climbing harness to
trad climb, but you'll benefit from
having a comfortable harness with at
least 5 gear loops.

Belay Device
The best belay device for trad climbing
is an ATC with a guide mode function.

Getting one without guide mode limits

your options for belaying and rescue
situations.

Prusik Cord
A prusik cord (see page 182) is used
to make abseiling safer and more
controlled. Keep it on the back of your
harness as you climb.

Quickdraws
Having two or three different lengths of
quickdraw is useful for extending gear
effectively.

Most trad climbers carry extendable

quickdraws (see page 61) in addition
to regular draws. These can be used
either as a short draw or fully
extended, meaning it's quick and easy
to extend your gear without carrying
extra slings.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 23

Cordelette
A common way to equalize gear at the
belay is to use either a cordelette or a
long (240cm) sling. This is explained in
detail in the Anchors chapter.

Gear Slings and Bandoliers

Trad gear is commonly racked on your
harness, but can also be racked on a
gear sling or bandolier.

This has the advantage of distributing

weight to your shoulders (rather than
having it all on your hips) and means
that gear is more spread out so it’s
easier to find. It is also quicker to pass
gear between climbers on a multi-
pitch. The disadvantages are that all
your gear swings forward on slabs, you could potentially lose your whole
making footholds difficult to find, and rack if you fall upside down.
ooooooo

Rope Bags and Tarps

Rope bags or tarps provide a clean
space for your rope if there is dust or
mud at the base of a climb. They are
very convenient for single pitch trad
climbing if you frequently move
between routes.

You never need to coil your rope –

simply stack it into the tarp and roll it You can buy a specifically designed
up. Then unroll it at the base of the rope bag, but a heavy-duty IKEA bag
next route and you’re ready to go. works just fine too.

Looking After Your Gear

It’s important to inspect your climbing gear which has been dropped off a cliff
gear frequently and replace anything should be replaced. Nylon gear (ropes,
which shows significant signs of wear. slings and harnesses) degrades over
Frayed or faded slings, or any metal time and should be replaced every five
yyyyyyyyy yyyyyyyyy

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 24

years, even if you’ve barely used it. inside it. Wash your rope occasionally
UV radiation from direct sunlight will in lukewarm water and allow it to dry in
speed this time up. Exposure to the shade.
battery acid or acid fumes will
significantly reduce the strength of Store your climbing gear in a cool, dry
nylon. place out of direct sunlight. If any gear
gets wet, let it dry completely before
Keep your rope out of the dirt. Grains you store it away.
of rock and sand can cut tiny fibres
oooooooooooooo

Cleaning Cams
Keep your cams clean and free of dirt. the moving parts, making sure not to
A cam which is clogged up with dirt, get any on the nylon sling. Wipe away
sand or grit or which springs back the excess lubricant.
slowly is less likely to hold in a fall.
Clean your cams with lukewarm water Retire a cam if its axle or lobes are
and an old toothbrush. Once dry, add deformed. This tends to happen
some cam-lubricant and work it into sooner with smaller cams.
pppppp

How To Inspect Your Climbing Rope

You should check your rope for A slightly fuzzy sheath isn’t a problem.
damage frequently. Starting at one However, severe fuzzing may make a
end, feed the rope through your hands, rope unsafe. As a general rule, if you
looking and feeling for non-uniform can see a rope’s inner core, the
sections. Look out for: sheath has worn too thin and it should
- Cuts be retired. Make a nice rug out of it, or
- Burns use it as a washing line.
- Flat or soft spots
- Sheath bunching up over the core

Buying Used Gear

You'll probably begin climbing using carabiners), should be bought new.
other people's gear but at some point You can save money on other gear
you’ll have to invest in your own. Be (e.g: shoes, chalk bags) by getting it
prepared though – climbing gear is used.
expensive.
With your own gear, you will know
Pieces of equipment which your life the history of it and therefore know it's
depends on (e.g: ropes, harness, reliability.
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VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Equipment 25

Protecting the Climb

Climb: Callum Coldwell-Storry on The Isle of Pabbay, Scotland. Photographer: Will Nicholls.
Cams

Cams are reliable and versatile pieces

of trad protection that are designed to
be placed in parallel sided cracks,
where nuts won't work.

A cam has three or four lobes mounted

on an axle. Each lobe is shaped
according to a mathematical
logarithmic spiral, so the angle
between the lobes and the rock is
always the same, no matter how
retracted the cam lobes are. This
means that the cam will work at any
point of it's size range (more on this
later).

When a cam is weighted, the lobes are

forced apart, converting the
downwards force into a huge amount
of outwards pressure on the sides of
the crack. It is this outwards pressure
which holds the cam in position.

When you place a cam, the springs

cause the lobes to press out on the
sides of the crack, creating just
enough friction to keep it in position.
Because cams rely on this friction,
make sure to only place them in clean,
dry cracks. Mud, dust, water or ice
reduces the friction and can cause the
cam to slide out during a fall.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 28

A Good Cam Placement
- All lobes retracted evenly

- Cam is in the middle section of its

range of movement

- Fits completely inside the crack

without being too far back

- Each lobe makes contact with a

smooth, straight-sided part of the
crack

- Stem points in the direction of

loading, usually down and slightly out
from the rock

- Rock is clean, dry and solid

Placing Cams – The Basics

Step 1 Step 2
Pull the trigger to retract the cam lobes Release the trigger to allow the lobes
and slot it into the crack. to open up and make contact with the
sides of the crack. If the lobes open up
all the way, try a bigger size.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 29

Placing Cams – Size
Correct Size Too Big Too Small
This is the ideal cam This is 'over-cammed' This 'tipped out' cam is
size for the crack it is in. and will be very difficult very unlikely to hold a
to remove. Use a fall. During a fall, cam
The strongest and smaller cam if possible. lobes often slip down the
optimal placement is crack very slightly before
within the middle being pressed outwards.
section of the cam’s In this case, at least one
range of movement. You of the lobes is likely to
should aim to place open to its maximum
every cam like this. range, causing the cam
to slip out of the crack.
Use a bigger cam.

Placing Cams – Constrictions

If possible, set a cam above and below
a constriction. This traps the cam in
place and prevents it from walking.
Placements like this are very stable.

Avoid placing cam lobes on tiny

bumps or crystals which may
disintegrate under load. This could
cause the unit to pull out.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 30

Placing Cams – Depth
You'll need to position cams far
enough into the crack to
accommodate for the slight slippage
that can occur when the cam is
loaded. In very slippery rock, a cam
may slide out completely when
weighted due to the lack of friction.

Try a cam in both orientations to see

which way fits better. It’s usually better
if the outer lobes are on the main wall,
so they are further from the edge. In
shallow placements, it’s vital that the
outer lobes go on the widest area of
the rock.

Placing Cams – Horizontal Cracks

Cams can be placed in
horizontal or diagonal
cracks.

In these types of cracks,

placing your cam with the
outer lobes on the bottom
makes the placement
more stable.

Flexible stemmed cams

will bend around the edge
of the rock and maintain
their strength.

Old-style rigid stemmed

cams will lever over the
edge, causing damage to
the stem.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 31

Placing Cams – Flared Cracks
A flared crack is one which becomes Cracks can be flared in any direction.
narrower or wider at one side.

Upward Flares
The placement in this slightly upward-
flaring crack is very good. If the cam
slips down slightly during a fall, it will
remain securely in the crack.

However, when a cam is placed in an

extremely upward-flaring crack, as
shown below, it could easily walk
upwards. This means it will either
wiggle out of position or be impossible
to retrieve. This is caused by this by extending the cam with a sling
movements in the rope as you climb or quickdraw. An alternative would be
above. You can reduce the chance of to use a nut or a hex instead.
tttttttttttttt

Downward Flares
The downwards flare of this crack is fall out of the crack. Cams can hold in
too great for the cam to hold. In the very slightly downward-flaring cracks,
event of a fall, the lobes will continue but it is best to look for parallel-sided
opening until they reach their or slightly upward-flaring cracks.
maximum, at which point the cam will
fffffffffff

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 32

Offset Cams in Flared Cracks
Offset cams have two lobes which are
a size smaller than the other two. They
are excellent for protecting flared
cracks and piton scars which are
commonly found at granite crags.

In a flared crack, place an offset with

the smaller lobes further in and the
bigger lobes further out so that all
lobes are retracted fairly evenly.
Regular cams can be orientated both You don’t need offset cams. But if you
ways to see which fits better. frequently climb at venues with flared
Unfortunately, due to the asymmetry of cracks, a set of offsets will provide
their design, this isn’t possible with protection where nothing else will.
offsets.

Placing Cams – Passive Protection

Certain types of cam can be used
passively (like a nut). However in most
situations, nuts wedge into place
better. So unless you've just dropped
them all, it’s probably better to place a
nut instead.

Not all cams are rated for this type of

placement – check the manufacturer’s
instructions before you place your
cams passively.

Types of Cams
There are too many designs of cam to When you go to buy cams, ask the
list here. shop assistant which style is best for
the rock type in your local area.
Different brands tend to be better
suited to different rock types (e.g: If you plan to climb on many rock
Metolius Fat Cams are great for soft types and in many different locations,
sandstone, whereas Black Diamond any new, flexible-stem design will be
C4’s are more suited to granite). good enough to get you started.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 33

Removing Cams
To remove a cam, simply pull the with your nut tool. Once all the lobes
trigger and slide it out. Sometimes you can move, it’ll be easier to wiggle it
may need to wiggle it around out. If your cam trigger is unreachable,
constrictions in the rock. If a cam is use the hook on the end of your nut
stuck, focus on freeing up the lobes tool to pull it.
which won’t move. Prize them loose
tttttttttttttttt

Racking Cams
An efficient way of racking cams is to
put them in size order on your harness
with their own separate colour-coded
carabiners.

If you have small cams on a front gear

loop and bigger cams further back,
they'll be less annoying as you climb.

Cams Vs Nuts
Nuts are much lighter and cheaper so gear quickly. There are usually more
it’s easy to carry a lot of them. Cams options for placing cams than nuts, so
are quicker to place – great if you’re it’s better to place nuts when you can
getting pumped and need to place and save the cams for later.
ggggggggg

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 34

 Nuts

Nuts are an essential for every most cases, down and slightly
trad climber. They are made of a outwards from the rock).
flexible wire which is threaded
through a hard 'nut' of metal. It's for this reason that they
They are cheap, light and should be placed in tapered
durable. cracks and constrictions, where
the crack becomes smaller
Nuts exert very little outwards further down. When weighted (if
force on the rock, unlike cams. you fall), the nut becomes
Most of the force is transferred in wedged further into the crack.
the direction it is being pulled (in
bbbbbbbb

A Good Nut Placement

Fits
completely
inside crack
without being High surface
too far back contact with
rock

Too big to pull

through bottom
Tapered
of placement
constriction

Good rock Cable

quality; clean, orientated in
dry and solid direction of
loading

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 35

Placing Nuts – The Basics
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
When you spot a Once you've found the Remove the nut from
suitable constriction, best fit, give it a gentle the racking carabiner,
grab your rack of nuts downwards tug to seat extend it with a
and try a few that are it in place. This will stop quickdraw or sling and
most likely to fit. Assess the rope’s movements then clip it to your rope.
the taper and curve of from lifting it out when
the crack and the you climb past.
quality of the rock.

Placing Nuts – Orientation

Nuts are generally non-symmetrical,
being wider at one side and also
curved. This means they can be
placed in four possible orientations.

If your nut isn’t quite perfect, try

placing it in a different orientation.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 36

Placing Nuts – Constrictions
* Nuts are most reliable in
tapered constrictions that
they fit neatly into.

* They could fall out of very

flared constrictions due to
insufficient surface contact.

* Nuts in parallel-sided
cracks will not work.

Placing Nuts – Surface Contact

You should select the size and
orientation of nut which has as much
surface contact with the rock as
possible.

More surface contact means more

grip. A nut with more grip is more likely
to stay exactly where you placed it as
you climb above.

Placing Nuts – Depth

Place nuts fully inside the Top View
crack, but not so far that
you can't see them.

Remember that your

partner must be able to
reach with their nut tool to
remove them.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 37

Placing Nuts – Horizontal Slots
Nuts can also be placed in
horizontal constrictions as
shown. Side View Front View

Slot nut in here

and slide across

Placing Nuts – Diagonal Cracks

Nuts work best in vertical constrictions,
but they can also be placed in
diagonal cracks. Nuts are generally
less reliable in diagonal cracks
because they are not pulled directly
into the constriction when weighted.

Pay attention to which way the nut

would be pulled in the event of a fall. If
it could be pulled out, try a better
placement.

Placing Nuts – Threads

Nuts can also be used as a thread.
This works best with large nuts. Poke
the wire loop through the hole, then
clip a quickdraw to it.

However, holes like this usually

suggest poor rock quality. Slings are
softer on the rock than nuts so try
using a sling as a thread in this
situation, or look for something else
more solid.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 38

Placing Nuts – Opposition
Nuts can oppose each other to create need for this old-school technique, but
a multidirectional piece. Modern gear it could help you out if no other gear
has almost completely removed the exists.
nnnnnnnnnnn

Step 1
Place two opposing nuts so the
carabiners are close together but not
overlapping.

Step 2
Clip a sling into one of the carabiners
and pass both strands of the sling
through the other carabiner.

Step 3
Pass the end of the sling through the
two strands and also through the
carabiner as shown.

Step 4
Cinch the knot tight to create tension
between the nuts. Then clip the sling
to the rope.

Removing Nuts
To be removed from a crack, a nut will
need to reverse the way it went in.
Often, a little wiggle will unseat the nut,
enabling it to be pushed up and out. If
this doesn't work, tap it from below
with your nut tool.

If that doesn't work either, hold your

nut tool under the nut and hit it with a
big hex. As a last resort, yank upwards
on the attached quickdraw or sling to
dislodge it. Be careful though, this
damages the cable over time.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 39

Racking Nuts
Oval carabiners are good for racking
nuts – the large bottom radius helps
to stop the wires tangling together.

Nuts prefer to be organized by size

and racked in groups of 4-7 per
carabiner. It's common to have 10-15
nuts split onto 2-3 carabiners so you
can have a separate rack of small,
medium and large nuts. Cramming all
your nuts onto one carabiner makes it
hard to find the one you want, and if
you drop this carabiner, you'll have no
nuts.

It's better to rack your nuts on a

carabiner with a strong gate-spring. A
weak gate-spring can be pressed
open easily, meaning that you will 'rain
nuts' on your belayer.

Hexes

Hexes are an old type of climbing

protection that are seldom seen on
climber's racks since the introduction
of cams. The main advantage of
hexes is they will work in dirty, wet or
icy cracks where cams are likely to
slide out. They are also lighter than
the equivalent sized cam. This is
especially noticeable in the bigger
sizes. They cost a lot less too.

Hexes can be used passively in

exactly the same way as nuts; by
being wedged into constrictions and
tapered cracks. Hexes can also be
placed in 'active mode', so that they
cam into the crack. When a hex is
placed as shown, and pulled
downwards, it tries to rotate (green
arrows). This rotation applies side walls of the crack (white arrows),
increasing pressure outwards onto the which locks it in position.
ggggggggggggggg
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 40
 A Good Hex Placement

Fits
High surface completely
contact with inside crack
rock without being
too far back

Locks into
position
when
weighted
Too big to
pull through
bottom of
placement
Crack is
smaller
further down
Sling
orientated
in direction
of loading

Good rock
quality;
clean, dry
and solid

Placing Hexes – Passive Mode

Look for constrictions and treat them
just like a large nut. They can be
placed sideways or straight in.

As with nuts, give hexes a gentle tug

to seat them in position, then extend
them with a quickdraw.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 41

Placing Hexes – Active Mode
When using hexes in active mode, it's
5 cm 5 cm
much better to place them in
constrictions; they are fairly unreliable
in perfectly parallel-sided cracks.
(Cams are much better than hexes in
parallel cracks).

However, because of the hexes'

4.5 cm 5 cm
camming action, the constriction
doesn't need to be as sharp as it
would be for a nut placement.

What you’re looking for is a crack that

you can just fit the hex into. Place the
hex so that it has opposite sides
making contact with either side of the Top View
crack, with the sling coming out
diagonally from the bottom.

The important factor to take into

consideration is what orientation to
use. Try placing it with different sides
touching the crack. Place it in the way
that fits the tightest, and which 'cams'
into position the most when the sling is
weighted.

Placing Hexes – Horizontal Cracks

Hexes can be used in horizontal
cracks in the same way as vertical
cracks.

It's often better to have the sling

coming out of the top, so it doesn't rub
over the edge of the crack.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 42

Removing Hexes
Hexes can be removed in the same
way as a nut in most cases. If a hex
has rotated into place tightly, you'll
have to reverse the way it rotated in
order to retrieve it.

Don't be afraid to hit them hard with

your nut tool; they're very durable.

Racking Hexes
Most of the time, you'll only be
carrying one or two hexes. In which
case, you can either put them on the
same carabiner with your big nuts (for
small hexes), or clip them further back
on your harness on their own separate
carabiner (for bigger hexes).

If you must carry a full rack of hexes,

they can be racked in groups of 2-4
per carabiner.

Top Tip
If your big hexes are jangling around,
slide the hex to the middle of its sling
and clip both ends together. This way,
the nut only hangs down half the
distance.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 43

Tricams

Tricams work in a similar way to

hexes; they can be placed in passive
mode like a nut, and also in active
mode.

When a tricam is weighted in active

mode, the downwards force is
transferred outwards to the sides of
the crack (white arrows), just the same
as a cam. The head rotates (green
arrows) and pushes the fulcrum into
the rock while the rails do the same
against the other side of the crack.

Tricams are not as reliable as cams in

parallel-sided, vertical cracks, since
the fulcrum needs a small dimple or
constriction to rest on. Because the
fulcrum of a tricam is a sharp point, it
bites into soft, wet or icy rock when
weighted, making it much better than a
cam in these conditions.

Fulcrum Point

Stingers

Cam Shoulders

Sling Retaining Pin

Cam Rails

Clip-in Point

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 44

 A Good Tricam Placement
Fits
completely
inside crack
Fulcrum rests
without being
on a
too far back
constriction
inside crack

Locks into
position when
weighted
Sling
orientated in
direction of
loading
Good rock
quality;
clean, dry
and solid

Placing Tricams – Passive Mode

Tricams can be placed in constrictions
just the same as a nut. Because they
are generally more tapered than a nut,
they will fit better in sharper angled
slots.

Place them in exactly the same way

as you would place nuts. Look for a
sharp constriction which gives as
much tricam-to-rock surface contact as
possible.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 45

Tricams tend not to wedge in place as To help prevent this, set them in place
well as nuts when used in passive with a hard tug just like you would with
mode. This can cause them to wobble a nut. Then extend the placement with
out of position as you climb above. a quickdraw or sling instead of using
just a single carabiner.

Placing Tricams – Active Mode

Tricams work beautifully in horizontal wall of the crack. Give it a sharp tug to
cracks or small pockets where cams seat it in position.
are too wide to fit properly and nuts
would simply slide out when weighted. When you pull on the sling, the tricam
They can also be used in diagonal or will rotate and push the fulcrum into
vertical cracks that have dimples or the rock while the rails do the same
constrictions inside. against the other side of the crack.
This is the camming, or active, action
To place a tricam in active mode, flip of a tricam.
the head over so that the sling is
running through the cam rails. Set the Be careful though, if there's nothing for
fulcrum in a slight dimple or the fulcrum to rest on or bite into, it'll
constriction on one side of the crack. probably fall out when you climb past.
Then set the rails against the opposite
…….

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 46

Placing Tricams – Horizontal Cracks
In horizontal cracks, you can place the
tricam so the sling comes out from
either the top or bottom.

However, you will reduce abrasion on

the sling by setting it with the sling on
top.

Removing Tricams
Think about how the tricam went in. If
it’s in an obvious constriction, shuffle it
towards the wider spot to pull it out,
just like you would with a nut.

You may need to disengage the

camming action so it will fit through. Do
this by rotating the tricam in the
opposite way that you would to seat it.

You can use a nut tool for this. Hook Try not to tug on the sling; that can
the fulcrum with your nut tool, then use seat the tricam further into the rock,
the sling to wiggle the tricam out of the making it even harder to remove.
crack.

Racking Tricams
If you take any tricams on a route,
you’ll probably only have one or two.
Just clip them on with your large nuts.

If you take more, you can rack them in

groups of 2-4.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 47

Big Bros

Big Bros are expandable tubes which Once expanded into the crack, one
protect wide cracks. They are lighter side of the big bro will be higher up
and more compact than large cams than the other. When the higher side is
but are harder to place, cannot be weighted (i.e: if the climber falls), the
shuffled up the crack and do not work unit becomes wedged into position.
as well in flares.

Placing Big Bros

Step 1
Find a flat spot in a parallel sided
crack. Place the inner tube against the
wall.

Step 2
Press the trigger button and let the
tube expand slowly to fill the crack (it
can damage the big bro if you push
the button and let the tube slam into
the rock). The inner tube should
contact the rock at a lower point than
the outer tube. Wiggle the tube around
a little to get the best fit.

Step 3
Spin the locking collar to the end of its
range and tighten it. This sets the big
bro in position. To get the best fit,
wiggle the tube slightly as you fasten
it.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 48

Removing Big Bros
Spin the collar to the end of the tube
and compress the big bro until the
trigger pops back into to place.

Racking Big Bros

Big bros should be compressed and
racked on their own separate
carabiner.

Ball Nuts

Ball nuts are a seldom used type of

climbing gear which offer protection in
thin cracks, filling the void where even
the smallest cams are too big to fit.

Armed with a set of ball nuts, you can

protect tiny cracks that you’d
otherwise have to leave unprotected. If
you often climb in venues that feature
very small cracks or pin scars, you will As the paddle moves down, it slides
benefit by adding a set of ball nuts and over the ball, therefore expanding the
the skills to place them to your arsenal. whole unit and causing it to lock into
the crack.
Ball nuts are comprised of two halves:
one half is a paddle and the other is a The key to using ball nuts is
flat ball which tracks up and down a understanding the physics which
central groove on the paddle when the cause them to lock into the crack:
trigger is pulled or released. When - Ball travel
weighted, the paddle is pulled down - Surface texture
while the ball remains stuck in position - Topology
on the rock. - Rock hardness

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 49

Ball Nut Physics
Ball Travel
When you pull the trigger, the ball
travels along the paddle’s central
groove. On most units, the ball can
travel beyond the paddle at either end.

During a fall, the ball stays still and the

paddle is pulled down a tiny amount.
Essentially, the ball ‘travels’ relative to
the paddle. This cinches the whole unit
tight into the crack. 6mm

There will be some amount of ball 12mm

travel in every fall, but the exact
amount depends on the rock type and
the placement (see below).

The key to using ball nuts is

anticipating and accommodating for
the distance the ball will travel. In a
typical placement, the ball nut should
be placed so the ball starts about 25%
of the way up the paddle. When it
cinches up in a fall, the ball moves to
around 50-70% up the paddle.

If the ball starts at the very bottom of 0% 25% 60% 100%

the paddle (so the ball nut is at its
narrowest setting), it may be difficult to
remove. If the ball starts close to the
top of the paddle, there is a good
chance that the ball will ride over the
top end of the paddle, therefore
causing the piece to fail.

Surface Texture
In completely slick or icy rock, the ball better. Be aware of tiny crystals or
will struggle to grip the side of the grains of rock which may crunch into
crack as the paddle is pulled down. dust under the force of a fall. This
This means the ball nut will slip right could cause the unit to expand beyond
out. A slightly rougher surface is much its limit and fail.
bbbbbbbb

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 50

Topology
In addition to getting the ball in an
appropriate spot on the paddle, you’ll
need to find the best spot for the ball
to ‘stick’ in the crack. Remember that
the paddle moves under load, not the
ball. If the ball moves too, the whole
piece will probably pull out. Look for
more texture, a tiny protrusion or
constriction for the ball to rest on.

In perfectly parallel sided cracks, a

micro cam would be a much better
choice, if it will fit.

In very tapering constrictions, a micro

nut will be a better choice. This is
because ball nuts are more sensitive
to rotating upward/outward with
movements in your rope as you climb
above.

Rock Hardness
Harder rock (such as granite) is much travel the full length of the paddle and
better suited for ball nuts. When slip off the end. This is especially true
weighted in very soft, loose or in the smaller sizes.
expanding rock, the ball is likely to
bbbbbbb

Placing Ball Nuts

Step 1 Step 2
When you find a suitable placement, Retract the trigger so the ball slides
grab your rack of ball nuts and try a down to the bottom of the paddle slot.
few that are most likely to fit. Assess Place it in the crack and release the
the texture and taper of the crack and trigger. Closely inspect the placement
the quality of the rock. to take advantage of every subtle
feature.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 51

Step 3 Step 4
Tug downwards (in the direction of Extend the ball nut with a quickdraw or
loading) on the ball nut to seat it into sling.
position. The ball should now be
around 25% of the way up the paddle. Think carefully about where your rope
will pull on the piece as you climb
Make a final assessment to check above. Ball nuts should stay exactly
there is no possibility of it cinching up where you placed them. Rotation can
so much that the ball rides over the make them blow.
end of the paddle.

25%

Removing Ball Nuts

To remove a ball nut, you have to it) while you pull the trigger and push
reverse the cinching action. For many the whole unit in.
placements, this can be done by
retracting the trigger, just the same as The ball is made of a softer metal than
a cam. the paddle. Under high forces (such as
in a fall), the ball deforms slightly. This
If this doesn’t work, the strategy is to helps it to stay in position and stick in
get the paddle to slide into the crack the crack. To remove stubborn ball
further while the ball stays where it is. nuts like this, you can free up the ball
You can assist this by hooking a nut by rotating or tapping the paddle in
tool over the ball (if there’s space for with your nut tool.
bbbbbbbb

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 52

Racking Ball Nuts
If you take any ball nuts on a route,
you’ll probably only have one or two.
Just add them to your small nut rack. If
you take more, rack them in groups of
3-5 per carabiner.

Slings

Slings are strongly-sewn loops of Slings are incredibly versatile, light,

nylon or dyneema webbing. They're strong and cheap. You'll find them
available in a range of lengths – your useful on almost every trad route.
typical trad rack will have 60cm,
120cm and maybe a 240cm length The most common uses of slings are
sling on it, but bigger and smaller ones to extend or equalize gear, either on
are also available. The length is given lead or at the belay (more on this
as the end to end distance, so the later), but they can also be used as
actual length of fabric will be double protection by themselves.
this.

A Good Sling Placement

- Sling is very unlikely to lift off when
you climb above

- Fits completely around the feature

- Sling touches smooth rock; no sharp

edges 60°

- The tree is well rooted, or the rock

feature is solid and firmly attached to
the main wall

- V-angle is less than 60 degrees

Joining Slings Together

If you don't have one sling long
enough to fit around a tree, you can
join two together. Do this by using a a sling, including a strop bend or an
strop bend – this is similar to a girth overhand knot, reduces the strength of
hitch. Remember that tying any knot in the sling by up to 50%.
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VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 53
Placing Slings – The Basics
The most common features
to 'sling' are blocks and
flakes. Simply put the sling
over the feature and clip it
to the rope with a
carabiner. If your sling is
big enough, you can tie it
as a clovehitch around the
feature. This reduces the
chance of it being lifted off
as you climb.

After placing the sling, give

it a gentle pull in the
direction of loading and
wiggle it around to simulate
how it may be pulled in a
fall or by movements in
your rope as you climb
above.

Placing Slings – Blocks and Flakes

A sling around a large block or flake
can be a great piece of gear – if it’s
solid. Inspect the rock and ask yourself
how the feature is attached.

Sling flakes as low down as you can to

reduce leverage and be careful of
fracture lines which indicate the
feature is detached.

Slings can lift off once you climb

above, especially if it's windy or if your
rope is pulling on it. To help prevent
this, you can wedge them in place with
another piece of gear as shown.

Alternatively, weight the sling down by

hanging something heavy from it, such
as a large hex.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 54

Placing Slings – Trees
You can use slings as protection
around trees. This is more commonly
done at the belay, though many
'classic' British routes have mid-pitch
trees.

Simply pass one end of the sling

around the tree and clip both ends
together with a carabiner.

There will be less force on the tree if

you attach your sling around the base
of the trunk. This is especially
important with weak or small trees.

Although not ideal, you Make sure to adjust the If you have a longer
can girth hitch trees as girth hitch so it doesn’t sling, it is much better
shown below. bend across the sling, to tie it off with an
as this puts more force overhand knot. This is
on it. stronger and more
redundant than a girth
hitch.

Placing Slings – Boulders

It is common to sling boulders as part The most stable boulders are large,
of a belay. When choosing a boulder, wide, flat-bottomed and are wedged in
consider the: place by the ground they sit on.
- Size
- Shape of its base If a boulder rests on debris, is on a
- Shape of the socket it rests in or the sloping ledge, or has a rounded base,
angle of slope it is on it may not be stable.
- Ratio of its height to width

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 55

Placing Slings – Chockstones
A chockstone is a rock which has
become wedged in a crack. They are
more commonly found in wider cracks
and chimneys and can provide great
protection where nothing else exists.

Assess how the chockstone is wedged

in place and be careful of large ones
which could roll out onto you.

Sling chockstones with a girth hitch on

one side. If you sling the middle, the
force of a fall could lever it out of the
crack.

Placing Slings – Threads

Slings can be threaded through a hole
or behind a feature.

Simply poke the sling through the hole,

pull it until both ends are even, then
clip a quickdraw or carabiner to it.

Placing Slings – The V-Angle

When placing a sling around a
tree or rock feature, it's
important to keep the V-angle 150°
less than 60 degrees.

A greater V-angle could cause 60°

your carabiner to cross-load in
a fall.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 56

Racking Slings
Short Slings Long Slings
60cm slings are best racked either as 120cm slings can also be worn over
extendable quickdraws (see page 61) the shoulder, with a carabiner clipping
or fit neatly over one shoulder. the two ends together.

You can pull one off whenever you Instead of pulling them off over your
need it, but don't wear too many or head, simply unclip the carabiner and
they'll tangle together. pull.

Twist
Either length can also be twisted and
racked onto your harness with a
carabiner.

For a 60cm sling, hold it on one finger

of each hand and twist one end round
a few times. Fold the sling in half and
clip a carabiner through the two ends
to rack it.

The same can be done with a longer

sling, just double it up first for a 120cm,
or double it twice for a 240cm.

Top Tip
The velcro on rock shoes quickly kills
dyneema slings, so try not to bundle
them all into your bag in one big
messy heap!

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 57

Nylon or Dyneema Slings?

Nylon Slings
Usually around 16-20mm wide, nylon
slings are much bulkier (and more
durable) than lightweight 6-14mm
Dyneema slings. This makes them the
best choice for situations such as
extending a belay device, replacing
anchor webbing or attaching yourself
to an anchor before abseiling.

Nylon webbing is cheap and easy to Nylon will also stretch to help absorb
buy in bulk. It holds knots better and forces, thereby dynamically absorbing
doesn’t melt as quickly as Dyneema. the energy of a falling climber.

Dyneema Slings
Dyneema (also known as Spectra or
Dynex) is incredibly strong for its
weight and is more abrasion and cut-
resistant than nylon. Dyneema slings
are usually white with a coloured
thread running through them – this is
a nylon filler that helps to hold the
sling together.

Dyneema folds up very small so

racking them is easy, especially 60cm fit, and are great for tying-off pitons.
slings racked as extendable Dyneema doesn't absorb much water,
quickdraws. Due to their thin diameter, making them a smarter choice for
they can be threaded through small winter climbing where your nylon
gaps where nylon slings are too fat to slings will freeze stiff.
ffffffffffff

Drawbacks of Dyneema
If Dyneema is the same strength as consider the drawbacks of Dyneema:
nylon, but much lighter, smaller and - Dynamic absorption
more abrasion and water resistant, - Durability
why would you ever get nylon slings? - Cost
- Melting point
Before you throw out your nylon slings, - Slickness
vvvvvvvvvv

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 58

Dynamic Absorption Slickness
Dyneema only stretches three to five Dyneema is much slicker than nylon.
percent, so there will be minimal You can buy nylon cord and webbing
dynamic absorption of falls through the off the spool in most climbing shops
sling – it's all reliant on your rope. and tie it together to create your own
cordelette, prusik or sling of the
If you fall without a rope in the system desired length.
(e.g: when attached directly to an
anchor with a sling), the resulting fall Dyneema webbing, however, is only
will be as abrupt as if you were available in finished, sewn products.
attached by a length of steel cable. One reason for this is because a knot
tied with Dyneema webbing tends to
pull through itself under load. The
exception is Dyneema cord, which you
Durability can buy in raw lengths. Be careful
The repeated flexing of Dyneema though – the weakness in Dyneema
degrades its fibers much quicker than cord is the knot you use to tie it
nylon, especially when knots are tied together. It is recommended to use a
in it. Dyneema quickdraws, slings and triple fisherman’s bend with long tails.
cam slings need to be replaced more The most important part of this knot is
frequently than the nylon equivalent. how well you fasten it – make it neat,
tie it very tight and check it before
each use.

Cost The same knot can be used if you

Dyneema is almost always more must cut and retie your sewn
expensive than good old-fashioned Dyneema slings, such as threading a
nylon. Buying nylon helps you save sling around a feature to back up an
money for more important things like abseil anchor.
climbing road trips.
While a water knot is the preferred
choice for tying nylon webbing
together, the triple fisherman’s bend is
Melting Point better for thin Dyneema. Because
The lack of stretch means that energy Dyneema is so slick, water knots pull
is dissipated as heat rather than through themselves at a much lower
movement. As Dyneema has quite a force than the triple fisherman’s.
low melting point compared to nylon,
the heat generated can damage the
material, causing it to fail.

This effect is more apparent when

knots are tied in the sling as the
strands of Dyneema rub over
themselves. Knots in thin slings are
also incredibly hard to unfasten if
heavily loaded.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 59

Nylon or Dyneema Slings – Static Falls
Because of the poor dynamic
absorption of Dyneema, it is not
suitable for use in situations where the
sling or daisy chain alone must hold
the full force of a fall, or when there’s
very little rope in the system.

Falling on the First Piece of Gear

When there is little rope in the system
to soften a fall (such as falling on your
first piece of gear), you can reduce the
force on that piece (slightly) by using a
nylon extender rather than Dyneema.
As you climb higher and reduce the
fall factor, it doesn’t really matter which
material you use.

Falling Directly on the Anchor

If you fall when attached directly to an
anchor with a Dyneema sling or
cordelette, the resulting fall will put
higher forces on the anchor than if you
were attached with a nylon sling.
Depending on the severity of the fall,
this could cause internal injuries, break
the sling or break your anchor.

A much better alternative is to attach

to the anchor with the rope. If this is
not possible (such as when abseiling),
make sure not to put yourself in a
position where you could fall and
shock-load the anchor, even if you are
attached with a nylon sling.

Nylon or Dyneema Slings – Summary

For most situations, you should focus mixture of both on your rack keeps
on using the sling correctly, rather than your options open.
worrying about what material you
should use. There are no definite rules The key is understanding the
for when to use either material. Both advantages and limitations of each
are good when used in the right way, and using your knowledge to select
but neither are perfect. Having a the best type for the situation.
immmmmmmiiiiiiiii

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 60

Extendable Quickdraws

Extendable quickdraws (or alpine It's great to carry at least a few of

draws) are usually made from a 60cm these on trad routes instead of fixed
sling and two snapgate carabiners. length, shorter draws. You could also
They can be used either as a short opt to only carry extendable draws,
draw or fully extended. particularly for alpine routes.

How to Make Extendable Quickdraws

Simply attach both
carabiners to the sling,
then pass one carabiner
through the centre of the
other one.

Clip the extra two loops of

the sling to the carabiner
as shown. This can now
be racked on your
harness like any other
quickdraw.

Top Tips
* You should have a gear carabiner
and a rope carabiner, just like you
would with sport draws. The sharp
edges of bolts or other fixed hardware
can notch the gear carabiner. This can
damage your rope if you swap them
over. Using different coloured
carabiners makes it easy to distinguish
between them.

* Thinner dyneema slings (6 or 8mm)

fold up more neatly than thicker
dyneema or nylon, which reduces bulk
on your harness.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 61

How to Use Extendable Quickdraws
Clip the draw to your gear,
then slip two loops of the
sling out of the rope-end
carabiner.

Pull it out to full extension,

then clip the rope in.

Twisted Sling Warning: Elastics

Sometimes, the sling can become Many short draws have a loop of
twisted which results in it being looped elastic at the rope end to hold the
around the gear carabiner. It's OK to carabiner firmly in place. It's important
use it like this if you're really pumped NOT to use one of these elastics on
and need to make the clip quickly, but an extendable quickdraw.
much better to sort it out if you can.
If the draw is twisted in the wrong way
If you fall while the sling is tangled like it can end up with the sling attached
this, the strands of it will slide over only with the elastic. This is easily
each other, causing it to weaken, just missed and would be disastrous if you
the same as if it was knotted. fell on it!

Racking Extendable Quickdraws

When following a pitch where the your shoulder – much easier in a
leader has used extendable draws, tricky position. Some people prefer to
you can either re-make the draw as carry them on lead like this too, rather
you go and rack it onto your harness, than racking them on their harness.
or simply sling the whole thing over
yyyyyyyyyyy

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 62

Extending Gear

Attaching a sling, quickdraw or slings, it'll take a little extra time and it
extendable quickdraw to a piece of increases your fall potential slightly.
gear has advantages in certain Planning ahead is important. Visualize
situations. The disadvantages are where you want your rope to run, and
fairly minor; you’ll have to carry extra extend gear as necessary.
aaaaaaaaaa

Wandering Routes
When gear placements are not in a
straight line, you'll have to extend
them to avoid rope drag.

You should aim to extend gear so that

your rope runs as straight as possible
without creating unnecessary fall
potential.

For this type of route, it can be worth

using half ropes too (see page 70).

Gear Position
Using extenders helps to keep your
gear in the position that you placed it.

If you don't extend gear appropriately,

slings can lift off, nuts can be pulled
out and cams can walk out of position.
This happens because of movements
in your rope as you climb above.

Deep Placements
Sometimes, gear must be placed far
inside a crack, or around a corner.
You'll need to extend the piece to
avoid rope drag.

This is especially important if the edge

of the rock is sharp.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 63

Cross-Loading
In some situations, carabiners could Warning! If you girth hitch a sling on
be cross-loaded over an edge. This is the wire loop of a nut it is likely to
most common in deep horizontal damage or cut through the sling in a
placements. A cross-loaded carabiner fall.
could be damaged or break during a
fall.

The best solution is to loop a sling than girth hitching or having a cross-
through the piece, then clip both ends loaded carabiner, but it reduces the
of the sling to a carabiner. This is better strength of the sling by 50% or more.
bbbbbbbbbb

Sharp Edges
Extend gear to keep your rope away
from sharp edges or loose rock.

Rope-Eating Cracks
Cracks at the lip of a roof or overlap
are notorious for eating ropes and
halting the leader. Even with gear
correctly extended beneath the roof,
your rope may get stuck if the route
continues up low-angled terrain.
.
Sometimes, a nut or hex placed at the
lip of the crack can help your rope from the crack. Another option is to
feed more smoothly, or a piece of gear belay immediately after the roof if
to one side can guide the rope away sufficient gear exists.
fffffffffff

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 64

Fixed Gear

You may encounter fixed gear on

some trad routes. Fixed gear ranges in
quality from new shiny bolts to ancient
rusty pitons. You may also find gear
which has been left or forgotten by a
previous party. Remove it if you can
and return the gear to the owner if
possible.

If you’re not certain about the quality

of fixed protection, back it up with
something much better. If you clip an
old nut or cam, let your partner know
the piece is fixed so they don’t waste
their efforts trying to remove it.

A piton in a horizontal crack is more quality and should not be mistaken for
likely to be better than one in a vertical bolts. If a piton isn’t fully driven
crack, because it will cam into place (hammered in up to the eye), you can
rather than rotate out. This however increase its strength by tying it off with
depends on the type of piton, how old a slip knot. This reduces leverage
it is and how well it was placed to start much more than clipping the eye
with. In general, fixed pitons are poor directly.
tttttttttttttt

Multidirectional Gear

The first couple of pieces of gear in a

pitch should be orientated to hold a
downwards and an outwards pull.
Because of the angle of the rope from
the belayer to the leader, a fall could
pluck gear out which only holds a
downwards pull.

Similarly, any lead protection placed

where the rope changes direction
should be able to hold a downwards
and a sideways pull, otherwise it might
be pulled out when the rope comes
tight in a fall.

Think about the direction you will be

climbing and place multidirectional
gear when appropriate.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 65

Cleaning Gear
When following, rack gear on your Remove quickdraws from cams, twist
harness as soon as you remove it. slings away neatly and rack nuts on
Don’t let it build up on the rope in front one carabiner if possible. If you
of you – it’ll get jammed on rock remove a nut with a quickdraw, clip the
features as you climb. Organizing gear nut-end to your harness so it doesn’t
as you remove it will speed up the hang low and get stuck as you climb.
belay changeover on a multi-pitch.

Rock Quality
Trad protection is only as strong as Not only is the gear unlikely to hold a
the rock it is placed in. Placing gear fall, but it could dislodge loose rocks
behind loose flakes or blocks is very which might hit your belayer or cut
dangerous. your rope in a fall.

Rock Type
Granite, limestone and sandstone are Limestone tends to be devoid of
the most prevalent types of rock in cracks and can be difficult to protect
climbing areas, though many other with trad gear.
types exist. Each rock type has a
different strength and probability to Some types of sandstone are coated
have loose features. Generally, soft with a hard patina of mineral-hardened
rocks (such as some types of rock. This makes the surface strong
sandstone and slate) are likely to have but masks an underlying soft layer.
brittle edges and loose features. When a cam is heavily loaded, the
lobes can punch through the patina
Harder rocks (such as granite) lend into the softer layer, causing the unit to
themselves to more reliable protection. skate out of the crack. For this reason,
Even though granite is solid, you will it’s wise to place protection more
often find loose blocks or bands of frequently in soft rock.
poor quality choss in random areas.

Cams in Poor Rock

Because of the large forces applied wall, meaning that your cam will be
outwards on the sides of the crack, pulled out.
cams should always be placed in
extremely solid rock. If you fall on a If the rock seems a little suspect, try
cam which is behind a loose flake, the finding a constriction to place a nut
cam lobes will press outwards and instead, since nuts apply far less
force the flake away from the main outwards force when weighted.
aaaaaaa
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 66
Testing Rock Quality
Visual Test Tap Test
Look at the feature and figure out how If you are still uncertain about the
it is attached to the main part of the quality of a rock feature, give it a
wall. If it looks detached, don’t touch it. gentle tap and listen to the noise it
makes. Loose rock ‘echoes’ and
Some features have very thin fracture sounds hollow.
lines around them, which suggest poor
rock quality. These fracture lines are If you must climb through a small band
sometimes covered in lichen or of brittle flakes, determine which are
otherwise hard to see, so look the best holds and selectively
carefully. distribute your weight between them.
Pull down on holds, rather than out.

kN Ratings
This is the kN rating. It's on all your
gear: nuts, cams, slings and
carabiners. kN stands for kilo Newton.
1kN is about 100kg (220lbs for the
Americans). So this nut will hold
around 900kg.

This is Nelly. She weighs 850kg, so the

9kN nut would hold her weight – if
she doesn’t move. But if Nelly climbed
above the nut and then fell, she would
put more force on the gear. This force
would certainly exceed 900kg, causing
the nut to break.

Every fall exerts a force greater than

body weight – often many times more
than your actual weight. Your goal as a
leader is to reduce the potential force
on gear, therefore keeping the climb
safe. The exact force generated
depends on:
- The distance fallen
- The climber’s weight
- The length of rope in the system
- Friction through gear in the system
- How dynamic the belay is
- How dynamic the rope is

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 67

Fall Factors
The fall factor is the distance fallen
divided by the length of rope in the
system.
3m 7m
The higher the fall factor, the more
force is applied to protection. This is Fall Factor ≈ 0.3
why a bigger fall puts more force on Force ≈ 2 kN
gear.
Fall Factor ≈ 0.7
If a climber falls 3 meters, when 10 Force ≈ 5 kN
meters up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.3.

If a climber falls 7 meters, when 10

meters up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.7.

Similarly, a fall taken close to the belay

puts a much larger force on protection
2m
than the same length of fall taken
higher up the pitch. Fall Factor ≈ 0.1
Force ≈ 1.5kN
If a climber falls 2 meters, when 20
meters up a pitch, the fall factor is 0.1.

If a climber falls 2 meters, when 3

meters up a pitch, the fall factor is
0.66.
Fall Factor ≈ 0.66
Force ≈ 4.5kN
2m

Warning!
If a climber falls 2 meters, when 1
meter up the pitch (falling directly onto
the anchor), the fall factor is 2. This
puts a large force directly on the belay
device which makes it hard to hold the
fall.

It is important to eliminate the chance

of a factor 2 fall by placing gear
immediately off the belay.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 68

Top Rope Vs Leader Fall Forces
Most lead falls have a fall factor of 0.2-
0.7 and generate 2-5kN of force on
the top piece of gear.

When top-roping, the distance fallen is

minimal, therefore the fall factor is
near zero. The force on the anchor will
be the weight of the climber plus part
of the weight of the belayer (around
1kN of force).

If there is slack in the system, the

force will be a little higher, but still
significantly less than the typical
forces on gear during a leader fall.

Forces on Climbing Gear

Most medium/large sized trad gear is The weakest link in the system is
rated to about 10-14kN. This is strong usually the quality of the placement or
enough to hold the most enormous fall the rock it is in (e.g: a 14kN nut in a
you'll ever take. In most cases, the suboptimal placement may be plucked
gear itself won’t break. out with a 2kN force).

Micro Gear
Micro cams and nuts have low
strength ratings and will only hold
small falls. If you take a massive
whipper onto a 3kN nut, it'll probably of pieces and consider equalizing
break. If your route is protected by them to make a stronger point of
small gear, make sure to place plenty protection.
ooooooooo

Heavy Climbers
The heavier you are, the more force than thinner ropes.
you apply to gear when you fall.
Heavyweights should beef up all
Heavier climbers should consider anchors, place protection more often
thicker ropes with low impact-force and make sure the belayer is able to
ratings, which can take more abuse take the load.
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VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 69
kN Ratings – Summary
It’s important for a leader to especially if it has a low strength
understand when potential forces may rating. If you're 'cruxing out' above
be high, and to place gear unreliable gear, it's usually safer to
appropriately to reduce this. High down-climb to a place where you can
forces can break micro gear, break the rest and re-think your options.
rock that holds bigger gear in place or
pluck out poorly placed gear. The belayer’s role is to assist the
leader in making these decisions.
Extend gear when necessary to avoid Often the belayer has a better
rope drag. Rope drag reduces the perspective of the potential forces on
effective amount of rope available to gear. Let your partner know if they are
absorb the impact, which increases creating a dangerous fall potential. You
the fall factor. can also help by being ready to give
an appropriate dynamic belay (see
Never rely on a single piece of gear, page 105).
eeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Half Ropes

Half ropes (also known as double

ropes) are thinner than single-rated
ropes and are designed to be used as
a pair.

Best Situations to Use Half Ropes

- When climbing a wandering route.
- When climbing a long alpine route
with an involved descent.

Advantages
- Rope drag is reduced on wandering
routes where the protection is not in
a straight line.
- You have more options for protecting Disadvantages
your partner when they follow - Involves more forward planning.
traversing pitches. - More difficult to belay.
- Half ropes double the length of abseil - It's possible to get into a situation
you can make. where only one half rope would stop
- If one rope is cut on a sharp edge, you from hitting the ground. They are
you still have the other to catch you. not designed to be used like this.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 70

Leading with Half Ropes
Designate Your Ropes
Tie in to half ropes just as you would
with a single, but with one rope on
either side of your belay loop.

The left rope will be used to clip gear

on the left side of the route, and the
right rope is for gear on the right.

Traversing
On a traversing route, it's best to have When there are sections of down-
an upper and a lower rope. The upper climbing, the second will often have
rope can help protect the second from worse fall potential than the leader.
taking an enormous sideways swing. Plan ahead and place gear high on
the upper rope to protect the second.

Belay Position
If there is a traverse to the belay, you Building the anchor to one side could
can protect the second better by create unnecessary fall potential for
building the anchor above the middle the second.
of the traverse.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 71

Straight-Up Pitches Crossing Ropes
On a straight-up pitch, clip your half Beware of crossing the ropes as you
ropes alternately to each piece. This clip gear. It’s possible to trap one rope
way, you never rely too much on one around a piece of gear, creating very
rope and you never pull extra slack bad rope drag.
into the system when clipping a high
piece.

Half Ropes – Fall Ratings

Can You Fall on Just One Half
Rope?
There's no simple answer to this. Half
ropes are designed to be used
together and are fall-tested by the
UIAA with a smaller falling mass than
for a single rope. The theory is that
one rope will take most, but not all, of
the force in a fall.

In reality, all of the force goes on one

rope if you fall.

You should be very cautious of

creating situations where only one
rope would hold a large fall. This
situation would also reduce the
redundancy that is inherent in half
ropes on complicated terrain, where
there is any risk of a rope being cut by
a sharp edge.

If you need to use half ropes

'separately' (e.g; if you have to clip
gear to one rope for the first half of a
route and then use the other rope for
the last half) you should consider
using two single rated ropes instead of
a pair of halves. ropes) if you are climbing as a team of
three. Some ropes are available that
It is also recommended to use two are rated as both a single and a half
single rated ropes (instead of two half rope; a perfect compromise!
oooooooooooo

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 72

The Statistics
For a single rope to pass UIAA testing, one and three falls before failing. This
it must hold five falls of 80kg at a fall means that half ropes are safe to fall
factor of 1.77. A half rope must hold on individually. However, they shouldn't
the same five falls at the same fall be relied upon to hold massive
factor, but only with a mass of 55kg. If whippers. If you take a large fall on
half ropes are tested as single ropes one half rope, you should retire that
(with the full 80kg), most hold between rope afterwards.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Protecting 73

Building Anchors

Climb: Dalriada, The Cobbler, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle.

Building Anchors

The climb isn't over when you reach

the top. You still need to make an
anchor to attach yourself and belay
your partner from.

Gear Placements
You should produce an anchor with at
least two (preferably three) good
pieces of gear. Gear placements are
sometimes obvious and close together,
and sometimes not so obvious and far
apart.

If you can't find enough gear to make

a secure anchor, you'll have to go
somewhere else! Try a little further
back or along the crag top. On a multi-
pitch, you may have to climb up a bit
higher, or down-climb if you've just
passed a suitable place. It is essential
that you find a place to make a solid
anchor. Never accept that an anchor is yourself and belay from. How you
poor quality. There are always other create the central point will depend on
options. what gear is available, how spaced it
is, if you have one rope or two, and
whether the climb is a single or a
The Central Point multi-pitch. It's essential to know each
Your gear placements need to be technique and be able to adapt your
equalized together to form a central anchor building skills for each unique
point. This is where you attach situation.
yyyyyyyyyyt

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 76

The 6 Point Rule
You should create an anchor which is points your piece of gear is really
worth at least 6 points. Only worth. As a guideline, points are
experience can teach you how many awarded as follows:
zzzzzzzzz

3 Points: A new bolt or a sling around 2 Points: A well placed piece of trad
a large tree. gear.

1 Point: A well placed micro nut or 0 Points: Any suspect gear which is
micro cam. either placed incorrectly or in bad
rock.

Warning: Loose features

Don't place all of the
anchor pieces behind the
same feature (especially
with flakes or blocks). If
that feature is loose, your
entire anchor will fall out
when weighted!

For this reason, it’s better

to place gear in different
cracks and features.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 77

Belay Plan 3) How you will attach yourself to the
When you've found enough good gear anchor.
placements for the anchor, you'll need 4) Which belay technique you will use.
to make a belay plan. Your plan will 5) Where you will put the extra rope.
include:
1) How you will equalize the gear When your plan is complete, you can
together. start making the anchor. Each part of
2) Exactly where you will sit or stand to the belay plan is explained on pages
belay. 78-102.

Equalizing Anchors – The Basics

Let's assume you've got two incredibly is by using a long (120cm or 240cm)
good pieces of gear or two bolts. The sling, or a cordelette (a loop of 7 or
easiest way to equalize them together 8mm cord).
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Clip the sling or Tie an overhand knot in Clip a screwgate
cordelette to both it. This creates a central carabiner into the
pieces of gear. Pull it point. central point.
down in the middle so
both strands of sling
are equal.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 78

Equalizing Anchors – Advanced

An overhand knot in your sling will 2) The anchor is set up for the
equalize the anchor pieces in a basic direction that the pull will come from.
sense. However, it must be tied in a
way which meets the following three 3) If one piece of gear was to fail, the
criteria: other would not be shock loaded.

1) The gear is equalized so the V- These are explained in detail on the

angle is less than 60 degrees. following pages.

Criteria 1 – The V-Angle

In theory, if you have two pieces of The smaller the V-angle, the smaller
gear with 100kg hanging from them, the force on each piece of gear.
each will take 50kg, right?
You don't need to know how to
Unfortunately not. This depends on calculate these numbers – just
the angle the sling makes just above remember that an angle up to 60
the overhand knot (the V-angle). degrees is acceptable.

At an angle of 60 degrees, 58% of the At 90 degrees, 71% of the force will go

total weight of the belay (the weight of onto each piece. This isn't too good.
both climbers) will go onto each piece.
This is good.

58kg
71kg

58kg
71kg

<60 ° 90 °

100kg 100kg

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 79

 At 120 degrees, each piece of gear You can decrease the V-angle by
takes 100% of the force! Never using a longer sling or cordelette, or
equalize gear with such a large angle. by extending a piece with a short sling,
as shown.

100kg 120 °
100kg

60 °
100kg

Criteria 2 – Direction of Pull

Your gear needs to be equalized direction. You'll need to place and
together in the direction of pull. This is equalize the anchor gear to suit that.
the direction that it would be weighted
if your partner falls. When you're setting the anchor up,
think about the direction that the pull
If you've climbed straight up to an will be in. Tie your overhand knot
anchor and will be standing or sitting accordingly, then test it by pulling hard
directly below it, this will be straight in that direction. Are both strands of
down. But if you've traversed in to a the sling taking the weight? If one is
ledge and the rope is running off to the slack, then adjust your knot so both
side, the pull will be in a different take an equal amount of weight.
uuuuuuuuuuu

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 80

Criteria 3 – Shock Loading
Imagine hanging a heavy shopping
bag from a nail on your kitchen wall. If
you place it there gently, the nail might
strain a bit, but it'll hold.

Now imagine extending that shopping

bag with a piece of string. Hold it up
high, then drop it. What happens? The
increased force will likely break either
the nail, string or bag, dumping your
shopping in an untidy pile of broken
eggs and plasterboard.

This principle is exactly the same at a

belay. If one piece fails and the anchor
isn't equalized correctly, all the weight
of you and your partner will 'fall' onto
the other piece, shock loading it. The There should be no slack in any part
extra force caused by shock loading of your anchor, so that if any piece
could pull out or break the remaining failed, there would be no movement or
piece. shock loading.

Equalizing Three Pieces

The previous example explained how
to equalize an anchor with only two
pieces of gear. This is fine if both
pieces of gear are absolutely bomber
(such as a new bolt or a sling around a
big, sturdy tree).

However, in most cases you'll be

building trad anchors out of regular
trad gear – nuts, hexes and cams.
These are not as strong as bolts or
massive trees, so you'll need to use Pull two loops down and tie one big
more of them. If you're not sure how overhand knot in it. Then clip a
many pieces of gear to use, see 'The 6 screwgate through all three loops. You
Point Rule' on page 77. may need to fiddle with the overhand
slightly to get all strands to pull equally
To equalize three pieces of gear, tight – often the longest one can go a
simply use a longer sling or cordelette. little slack as you tie it.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 81

Top Tip
If you have two pieces of gear close
together but the other one far away, it
can help to use two slings. First, use
one sling to equalize the two pieces
which are close together. Next,
equalize the central point of that with
the third piece of gear using another
sling.

You may need more than three pieces

of gear to make a secure anchor. Use
the same method to equalize as many
pieces together as you need. If you
don't have enough slings, you can use
the rope as part of the anchor (this is
explained later).

Top Tip
Once you've got one piece of gear in,
clip the rope through it as if you're still
climbing. This will protect you if you
slip while building the rest of your
anchor. You can unclip this later when
you are safely attached to the anchor.

Attaching to the Anchor – Belay Position

You'll need to attach yourself to the

Central Optimal Belay
anchor in a way that you can see your
Point Position
partner as they follow the pitch and
brace yourself if they fall.

Make sure you are positioned in a

straight line between the anchor and
the climber. You shouldn’t be pulled
sideways if the climber falls.

You may need to extend your anchor Some of the most common methods
to get into the optimal belay position. are described on the following pages.
There are many ways to do this, each With practise, you should develop the
with their own advantages and ability to adapt and combine these
limitations. methods to suit every belay situation.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 82

Method 1 – Clip Directly
Clip your belay loop into the central Advantages
point directly with a screwgate - Simple.
carabiner.
Disadvantages
Best Situation to Use This Method - No dynamic aspect to the anchor
If extending the anchor with the rope (using the rope is much better. See
would put you in a bad position to methods 2-5).
belay. - Very difficult to adjust belay position.

Method 2 – Tie to the Central Point

Tie your rope to the central point using Advantages
a clovehitch. You can fine-tune your - Only uses a small amount of rope.
belay position by adjusting the
clovehitch – just shuffle rope through Disadvantages
and pull it tight. The rope between you - Belay position must be close to the
and the central point will need to be central point.
fairly tight.

Best Situation to Use This Method

If the central point is within reasonable
reach of your belay position (up to 2
meters or so).

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 83

Method 3 – Loop Through the Central Point
Clip the rope through the screwgate on Advantages
the central point, then walk to your - You can fine-tune your belay position
belay position. Attach a screwgate to without moving back to the anchor.
your rope loop and then clovehitch the
rope to it. Disadvantages
- Uses more rope and one extra
Best Situation to Use This Method screwgate than method 2.
If the central point is out of reach from
your belay position.

Method 4 – Attaching to Two Points

Step 1
Attach the rope to the nearest anchor
point with a clovehitch.

Step 2 Step 3
Clovehitch the rope to the other Clovehitch the rope to your rope loop
anchor point, leaving a little slack with another screwgate.
between the two.

Best Situation to Use This Method Disadvantages

If you have two anchor points which - Must be close to the first anchor
are too far apart to equalize with a point in order to fine-tune your belay
sling/cordelette. position.
- The central point is created at your
Advantages belay loop. This means that you must
- Equalizes two points. belay directly from your harness (you
- Uses less rope than method 5. can't use guide mode).

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 84

Method 5 – Attaching to Three or More Points
Step 1 Step 2
Clip the rope through the furthest away Attach a screwgate to your rope loop
point, then walk to your belay position. and then clovehitch the rope to it.

Step 3 Step 4
Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the Clovehitch the rope to the third point.
second point. You can fine-tune the clovehitches to
equalize the three points.

Best Situation to Use This Method Disadvantages

If you arrive at a belay with no slings - Uses up a lot of rope.
or cordelette. - You must belay directly from your
harness.
Advantages
- You can use this method to equalize
as many points as you need. Just
keep repeating steps 1 and 2 until
you've equalized all your pieces.

Attaching to the Anchor – Half Ropes

When climbing with half ropes, you described methods with either one or
can use any of the previously both ropes.
ddddddddddddd

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 85

Attaching to the Anchor – Trees

Walking around a large tree and The clovehitch or figure-8 on a bight

clipping the rope back to your rope are good knots to use. It is only
loop is a quick way to make an anchor suitable to do this with very large
with only one screwgate carabiner. trees. Watch out for tree sap.

Attaching to the Anchor – Cordelette Craft

If equalizing the anchor with a

cordelette, it is typically better to
create the central point at head to
chest level. This provides a convenient
workstation to attach yourself to and
belay your partner from.

The following methods describe a few

ways to adjust the height of the central
point.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 86

Keeping the Central Point High
Double Up
One or more strands can be doubled piece more than it’s share of the load.
up. The double loops don’t stretch as Consider this when equalizing the
much, so they may give the higher pieces together.
ppppppppppp

Tie a Knot Figure 8

Tie an overhand in the cordelette to Tie a figure 8 instead of an overhand
shorten it. at the central point. Or wrap the cord
around itself one more time to create a
figure 9.

When using any of these methods to

adjust the height of the central point,
try to keep the V-angle below 60
degrees.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 87

Extending the Central Point
If you would prefer to use a cordelette
to equalize the anchor (rather than the
rope), but it isn’t long enough, try
extending the furthest away piece with
a sling.

Alternatively, unfasten the cordelette's

double-fisherman’s bend and tie a
figure-8 loop in each end of it. Clip the
ends into the furthest away pieces and
equalize with an overhand knot.

The disadvantages of this setup are a

reduced strength on the outer pieces
(one strand of cordelette is weaker
than two) and there is no top shelf.

The Top Shelf

To free up space at the central point,
you can clip in to the ‘top shelf’ of the
cordelette.

This is useful when:

- Belaying in guide mode.
- Using a redirected belay.
- There will be more than one other
climber attaching to the central point.

Step 1
Cinch the cordelette tight and attach a
screwgate to the central point. This
ensures the knot cannot roll.

Step 2
Clip each individual loop of the
cordelette with another screwgate as
shown.

Step 3
Attach yourself to this screwgate.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 88

Warning!
Make sure you have clipped through shown. If one part of the anchor fails,
each cordelette loop individually. It is you will become completely detached.
dangerous to clip around the loops as
ooooooooo

Attaching to the Anchor – PAS's and Daisy Chains

Personal Anchor Systems Daisy Chains
A Personal Anchor System (PAS) is a Daisy chains look and function in a
series of very short sewn slings similar way to the PAS, but they are
connected in a chain-link-style. They only full strength when clipped end-to-
are designed as an idiot-proof anchor end. The stitching between daisy chain
attachment. loops is very low strength. If you
connect to an anchor by clipping a
Once girth hitched to your harness, carabiner through two consecutive
any part of the PAS can be clipped to loops, the stitching could break,
an anchor to provide a full strength causing you to become completely
attachment. detached from the anchor.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 89

Adjustable Daisy Chains
Adjustable daisy chains are not full
strength (usually rated to around 5kN).
These are designed for aid climbing
and should never be used as your
primary anchor attachment.

Moving Above the Anchor

It's only safe to attach yourself to an
anchor with a sling, daisy chain or PAS
if you won't be moving above it (such
as when setting up an abseil).

If you fall when above an anchor (even

if you are only 30cm above), unusually
large forces will be generated. This is
because slings (especially those made
of Dyneema) do not absorb much
energy – think of it as similar to falling
when attached to a length of steel
cable. You can damage internal
organs with just a 10kN force – falling
onto a sling directly is likely to be
much higher than this. It could also
break the sling, or the anchor. If there
is any chance that you will move
sideways or above the anchor, make
sure to attach to it with the rope.

Attaching to the Anchor – Common Mistakes

Tying Clovehitches on Snapgates
Part of the clovehitch could easily
snap through the gate, making the
knot useless. Never tie clovehitches
on snapgate carabiners. Use a
screwgate, or two opposite and
opposed snapgates (see next page)
instead.

Clipping Snapgates Together

A slight twist can cause the carabiner’s
gate to open. Instead, use a quickdraw,
sling or screwgate depending on the
situation.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 90

Non-Equalized Anchor Attachment
If one part of the anchor fails,
everything will swing onto the other
side. This presents a real danger of
losing control of the belay.

Always make sure your anchor is

equalized.

Too Many Knots on one Carabiner

at the Central Point
This is bad because:
- If the blue rope is weighted, it will be
impossible to remove the green rope.
- If the green rope is a climber’s
attachment point and you open the
gate to remove the blue rope, the
climber will only be attached by an
open carabiner – this is very
dangerous.

If you need to attach more than one

knot to an anchor, use a separate
screwgate for each.

No Screwgates?
If you need a screwgate but don’t Warning!
have one, you can use two ‘opposite This is a common incorrect carabiner
and opposed’ snapgates instead. This alignment. If one carabiner flips
is useful in situations such as around, both gates could be pushed
attaching to an anchor. open at the same time.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 91

Top-Rope Anchors

With the security of an anchored rope Lowering

above, top-roping is the safest way to When belaying from the top, the
climb. A top-roped climber can rest on climber is often lowered down and
the rope whenever they are too tired to then climbs out. If possible, it can be
continue, safe in the knowledge that much better to belay directly from the
they will only fall a few inches. Top- anchor. This keeps the climber’s
roping is great for beginners, large weight off the belayer’s harness.
groups or for experienced climbers
who want to push their physical limits. If lowering is impractical (e.g: it could
damage the rope or it’s difficult to
communicate when to stop being
Forces lowered), the climber could abseil
Forces on gear when top-roping are down instead. This could be on the
much less than forces on gear during same rope, or a separate one. Plan
a leader fall. However, with a little logistics well before descending.
slack in the system, the force at the
anchor could exceed several times the
combined weight of the climber and Setting Up the Anchor
belayer. The anchor needs to be Be careful when walking around the
bomber. top of a crag un-roped. You may need
to make an anchor further back from
the cliff edge and then be put on belay
Top or Bottom? while you set up the top-rope anchor.
Depending on the terrain, the length of
your rope and the anchor
arrangement, you may choose to
belay from the top or the bottom of the
crag.

Belaying from the bottom:

- Makes it easier to switch between
climbing and belaying.
- Makes communication clearer.
- Generally creates a more social
setting.

Belaying from the top can be better if:

- The bottom of the crag is difficult or
impossible to access (e.g: the last
pitch of a tall cliff).
- There is a chance of a climber
knocking rocks on the belayer.
- The crag is higher than half a rope
length.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 92

Step 1
Find enough good gear
placements directly above
the route to make an
anchor.

<60 °
Step 2
Equalize them together with Rope Protector
slings, cordelettes or a
section of static rope to
create a central point which
fulfils the criteria in the
anchor check list (see page
94).

Remember that the anchor

will be out of sight and not
consistently weighted while
you are climbing. This
means you will have to build
it with gear that cannot
wiggle out of position with
movements in the rope.

Step 3
Extend the central point
over the edge of the crag, if
it isn't already. Static rope is
the best for this, but you
can also use nylon slings or
a thick cordelette. Make
sure to double up the slings
or static rope which extend
the anchor over the edge.

Step 4
Place a rope protector over
any rough edges. An old
piece of carpet, foam pads
or garden hose pipes
(without metal lining) make
good rope protectors.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 93

Step 5
Clip the middle of the rope to the downwards to fasten them). Even if
central point with two screwgates. your anchor is bomber, extended and
Make sure the screwgates are well padded, it is wise to check it
opposite and opposed (facing periodically if it is being used
opposite ways and the screws twist repeatedly.
ddddddddd

Anchor Check List

However you create your anchor, 7) Each piece is independent from

make sure: the others to prevent shock
loading.
1) There are enough pieces of gear to 8) You are attached to the anchor
satisfy the 6 point rule. with a tight rope.
2) Each piece is placed as well as it 9) All knots are tied neatly.
can be. 10) All the screwgates are fastened up.
3) The rock around the gear is solid.
4) The pieces of gear are equalized
correctly. Once you can answer 'yes' to all of
5) The V-angle is less than 60 degrees these, you can tell your partner that
at each point of equalization. you are safe or off belay (make sure
6) The anchor is perfectly aligned with you are speaking the same climbing
the direction that the pull will come language – see page 109).
from.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 94

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Anchors 95
Belaying

Climb: Bronwyn Hodgins on Flight of the Challenger, Squamish, Canada. Photographer: Alex Ratson.
Belaying From an Anchor

Once you’ve climbed a pitch and built Three of the most common belaying
an anchor, you will need to belay your methods are described below. It's
partner up. Pull up all the slack rope in important to understand the
the system until it's tight on your advantages and limitations of each,
partner, then choose a method to and be able to adapt these methods to
belay them. suit any situation.

Method 1 – Redirected Belay

Clip a screwgate to the central point.
Run your partner’s rope through this
and down to your belay device. You'll
be able to belay as you normally would
on a top-rope. Your belay device will 1.5
need to be at least 1.5 meters away Me
te rs
from the central point. This reduces
the chance of you being pulled into it if
your partner falls. Also, make sure that
the rope isn't rubbing against your
attachment knot at the central point.
Consider attaching to the top shelf to
avoid this if possible.

Best Situation to Use This Method

- When you have a nice ledge to stand Disadvantages
on and the central point is just above - It's possible to get pulled into the
your head. central point if your partner falls,
particularly if they are heavier than
Advantages you. This creates a real danger of
- Most of the weight of a falling climber losing control of the brake rope.
is transferred to the anchor, not your - This method is more difficult to set up
harness. when using half ropes (you'll need a
separate point for each rope).

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 98

Method 2 – Directly from Harness
Attach your belay device to your belay brake rope. In most situations, the
loop. This can be set up so the brake weight of a falling climber will pull
rope comes out of either the top or down from you, not up. Because of
bottom of the belay device – choose this, you will need to lock off upwards
whichever way is easier to lock off the not downwards.
eeeeeeeeee

Rope to
Climber

Spare
Rope

Advantages Best Situation to Use This Method

- You can use this method for almost - If you have used your rope to
every belay situation. equalize the anchor.

Disadvantages
- If your partner falls, it's possible that
their weight will pull uncomfortably on
your harness or over your legs.

Method 3 – Directly from Anchor (Guide Mode)

Some belay devices have a 'guide Main
mode' function – they can be set up Anchor
in a way which locks automatically if a Point
climber falls. They can be used as a
normal belay device too.

You can set up guide mode as shown,

with one rope or two. Simply pull the
brake strands through as the climber
moves up. If they fall, the device will
Ropes
lock by itself almost instantly.
to
Climber
Even though guide mode belay
devices are auto-locking, you should
always keep hold of the brake rope.

Belayer’s
Tie-in Point

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 99

Advantages Disadvantages
- The weight of a falling climber isn't - Time-consuming to lower a climber,
on your harness, which is much more even a short distance.
comfortable.
- You can bring up two climbers at the
same time (on two different ropes) – Best Situation to Use this Method
great if climbing as a team of three. - When it is unlikely that you will need
- Because you are not directly to lower the climber (e.g: climbing an
attached to your belay device, it is easy slab route).
easier to detach yourself from the - When climbing as a team of three.
system in an emergency.

Lowering a Climber in Guide Mode

Before you use guide mode, you must
understand how to lower a climber.

Note: The belayer's anchor

attachment has been omitted from the
following diagrams for clarity.

Lowering a Short Distance

If the climber only needs a few inches
of slack, you can wiggle the belay
carabiner as they weight the rope.
Carabiners with a perfectly round
cross-section are not so effective at
this.

Lowering a Long Distance

There are a few different ways to do
this, some are faster and some are
safer. The following description is a
safe way to do it.

Step 1
Redirect the brake strand(s) through a
high point of the anchor with a
screwgate carabiner. Then tie a prusik Harness
knot around the rope and clip it to your Belay
belay loop. Loop

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 100

Step 2
Girth hitch a sling through the small
hole on your belay device.

Newer devices have a big enough

hole to clip a carabiner. If yours does,
you can clip a sling to it with a
carabiner.

Step 3
Redirect the sling through a high point
of the anchor with a carabiner, then
fasten the sling to your belay loop with
another carabiner. This will allow you
to use your weight to release the belay
device.

You could also stand in the sling to

release the belay device, though it's
often easier to control when clipped to
your harness.

You are now able to lower the climber

in a controlled manner. Remember to
slide the prusik knot as you continue
lowering.

Warning!
Never weight the belay carabiner as
shown on the right.

This will disengage the device and

cause the climber to fall.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 101

Tying-Off a Climber in Guide Mode
If you need to go completely hands-
free while belaying in guide mode, you
can tie-off the device. Simply form a
loop in the brake strand and clip it to
the rope. Be aware that if the knot
jams up into the belay device, it will be
difficult to lower the climber without
belaying them up a few inches first.
Consider this before you tie them off.

Where to Put the Spare Rope

There are basically two options. Either
stack it into a neat pile somewhere or
stack it through a sling.

For the sling method, start by pushing

a long loop of rope through the sling.
Continue doing this, making smaller
loops each time (bigger loops are
more likely to get tangled into each
other when you are belaying the
leader on the next pitch).

However you choose to stack the

rope, make sure it is within reach and
that you can do it one-handed – you'll
need to belay at the same time.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 102

Rope Loop or Belay Loop?
You can belay either from your belay Remember that if you used two ropes
loop or from your rope loop. in the anchor, you'll need to belay from
both rope loops. If you are unsure, just
In some situations, using the rope loop use your belay loop.
can be more comfortable – it can
allow you to transfer the weight of a If you have a carabiner attached to
fallen climber onto the anchor, rather your rope loop, remember to take it off
than having their weight pulling on your before you untie – many carabiners
harness. have been lost this way.

Using the Belay Loop Using the Rope Loop

Belaying Techniques

Before the First Piece of Gear

Before the leader reaches the first
piece of gear you'll need to spot them,
just the same as if they were
bouldering. Make sure to have enough
slack rope for them to clip their first
piece.

Obviously this technique only works

when climbing off the ground (i.e: not
from a hanging belay on a multi-pitch).

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 103

Runout Routes
On sparsely protected ‘runout’ routes
where a fall onto a ledge or the ground
is possible, the belayer can run
backwards away from the route if the
leader falls. This takes rope out of the
system far quicker than pulling slack
through a belay device, which means
the leader will fall less distance.

Remember to keep both hands on the

rope in the locked-off position as you
run back, and look out for trip hazards.

It results in an uncomfortable, abrupt

fall and puts much more force on the move backwards. Routes like these,
gear. So consider this before you however, are best avoided.
mmmmmmmmmm

Weight Differences
If the climber weighs more than the
belayer, a fall usually lifts the belayer
into the air, naturally softening the fall
for the climber.

However, if the climber weighs

significantly more, a fall could cause
the belayer to slam into the rock or be
‘sucked in’ to the first piece of gear.
There is a real danger of losing control
of the belay if this happens.

To combat this, the lightweight belayer

can anchor to the ground. This
technique, however, reduces the
belayer’s ability to move around the
base of the route and give a soft
catch. move around and give a soft catch if
needed, but not so much slack that
A good compromise is to attach to a you would be pulled into the first piece
ground anchor with enough slack to of gear.
aaaaaa

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 104

Soft Catches
On steep routes, a ‘soft catch’ is a
common technique which makes the
fall much more comfortable for the
leader and stops them from slamming
into the rock when the rope gets tight.

The leader will fall further during a soft

catch, so make sure to only use this
technique on steep, overhanging
routes where you are certain the
leader cannot hit anything.

To soften a fall, belay with your knees

bent. Straighten them during the catch,
allowing the weight of the falling
climber to pull you upwards slightly.
You could even take a small hop just dynamic belay is unsafe. A lightweight
as the rope begins to pull tight. belayer might be pulled upward into a
roof or a piece of gear which could
Considering that many micro cams disengage their belay device, or the
and small nuts have breaking extra rope could cause the leader to
strengths of 3-6kN, a dynamic belay hit a ledge or the ground.
could make the difference between
your gear breaking or holding. Watch your partner carefully and learn
to recognize how much of a dynamic
There are many situations when a belay (if any) is appropriate.
wwwwww

Belaying with Half Ropes

Belaying the Second
To belay with half ropes, you'll need
an 'ATC style' belay device which has
two slots in it. You cannot use a GriGri.

You'll often need to take in or give

slack on one rope more than the other
to keep the ropes equally tight on your
partner. Simply go through the normal
belaying motion, but hold one rope
tight while letting the other slide
through your brake hand. Obviously,
never let go of either rope.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 105

Lead Belaying
Sometimes you'll need to feed out
more slack on one rope than the other,
as the climber pulls it up to clip. Pull
rope out with your upper hand while
letting it slide through your brake hand.

Once the climber has clipped one rope

higher than the other, you'll need to
take in that rope, while giving out slack
on the other. This can be pretty tricky
to do well and takes some practise. It
helps to keep the two ropes separated
in your hand above the belay device.
Remember to keep hold of both of
them together in your brake hand.

How to be a Better Belayer

Just as people pick up bad habits after have learnt the basics. Here are some
they pass their driving test, climbers tips to keep your climbing partners
often get lazy with belaying once they alive.
eeeeeeeeeee

Don't Let Go of the Rope

Sounds obvious, but it's amazing how The Bottom Line
many experienced climbers let go of Your partner's life is literally in your
the brake rope for a brief moment hands. If they fall while your hand is
while belaying. loose or off the rope, you probably
won’t catch the fall.
Letting go of the brake rope is like
letting go of the steering wheel while
driving on a fast country road. Avoid
the temptation to loosen or release
your grip, even just for a second. Use
your other hand to wave to friends, get
something out of your pocket or
scratch your butt. Or better yet, just
wait until you’ve finished belaying. This
is a common problem with assisted-
braking belay devices, where people
get comfortable using them and forget
that they do not always auto-lock.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 106

Stay in Position
You should stand in a position fairly
close to the wall where you can take a
few steps forward or backward to give
slack or take in while still locked off.
Don't sit down, lie down, or face in the
wrong direction.

If the climber is to the left of the first

piece of gear, you should stand to the
right to avoid being hit by rocks,
dropped gear or their feet.

Check
Make it a habit to check yourself and
your partner before each climb.
Rope runs
through the
correct two points
of harness
Waist belt and leg
loop buckles
fastened

Stopper knot

Correctly tied knot

Rope to
climber
Waist belt and (live rope)
leg loop buckles
fastened
Screwgate
fastened

Rope to ground Correctly set

(brake rope) up belay
device

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 107

Be Ready and Inform
Let the climber know about any You should stand in a 'ready' position,
dangers or mistakes they are making. so that if your climber falls or needs
Look out for back-clips, if their leg is some help, you can react quickly to
around the rope or if they should the situation.
extend a quickdraw.

Keep an Appropriate Amount of Slack

When lead belaying, the rope should
always travel outwards and upwards
from your belay device to the first
piece of gear.

Lazy belayers often give too much

slack so they can wait longer before
having to deal with the rope again.
This can be incredibly dangerous for
the leader. Take and give slack as
your climber moves to maintain the
correct arc in your rope.

When top-rope belaying, keep the

rope fairly tight for the first few moves
so the climber doesn’t hit the ground if
they fall.

Close the System

If you are not certain how long a pitch
is, or how long your rope is, the
belayer should tie into the bottom end
of the rope. This closes the system.

When the climber is tied to one end,

and the belayer is tied to the other, it is
impossible to lower the climber off the
end of the rope.

Alternately, tie a knot in the free end of

the rope.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 108

Watch and Listen
Keep an eye on the climber so you
can give slack at the exact same time
as they are clipping a high piece of
gear, or brace yourself if they fall. If
you can’t see the climber, listen for
commands from them and watch for
movements in the rope.

Pay special attention when the leader

is clipping the rope into a piece of
gear. The extra bit of slack you have
out makes the leader vulnerable to a
longer fall if they slip just before
making the clip.

You cannot give complete attention to

the climber if you are talking to
someone else. Likewise, avoid starting
a conversation with someone who is
belaying, and walk well around them
so you don’t compromise their belay.

Communicate
Climbers in different countries often rope to signal they are off belay. The
use slightly different climbing calls. belayer then gives three sharp tugs
Before you climb, make sure that you back to let them know they are about
and your partner are familiar with the to be taken off belay. The problem with
same 'climbing language'. this method is that it is possible to
mistake a leader’s jerky movements or
At a busy crag, the climber and tugs for slack as the off-belay signal. If
belayer should call each other by there’s rope drag it can be even more
name. This confirms that any shouted difficult to decipher these movements
commands are actually meant for in the rope.
them. You won’t always be able to see
or hear your partner very well. Shout Keep the climber on belay until you’re
the climbing commands loudly to be certain they are safe. When you feel
clear. the same signal repeated many times,
you’ll know what the leader is trying to
You and your partner should have a say.
pre-arranged signalling system for
situations where you can’t hear each The Bottom Line
other. One common method is for the Never take someone off belay until
leader to give three sharp tugs on the you’re sure they are off.
gggggggg

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Belaying 109

Descending

Climb: Callum Coldwell-Storry on Torre Norte del Paine, Patagonia. Photographer: Neil Chelton.
Descending

After absorbing the view at the top of a choose to walk off, downclimb an easy
climb, it’s time to get down – safely. route or abseil (rappel). The least
Sometimes you must descend when technical descent is usually the best
tired, in the dark or in a storm. Even option.
when everything is fine, you still need
to concentrate. The climb isn’t over However, if there are good fixed
until you’re down on the ground. anchors, a quick abseil could be more
convenient than a long walk around.
Depending on the situation, you may Plan your descent before climbing up.
nnnnnnnnnn

Walking Off

When walking off is a common

descent method, there will usually be
an established trail back to the base.

Always be securely connected while

cleaning the anchor. You may have to
do a mini pitch in order to reach safe
walking terrain.

If you want to carry regular shoes for

the descent, clip them to the back of
your harness. Many shoes have clip-in
loops for this. If you don’t have a loop,
tie your laces together and clip them
on. Tie them as short as possible to
stop them dangling around as you
climb.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 112

Downclimbing

Many descents involve some sections you may choose to rope up or not.
of downclimbing. This could be a Never climb unroped on anything
simple two-move step down onto a big you’re not absolutely certain about –
ledge or a long, exposed traverse on remember that it’s easy to get the rope
loose rock. Depending on the terrain, out and belay or abseil a section.
ttkkkkkkkttttt

Unroped Downclimbing
When scrambling down unroped, keep climber to go first to find the easiest
close together so all climbers are line. They can also act as a spotter for
ready to give assistance if needed. It’s short, tricky sections.
better for the more experienced
ggggggggggggg

Belayed Downclimbing
If there are no abseil anchors, or the
downclimbing follows a traverse, you
can belay each other down. The first
climber places gear to protect the
other climber(s) while being belayed/
lowered down. The last climber must
be careful as they will downclimb
above gear which they didn’t place. If
the downclimbing section is too
difficult, consider leaving behind some
gear and abseiling instead.

Abseiling (Rappelling)
Abseiling (or rappelling) is a simple
method of descending ropes that gets
you back to the ground quickly.

Abseiling – Check the Anchor

In most situations, there will be a fixed
abseil point (such as two equalized
bolts or some slings around a tree).
This anchor must be bomber. Check
the bolts, webbing or cord carefully. If
the anchor fails, you will most likely
die, so be prepared to replace it.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 113

A bolted abseil anchor should have
two bolts of 3/8” diameter or thicker,
which are well placed in solid rock.
Inspect the rings or maillons too. If
they are rusty or have a groove worn
in them, consider backing them up
with a carabiner.

Closely inspect anchors made with

webbing or cord, especially around the
back of the feature. Slings which have
been in place for years may be stiff or
faded – signs that they have been
severely weakened by ultraviolet
radiation. Animals sometimes chew
webbing too, so check thoroughly. If in
doubt, add to it or replace it with
webbing, cord or slings of your own.

Some anchors in seldom-climbed

areas may be missing a ring or
carabiner at the central point. In this
case, you’ll need to add one of your
own.

The rope should not run directly over

nylon slings or cord. Nylon on nylon
generates tremendous friction. When way. Your rope will probably cut
you pull your ropes, they will cut into through the slings before you reach
the abseil slings, leaving them the ground. Always make sure your
dangerously weak for the next team. ropes are attached to the anchor with
For the same reason, you should metal. Two carabiners with gates
never be lowered from an anchor this opposite and opposed works well.
yyyyyyyyyy

Abseiling – Attaching to the Anchor

The entire climbing team should attach
to the anchor while rigging abseils. A
common way of doing this is to girth
hitch a short sling through your belay
loop and clip it to the anchor with a
screwgate. On bolted abseil anchors
where the two bolts aren't joined
together, you can use two slings with
separate screwgates. Attach one sling
to each bolt.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 114

Abseiling – Tying Ropes Together
You can abseil with either one rope or through until the middle is at the abseil
two. Whichever you use, you'll need to point. Some ropes have a convenient
get the middle of your total length of middle marker to make this easier.
rope onto the anchor.
If you are using two ropes, you'll need
If you're using one rope, feed one end to tie them together. A simple and safe
through the abseil point. Then holding way to do this is to use the overhand
both rope ends together, pull the rope knot described below.
……..

Step 1 Step 2
Thread the end of one rope through Put the ends through the loop to make
the anchor. an overhand knot.

Then hold one end of each rope

together and make a loop at least
60cm from the end.

60cm

Step 3 Step 4
Pull each strand of rope very tight on Back it up with another overhand knot
either side of the knot, making sure immediately next to it. Pull that tight
the knot is neat. too. You should have at least 30cm of
rope left after the knots.

30c
m

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 115

Abseiling – Throwing Ropes
You should throw your ropes down in a something. The following is a simple
way that they are unlikely to get method of reducing your chances of a
tangled together or stuck on stuck rope.
ssssssssssssss
Step 1 Step 2
Tie knots (such as the triple barrel or Prepare to throw the ropes down. It's
overhand) in the bottom end of both better to do this one rope at a time.
strands of rope. This stops you from Starting from the end, stack one rope
accidentally abseiling off the end. in coils over your arm.

Step 3 Step 4
Shout ‘rope’ to anyone who may be in Stack the other rope and throw it down
the area below. When you are certain in the same way.
that no-one could get hit by your
ropes, you can throw them. Take the If there are climbers below, either wait
first half of the coils in one hand and for them to finish climbing, or ask them
the second half in your other hand. if you can slowly lower the ends of
Throw the second half of the coils your ropes down. This may cause your
down, closely followed by the first. ropes to snag on features, but will be
Keep an eye on the ropes at the much less dangerous for the person
anchor. With all the weight on one leading up.
side, the rope could zip through the
anchor at this point.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 116

Abseiling – Attaching Belay Device
Step 1 Step 2
Clip your belay device to your belay Pull up about a meter of both strands
loop with a screwgate (don’t lock it of rope. It will be heavy, so have your
yet). partner hold the rope, or stand on it to
create slack so it’s easier to clip in.

Step 3 Step 4
Push the ropes through your belay Clip both of the ropes and your belay
device, making sure it is orientated the device through the screwgate
correct way up. carabiner and fasten it. You don't need
to remove the screwgate from your
belay loop when doing this; you are
more likely to drop it if you do.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 117

Step 5 Step 6
Lean into the anchor and pull any For most abseils, it's wise to backup
slack rope through your belay device. with a prusik knot (see page 182). A
Holding the ropes in the lock-off correctly tied prusik will auto-lock if
position, sit back and apply your you let go of the ropes. Clip the prusik
weight to the belay device. This allows to your leg loop. The prusik will slide
you to easily check the setup. down the ropes if you hold it close to
your leg loop and lock around the
ropes if you let go. Test this before you
abseil. If it doesn’t lock, take it off and
re-tie it with an extra wrap around the
ropes.

Harness
Leg Loop

Abseiling – Check the System

Before you unclip your attachment
point from the anchor, check:

Solid Rope threaded through Correctly tied

anchor main point of anchor abseil knot

30
cm

Both ropes through Knots added

Prusik knot belay device to rope ends

Holding
both
ropes
beneath
belay
device

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 118

Abseiling – The Descent
Step 1 Step 2
With one hand holding both ropes in Put your other hand over the prusik.
the lock-off position, unclip your sling Your hands should be in the same
from the anchor and clip it out of the position as they would to lower a
way on the back of your harness. climber while belaying.

Belay Loop

Leg
Loop

Step 3 Step 4
While keeping a firm grip, lean your Sit back in your harness and keep
weight back and allow some rope to your body in an L shape with your feet
go through your belay device, wide apart. Walk backwards down the
remembering to slide the prusik down rock, making sure to look behind to
as you go. see where you're going. Move
smoothly down the ropes. Don’t
Continue feeding rope through as you bounce, jump or swing around – this
lower yourself down. It takes a little puts much more force on the anchor
practise, but you'll soon figure out how and is likely to damage your ropes if
fast to feed the rope while staying in they pass over rough edges.
control.
To abseil past a roof, plant your feet on
the lip and lower your body down.
Once your body is below the roof, cut
your feet loose to avoid hitting your
head.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 119

Step 5
If you are the first in your group to
abseil, you may have to deal with
tangles of rope hung up on ledges,
flakes or in bushes. Lock off the rope
with your prusik and always deal with
tangles when still above them.

When you're safely attached to the

next anchor (remember to inspect it
first) or on the ground, remove your
belay device and prusik and shout up
to your partner that you're 'off rope', so
they can begin abseiling.

Step 6
When everyone is down, you can make sure it doesn't go up with a
retrieve the ropes. Unfasten the knots mysterious auto-knot fastened in it.
from the ends of the ropes and pull When the ropes are about to fall down,
down on the rope that you didn't shout ‘rope’ to warn your partner(s). Be
thread through the anchor. Keep an aware that the falling rope may bring
eye on the other rope as you do this to down loose rock with it.

Abseiling – The Fireman's Belay

If a less experienced climber is
worried they may not be able to
control the abseil, they can be given a
fireman’s belay.

The more experienced climber

descends first, then holds the ropes
while the other climber descends. A
simple pull on the ropes will lock their
device.

This is also useful if one climber has

forgotten their prusik – they can
abseil last with a fireman’s backup.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 120

Abseiling – The Extended Belay Device
Sometimes it can be useful to extend Advantages
your belay device with a sling before - You can use a prusik with less
you abseil. chance of it getting stuck in your
belay device.
Best Situation to Use This Method - Your prusik will be centred, making it
- If you don't know where the next easier to use than if you attach it to a
abseil anchor is on a tricky multi- leg loop.
pitch descent.
Disadvantages
- Takes longer to set up.

Extending with a 60cm Sling

Simply girth-hitch a 60cm sling through
the hard points of your harness (the
same points that your belay loop goes
through) and clip your belay device to
this sling.

It's better to use thicker nylon slings

rather than thin Dyneema for
extending your belay device.

Extending with a 120cm Sling

Alternatively, you can use a 120cm
sling in a similar way.

Feed the sling through the hard points

of your harness, tie an overhand knot
in it and then clip both ends of the
sling to your belay device.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 121

Abseiling – Top Tips
- Look out for ledges, trees, chimneys - Be aware of where your rope is
or anything you might abseil into on (above and below you). Make sure it
your descent. isn't rubbing over loose rock or sharp
edges.
- If your rope is stuck, stop just above it
and allow your prusik knot to tighten. - Each abseil can only be half of the
Make sure to keep hold of the ropes total length of rope that you have, so
with one hand while you untangle keep this in mind before climbing up.
them.
- Be aware of rocks which may get
dislodged when you pull your ropes
down.

Retreating

Sometimes, a climb may prove to be When deciding on which pieces or

too difficult, forcing you to retreat. This how many to leave behind, remember
is fairly straightforward if you are less that the cost of climbing gear is far
than half a rope length up a pitch or if less than the cost of being seriously
you can downclimb. injured. Make sure your lower-off gear
is bomber and worry about replacing it
If you have bomber protection, simply later.
lower back down to the belay. If the
pitch traversed a long way, you may Your partner may want to take over the
have to downclimb all the way back to lead and finish the pitch, or it may be
the belay. Another alternative is to possible to abseil in from the top to
build a belay and abseil down, leaving retrieve your gear. Different methods of
the belay gear behind. retreating are explained in The Trad
Climber’s Guide to Problem Solving.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 122

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Descending 123
Multi-Pitch

Climb: The Apron, Squamish, Canada. Photographer: Alex Ratson.

Multi-Pitch Climbing

A multi-pitch route is one that is split and (often) abseiling down after you
into two or more pitches. This may be reach the top.
because it is longer than your rope. Or
it could be a wandering route that would Due to the length and complexity of
involve a lot of rope drag if climbed as a multi-pitch routes, you should develop
single pitch. your problem solving and self-rescue
skills before embarking on this kind of
Multi-pitch climbing combines many adventure. This is explained in great
skills: placing gear on lead, building depth in The Trad Climber’s Guide To
belays, route-finding, rope management Problem Solving.
dddddddddd

What to Bring
On long multi-pitches, it's wise to bring First Aid Kit
the following gear in addition to A small first aid kit can be useful, along
everything you would normally take on with a pocket knife for cutting anchor
a single pitch. webbing or stuck ropes. Make sure the
knife has a folding blade which is
impossible to accidentally open when
Extra Climbing Gear attached to your harness.
You’ll need two anchor kits for a multi-
pitch route. Make sure you bring:
- Two cordelettes/ long slings Food and Water
- At least six spare screwgates If your multi-pitch is likely to take more
- Two belay devices than a few hours, consider bringing
food and water to snack on at the
If the descent from your route involves belays. Many routes have luxury belay
abseiling, make sure to bring ATC style ledges, so if you're not in a rush, why
belay devices and prusik cords. not have a vertical picnic?

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 126

Clothes Extra Rope
Any comfortable all-cotton clothes will You’ll need to bring a second rope if
suffice for single pitch cragging, your route involves an abseil descent
especially venues with a short where the anchors are more than half
approach. For multi-pitch routes, or for of your rope’s length apart (i.e: you
any climbs with a long approach, can only abseil 35 meters with a 70
wearing synthetic clothing is a better meter rope).
choice. Synthetics insulate much
better than cotton in wet or cold You will also need a second rope if
environments. climbing as a team of three (see page
132).
If you expect cold temperatures, bring
a pair of gloves so you can belay with
warm hands and then take them off to Route Description
climb. A thin hat that fits under your On a single pitch, it's easy to
helmet is a very lightweight way of remember where to climb. However, on
keeping you warm too. If the descent a multi-pitch you may have forgotten
is long, it's nice to bring a pair of the details by pitch six. Bringing the
approach shoes. whole guidebook is a bit excessive.
But a route description (or topo), neatly
A warm/waterproof jacket, or even a folded in your pocket, will help show
thin wind-proof layer, can make multi- you the way.
pitches more comfortable when it gets
windy and the sun disappears, Another option is to take photos of the
especially for the belayer. Down topo on your phone. Make sure you
jackets are a poor choice unless don’t run out of battery though. Take
you’re climbing in dry climates below descriptions from adjacent routes too,
freezing. Most down jackets will repel as this can help you figure out where
a small amount of moisture, but the you are.
feathers will clump together in a storm
and you’ll freeze. They also tend to rip
very easily on rock. Backpack
All this stuff can be put into a small
backpack and carried by the second.
Headlamp
Headlamps are essential on long Alternatively, the load can be split
multi-pitches. Finishing a climb, or between climbers so neither climber
trying to descend in the dark can be has a particularly heavy bag.
incredibly difficult and dangerous. Depending on the route and your
tolerance of suffering, you may not
If you take spare batteries, tape them need any of this stuff. For long
together in the correct orientation, so committing routes, you'll probably
you can just plug the whole block in at need to bring everything. Plan before
once. This also means you won’t have you go.
random batteries floating around your
bag and no idea if they are full or
empty.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 127

Multi-Pitch Anchors
If the leader falls on a single pitch
route, the belayer is often pulled up off
the ground when they hold the fall.

On a multi-pitch, the belayer would

instead be pulled out of position. This
could potentially pull out part, or all, of
the anchor if it was built to only hold a
downwards force. For this reason, you
should build multi-pitch anchors with
both an upwards and a downwards
pulling aspect.

If the last pitch traverses into the belay

or the next pitch traverses away from
it, the anchors could get loaded with a
sideways pull. Build the anchor to be
strong in any conceivable direction of
pull.

If the best upward-pulling gear is just

below the downward-pulling anchor
pieces, you can incorporate it into the
anchor with some cunning cordelette
craft to make it multi-directional.

There are many variations to this. One

is to tie clovehitches on the lower two
pieces as shown on the right.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 128

Belay Changeovers
Efficient belay changeovers will speed Swinging leads is the most efficient.
up your ascent, making you less likely The rope is already stacked with the
to get benighted or stranded in a new leader’s end on top and the gear
storm. from the previous pitch will be racked
on their harness.
Sometimes the more experienced
climber will lead every pitch. Other It’s much better if both climbers can go
times, each climber will choose which hands-free during the changeover.
pitches they prefer. A common tactic is How you do this depends on who will
to swing leads (lead alternate pitches). lead the next pitch. Two methods are
Be aware that easier pitches may be described below.
runout.

Method 1 – Tie-Off Belay Device Method 2 – Attach to Central Point

If alternating leads, the easiest If the same person is leading every
method is to tie-off your belay device pitch, the second will have to attach to
(see page 170). the central point when they finish
following the pitch. They can do this in
When the leader is ready to climb, the same way as the leader.
simply unfasten the knot and they will
be on belay immediately. This works Use separate screwgates to attach the
well if there is a small ledge to stand second's rope to the central point(s).
on. If not, you may prefer to choose When they are attached, they can be
method two. taken off belay. Remember – The
leader will need to be put on belay
before they detach from the anchor.

Leader Second

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 129

Leaving the Belay
It's a good idea for the leader to clip a You can reduce the fall factor further
high point of the belay as their first by extending the belayer's anchor
piece of gear. This eliminates the attachment. This puts less force on the
chance of a factor two fall. It's also first pieces of gear if the climber falls.
much easier for the belayer to hold a
fall this way.
Fall Factor = 0.66 Fall Factor = 0.33
3m 2m 6m 2m

Where to Belay
Recommended belay stations are When looking for a belay, choose a
described in all good guidebooks. You place which:
don’t have to belay there, but they are - Has cracks for solid gear placements.
usually the best spots. - Has protection from rockfall
(especially if there are climbers
Experienced climbers often stretch above).
pitches to the full rope length to reduce - Does not cause the rope to run
the number of belay changeovers and across loose rocks.
therefore speed the climb up. Teams - Allows communication between
with an inexperienced partner may do partners.
shorter pitches so they can - Provides a comfortable stance for
communicate more clearly. belaying, if possible.

Hanging Belays
If there is no belay ledge, you will have The key points are making sure the
to create a hanging belay. Try to anchor is bomber and having the
create this in a place which at least central point at chest level or higher so
has some good footholds. It can be you can lean out comfortably. For long
unnerving at your first few hanging belays, keep moving your feet around
belays, because you must completely to stop your legs from going numb, or
trust your anchor and lean all your stand in a sling to get the weight on
weight on it. your feet if there are no footholds.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 130

Rope Management
Stacking or coiling the rope neatly so it
doesn’t tangle is important on multi-
pitches. If the belay ledge has a flat
area, simply stack the rope onto it in a
place where it won’t slide off.

If there isn’t a suitable area to put the

rope, you can stack it in neat coils
across the rope which goes between
your harness and the anchor (lap
coils).

Alternatively, stack it through a sling.

Either way, the first coils should be the
longest, with progressively smaller
coils added on top. This ensures the
rope feeds out well on the next pitch. If
it is windy or there are bushes or loose
rock below you, make sure to keep the
coils short enough so they don’t get
stuck.

If climbing with half ropes, treat them

as one rope and stack them together
in the same way.

Time Budget and Retreat Options

Make a realistic estimate of how long and for belay changeovers. Be
the route might take. Figure out what conservative with your estimations –
time you need to have finished the it’s much easier to lose time than gain
route (to avoid thunderstorms or it.
darkness etc..) and then work
backwards from there. As part of your time budget, it’s smart
to figure out places where you can
Break the climb down into pitches and switch to an easier route if you are
figure out how long each one will take. running low on time, or places where
Remember to add time for you could easily descend without
approaching and descending the route leaving most of your rack behind.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 131

Teams of Three

In most situations, a pair of climbers is some of the harder pitches.

faster than a team of three. But having
someone to chat with at the belay There are many ways to connect three
makes climbing as a three more social. climbers to the rope. Two popular
It also means you have an extra methods are described here, both of
person to help carry the gear and lead which require two ropes.
ckkkkkcccc

Caterpillar Style
Step 1 Step 3 Step 4
The leader climbs a The second climber When the second
pitch with one rope. unclips the gear from climber has reached the
the first rope and clips it anchor, the third climber
to the second rope is put on belay on the
Step 2 beneath them. This second rope.
The second climber ensures the third climber
follows on that rope, is protected from a They remove the gear
but trails another rope swinging fall if the pitch as they follow.
(both ropes are tied traverses. If the pitch is
into the harness tie-in straight up, the second
points). climber could remove
the gear.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 132

Double Rope Style
Note: This technique is often Step 2
employed with half ropes. However, The second and third climbers follow,
half ropes are not designed to be used keeping around five meters apart from
individually when following a pitch. For each other, while the leader belays
this reason, it is recommended to use them both at the same time. It is highly
two single rated ropes instead. recommended to belay with an auto-
blocking belay device directly from the
Step 1 anchor, such as an ATC in guide mode
The leader climbs with both ropes. (see page 99).
They clip alternate gear to each rope.
The leader can be belayed by both When communicating, finish the
climbers on one rope each, or by one command with the rope colour, so the
climber with both ropes. belayer knows which rope you mean
(e.g: slack on red rope!).

Common Mistake
Clipping both ropes into a carabiner
causes the ropes to rub against each
other if a climber falls while leading or
following.

This could damage your rope or even

cut through the sheath.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 133

If you need to clip both ropes to a
piece of gear (e.g: to protect both
followers on a traverse), use two
quickdraws of different lengths as
shown.

These quickdraws are then removed

by the third climber.

Multi-Pitch Abseils

Attaching to the Anchor

Attach to each anchor with slings as If there is only space for one climber to
described on page 114. For bolted attach, the other climber can clip
anchors, make sure to attach to both directly into their partner’s screwgates
bolts independently. as shown.

However, this means that the climber

who descended last must descend first
on the next abseil.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 134

Removing Your Belay Device
Once securely attached to the next Step 2
anchor, you can remove your belay Re-clip the cable. This ensures that
device as follows: you can’t drop it.

Step 1 Step 3
Unfasten the screwgate. Unclip the Pull the ropes out of the device.
device’s cable and both ropes from it.

Threading Ropes
Thread the rope through the next Alternatively, tie the rope to yourself so
anchor and tie a stopper knot in it it cannot be dropped.
before you pull it down. Tie the stopper
knot big enough so that it cannot fit
through the main abseil point. This
ensures that you cannot lose your
ropes.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Multi-Pitch 135

Technique – Face Climbing

Climb: Lynne Hempton on Placca de Mu, Monte Sordo, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth.
Introduction

This chapter introduces the most much more subtle on rock. Often a
common foot, hand and body positions foothold is just a slightly lower angled
used in rock climbing. dimple, or a series of tiny edges that
require precise foot positioning.
How you grip handholds or stand on
footholds depends on their shape, size Finding holds will get easier once
and position. How you position your you’ve learned to ‘read’ real rock. With
body depends on the location of these practise, you’ll be able to use all kinds
holds and the angle of the rock. of weird rock features quickly and
efficiently.
Practising in a climbing gym builds
strength, endurance, flexibility and Watching experienced climbers or
technique, but to climb well on real hiring a climbing coach will help. But
rock, you’ll need to actually climb on ultimately, improving your climbing
real rock. Brightly coloured holds in a movement requires plenty of real rock
gym are obvious to find, but they are practise.
ooooooooooo

Footwork

Beginner climbers often concentrate your arms, making the climb much
on looking upwards for something to easier. There are basically three ways
grab with their hands, forgetting to look of using footholds; smearing, edging
down for footholds. Having good and hooking. These are described on
footwork takes an enormous strain off the following pages.
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VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 138

Smearing
Smearing is a technique used to stand
on poorly-defined, sloping features.
The aim is to have as much surface
contact between the sole of your shoe
and the rock as possible, therefore
maximising friction. Focus on pushing
your foot against the rock with your
weight concentrated over your big toe.

Over time you will develop the ability to

find tiny irregularities on the rock.
Smearing on a dimple which is just a
couple of degrees lower in angle can
make a big difference.

Keep a high heel if smearing on small

scoops. This keeps the pressure on
the front of your foot. Keep a low heel contact and therefore more friction. It
if smearing on a uniform slope. This also puts your calf muscles in a more
gives more shoe-to-rock surface relaxed position.
dddddddd

Edging
Edging means placing the very edge
of your shoe on a pronounced edge of
rock. Although any part of the shoe
can be used to edge, you normally do
so with the inside front part of the
shoe, beneath the big toe.

With a good edge on vertical or

overhanging terrain, you can pull in
with your toe as well as push down.
This moves your lower body closer to
the wall and reduces the strain on your
arms by keeping more weight on your
feet.

For tiny pockets and edges, you can

edge on the front point of the shoe.
This positions you neutrally so you can
turn your body in either direction for
the next move. It also gives you a little
extra reach if you stand up on your
tiptoe.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 139

For techniques such as back-stepping,
it is necessary to use the outside of
the shoe (normally beneath the base
of your little toe) to edge.

The outside edge is also useful when

stepping past your other foot on a
traverse.

Heel and Toe Hooking

Heel hooking is the technique of using
the foot as a ‘third hand’.

By hooking your heel over a flake or

edge, you are able to pull with your leg.
This allows you to move more fluidly
and controlled through what would
otherwise require a ‘dyno’.

On overhanging terrain, a crafty heel

hook often helps to pull you into the
rock, stops you from swinging out and
provides extra reach.

You can also employ a toe hook in a

similar way to a heel hook.

A ‘foot cam’ can work in the same way

too. Be aware that you may break your
ankle if you fall with your foot in a
really good heel-toe lock.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 140

Footwork Tips
* Push your feet in opposite directions * When you’ve found the best hold,
(stemming) to keep the weight off your visualize how your foot will be
arms. positioned on it. Don’t move your foot
until you know exactly where it’s going.
* With marginal smears or edges, it is
important to keep your foot in the * When you step from the ground to
exact same position while your body the rock, make sure to wipe the dirt
moves up. Use your ankle as a hinge and gravel from the soles of your
to absorb your movements. Any shoes.
disruption to your foot position will
probably cause you to slip off. * If you’re not sure whether to edge or
smear, remember that you can smear
* To minimize strain on your upper an edge, but you can’t edge a smear.
body, use foot holds which are directly
beneath your hands.

Handholds

The weight on your arms increases as The challenge, therefore, is to use the
the rock gets steeper and the lightest possible grip to make each
footholds get smaller. Beginners often move. There are endless ways of
over grip the rock and burn out their gripping holds, but four basic types are
forearms too soon, making it described on the following pages.
impossible to hold onto anything.

The Crimp
Crimping works best when the thumb
is held over the index finger. This
closes the crimp and makes the
position stronger. This is because your
thumb is much stronger than your
fingers in this position.

If the hold is too small to fit all your

fingers, give priority to the middle
finger (the strongest), followed by the
ring finger, the index and finally the
pinky. Be careful when crimping sharp
edges. If you slip off suddenly, you’ll
probably slice your fingertips.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 141

The Open Grip
The open grip is mainly used to hold
onto large or rounded features. Search
for the best position on the hold and
then pull.

If the hold isn’t incut, you will rely on

friction between your hands and the
rock to hold on. For this reason,
having more surface contact gives you
more grip.
smearing. In the long term, the open
An open grip on sloping holds works in grip puts less strain on the joints and
a similar way to your shoe when tendons than crimping.
ssssssssss

The Pinch
You pinch a hold in the same way as a
crab pinches it’s claws.

An effective use of the technique is to

pinch a hold between your thumb and
the side of your index finger.

Pockets
To hold onto a pocket, you essentially
use an open hand or crimp but with
less fingers.

If you can fit two fingers in the pocket,

it’s often better to use the middle and
ring fingers, rather than a middle and
index finger combo. This balances the
load on your fingers much better.

If the pocket is only big enough for pocket, you are effectively grinding
one finger, your middle finger will be your finger tendons over that sharp
strongest. edge. A common injury is to strain or
break the delicate ligaments in the
Be careful – the edges of pockets are fingers due to excessive crimping and
often sharp. When you pull hard on a pocket pulling.
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VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 142
Other Common Moves

Dynamic Moves
‘Dynos’ are probably the most
spectacular climbing move. It is a way
of using momentum to reach between
distant hand holds. It is almost always
more efficient to move statically
between holds, but if a hold is too far
away, a dyno may be the only way.

Get your feet up high and focus your

attention on the hold. In one fluid
motion, push up with your legs, pull
with your arms and move your hand
quickly towards the hold. Grab onto
the hold when your body reaches its
apex.

A dyno is much easier if you can keep you cannot be sure how good the hold
your feet on the footholds. This way, is until you’ve committed to it. And
most of your weight is still on your feet committing is the most important part
when you grab the hold. of the dyno. If you make a half-hearted
attempt, you’ll be unlikely to stick the
The disadvantage of dynoing is that hold.
cccccccc

Sidepull
It’s impossible to pull straight down on
a vertical crimp. Instead, these types
of holds are used as sidepulls.

Lean from the sidepull and use your

feet to oppose the force. This counter-
pressure keeps you in balance while
you use your legs for upward
progress. Sidepulls often give you
more reach than a horizontal hold.

You can sometimes turn a sidepull into

a pinch if there is a catch for your
thumb. This will create more inward
pulling power if you need it.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 143

Gaston
A gaston is the opposite of a sidepull.
It is a way of using a vertical crimp
which is directly in front of your face or
chest.

Push outwards on the hold with your

elbow pointing away from your body.

Palming and Stemming

Palming is similar to an open grip but
you use your palm instead of your
fingers. You can push yourself into a
corner by palming on both sides of it.

To stem, smear your feet on either

side of the corner. The opposing
pressure of pushing inwards with your
hands and feet keeps you in balance.
Stemming in the slightest corner can
provide your arms with a great rest.

Underclings
Underclinging relies on the counter-
pressure between your hand pulling
out from a hold and your feet pressing
onto the rock. This technique is often
used to keep a climber in balance
while searching for a better hold
above.

On consecutive undercling moves,

such as traversing under a flake, try to
use footholds as much as possible
and keep your arms straight. This
takes the strain off your arms.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 144

Mantling
Mantling is the technique of pool without using the stairs). The
surmounting a ledge when there are following is a common mantling
no holds above it to help with this method, though many variations exist.
(imagine getting out of a swimming
ssssss

Step 1 – Step High Step 2 – Pull and Press

A high, well-placed foot is the Pull up and switch your hands to a
foundation of the mantle. With your palm down press. Search above the
hands on the ledge, walk your feet up ledge for any hand holds. Leaning
to the highest possible foothold. You forward and pulling yourself in with one
may even be able to heel hook the hand makes the next step easier.
ledge.

Step 3 – Foot Up Step 4 – Rock Over

If your foot isn’t already on the ledge, Shift the weight onto your high foot
you can probably put it there now. You and stand up. Try to avoid using the
may have to shuffle your hands to knee, as this will make it more difficult
make space for your foot. to stand up.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 145

Rock Steepness

Slab Climbing
Climbing slabs (rock which is less than on. To climb a friction slab, you must
vertical) requires less strength and rely on the surface contact beneath
more balance than steeper angles of your palms and feet. Small steps are
rock. generally more efficient. High steps
tend to disrupt the delicate balance
Your body should remain in the same needed to stop you from sliding off.
upright position as when you’re
walking. With gravity forcing the weight On sustained slab climbs, where most
onto your shoes, you have more of your weight is on your feet, it’s
friction on the rock. Essentially, you will common to get ‘calf pump’ or ‘disco
hold onto features for balance while leg’. Rest on any good footholds by
pushing up with your legs. standing with your heel on the hold
and your leg straight, so that your
Friction slabs are generally devoid of center of gravity is over your heel.
any positive features to crimp or edge
ssssss

Climb: Patrick Deacon on The Marmolada, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth. 146
Vertical Rock
It is invariably more strenuous on the other. Known as back-stepping, this
arms to climb a vertical rock than it is allows you to use footholds on either
to climb a slab of the same grade. side of your body with either foot.

It’s much more efficient to keep the Take advantage of any rests.
weight off your arms as much as you Opposing your feet against each other
can. This is done by pushing your hips across a corner (stemming) allows you
and chest close to the wall and by to keep the weight off your arms. If you
using the minimum amount of energy can’t get a two-hands rest, then
to complete each move as possible. alternately shake out your arms when
Remember that your feet provide the you find a good handhold.
upwards thrust, while your hands
primarily pull you into the rock. It’s often better to do a series of small
moves, instead of a long one. Being
Keep your hips perpendicular to the stretched out tends to disrupt your
rock by standing on the inside edge of balance and often makes the next
one foot and the outside edge of the move more strenuous.
kkkggggkkkk

Climb: Lynne Hempton on Mondviole, Frea, Italy. Photographer: James Rushforth. 147
Overhanging Routes
To climb efficiently on overhanging but even the poorest footholds will
rock, you need to keep your hips close help ease the strain on your arms and
to the rock and your arms straight give you something to push from.
whenever possible. Bent arms will tire
out much faster.
Core Strength
One way to do this is to use the Your core is the area between your
dropknee. Place the outside edge of lower chest and your mid-thighs.
your shoe on a hold and twist your Engaging the core while climbing
knee downward. Be careful though, keeps you in control. Without a tight
dropknees put a lot of tension on the core, you are likely to ‘sag’ beneath
ligaments in your knee. your arms, causing you to lean out
from the rock, butt first.
As with other angles of rock, it is more
efficient to pull yourself into the rock Think of your core as something which
with your arms and push yourself up dictates the movements of your arms,
with your legs. This is much more rather than something which you are
physically demanding on steep routes, simply dragging up the crag.

Climb: Tim Rankin on Moby Dick, The Fin, Scotland. Photographer: Fraser Harle. 148
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Face Climbing 149
Technique – Crack Climbing

Climb: Danny Guestrin on Sister Morphine, Mount Nemo, Canada. Photographer: James Rosselet.
Crack Climbing
Cracks are often very striking lines. It’s protection. Jamming your hands and
no surprise that many classic routes feet into cracks can be difficult (and
follow crack systems. Some climbs painful) at first, but great fun once you
have short crack sections which offer learn the techniques.
the security of a solid jam and the
sanctuary of good gear. On other This chapter covers jams from
routes, a crack may be the only fingertip width to full body chimneys,
climbable feature up an otherwise as well as recommended clothing.
blank face. Techniques are listed in size order, but
the actual measurements of cracks are
Since most trad gear is designed to not given as this depends on how big
work in cracks, there is usually an your hands are. A climber with big
abundance of bomber gear on crack hands may get a finger lock in the
climbs, making them great routes for same place that a small-handed
learning the art of placing trad climber gets a perfect hand jam.
ppppppppppppp

Dress for the Occasion

Clothing Shoes
For off-widths or chimneys, you’ll Comfortable shoes which keep your
benefit from long sleeves and long toes straight are best for most cracks.
canvas pants. Torquing your feet into a crack when
wearing tight fitting bouldering shoes
Don’t wear your best clothes though – is very painful!
they’ll get scraped up. Some climbers
wear socks under their shoes and tuck A high-cut shoe will save your ankle
their pant legs in to them. skin on wider cracks. If you have low-
cut shoes, you’ll benefit from wearing
How much you cover up depends on socks or taping your ankles (or both) if
the coarseness of the rock, how long you plan to climb anything wider than
the crack is, and how good your a fist crack. For pure off-widths, you
technique is. may be better with some sticky rubber
approach shoes instead.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 152

Gloves
Some climbing companies make athletic tape. There are many different
rubber gloves for crack climbing. Made ways to make tape gloves. The
from the same sticky rubber as method described below provides a
climbing shoes, they are designed to durable glove which protects well, but
protect your hands from the harsh it covers the palm, which may make
demands of crack climbing on coarse face climbing a little more awkward.
rock.
More tape is better for wider cracks,
Rubber gloves are useful if you plan to whereas thinner cracks require less.
do a lot of crack climbing. However, a For routes which only have short crack
cheaper alternative for the recreational sections, you’re probably better off
crack climber is to make your own without gloves.
tape gloves using a roll of 1.5” wide
aaaaaaaa

Step 1 Palm Back of Hand

Starting on your palm, wrap the tape
around your hand twice as shown.
Spread your fingers wide so you don’t
make the glove too tight.

Step 2
Using thinner strips (split the tape in
half), wrap loops around each finger
and your thumb.

Step 3
Repeat step 1, but continue wrapping
tape down to your wrist.

To Remove
When you’ve finished climbing, cut the
tape on the inside of your wrist and
peel the glove off (shave your hands if
necessary to make this less painful).
You can now re-use the gloves by
adding a wrap around the wrist to hold
them on. Some climbers also use
spray adhesive to help re-used gloves
stick.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 153

Finger Cracks

There are three techniques of climbing When the crack is too wide for a finger
finger cracks: jam but not wide enough for a hand
- Finger locking jam, you’ll have to resort to more
- Finger jamming strenuous and often painful 'off-fingers'
- Liebacking alternatives; thumb stacking and
thumb camming.

Finger Locks and Jams

When there is a constriction in a crack
which accepts your fingers up to the
second or third knuckle, a finger lock
can be very secure. Just slot your
fingers in and pull down. The further
your fingers go in, the better the lock.
Try locking with your thumb either up
or down for the best fit.

If there are no constrictions for finger

locks, you can use the more strenuous
finger jam instead. With the thumb
down, insert all your fingers into the
crack and rotate your elbows down to
torque your fingers into the crack. This
creates opposing pressure which jams
your fingers in place.

Liebacking
If you can’t jam or lock, liebacking
might get you through a few moves.
Treat the crack as one long sidepull
and lean from it while opposing the
pressure with your feet. This works
best on corner cracks, but also works
well on offset cracks (where the rock
protrudes further out on one side –
like a mini corner).

If the crack is more incut on one side

than the other, use the more incut side
for a better handhold. If there are
footholds, you may be able to switch
to stemming to get a good rest. Be gear when liebacking as you cannot
careful though – it’s hard to place see inside the crack.
gggggggggg
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 154
Fingertips Cracks
These cracks accept only the tips of edge your feet off the crack.
your fingers. Super thin cracks are Sometimes you will use the crack
often difficult to protect. Look out for purely for protection and climb on face
constrictions that you may be able to holds around it.
slot a pinky finger in and smear or
ooooooo

Thumb Stacks
To thumb stack, put your thumb in the
crack first, then wrap your index and
middle fingers over the top. As you pull
down and drop your elbow, the thumb
stack torques into the crack.

To fine-tune the jam, vary the number

of fingers you place over your thumb
and the depth they go into the crack.

Thumb Cams
To thumb cam, put your fingers against
one side of the crack with your thumb
down and push your thumb against the
other side.

This puts a lot of pressure on your

thumb joints – be careful of
dislocating it.

In corners, this only works with one

hand, since the thumb is in the wrong
position on the other hand.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 155

Finger Crack Footwork
Footwork can be difficult in finger and tip of your toe in. Look out for wider
off-finger cracks because they are spots or constrictions where you can
usually too narrow to get your foot into. get more purchase with your feet.
Often you will only be able to get the
yyyyyyyyy

Finger Crack Sequence

The crux of many finger cracks is Constrictions make the best holds in
finding the most efficient sequence. finger cracks, but they also provide the
This is mostly determined by the best gear. If it is safe to do so, it can
location of finger locks, face holds and be better to use the finger lock first,
footholds. then place gear in it at waist level.

You may need to shuffle your feet up It’ll make the climb much harder if you
before moving your hands, or maybe fill all the best finger locks with gear
you’ll need to do a few finger locks before using them.
before moving a foot up.

Hand Cracks

At first, hand cracks are insecure and

painful on the hands and feet. But with
practise, a good hand jam is better
than any jug and a foot jam is as good
as standing on a ledge.

Put your hand in the crack, either

thumb up or down, and fold your thumb
across your palm. This expands your
hand and jams it in place.

As with other types of jam, look for

constrictions and slot your hand in just
above to make the jam less strenuous
and more secure.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 156

Thin Hands
For thin hand cracks, push your hand
in as far as it will go and press your
fingers against the crack.

Your hand is jammed in position

because of the opposing pressure
between your finger tips and knuckles.
It’s better if you can get a thumb in to
help too.

Wide Hands
For wide hand cracks, you can either For cupped hands, make a wide hand
cam or cup your hand. To cam, twist a jam and hook your thumb over your
hand jam so your thumb goes further index finger if you can. The base of
into the crack. This puts your hand in a your palm and fingertips press against
position which is half a hand jam and one side of the crack, while your
half a fist jam. knuckles push against the other. You
can twist this to combine the cupped
and cammed hand jam for more
holding power.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 157

Hand Crack Footwork
To jam your feet, slip your foot halfway torque it in by pushing your big toe
into the crack with the big toe up. Then down.

Hand Crack Sequence

To move fast on a straight-in hand You will generally get more reach if the
crack, jam with your thumbs up and leading hand is thumbs down and the
‘windmill’ your arms – reach through following hand is thumbs up. Set a high
with each jam, right over left then left jam, bring your lower hand up just
over right. Walk your feet up in the beneath it, then move your feet up and
same pattern. repeat.

If the crack is awkward, diagonal or in On diagonal cracks, you will normally

a corner, it is usually better to have a keep in balance better by having one
leading hand and a following hand – foot in the crack while the other smears
so you never reach through. on the face.

Fist Cracks

If you twist a hand jam further around

it becomes a fist jam. Your thumb
knuckle and outside edge of your
index finger will press against one side
of the crack while the outside edge of
your pinky finger presses against the
other side of the crack. You can fist
jam with your palms facing in or out,
though facing out makes it easier to
move up on straightforward fist cracks.

If the crack leans or is in a corner, try

having your leading fist palm in and
your lower fist palm out. As with hand
jams, set a high jam, bring your lower
hand up just beneath it, then move
your feet up and repeat.

Fist Crack Footwork

Unless your feet are particularly footholds. Torque them in just as you
narrow, fist cracks make great would for a hand crack.
ffffffffffffffffffffff
VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 158
Off-Width Cracks

Wide cracks are often regarded as reward. Learning the following skills
more work than fun. Although they do takes dedication – be prepared to
require a lot of effort and grovelling, lose some skin in the process.
the challenge provides a satisfying
rrrrrrrrrrrr

Off-Width Sequence
The general off-width sequence is: Which wedging technique you use for
1) Get your feet wedged in the crack. your feet and upper body depends on
2) Push your upper body up and wedge the size of the crack.
it in.
3) Move your feet up. Off-widths often change size so you’ll
4) Repeat. need to use a variety of techniques.

Off-Width Footwork
Foot Cam
Slide your upper foot into the crack
and twist the ball of your foot against
one side of the crack and your outside
heel against the other.

You can then jam your lower foot on

the outside of the crack by pressing
the inside heel against one side and
the outside front of your foot against
the other.

Heel-Toe Jam
If the crack is too wide for a foot cam,
you can use a heel-toe jam. Position
your foot horizontally with your toe
smearing on one side and your heel
jammed on the other.

Knee Jam
This works well if the crack is slightly You can do a foot cam below with your
bigger than your knee, but be careful other foot. As the crack gets slightly
not to get your knee stuck. Slide your bigger, bury your whole thigh in the
knee high into the crack. Then pull crack, then bend your knee to expand
your foot back and wrap your toes your leg in place.
around the edge of the crack.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 159

Off-Width Upper Body Technique
Hand Stacks
Set two jams side by side to fill the crossed at the wrist (rather than
width of the crack. You can jam normal left/right orientation). For a
hand/hand, hand/fist, or fist/fist hand/hand jam (butterfly stack), place
depending on the size of the off-width. the backs of your hands together and
Hand/fist and fist/fist jams are jam them in the crack with your
generally more secure with your arms thumbs up.
ggggggggg

Arm-Bar Chicken-Wing
The arm-bar involves placing your arm Place your arm into the crack, elbow
deep into the crack. Press your palm first, with your arm bent and palm
(thumbs up) against one side of the facing out.
crack, and your elbow and shoulder
against the other side. Use the Push your palm against the wall and
opposing force to get a secure jam. push your triceps against the other
The other hand can gaston the outer side. Push down and outward on your
edge of the crack. Grab it with your chicken-wing to cam your elbow and
thumb down and elbow out, then pull arm into place.
away from yourself.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 160

Off-Width Tips
* Once you’ve wedged yourself in a * To avoid a massive whipper, keep a
wider off-width, it can be difficult to cam clipped to the rope and shuffle it
switch sides, so plan before you get in up as you climb. When appropriate,
there. leave this cam behind and continue up
with another clipped to the rope. Don’t
* If you don’t need to switch sides, forget to extend gear which is far back
carry all your gear (belay device, in the crack.
chalk, cams, everything) on the side of
your harness which faces out. * Sometimes the crack tapers towards
the back so you might be able to get a
* If you think you might have to switch fist jam, or there may be small edges
sides, it’s much better to carry your in and around the crack which make
whole rack on a gear sling. Simply upward progress easier.
swing it around to the other side to
keep it out of the crack. * Focus on relaxing the muscles you
aren’t using to avoid unnecessary
* Make sure you have enough wide physical exertion. Rest if you find a
gear to protect the climb – many off- comfortable stance, and don’t forget to
widths offer no other protection. breathe.

Squeeze Chimneys

Squeeze chimneys are big enough to 4) Press your knees against the front
get completely inside, but only just. . wall and your heels against the back
One way to squirm up is to use the . wall (knee bars).
sidewinder technique. .
To Move Up
To Get Set Up 1) Pivot at the waist to move your torso
1) Face one of the chimney walls and up and reset the chicken wings.
turn your body diagonally so your 2) Move your hips up and twist them in
head is only slightly higher than your place.
feet. 3) Shuffle your feet up and reset the
2) Set a chicken wing with your upper knee bars.
arm and a reverse chicken wing with 4) Repeat.
your lower arm.
3) Twist your upper hip forward so it It’s best to keep your gear hanging
opposes the pressure of your butt down on a gear sling.
against the back wall.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 161

Chimneys

Wider chimneys are generally easier There are different methods of

to climb than squeezes or off-widths, climbing chimneys. A standard
but often offer no protection. technique is shown below.

Step 1 Step 3
Set both feet against one chimney wall Push up with this foot and your hands
and oppose this with your back to move your body up.
against the other.
Step 4
Step 2 Return your foot to a higher position
Set one foot against the back wall as on the front wall and walk your other
high as you can. foot up to join it.

In a wider chimney, you may have to In a super wide chimney, a full-body

stem across it. Push off the left stem may be required. With both
chimney wall with your hands to move hands on one chimney wall and both
your left foot up. Then alternate with feet on the other, walk upwards. Make
the right side. Bend your knees and sure to keep three points of contact as
keep your feet high to maintain a you move up. Be warned – it’s hard to
strong pressure on the chimney walls. climb out of this position.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 162

Summary

Climbing is like a dance. The aim is to you will soon begin to develop your
choreograph these different types of own style and move on to more
holds and moves into one fluid advanced techniques.
movement.
After climbing each route, review the
It is much more efficient and enjoyable techniques that you used. Ask yourself
to move up fluidly, methodically and in what worked, what didn’t and what you
balance. Frantic, jerky movements are could do to climb the route in better
clumsy and will tire you out faster. style. Practise makes perfect!
Once this becomes second nature,
nnnnn

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Crack Climbing 163

Essential Knots

Photographer: Alex Ratson.

Essential Knots
This chapter introduces the most Diameter, Flexibility and Surface
commonly used knots for trad Friction
climbing. The examples given in this manual
assume that you are tying identical
Every climber should be able to sections of cord, rope or webbing
recognize, tie and untie the following together, except of course for prusiks.
knots without having to think about it. Knots work best when every rope
Remember that you may have to tie involved is of the same diameter,
them in situations which are far from flexibility, elasticity and surface friction.
ideal and you will trust your life to each
knot. Minor differences are fine. For
example, tying a 9.5mm and a 10.2mm
Each knot has multiple uses and, in dynamic rope end-to-end for abseiling
most cases, there are many knots you is safe. But tying a 6mm tag line to a
could tie to achieve the same result. 10.2mm rope with the same knot will
Before choosing a knot, consider the probably result in that knot falling
following. In order of importance: apart. Likewise, a knot joining an old,
stiff static rope to a slick, flexible
1) Is it suitable for the intended use? dynamic rope is likely to slip, even if
2) Could it slip or roll? they are the same diameter.
3) Is it easy to untie or adjust?
A simple alternative for joining ropes
or cord of different materials or
diameters is to tie a figure-8 loop in the
end of each and clip them together
with a carabiner.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 166

Dressing Webbing and Cord
After tying any knot, it is important that Webbing (tape) is flat. Cord and ropes
you dress it correctly. This means are round. Knots which are designed
tightening each strand and adjusting for webbing may be useless when tied
the loops and twists so they are with rope and vice versa.
perfectly aligned.
Make sure you understand what
Your knots should look exactly like the material your knot is for.
diagrams in this manual. A knot which
isn’t well dressed could slip or fail.

Figure-8 Tie In
Uses
The figure-8 is widely accepted as
being the safest knot to tie-in with.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Make a loop about a You should end up with Pass the end of the rope
meter from the end of an '8'. Make sure the through both of the two
the rope. Wrap the end knot is around 90cm points on the front
of the rope around the from the end of the centre of your harness
base of the loop, then rope (the exact length – the same ones your
push the end through varies with ropes of belay loop runs through.
as shown. different diameters). It is important that the
rope goes through your
harness in exactly the
same way as your belay
loop does.
~90cm

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 167

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
Use the end of the Continue following the Make sure the end of the
rope to re-trace the twists until you end up rope is around 25cm
figure-8. Follow the back at the start of the long. If it is shorter, you'll
twists of the rope knot. have to untie and start
starting from where it again. After this, you will
joins your harness. Pull the whole thing need to tie a stopper
tight. knot. Loop the short
section of rope around
the main length.

25
cm

Step 7 Step 8 Step 9

Do this twice, with the Push the end of the Pull this tight too (make
second loop closer to rope through these two sure it's pushed right up
you than the first. loops, away from you. to your figure-8 knot).

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 168

Figure-8 on a Bight
Uses
- Attaching the rope to an anchor. - Creating a master point in a
cordelette or sling.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Take a bight of rope Push the end of the Pull it tight.
and form an ‘8’ shape rope through the top
as shown. part of the 8.

Stopper Knot
When tying a figure-8 in the end of a
rope, make sure to add a stopper
knot.

Warning!
Figure-8’s should only be end-loaded
(pulled along the line of the knot).

If you load the loop in two opposing

directions, the knot can roll over itself
and lose strength or fail completely.
For this reason, you should never use
the figure-8 to join ropes for abseiling.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 169

Tying into the Middle of the Rope
You can use a variation of the figure-8
to tie into the middle of a rope.

Follow steps 1-5 described on pages

167-168, but use a bight of rope
instead. Clip the final loop into your
belay loop to complete the knot.

Tying Off a Belay Device – The Mule Overhand

Times when you may need to have
both hands free when using an ATC
include:
- Switching gear on a multi-pitch
- Sorting out a rope tangle when
belaying
- Passing a knot when abseiling
- Escaping the belay in an emergency
situation

In situations where the rope isn't

weighted, a simple overhand knot
backed up to your belay loop (as If there is any chance of this
shown below) will work. However, if happening, you should instead use
the rope becomes weighted when the mule-overhand method (described
using this method (e.g; if the leader on the following pages). This allows
falls), it will be almost impossible to you to tie-off your belay device while
release the tie-off. the leader is weighting the rope, and
also release the tie-off when it's
weighted.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 170

Step 1 Step 2
Pass a loop of the slack rope through Pass a loop from the opposite side
your screwgate carabiner with one through the first loop so that a mule
hand while keeping hold of the rope knot is formed around the spine of the
with your brake hand. carabiner.

This can be difficult when heavily Do not tie this knot around the gate of
weighted – you’ll need to pinch the the carabiner.
rope tight.

Step 3 Step 4
Make sure the second loop is around Tie an overhand knot around the
60cm long. Pull it tight. tensioned rope as shown.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 171

Step 5 Step 6 – Releasing Under Load
A carabiner completes the hands-free To release the tie-off with the rope
mule-overhand knot. loaded, first untie the overhand knot.
Then holding the slack rope securely
with both hands, simply pull down to
release the mule knot.

You should be ready to expect a few

centimetres of rope to slip through.
Keep a firm grip so you do not lose
control of the belay device. You can
now belay or lower the climber as
normal.

Top Tips
* If you are belaying with two ropes,
simply treat them as one rope and
follow the same steps.

* Make sure to communicate with your

partner so they know not to continue
climbing while tied-off.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 172

Overhand Loop
Uses
- Creating a master point in a
cordelette or sling.

Step 1 Step 2
Clip the sling to both bolts and pull the Pull the bottom of the sling around to
strands down so they are equal. form a loop.

Step 3 Step 4
Push the end of the sling through the This forms two small loops beneath
loop as shown. Pull the knot tight. the overhand knot. Clip a screwgate
through both of these loops to form
the central point.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 173

The same knot can be used to equalize
three or more pieces.

Double Bowline
Uses
- Securing the end of a rope around a - Could also be used to tie the rope to
large object such as a tree. your harness.

Step 1
Wrap the end of the rope
around a tree or other
suitable object. Form two
loops in the rope as shown.

Step 2
Push the end of the rope up
through the two loops and
around the back of the
main strand.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 174

Step 3
Push the end of the rope
back down through the
loops. Pass the end around
the back of the knot and
push it up through the new
loop as shown.

Step 4
The double bowline is now
tied, but needs a stopper
knot to be complete. Pass
the end of the rope around
the main strand twice.

Step 5
Finish the stopper knot to
complete the double
bowline.

Warning!
The double bowline is great
for tying around a tree or
boulder as part of a top-
rope anchor.

Some climbers also use the

double bowline for tying in
because it’s easy to untie
after multiple falls. However,
it has been known to untie
itself, especially if the rope
is stiff. This is due to lots of
movement in the rope as
you climb. The figure-8 is
recommended as a much
safer alternative for tying
into your harness.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 175

Girth Hitch (Lark’s Foot)
Uses
- Attaching slings to your belay loop. - Fastening a sling around a tree.
- Attaching slings together. - Connecting a sling to a carabiner
without opening the gate.

Step 1 Step 2
Feed a sling through your belay loop. Put one end of the sling through the
other.

Step 3 Strop Bend

Pull it tight. You can also link two slings together
using these same steps.

Arrange the girth hitch as shown

below to create a strop bend. This is
basically a neater version of the girth
hitch.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 176

Water (Tape) Knot
Uses
- Joining flat or tubular nylon webbing
of equal width.

Step 1
Tie a loose overhand knot near one
end of the webbing.

Step 2
Thread the other end into the knot as
shown.

Step 3
Retrace the original knot, making sure
it lies flat at all times.

Step 4
Cinch the knot tight. The tails should
be at least 10cm long.

Warnings!
* The water knot should never be * The water knot can untie itself over
used to join: time with repeated loading and
- Dyneema webbing unloading. Make sure the knot is tight
- Any webbing of unequal width and the tails are at least 10cm long
- Rope/cord to webbing each time you use it.

In these cases, the knot is very weak * Some climbers duck-tape the tails to
and prone to slipping. keep them neat and to help prevent
creeping. If you do this, leave the
ends of the webbing in view so you
can see them.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 177

Slip Knot
Uses
- Tying off pitons, tree stumps or
other poor gear in order to reduce
leverage.

Step 1 Step 2
Form a loop in a sling (thin Dyneema Pull a bight through this loop as
works better than nylon). shown.

Step 3 Step 4
Slip this bight over the piece of gear. Cinch it tight and push it as close to
the rock as possible. This reduces
leverage on the piece, therefore
making it a stronger piece of
protection.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 178

Alpine Butterfly
Uses
- Equalizing a two-bolt belay.
- Isolating a damaged section of rope.
- Forming a fixed loop in the middle of
a rope. This provides a clip-in point
which can be loaded in 2 or 3
directions.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Form a loop in the rope. Twist the loop so it Push the now lower loop
becomes two loops. through the original first
Then pull the top of the loop.
upper loop behind and
underneath the line of
the rope.

Step 4 View From Front View From Back

Pull it tight.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 179

Alternative Method
An alternative way to tie the alpine
butterfly is to wrap it around your
hand three times as shown.

Pull the top wrap down over the other

two, then back up behind them.

Equalizing a Two-Bolt Belay

Tie a large-looped alpine butterfly to
one screwgate and a clovehitch to the
other.

You can adjust the size of the loop

once the alpine butterfly is tied. Then
adjust the clovehitch to fine tune the
equalization.

Isolating a Damaged Section

This is useful when using your rope
as a fixed line or in a situation where
the rope will not pass through any
carabiners.

Obviously, you will not be able to lead

climb with a knot in your rope!

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 180

Double Fisherman’s Bend
Uses
- Tying two ends of cord together to
make a prusik or cordelette.

Spare
Step 1 Cord
Loop one end of the cord around
twice as shown to create two loops.
Then push the end through these
loops.

Step 2
Pull it tight and do the same with the
other end of the cord.

Step 3
Pull it all tight so that the two knots
jam together. Make sure the tails are
at least 10 times the diameter of the
cord (e.g: 5cm tails for a 5mm prusik
cord).

Triple Fisherman's Bend

Add an extra coil to make a triple
fisherman’s bend.

Some slippery cords (such as

dyneema) require a triple so they
don’t slide apart under load – check
the manufacturer’s recommendations.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 181

The Autoblock (French) Prusik
Uses:
- To back up an abseil. tied prusik will auto-lock if you let go of
the ropes. Different types of prusik
Prusiks can be made with a 1.2m have advantages in certain situations.
length of 5mm cord tied together with These are detailed in The Trad
a double fisherman’s bend. A correctly Climber’s Guide To Problem Solving.
ggggggg

Step 1
Wrap the prusik neatly around the
rope a few times as shown.

Step 2
Clip the ends together with a
carabiner. More wraps will
create more friction around the
ropes, though four wraps are
generally enough.

Make sure the autoblock is neat

and the double fisherman's
bend is away from the ropes.

Step 3
Pinch the knot to loosen it. This
allows you to move it down the rope.

Weight the knot to lock it. The

autoblock locks in both directions, but
the double fisherman's bend tends to
wrap itself into the prusik when the
direction is switched, making it much
less effective.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 182

Clovehitch
Uses
- Attaching yourself to the anchor. - Attaching ropes, cord or slings to
carabiners.

Step 1
Make two identical loops in the rope.
Put the rear loop over the top of the
front loop.

Step 2
Clip a screwgate carabiner (never use
a snapgate carabiner) through these
two loops.

Step 3
Pull it tight and fasten the screwgate.

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics > Knots 183

Final Words

Learning the techniques of placing It's important to develop the ability to

gear and building anchors isn't enough adapt your trad skills to suit situations
to make you a proficient trad climber. like these that do not have a textbook
solution. Being able to solve problems
Unexpected situations often arise, quickly is a vital skill which can only be
especially on multi-pitches (such as learnt through experience.
not having enough rope to reach a
solid belay, or retreating from a climb So get out there, and climb some
with damaged ropes and poor rocks!
anchors).

Climb: The Tantalus Traverse, British Columbia, Canada. Photographer: Alex Ratson. 184
Other VDiff Titles

Having the knowledge of safe

climbing skills is the lightest and most
useful equipment you can take on any
climb.

Learn before you go. Don’t actually Available as paperbacks or e-books.

take these books up there with you! For more information, visit:
www.vdiffclimbing.com

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics 185

Index

abseiling, 113-122, 134-135 face climbing, 136-148

alpine butterfly, 179-180 fall factors, 11, 68
anchors, 74-95 figure-8 knot, 167-170
autoblock, 182 finding a partner, 9
finger cracks, 154-156
ball nuts, 17, 49-53 fireman’s belay, 120
bandolier, 24 first trad lead, 12-13
belay device, 23 fist cracks, 158
belay loop, 103 fixed gear, 65
belay methods, 98-102 flakes, 54
belay position, 82, 107, 130 footwork, 138-141
belay techniques, 103-106 forces on gear, 67-70
big bros, 17, 48-49 French prusik, 182

cams, 16, 25, 28-34 gaston, 144

chalk, 22 gear sling, 24
chimneys, 161-162 girth hitch, 55, 64, 114, 176
chockstones, 56 gloves, 153
clovehitch, 54, 183 guide mode, 99-102
communication, 109
cordelette, 24, 76-82, 86-89 half ropes, 19, 70-73
core strength, 148 hand cracks, 156-158
crack climbing, 150-162 handholds, 141-142
crimping, 141 harness, 23
cross-loading, 64 heavy climbers, 67, 104
heel hooking, 140
daisy chains, 89-90 helmets, 21-22
descending, 110-123 hexes, 17, 40-43
double bowline, 174-175
double fisherman’s bend, 181 kN ratings, 67-70
downclimbing, 113 knots, 164-183
dry treatment, 21 alpine butterfly, 179-180
dyneema, 58-60 autoblock (French) prusik, 182
dynos, 143 clovehitch, 54, 183
double bowline, 174-175
edging, 139-140 double fisherman’s bend, 181
equalizing anchors, 76-82 figure-8, 167-170
equipment, 14-25 girth hitch, 55, 64, 114, 176
etiquette, 9 mule-overhand, 170-172
extendable quickdraws, 61-62 overhand, 78, 115, 173-174
extending anchors, 82-88 slip, 178
extending belay device, 121 water (tape), 177
extending gear, 63-64

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics 186

lark’s foot, see girth hitch shock loading, 81
liebacking, 154 shoes, 22, 152
looking after your gear, 24-25 sidepull, 143
loose rock, 66-67 single ropes, 18
six point rule, 77
mantling, 145 slab climbing, 146
maximum impact force, 20 slings, 17, 53-64
micro gear, 69 slip knot, 178
middle markers, 20 smearing, 139
mule-overhand knot, 170-172 soft catches, 105
multidirectional gear, 65 squeeze chimneys, 161
multi-pitch, 124-135 stacking ropes, 102, 131
static falls, 60
nut tool, 18 static ropes, 18
nuts, 17, 35-40 stemming, 144
nylon, 58-60 strop bend, 53, 176

offset cams, 33 tape knot, 177

off-widths, 159-161 tarps, 24
open grip, 142 teams of three, 132-134
overhand knot, 78, 115, 173-174 technique, 136-163
overhanging routes, 248 threads, 38, 56
thumb cams, 155
palming, 144 thumb stacks, 155
personal anchor system (PAS), 89 toe hooking, 140
pinches, 142 top-rope, 92-94
pockets, 142 top shelf, 88-89
protecting the climb, 26-73 traversing, 71
prusik, 23, 182 tree anchors, 86
tricams, 18, 44-47
quickdraws, 23, 61-62 twin ropes, 19

rappelling, see abseiling underclings, 144

redirected belay, 98 used gear, 25
retreating, 122
rock quality, 66-67 v-angle, 53, 56, 79-80
rope loop, 103 vertical rock, 147
ropes, 18-21
route finding, 12 walking off, 112
runout routes, 104 water knot, 177

VDiff > Trad Climbing Basics 187