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T h e Turks of Centr
in History and at the Present

in Ethnological Inquiry into the Pan-Turanian

blem, and Bibliographical Material relating
o the Early Turks and the present Turks of
Central Asia

BY
M. A. CZAPLICKA
Mary Ewart Lecturer in Ethnology in the School of Anthropology,

I
University of Oxford; sometime holder of the Mary Ewart
Travelling Scholarship, Somerville College, Oxford ;
Author of ' Aboriginal Siberia ',
My Siberian Year', &c.

,
OXFOKD
AT T H E CLARENDON PRESS
1918

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 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS .
LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK
TORONTO hlELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY
IIUnIPHREY h I I L F O R D
PUBLISEEER TO THE UNIVERSITY
A

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 PREFATORY NOTE
I wour.~ gratefully acknowledge my debt to the
Trustees of the Mary Ewart Trust, as also to the.
Principal and Council of Lady Margaret Hall, for
enabling me to carry on at Oxford the research of
which the present work is a by-product. It is also
my pleasant duty to thank Mr. Henry Balfour, Curator
of the Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford, and Sir E. Denison
Ross, Director of the School of Oriental Studies,
London, for the kind interest with which they read
'

this work in manuscript, and gave me their valuable

suggestions. T o Mr. Arthur Thomson, Professor of
Human Anatomy in the University of Oxford, I owe
all the facilities which his Department afforded me.
Mr. Henry Balfour was also kind enough to read the
work in proof.
Miss B. M. Blackwood, of Somerville College, has
rendered me most useful assistance in preparing the
manuscript for the press.
 Digitized for Microsoft Corporation
by the Internet Archive in 2008.
,1 From University of Toronto.
ay be used for non-commercial, personal, research,
L or educational purposes, or any fair use.

May not be indexed in a commercial service.

 TO

R. R. MARETT

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 CONTENTS

I. THEPAN-'~URANIAN MOVEMENT . PACE

9
2. THETERM TURANIAN . . . 18
OF TIIE TURKIC-SPEAKING
3. DIVISION PEOPLES . . ao
4. TIIEEASTERN TURKS . . 21

~IBLIOGRAPHICALMATERIAL RELATING TO THE

EARLY TURKSAXD TIE PRESENT TURKSOF
 THE T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA:
I N HISTORY AND A T T H E P R E S E N T DAY1
AN ETHNOLOGICAL INQUIRY INTO THE
PAN-TURANIAN PROBLEM

The Pan- Tumrtiart Movement.

THEPan-Turkic or Pan-Turanian movement, sup-
ported by the most aggressive portion of Turkish and
German public opinion, is a diplomatic activity, the object
of which is to subjugate to the Osmanly Turks directly,
and to the Germans indirectly, all those countries in
which various Turkic languages are spoken. Although
its purpose is probably strategical and economic-
the acquisition of the cotton of Turkestan, the gold of
the Altai, and Central Asian riches in general 2-this is
hidden beneath the cloak of fostering the supposititious
desire of various peoples between Thrace and Mongolia
for racial and national unity. Only a close study of
the peoples whose tongues belong to the Turkic
linguistic family can throw light on the moral side of
this activity, and show whether the Pan-Turanian pro-
gramme involves merely a desire for aggrandizement
or whether it covers any other relationship, more
The present work is an enlargement of a lecture delivered in
the School of Oriental Studies in London on October 24, 1917.
See Appendix A.
3103 B
10 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
essential than the linguistic one, uniting Central Asia
with Constantinople?
A brief review of the Pan-Turanian programme w ~ l l
be necessary before approaching the main object of this
essay, i.e. the study of the Eastern or Central Asiatic
Turks. T h e term Central Asia, in accordance with
Humboldt's definition, embraces the area lying between
the Himalayas and the Altai Mountains, the Caspian
Sea and Khingan Range. As far as the Western or
Osmanly Turks are concerned, they are dealt with in
several recent publications, namely, Sir William Ramsay's
The Iutermixture of Races in Asia Minor (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1916), Professor H. A. Gibbon's The
Fo~ndafionof the Otfontnn Empire (Oxford University
Press, 1916), Lord Eversley's The Turkish E~zpil-e:
its G9-owfh and Decay (Fisher Unwin, 1g17), and Le
ProWhvne Turc, by Count Leon O s t r ~ r o g . Though
~ not
dealing primarily with the racial question, these books
give a vivid picture of the variety of races living under
Osmanly (Ottoman) government, and of the artificiality
of the ties that unite them. Sir William Ramsay further
tells us how the Osmanly government has tried to
develop feelings of unity and patriotism among its
subjects on the ground of the common participation in
the Islamic religion. But Pan-Islan~ism-Islam not
being exc-lusively the property of the Turks-would in
itself hardly serve to strengthen the position of the
Turkic elements of the empire against Arabian and
Since these pages were written the British advance in
Asiatic Turkey, together with the situation produced by the
Russian Revolution, has led the German-Osmanly diplomatists
to revise some 'details' of their programme. See Appendix B.
A11 English version of this work, entitled The T14rkishE l t i p a ,
in Winifred Stephens's translation, has just been announced by
Messrs. Chatto Sr Windus;

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 1
s HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 11

sdaer alien Mahometans. T o give prominence to the

Turkic element was not so simple, considering that five
centuries of residence in Europe have influenced the
ruling classes of the Osmanly in such a way that they
have completery lost contact with the Turkic masses
subject to their rule ; while these, again, by mixture and
'
contact with the races of Asia Minor and south-eastern
Europe, have lost the Asiatic character that they Once
1 possessed. Yet the upper classes of the Osmanly did
not become thoroughly Europeanized, as the Hungarians
did under similar conditions, and hence their chances
of assimilating the lands and peoples that they con-
quered in Europe were almost non-existent even before
the Balkan War. After that war, there was nothing
left to the Osmanly but to turn to Asia, upon which
they look as a land of expansion and of compensation
for what they have lost in Europe. Hence, a justification
, for this change of policy was necessary, and this was
easily found in the so-called principle of the self-
I

determination of nationalities. The Osmanly thereupon

proclaimed themselves to be of one nationality with
the people of the far Asiatic . lands of Turkestan,
1
Jungaria, and the Siberian steppes.
It may be argued that there is something in the
political atmosphere of our century which makes people
revert, as it were, to past ages. All who have affinities
with both Europe and Asia seem to be ready now to
claim their Asiatic blood, as we see that the Bulgarians,
the Hungarians, and the Siberian Russians are doing.
But in the case of the Osinanly the sincerity of such
a moven~entbecomes doubtful, when we consider that
the Osmanly i~ztellzgetztsiahave so far never felt them-
selves at one even with their own Osmanly common

I people. Thus they have never passed, as have the

12 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
educated classes of the European countries, -through
a stage of ' folklorization ' and ' nationalization ' due to
contact with the masses, who through their backward-
ness preserve more of their national traditions. Even
the Revolution of the 'Young Turks' did not bring
about the breakdown of the caste distinction, and it
was, in fact, like all other events in the political history
of the Osmanly, a mere imitation of the Western nations,
rather than a spontaneous outbreak of national feeling
against imperialistic government. There is no doubt
that such a truly national movement did begin when
some years before the Balkan War a literary attempt
led by Ziya Bey, Ahmed Shinassy Bey, and Namyk
Kemal Bey, was made to purify the Osmanly language
from its Arabian and Persian admixture. It is note-
worthy that two of those leaders, Ziya Bey (later
Pasha) and Kemal Bey, when exiled from Turkey
by Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz for their political ideas, found
refuge in London. But, before their brilliant writings
brought about any literary revival or social revolution,
the movement was checked by the subsequent political
action of the 'Young Turks', or strictly speaking
by the Committee of Union and Progress (Ittikhad),
after they successfully abolished the influence of the
more sound rival group, the Committee of Unity
and Freedom (Ittilaf). T h e Pan-Islamic propaganda-
bound up as it is with the Arabic language and cul-
ture-when carried on by that party in non-Turkic
Islamic countries, ran contrary to the attempts of the
literary reformers to free themselves from foreign
culture. Meanwhile, the political and economic de-
pendence on Germany imposed by the ruling classes
on the Osmanly country did not favour the further
development of linguistic and other internal reforms.

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 IN H I S T O R Y A N D A T P R E S E N T DAY 13

And so it happened that before Turkey had succeeded

in emancipating herself from her obligations to Europe,
Persia, and Arabia, she fell a victim to ambitions1 the
extent of which nothing but the outcome of the war
and the fate of the peace settlement will decide.
When, after the Young Turks' Revolution, various
European institutions arose in the Ottoman State, there
was set up the Academy of Turkish Science ('Turk
Bilji Dernayi '), which utilizes the researches of English,
French, German, Russian, and other European scientists
to further the political plans of the Osmanly. Thus all
attempts at finding what the culture of the Turks was
like in their original home and in pre-Mahometan times,
and what survivals of that culture and of the old race
exist, are being interpreted by the Young Turks in such
a way as to support the hypothesis of the racial identity
of the Osmanly with the Eastern Turks. It seems
almost cruel that the process of nationalization started
among the educated classes of the Osmanly should be
checked by a new 'revival', which, through its very
artificiality, is disturbing the natural development of the
0smanly.~ Just as t h e first movement led to the sub-
stitution of the name ' T u r k ' for that of 'Osmanly',
so now, with the rise of political dreams concentrated
on Central Asia, the name 'Turk ' is being abandoned
in its turn for a name with a more Asiatic sound, viz.
' Turanian '. By using this word, the Osmanly intend
to emphasize their claim to descent in the direct line
Tekin Alp, The Turkish and Pan-Turkish Ideal, English trans-
lation, London, 1916;M. Hartrnann, Unpolitische Briefe nus der
Tzirkei, Leipzig, 1910;J. Germanus, Turk Damy, K. S., 1909,X,
Budapest ; V. A. Gordlewski, ' Note on the ''Turk Darnay "
in Constantinople' (Russ.), Eastern Anfiqtrih'es, Trans. E. Sect.
I. R. Arch. S., IV, 19x3;A. Tyrkova, Old Turkey n~zdthe Young
1 Ttdrks (Russ.), Petrograd, 1916; H. M. A, Sarron, La jeztne-
Tmgmie eet la revolzttion, Paris, 1912.
14 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
from the people who left behind the old arcliaeological
remains in Turan (Central Asia).
In many instances this propaganda assumes nai've
form. Half-legendary kings and leaders of the Turks
in Asia have been set up by the propagandists before
the Turkish soldiers as hero-ancestors-to say nothing
of such historical personages as Attila and Timur!
Then again, a legend found by European investigators
among many Asiatic Turks, to the effect that they
originated from a she-wolf, has now provided an
occasion for the abandonment on Turkish standards
of the Mahometan crescent in favour of the pre-
Mahometan Turkish wolf. The legend, of which there
are several versions current among the Turks and
Mongols of Central Asia, relates that a white she-
wolf-or perhaps a woman with the name Zena (some-
times Bura), which means ' she-wolf '-found and reared
an abandoned man-child, who became the ancestor of
the Turks (or in the Mongol version-of the Mongols).
This explains the appearance of that animal on the war
standards of the early Central Asiatic Turks, par-
ticularly the Tu-kiu branch, a design imitated by the
Osmanly during the present war. Though the Osmanly
took up this legend as having been originally Asiatic,
the latest researches seem to support the theory of
de Guignes that it had a European origin, and was
imported into Asia by the Huns. Assuming that
the Huns were of Turkic stock, de Guignes thinks
that -when they were defeated in Europe and retired
by way of the Volga, the Urals, and the Altai into
Turan, they brought with them the Roman legend of
Rornulus and Remus, and gave it a Turkic setting by
associating it with local Turkic traditions, so that

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 H E T O R Y AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 15
quently it was accepted as if it had been of local

ch is the story of one of the 'historic heritages

ed by the Osmanly. But, as a matter of fact, thc
e current version of the origin of the Turks is that
tribes from Ogus-Khan, son of
a-Khan, grandson of Dik-Bakui, great-grandson of
8rbuldji-Khan, who was a direct descendant of Noah.
!kch at least is the version given in one of the first
qtempts at recording the Turkic myths relating to

If from the realm of mythology we turn to the physical

er racial side, we are in perplexity as to why the
Pan-Turanian propaganda entirely dis-
t that the Osmanly have now more
anian, Slavonic, Thracian, and Circassian blood in
elr veins than they have Turkic ; that their culture
more Persian, Arabian, and European than Central
t even in language there are divergences
are to be found among the languages of
theGermanic family. All differences are disregarded,and
linguistic similarity is magnified into linguistic identity.
Had the Turks and their allies, the Central Powers,
en successful in their military plans, their intentions as
sia were as follows : ' T/zirfy to forty
s of Twks will Become dndepetzd~af,and togefllter
of Offohan Tztrks, willforttz n flation
rrzi/lio?zs, w/zich may perlmps be compnred wifh
that if will have the strerrgftl and

ghrbr~ledes Huns, ~ o lI ., pt. ii, Book I ,

corded by Rashid al-Din, quoted b y Radloff, Conte~rri~lg

the

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 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
energy to rise even h&ker.'l It should be noted that the
total number of the Turks is here exaggerated by some
twenty million, and that the term 'nation ' is used
somewhat vaguely.
It is pretty certain that the several Turkic nations
which the author has had the opportunity of meeting
in Asia would be surprised if any one proposed to
unite them in one local group on the ground of some
remote tradition. . Thus they would not understand
any reason for a voluntary union, even with the Turks
of European Russia, not to speak of still less known
people. One cannot disregard the local national awaken-
ing of some of these groups, as for instance that of the
progressive 'Young Sarts ', or retrogressive Usbegs of
Bokhara, or even the Kaizak solidarity which may
develop into national feeling, but there is now no moral
link which would unite these groups in opposition to
a Democratic Russia. Apart from conquest, the only
thing that would effectively bring them together would
be identity of religion, language, and education, and
some economic organization under which they would
retain their lands, and be encouraged to a more pro-
gressive mode of life-not too rapidly introduced.
Identity of religion does not exist at present, for within
the Mahometan world-to say nothing of others-
there are as many distinctions as among the Christians ;
nor do they know any common language except the
Russian.
Since the Chinese and Russian Revolutions the con-
' fiscation of lands belonging to these Turkic natives is
less likely to occur on the part of Russia2 and China.
Tekin Alp, op. cif., Foreword, p. 5 .
a On June 25, 1916 (old style), there appeared a Ukaz from the

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 17
On the other hand, the Russian collapse has left the
wiy open to the activity of the Pan-Turanian propa-
gandists, who seem to have been successfully checked
by the Revolution at its Jivst stage-warmly greeted as
it was in Siberia and Central Asia. The Second
Revolution, with its Marxian spirit foreign to Asiatic
people, had in this region adherents almost entirely
composed of Russian colonists. It would seem that
, ' Tsar calling all the male natives of the Caucasus, Turkestan,
the Caspian Steppe country, Siberia, and the Astrakhan and
Stavropol steppes, for service connected with the war, a pro-
ceeding contrary to the fundamental law relating to the native
population, under which these natives were definitely exempt
from any form of military service. This order came at a time
.when the natives were all occupied with the cotton-fields of
Turkcstan, the wheat-fields of Siberia, or with reindeer-breeding
in the mountains. The President of the Mussulman Party of
the Duma, K. B. TevkeleK, made a vigorous protest to the then
Prime Minister, M. Stiirmer, against the coercive measures

parts of Turkestan brought about a rising of the population,

especially of the Kara-Kirghis and the Sart. The most terrible
conflicts occurred at Djizak in the Samarkand district, and in
18 THE T U R K S OF C.ENTRAL ASIA
the prolongation of the Russian chaos would encourage
the congregation of the Turkic elements, if the dis-
association from the other people of the once Russian
Empire was their aim. But so far neither the 'All-
Russian Mahometan Congress' nor ' Mahometan Re-
gional Councils' separate themselves from the general
problems of Russia, even though they express interest
in the Mahometans abroad, and the majority favour
some kind of federal form of government. The
Turkic population of Russia is not more uniform in
political opinion than the Slavonic or Finnic branches;
and s o , the reactionary portion of them guided by
Mullahs, and on the whole less affected by the Russian
and more by the Central Asian culture, form an
opposition to the Mahometan federalists.

The term Turanian.

The term ' Turan ', from which Turanian is derived,
is so Asiatic that we do not find it in the Greek authors,
though the fact that it occurs in the Avesia in the form
Tura points to its ancient origin.
It is said in the Avesta that Thraetona had three
sons, Airya (Arya), who received as his portion Iran;
Sairima, who received the western lands; and Tura,
to whom fell the oriental lands. Again, Tuirya (Turya)
is used in the Avesta as an epithet applied to the
countries now called Turanian? The people of Tuirya
are spoken of as enemies of the people ofAirya. Another
reference is found in the epic of the Persian poet
Firdusi, the Shah NamCh dating from the tenth century
E. Blochet, ' Le Nom de Turc dans l'Avesta', J. R. A. S., 1915,
PP. 305-9-

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 15
L D.; a prominent figure in this work, the Turkic Khan
ACrAsiyab, is said to have reigned over Tura in the
sixth century B.c., and to have been the great foe of
Iran? In this poem Turan is placed in the north of
Iran.
The name Turan is very often given to the region
otherwise called Tartary. Neither of these names is
known to the Asiatic Turks, but curiously enough
Turan occurs as a clan-name among the Turkic tribe
of Sagai, the tribe least mixed with Finnic and Samo-
yedic people of all the so-called ' Tatars' of Siberia.
The Turkic state of Siberia, conquered by the Khan
Kuchum in the sixteenth century, is often called also
the Turan state, but this name is derived from the
name of the River Turu, on the banks of which the
town Chingi-Tura (now Tiumien) was erected by the
Beg Chingi in the fourteenth century?
Like the term Aryan, 'Turanian' is used chiefly as
a linguistic term, equivalent to ' Ural-Altaic' linguistic
g r o ~ p . The
~ use of this linguistic term for the desig-
nation of a racial group is no more satisfactory than the
use of the linguistic term 'Aryan ' in the same sense.
But still more unscientific is it to apply this adjective
to things Turkish, for the Tungusic and the Mongolic
languages have just as much right to be called Turanian
as the Turkic. However, 'Turanian', not unlike
Skrine and Ross, The Hearf of Asia, p. 115.
' P. M. Golovacheff, Siberia, Moscow, 1914, p. 35.
Although the term Turanian is now generally applied to the
Ural-Altaic languages (Turkic, Tungusic, Mongolic, Samoyedic,
and Finnic), it will be remembered that some linguists, for instance
Max Mliller, give to the Ural-Altaic group the name of North
Turanian as against the South Turanian group (Tamulic, Gangetic,
Lohitic, Taic, and Malayic) (Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of
Lwptzge, London, 1861, p. 322).
20 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
another vague term, ' Tatar ', has become- so deeply
rooted in European books on Asia, that there seems to
be no hope of either of them ever being abandoned
for the names by which the tribes of Central Asia call
themse1ves.l

Division of fhe Turkic-speaking peoples.

T h e ethnological evidence must now be examined,
and to make what follows intelligible, it is necessary to
preface some explanation of the broad division into
Western and Eastern Turks which is here proposed.
By the term Western Turks is understood all the
Turks-or people speaking Turkic languages, most of
them subject to the Ottoman Empire-as far east as
Persia and Afghanistan. Their number is 8-9 millions.
T h e term Easfern Turks is used to embrace the people
of Turkestan and Central Asia as far as Mongolia and
China. Their number is about 10 millions.
There are also Turks in European Russia, viz. in the
Crimea, in the Caucasus, and along the Volga, especially
round Kazan and Astrakhan. These number 3+4
millions, including some of the Turkicized Finnic tribes
of the Volga. Linguistically and politically they form
one group with the Eastern Turks, with the exception
of the Azerbeijan, who speak a Western Turkic
language. But in physical type and culture they are
all now mixed with Eastern Europeans, to a slightly
less degree than the Osmanly are with the South-
Eastern Europeans. T h e Pan-Turanian programme
It must be noted that, according to M. Joseph Haltvy, the
Turanians of Avesta and of Shlh Nam&h were the Semites of
.
Syria, because Syria was called Althura .. Tura (C. E. Ujfalvy,
Les Aryepls, p. 49).

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 21

hcludes these people, and there is some linguistic excuse

b r this in the case of the Azerbeijan. Before the present
rrar representatives of many Russian Mahometans could
be found at the Pan-Islamic Conferences in Turkey,
uld within Russia they formed a ' Russian Mussulman
Party' in the Duma, but so far they have never been
united on ground of racial or national community.
Although these East European Turks will play an
important r6le in the politics of the near future, and
have already played their part in the Caucasus, they
will not be dealt with here, since they are not typically
representative of the Eastern Turks. Besides, the
problems relating to them are beyond the boundary

The classification here proposed differs from that

given by Vamb6ry1 in 1885,in that his first four groups,
viz. Siberian Turks, Central Asiatic Turks, Volga Turks,
and Pontus Turks, are grouped together under the
=me Eastern Turks, leaving his fifth group, Western

The Eastern Turks.

Before tracing the Eastern Turks in history, some
iven of them as they are at the present
almost all of them are dependent on
ssia; only some r i - 2 millions are subject to China.
thnically they fall into two groups,

e Turks of Turkestan
spian Steppe country.
ce their appearance in this region they have been
stantly under Iranian influence, and hence have
A. Vambery, Das Ttirkenvolk, Leipzig, 1885, pp. 85-6.
22 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
physically and culturally become Iranized. Considering
also that they settled in the country which already in
the time of the Avesta bore the name Iran (as opposed
to Turan), there is ample justification for calling them
the Iranian Turks.
The other group consists of the Turks-many of them
called Tatars-of the Steppe country, Southern Siberia,
Jungaria, and Northern Mongolia, including the Altai
and Sayan Mountains. Thanks to the geographical
structure of the country, these Turks have been more
shut off from foreign influence than the first group,
though they have always been to a certain extent under
obligations to the culture of China, and lately to that
of Russia also. These may be called the Turanian
Turks.
The Eastern Turks in Asiatic Russia number al-
together some eight millionsI1 of which the Iranian
Turks account for about six millions. The Iranian
Turks form 92 per cent. of the population of Turkestan.
Out of the 60 per cent. of Turkic population in the
Caspian Steppe country, about one-third may be re-
garded as Iranized.
The Turanian Turks form an unimportant percentage
among the Russian, Mongols, and Chinese in the midst
of whom they live; their number in south-western
The statistics here given concerning the Turks of the Russian
State are based on the census of 1897 and an additional local
census of 1911. See Asiafic Russia, edited by the I~nmigration
Committee, St. Petersburg, 1914, vol. I. It should be noted, how-
ever, that the later census shows an increase over the earlier one
greater than can be accounted for by a natural increase in the
birth-rate. This is probably due to the fact that the census of 1911
was carried out by more careful observers. It is more reliable as
far as linguistic grouping goes, but its estimates of the number
of people professing Russian Orthodoxy are less correct.

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 I N HI: I R Y AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 23
Siberia scarcely reaches half a million, and yet this is
the region which has been a centre of gravity for the
old Turkic culture. S o if for political interest we must
I look to the Iranian Turks, for ethnological problems
we turn chiefly to these other Turks, who are the
I truest Turanians.
Langwe.
with the separate mations of
ups are composed, it will be neces-
the linguistic and religious position
all the Eastern Turks in Asia, for it seems that in
ny cases these two factors are the only guides by
ich we can arrive at the definition of a Turk.
ssor Beresin and the Turkic-Tatar
lar Mirza Kasem Beg,' the Turkic or Turko-Tatar
uages may be divided as follows :

(b) Aberdjan (Azerbeijan),

(e) Rumelian (Constantinople).

the other two, Jagatai appears to be the older, and
irza A. Kasem Beg, transl. Dr. J. T. Zenker, Allgenehe G ~ M -
& TurkiscI1-Tatarkchert Spyache, Leipzig, 1848, pp. xi-xiii.

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24 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
it includes the most classical Turkic dialeet, namely
Uigur. The dialects of Jagatai are :
(a) Uigur, (4 Usbeg,
(6) Koman, (e) Turkoman,'
(c) Jagatai (Chagatai), Cf) Kazan.
The dialects of Tatar are :
(a) Kirghis, (e) Karachai,
(6) Bashkir, (AKara-Kalpak,
(c) Nogai, (g) Meshcherak,
(d)Kuman, (A) Siberian.
T h e first mention in Chinese documents of the fact
that the Uigur, the Tu-kiu, and the Kirghis use the
same character, occurs in a passage relating to the
fourth century A.D. T h e earliest specimens known to
us of the Turkic-Uigur language and characters are
the inscriptions on the burial mounds in the Yenisei
valley, dating from about the seventh century A.D. T h e
late Professor Donner,' who has left us a study of
the origin of this alphabet, suggests that some early
phases of old Turkic writing are still missing, and may
possibly be found west or south of the Minusinsk
inscriptions, for the inscriptions found to the east of
Minusinsk along the River Orkhon in Northern Mon-
golia are later than those of the Yenisei. The reason
for such a supposition rests on the fact that the script
adopted by the old Uigur Turks was of Aramaean or
Proto-Pehlevi origin, of the type employed during the
dynasty of Arsasides in Parthia (third century B.C. to
third century A.D.). It is not clear, pending further
According to some scholars Turkoman belongs to the Western
Turkic linguistic branch, and thus stands near to Azerbeijan and
Osmanly. See A. VambCry, Das TzZrkenvolk, p. 86.
a 0 . Donner, ' Sur I'origine de l'alphabet turc du Nord de 1'Asie ',
j. Soc. Fin.-Ougr., 1896, XIV,pp. I - ~ , ~ I ? I .

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IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 25
discoveries, who used the Aramaean characters during
the three or four centuries which divide the time of
Arsasides (whose power was destroyed by Ardashir,
founder of the Sassanian Empire in 220 A.D.) from that
of the Yenisei inscriptions. The assumption is that in
some remote parts of the Sassanian Empire the Ara-
maean characters still continued to exist for some time,
and that the earliest Turkic writings are still undis-
. covered. In any case, Professor Donner was disposed
to take the Aramaean rather than the Indo-Bactrian or
Kharosthi as the prototype of the Yenisei writing.' The
popular opinion current until recently, however, was
that the Uigur obtained their written character from the
Nestorian monks, who exercised considerable influence
in Turanian lands from the fifth century A.D. onwards,
and who themselves used a Syriac language. Though
the influence of the Nestorian missionaries was doubtless
very profound, and though their language was probably
) known to some of the Turks, especially to the Uigur
and the Kirei, the Yenisei inscriptions seem to have
been modelled on a Semitic writing more primitive

I
than the Syriac of the fifth century A.D., or even than
the character in use during the latter part of the Arsasides
dynasty, i. e. the third century A . D . ~
Here must be mentioned a suggestion coming from

Professor F.W. K. Miiller, of Berlin, advances a theory that

the Uigur character, especially in its most archaic form, is an
adaptation of the Soghdian ('Uigurica', Abh. Akad., Berlin,
1908-10). M. Gauthiot, accepting this, says that the distinctive
character of the Uigur inscriptions is due to the adaptation to the
old Turkic language of the phonetic system of a quite different
type of language, viz. North Iranian and Soghdian (R. Gauthiot,
' De 1'Alphabet Sogdien ',J. A., Jan.-Feb., 1911, p. go).
' 0.Donner, op. at.,p. 67.
26 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
the Russian and Sibiriak ethnographers of Central
Asia? They would derive the old Turkic character
from the clan-crests, called tawgas. There is no doubt
that some letters of the Yenisei and Orkhon inscriptions
bear a close resemblance to various lamgas, but the
influence may equally well be regarded as reciprocal,
until it is proved that the Turkic famgas are more
ancient than the Aramaean character.
But, on the other hand, it is quite obvious that the
pisanifsy, or pictographic writings found in various parts
of Turan, are to be connected with the famgas, and that
they represent the direct influence of environment rather
than that of an imported culture.
Until the discove~yof the Yenisei inscriptions the
oldest Turkic-Uigur document was the famous Kudatku .
Bilik, translated as T h e Art of Reigning' (L. Cahun 2,
(

or as 'The Book of Joy-giving Knowledge' (A. Vam-

bery3). It is an ancient poem, imbued with the spirit of
Islam, writtkn in 1069 (or perhaps in 1076), that is to
say during the dynasty of the Ilekids, and ascribed
to Yiisuf Khass Hajib. It was found in Semirechie.
The Turkic-Uigur writing was in use sporadically among
the Volga and Bokhara Turks until the fifteenth century.
As monuments in Jagatai proper, a dialect akin to
Uigur, may be cited the Memoirs of Baber the Moghul
in the sixteenth century, and the History of Abul Ghazi
in the seventeenth. The Memoirs of Baber have been

N . A. Aristoff,Attempt at an ExPlanation of the Ethnic Com-

position of the Kirghis-Kai~ak,&c., pp. 410 K ; N . Mallitski, On
the connexion beheen the Turkic ' tamga ' and the Orkhon characters,
1897-8, PP. 43-7.
a L. Cahun, L'Infroduchbn ci Phistoire de l'Asie, p. 45.
a A. VambCry, op. cit., p. 322.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 27
frequently translated into many European languages.'
The poet who perhaps most enriched the Jagatai litera-
ture was Mir Ali Shir Naval, who lived during the
Timurid dynasty.
It is interesting to note that among the latest docu-
ments in the older form of the Uigur written character
are some letters sent by the Mongol Khans of Persia
in the thirteenth century to the Pope of Rome, Philip le
Be1 King of France, and Edward I King of England,
the object of which was to arrange an offensive alliance
against the Saracens. There were as many as six
Embassies exchanged. A number of the letters were
written in Uigur with Latin translations, and the original
Uigur manuscripts of some of these were found by
M. Abel Remusat in Paris? It is possible that the
The translations in English are as follows:
'Memoirs of Zehir-ed-Din Muhammed Baber, Emperor ot
Hindustan, written by himself, in the Jaghatai Turkic, and trans-
lated partly by the late John Leyden, partly by William Erskine',
London, 1826.
'The Memoirs of BZbur ; a new translation of the BPbur-nZma,
incorporating Leyden and Erskine's of 1826A.D.', by Annette S.
~ e v e h d ~heon
, don, 2912.
'Memoirs of Baber, Emperor of India, First of the Great
Moghuls, being an abridgement with an introduction, supple-
mentary notes, and some account of his successors', by Lieut-Col.
F. G. Talbot, London, 1909.
a Abel Remusat. ' Memoires sur les relations ~olitiauesdes
princes chretiens et particulierement des rois de France avec les
enlpereurs mongols', Mbm. de l'Amd. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres,
Pt. I, vol. vi, pp. 396-4651; Pt. 11, vol. vii, pp. 335-431. See also
T. Hudson Turner, ' Unpublished Notices of the Times of Edward I
and of his Relations with the Moghul Sovereign of Persia', Arch.
Jour., VIII, London, 1851, pp. 47-50; I. J. Schmidt, PhiIologisch-
kritische Zugabe su den von H. Abel Rbmusat behnnt gattachten in
den kdn~lich-franzbsischenArchiven befindlichen m e i mongolischen
Original-Briefen der Kbnige w n Persien Argtrn wnd Oe/&nifu an
P h i w den Schbnen, St. Petersburg, 1824.
28 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
originals of those sent to England may yet- be found
in some British collection. Some of the envoys were
Uigur priests of Nestorian religion.'

Among the Iranian Turks in Turkestan the almost

universal religion is Mahometanism. Its adherents
form 99 per cent. of the Turks in Ferghana (Kokand),
93 per cent. in Samarkand, 96 per cent. in Syr Daria,
and 88 per cent. in Transcaspia (1897). They are
mostly Sunnites, and of the Hanifite rite. It is recog-
nized in the Mahometan world that nowhere else is
there such strict adherence to the Koran and the Sunna
as in this region, nowhere else are there so many
religious orders and so many saints. This contemporary
religibus fanaticism, however, does not play the cultural
r61e which it did when ~ahometanismwas introduced
into this region in the tenth and eleventh centuries, as
a rival to the earlier influences of Buddhism, Christianity,
and the well-developed local animistic religion. At that
time, under the influence of Iranian culture, Mahometan-
ism meant also the development of science and. art,
literature and architecture. The present theologiafis of
Turkestan have banished from their religion everything
which is not in accordance with strict devotion and
The Uigur manuscripts known to exist in European libraries
are :
Kudatku Bilik (copy made in Herat in 1439) (Wiener Hof-
bibliothek).
Legende de Oghus Chan (Library of Charles Schefer of Paris).
Teskere-i-ewlija (Bibliothkque Nationale).
Miradj nameh (Berliner Bibliothek).
Yarlyk of Temir Kutlug (Wiener Hofbibliothek).
Yarlyk of Toktamysh (Moscow Library).
Application of the envoy of Chami, Babeke, to the Chinese
Emperor, with Chinese translation (Asiatic Museum, Petrograd).

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 IN HISTORY AND AT P R E S E N T DAY 29
asceticism.l In a way, they play the r61e of Calvinists
in the Mahometan world; on the other hand, the in-
fluence of Buddhism still remains in the towns, while
in the mountains and steppes there still lives a strong
animistic cult, sometimes intermixed with Mahometanism.
Mahometanism, though introduced among the upper
classes in the tenth century, did not spread among the
masses of Turkestan until the thirteenth to fifteenth
centuries, and it is now known that in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries Christianity, especially Nestorian
Christianity, was a great rival of Mahometanism in the
western part of Turkestan.
The people of the eastern part of Turkestan, especially
the Kirghis and various descendants of the Uigur, were
never great adherents of Mahometanism. In general, it
is the Sarts, the Usbegs, and the Tadjik who are the
most devoted Mussulmans. Still, if we compare the
number of Mahometans in Russian Central Asia in 1911
(8,223,982)with their number in 1897 (6,996,654),it appears
that Mahometanism is still spreading inTurkestan, though
its increase inSiberia is negligible(128,403in 1911, against
126,587 in 1897). The nomads of the north-east-i. e.
of Semirechie, Semipalatinsk, Akmolinsk, and Uralsk-
have been but slightly affected by Mahometanism, and
it is curious to know that some of the most Turkic
sections of all the Eastern Turks, the Kaizak and the
Kirghis, accepted it only after the Russian conquest
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, assisted by
the Russian officials ! They still follow their customary
law, zang rrlaaf in Arabian), and if they give it up it
is to accept, not the Mahometan written law, sheriaf,
' A. VambCry, 'Muhammadanism in Asiatic Turkey ', E. R. E.,
191.5,PP. 88.5-8-
30 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
but the Russian law. The Turanian Turks are affected
by Mahometanism about as much as they are by Russian
Orthodoxy. It would be misleading to give the official
estimate,' but about two-thirds of them still adhere to
the form of animistic religion known as Shamanism.
As far as the Turanian Turks are concerned, therefore,
Mahometanism fails as a guide for identifying the
Turk.
The religion of the Turks who were responsible for
the inscriptions found in the Yenisei and Orkhon valleys,
seems to have been the same Shamanism which is still
to be found in a comparatively vital state among many
Turanians, especially the Altai ' Tatars ' and the Yakut.
If we take Shamanism as a form of animistic religion
which originated in Asia, and which differs from the
animistic religions of other parts of the world in its
conception of the gods and in the nature of its pro-
pitiatory ceremonies, then we shall not find in any other
part of Central and Northern Asia a more typical and
more highly developed form of it than among these
people. At the same time it must be remembered that
Shamanistic conceptions underlie many of the high
religious systems of the Asiatic continent.
A strongly marked dualism is present, the good and
the evil deities being comparable in the various tribes,
though known under different names. Taking the Altai
' Tatars ' as typical Shamanists, their chief benevolent
god at the present time, as in the seventh century, and
possibly earlier? is Ulgen. The chief malevolent god
is Erlik. The sphere of activity of the former, and all
' See note to p. 22.
a I. P.Melioranski, 'On the Orkhon and Yenisei Memorial Inscrip
tions ',J. Min. Educ., June, 1898, St. Petersburg.
 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 31
the spirits dependent on him, is the region above the
earth, and of the latter the region below the earth.
Their realms meet on the earth. Erlik is sometimes
represented as a bear, e.g. among the Altaians?
Generally speaking there is no animal worship, but
some animals are venerated. The greatest veneration
is shown to the bear, occasionally to the wolf, and of
birds, to the eagle, the hawk, and the goose. These
. creatures, as well as some fish, play an important part
in the Shamanistic ceremonies, for when the Shaman's
spirit-assistants appear at his call, they are supposed to
assume the forms of animal^.^ It is, however, not in
this veneration, but rather in the use of the clan-crests
or tamgas, that any approach to totemism among these
people must be sought.
T h e sky, sometimes called Tengri, is venerated as
being the home of the good spirits, and they themselves
are sometimes called T e n g ~ ialso. T o ward off the
destructive power of the malevolent god, and to ensure
the protection of his benevolent rival, a caste of priests,
called Shamans (the name varying according to the
tribe), performs religio~lsceremonies in which the sacred
drum (tiungur) plays an important r61e. In some tribes,
e.g. the Yakut, there is a white Shaman who pro-
pitiates the good power, and a black Shaman who has
to deal with the dark power. All these tribes believe in
various lesser gods, among them a female deity who
presides over birth. She is called Umai by the Altaians,
Ayisib by the Y a k ~ t . ~

N. N. Kosmin, Chern, p. 102.

M. A. Czaplicka, Abon'grgrnalSiberia,Oxford, 1914~pp. 277-82.
M. A. Czaplicka, op. n'f., p. 141, and Chaps. VII and VIII. See
also a The Influence of Environment upon the Religious Ideas and
32 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
T o show the persistence of the Shamanistic cere-
monial, it is interesting to find that the rites connected
with the cult of the sky, as practised at the present day,
are strikingly similar to those of the eighth century?
The ceremony of sacrificing to the sky is called among
the Turks of the Minusinsk District T%ir Tayi. It is
held every third year, usually towards the end of June.
Among most of these Turks, for instance the Beltir and
Kachints, it has the character of a strictly clan cere-
monial. Women are not allowed to take part in it, nor
even to help with the preparations. The spot chosen
is usually the top of the highest mountain in the neigh-
bourhood on which birches are growing. Some of these
birches are sacred, and near them two fires are lighted,
one called ulug of, ' the senior fire ', and the other kichk
of, 'the junior fire '. No one dares to approach the
'junior fire' from the east, and even from other directions
only the leaders of the ceremony are allowed access.
A ram or a he-goat is then sacrificed, care being taken
that no blood should be shed, and no cry heard from
the sacrificial animal. Similar precautions are taken in
the sacrifice of the horse to Ulgen among the Altaians.
Then the fore-quarters of the beast are boiled on the
' senior fire ', while the hind-quarters, together with the
flesh of various non-sacrificial animals, are boiled on
the 'junior fire '. Meanwhile each head of a family ties
his uldiirba, that is, a long thread of flax with eagle
feathers attached to it, to the sacred birches. T h e ends
of these threads are kept in the hand, and the master of
the ceremonies begins the song to the sky, while the
Practices of the Aborigines of Northern Asia', Folk-Lore, March 31,
1914.

v
I. P. Melioranski, op. cit., pp. 264-5.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 33
others form a chorus. The feathered thread is the road
by which the song rises to the sky. T h e meat which
has been prepared on the ' senior fire ' is taken out and
carried round in a circle, in the direction of the sun.
After that the meat, with all the articles used in its
preparation, is burnt on the 'senior fire', and if the
smoke goes straight to the sky it is a good omen for
the clan. Then only is the meat which was prepared
on the 'junior fire' ceremonially eaten, after which all
the bones and remains of the feast have to be burnt on
the ' senior fire '.'
Efhnography,
The Iranian Turks.
The question now arises, What Turkic nations go to
form the group of Iranian Turks?
THETURKOMANS. Their number in Persia, Khiva,
and Bokhara is about 600,mo. Of these 290,000 (in
1911, as against 248,000 in 1897) are in Transcaspian
territory of Turkestan. Among the Turkomans subject
to Russia must also be reckoned the Caucasian Turko-
mans, some 11,ooo.a
The Turkomans of Turkestan were subjugated by the
Russians in 1881 after a stubborn resistance. T h e
Russians put a stop to their slave trade, and from that
time they began to be more settled and to take up ,
agriculture. But even now a large proportion are still
nomadic horse-breeders, adhering to the customary law
S. D. Maynagasheff, l Sacrifice to the Sky anlong the Beltir ',
Literary Collection of the Anthropological Museum of the Amd. oy
Science, Petrograd, 1915,vol. 111, pp. 93-102:
The Turkomans of the Ottoman Empire, commonly called
Turkmen or Avshahr, are not dealt with here.
210s E
34 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
('dat). In religion they are now all Mahometans, in
language they belong to the Jagatai Turks. Clan
division is still fairly strict among them, and migrations
are usually carried out in clans. Their custom of
endogamy may be regarded as having as its object the
preservation of the purity of their race from foreign
admixture. Since the women are inferior in numbers
to the men, the kalym or bride-price is very high, and
in some places the .unmarried men form 27 per cent.
of the population. Their clans are nine in number,
two of them, however, being almost extinct. T h e chief
clans are :
Chaudor, between Khiva and the Caspian ;
Yomut, on the south shore of the Caspian, and in
south-west Khiva ;
Goklan, on Persian soil ;
Akhal and Merv Tekkes,in the Akhal and Merv oases;
Sarik, on the middle Murgab ;
Salor, round Merv and in northern Persia ;
Ersari, on the middle Amu Daria, and near Khoya
Salih.
Though linguistically and politically classified as
Turks, in all these people the Iranian type predominates,
in culture as well as in physique.
THESARTS (1,847,000 in 1911, as against 1,458,000 in
1897) live in the Ferghana and Syr Daria territories,
and are also to be found sporadically in other parts
of Turkestan.
They are a mixture of the original Iranian inhabitants,
the Tadjiks, with their Turanian conquerors, the Usbegs.
In physical type they approach nearer to the Iranians.
They live in villages, called Rishlak, and their houses,
called sakla, are made of a compound of wood and clay.

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 IN HISTORY AND AT P R E S E N T DAY 35
Though engaged chiefly in commerce, they are also
. successful agriculturists. They know the use of aryk
or irrigation canals, and are reputed to be the best
cultivators of cotton and fruit plantations. On the
whole there is only one people who surpass them as
agriculturists, namely the Tadjiks,l who are supposed
to be pure Iranians.
The Sarts are Mahometans, Sunnites, many of them
followers of the Sufi order. They adhere to the
Mahometan written law (shemaf). They keep their
women more strictly in seclusion than is the case among
any other Turkic tribe. This is probably connected
with the high degree of organization shown in their
religious culture, which exceeds that of the other tribes.
They have a great reverence for the Mussulman educa-
tional institutions usually to be found in connexion with
the Sufi religious orders, and supported by public
donations. There are three of these orders in Central
Asia, the most ancient of them being in Ferghana.
The educational institutions are divided into higher
(Medresse) and lower (Mekfab). Besides instruction in
religious and legal subjects, the students are given
some general knowledge based on mediaeval concep-
tions; thus Sart geography represents the world as
being flat, and surrounded by mountains. In the lower

The Tadjiks are the. remnants ot the old Aryan population of

Central Asia, living chiefly in the Samarkand and Ferghana districts.
' In 19x1 they numbered about 400,000, i.e. 67 per cenr of the total
population. The Tadjiks living in the valleys and engaged in
agriculture are now scarcely distinguishable in language and
physique from their neighbours the Sarts, but the Mountain
Tadjiks, or Galcha, are still using their Iranian language, and differ
from the dark Turanians around them by reason of their light-
coloured hair and skin.

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36 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
classes some Arabic is taught; in the higher Persian
is the language used, but neither of these languages
is really mastered.' T h e Russian schools have had
less success among the Sarts than among the Kaizak
or the Kirghis.
THETARANCHI or ILI-TATARS(83,000 in 1911 as
against 70,000 in 1897) live in Semirechie and in the
Transcaspian Territory, having migrated to Russian
Turkestan from Eastern Turkestan at the same time
as the Dungans, that is to say, when Kulja passed
under Chinese rule.
In physical type, culture, language, and religion the
Taranchi stand very near to the Sarts; the only dif-
ference seems to be in regard to the treatment of their
women, who have much greater freedom.than among
the Sarts, and do not cover their faces. T h e Taran-
chi are agriculturists, cultivating especially vegetable
gardens, but some of them incline towards commerce.
The Turkomans, Sarts, and Taranchi may be grouped
together as the least Turkic of all the Iranian Turks,
being now strongly under Persian, as they were in the
past under Arabian, influence. And of course it must
be remembered that all of them form as it were a
stratum overlying the original 'Aryan' population,
whose culture was of an Irano-Greek type. But of the
three the Taranchi have the closest connexion with
the Turanian Turks, being probably the descendants of
the old Uigur in Eastern Turkestan.
T h e next to be considered are the Usbegs, and their
kindred tribes the Kipchak, the Kaizak (Kaizak-Kirghis),
and the Kara-Kalpak.
THEUSBEGS(592,150 in 1911 as against 534,825 in
Asiah'c Russia, vol. I, p. 170.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 37
1897) live in the Samarkand, in some parts of Syr
Daria and Ferghana Territories, and in the Khanates
of Khiva and Bokhara. With them can be classed the
KIPCHAK (60,000 in 191I as against 45,000 in 18971, who
live in the Ferghana Territory. T h e word Kipchak is
found as the name of a clan, or perhaps a moiety, among
various Siberian and Turkestan Turks, such as the
Altaians, the Telengit, the Kaizak of the Middle Orda,
and the Usbegs.
The Usbegs form the ruling class in Bokhara, Khiva,
and Kokand, occupying much the same position as do
the Osmanly in Turkey. Some groups of Usbegs are
to be found in Northern hlfghanistan, and in the west
of Eastern Turkestan. T h e name Usbeg is political,
and is probably derived from Usbeg Khan of the Golden
Horde (1312-40). The Usbegs are a mixture of three
elements, Turkic, Iranian, and Mongol, but the Turkic
element and Turanian traditions are predominant, except
in the case of the Usbegs of Khiva, where the Iranian
type predominates.
Since the Usbegs are in process of exchanging their
nomad life for a sedentary one, their customary law
('Edat) is being replaced by the written law (sheriat)
Father-right is very strong, but the women are free1
than among the Tadjiks or the Sarts. Though they nou
live in clay and wood houses (sakla), their old felt tents
lyurfa) are still to be seen, especially in summer.
There is much ethnological evidence that the Usbegs
belong to the same ethnic group as that people who are
called by the Russians Kaizak-Kirghis, but who call
themselves Kaizak. Both names-Kaizak and Usbeg-
came into use only in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and even now Usbegs and Kaizak have many
38 THE T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
clan, or perhaps moiety, names in common (Jalair,
Kangli, Kipchak, Kereit, Konkrat, Nayman, Tabyn,
Arghyn, Tama, and Tilaoul). If the name Usbeg is
derived from bek, 'master of oneself', and the name
Kaizak from the Turkic kdz, 'steppe goose', and the
Persian zugh, 'steppe with the metaphorical .
meaning, 'wanderers free as steppe - - birds', it seems
possibIe that the origin of both names involves the same
idea. Another derivation of Kaizak from kcixmak, 'to
dig', fails to commend itself, as the meaning of the
word has no direct connexion with their mode of life,
the Kaizak never appearing as agriculturists.
The Kaizak-Usbegs were probably bands of people
who escaped from the strong state organization of the
Turkic Empires of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, and reverted to a nomadic life and a nomadic
culture, under conditions which led to their mixing
freely with such nomads as the Western Mongols. In
seeking for rich pastures they were obliged to live
in a state of constant war with the people who inhabited
the steppes before them. Historical evidence supports
this hypothesis? Their warlike disposition seems to
have given rise to a Tadjik proverb, referring to the
Kataghan, a tribe of Usbegs of the Kundar district:
' Where the hoof of the Kataghan's horse arrives, there
the dead find no grave-cloth and the living no home '.'

--
I'Asie centrale, Paris, 1912, p. 60.
a In this part of the world a Turkic-Persian hybrid i s not
uncommon.
V. V. Velyaminoff-ZernoK, The Emperors and Pvillces of the
line of Kasim, 1860.
R. B. Shaw, A Sketch on the Turki Language as spoketz in
Eastern Turr2istan, Calcutta, 1880, p. 139.

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 1N HISTORY AND AT P R E S E N T DAY 39
In contrast to the origin of the Usbegs and the Kaizak
is the origin of the real Kirghis, by which is meant the
Eastern or Yenisei Kirghis, called by the Russians the
Burut-Kirghis and the Kara-Kirghis. These have more
right to be called Turanian Turks than the Kaizak, who
may be said to stand between the two groups. They
will therefore be dealt with under that head (Turanian).
THEKAIZAKlive in the northern and eastern part of
the Aral-Caspian basin, and in the Orenburg Steppes.
Together with the Kara-Kirghis and some of the
Yenisei Kirghis-i. e. all the people whom the Russians
call Kirghis, and so include under one head in their
census-they numbered 4,7m,ooo in 1911 as against
4,100,000 in 1897. Out of this total the non-Kaizak
element may be reckoned at between 5m,000 and 800,ooo
I (in 1911).
The Kaizak say that they are sprung from the Usbegs,
and that the Kara-Kirghis are sprung from dogs, but
the Kara-Kirghis call themselves brothers of the Kaizak,
and are in fact probably related to them, since the
Kaizak have recruited themselves not only from the
4
Usbegs but also from other Turkic states.

i
The Kaizak were divided by their Khan Tiavka in
the thirteenth century into three 'hordes ', called Ordas.
This was done for administrative purposes, but since
the death of Tiavka the history of each orda runs
independently.
I The ordas are :
, Ulugh-yiiz (Ulu-jus) or Great Orda, living in the
neighbourhood of the rivers Chu and .Talas, and
subdivided into the Abdan and Dolat tribes.
-yilz (Urta-jus) or Middle Orda, living between
the rivers Tobol and Irtish. and the Syr Daria,
40 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
and subdivided into the Arghyn, Na'iman, Kip-
chak, and Konltrat tribes.
3. Kichik-yiiz (Kichik-jus) or Little Orda, living between
the Aral Sea and the lower Volga, and sub-
divided into the Alchin and Yabbas tribes.
At the present time the 'hordes' of the Kaizak inter-
mingle to a great extent, but class distinctions within
the hordes are still upheld. T h e nobility, called Tiuri
or Ak-sok, i. e. 'White Bones', trace their ancestry
from Jinghis Khan, notwithstanding that the latter was
a Mongol. All the other people are called Kara-s~k,
i. e. ' Black Bones'. Some old legal customs still dis-
regard the Russian law, as e. g. that of baranta, or
revenge.for a wrong inflicted on one tribesman or clans-
man, by carrying away the culprit's or his clansmen's
herd.
Like the other Turks, the Kaizak base their social
structure upon a patriarchal system. It is very difficult
to define what should be called a clan among the Turks
of Central Asia, in the sense in which that term is used
in dealing with Africa and Australia. There seems to
be a conception of a political group, called among both
the Kirghis and the Kaizak umk or ru, with its head,
bey, bi, or serdar (possibly a confederation of such clans
was once called el), while a group of families affiliated
by blood is called by the Kaizak faypas or tayfa (by the
Kirghis kyvk). T h e head of such a sub-clan, based on
blood relationship, is called ak-sakal. An amalgamation
of several sub-clans forms a siik (clan).
If a clan 's6k ' increases in size, and wishes to divide
or to migrate, the departive group sometimes takes as a
name the word for the number of the sub-clans of which
it is composed, e. g. On ('ten '), Yur (' a hundred 3 ; or

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 -
IN HISTORY AND AT PRESENT DAY 41
I
choose some characteristic trait of their group, e. g.
- Kaizak, 'Wanderers free as steppe birds', Kara-Sakal,
' Black Beards ', Kara-Kalpak, ' Black Caps '. Some-
,

I
(
times they may adopt the name of their leader, e. g.
Usbegs, Seljuk, or that of the most influential sub-clan,
e.g. Sakhalar (the name of the nation called by the
Russians the Yakut), though not all the members of
this nation belong to the Sakhalar sub-clan. T h e clan-
name Sakhalar (sing. Sakky) is to be found among
many Turkic people of the Abakan and upper Yenisei,
and it was probably only with the Russian advance at
the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seven-
teenth centuries that one group of the Sakhalar clan
migrated towards Lake Baikal, and then northwards
along the Lena, while a smaller group went directly
northwards along the Yenisei. This would be about
the time when the Burut-Kirghis migrated from the
upper Yenisei to Jungaria.'
Thus in the case of these migrations the clan names
are not sufficient guide in tracing the racial affinity of
the people. More assistance is obtained from a study
of their sub-clan crests, or famgas (sing. tamga, tamaga,
famka, dam-k'a, t'amga), and their war-cries (urany,
sing. uran). It is curious that these two most interesting
sources of ethnological evidence have so far been only
partly investigated, though considering the numerous
divisions and subdivisions existing among the Turkic
peoples, and the fact that the national names are, as has
been seen, accidental and variable, any permanent means

N. N. Kosmin, D. A. Klemenfs and the Historical and Ethno-

gmphiml Znvestigafion of fhe AfinusinsR Country, Irkutsk, 1916,
PP. 13-15.
910s F

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42 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
of throwing light on their racial relationships ought to
be welcomed.
How complicated their tribal and clan subdivisions
are is seen in the following table given by the Kaizak
ethnologist Mustafa Chokayeff, to explain his own
standing in the Kaizak nati0n.l H e belongs to-
Turkic race,
Kaizak nation,
Middle orda,
Kipchak tribe,
Toru-aibgyr clan,
Shashli sub-clan,
Boshai branch (in Russian kolieno),
Janay sub-branch (podkolieno).
The tamga may be regarded as the symbol of a sub-
clan (tayfa among the Kaizak, kyrk among the Kirghis),
a group of families affiliated by blood, because it is
such groups which usually live together, and whose
live stock, whether reindeer, horses, or dromedaries,
are marked by this symbol. T h e tamga appears also
on their various belongings, as. well as on the graves
of deceased members of the clan.
The antiquity of these symbols can be judged from
the fact that they are to be seen on the old Nestorian
monuments, and on the monument to Khan Kul-Tegin
in the valley of the Orkhon, on which the inscriptions
are in old Turkic characters, dating from 732 A . D . ~
Those who boldly derive the old Turkic written
' A. N. Samoylovich, ' Prohibited words in the vocabulary of
a married woman among the Kaizak', L.A. T., vols. 1-11, 1915,
p. 162.
a N. A. AristoiT, Attemjt at an Explanation of the Ethnic Con?-
position, kc., 1894, p. 410 ; N. Mallitski, On the connecfzbn between
the Turkic ' tamga ' and the Orkhon characters, 1897-8, p. 43.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 43
Idcharacter from the clan tamgas would of course claim
8 greater antiquity than that of Orkhon and Yenisei
, inscriptions.

I According to tradition, the tamga was introduced

among the Kaizak by their Khan Tiavka, because the
Kaizak of his time were so rich in cattle that some
device of this kind was necessary for the identification
of the various herds. Some think that the origin of the
tamga is to be sought in Mongolia, but as a matter
of fact it occurs among the Turks no less frequently
than among the Mongols and Tungus, because the
custom of marking cattle is natural and common to
most pastoral people. As may be expected, the pastoral
Turks, such as the Kaizak and some of the Kirghis,
have the tanzga system much more highly developed
than have the sedentary part of the Kirghis, the
Altaians, and the forest and mountain Turks generally.
Being either hunters or agriculturists, they have less
need of the tawga for practical purposes. The study
of the tamgas gives in many cases a clue to the com-
position of the tribe; for example, among the Kaizak
there are to be found tamgas of various Turkic tribes
i of Asia, either in their original form or as composite
signs, thus proving conclusively the mixed origin of
\ that people.'
It is difficult to ascertain how far the tamga corre-
sponds to a totem. Some famgas seem to represent
merely geometric designs: the Nai'man clans had as
their favourite tamga an angle, the Kirei use a square.
Some of the Kaizak of the Middle Orda have tamgas
representing a ' bird's rib' (urdas bi4, a comb (tarak),
and a forked stick (selak). Sometimes, however, the
Aristoff, op. cit., p. 421.
44 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
tamga plays more obviously the r61e of a totem. Among
the Turks of the Minusinsk country there exist sur-
vivals of public clan sacrifices to the spirit-owner of the
clan, for instance. the horse, which appears also to be
the clan tamga.
At the present time the tamga is usually cut or
branded on the left side of the animal, i.e. the side
from which the rider mounts, but the exact place
where the mark is made differs among the various
tribes.
The fact that the same tamgas are used on graves
belonging to the same clan is of assistance in tracing
the migration of clans, but it is only by considering the
tamga on the one hand, and the uran or war-cry on
the other, that the origin of a group can be traced. The
uran was originally the common property of a political
group, a larger unit than the group of blood-relations
who owned the tamga. It often consists of the name
of a well-known chief or hero, but since the Turkic
tribes have ceased to lead a warrior's life the new
generation scarcely remember the battle-cry of the clan,
and hence the uran is more difficult of discovery than
the tamga. GrodekoffI1 perhaps t h e most successful
of all the investigators along these lines, found that the
chief uran of the Great Orda, namely, of the clans Jalair
and Dulat, was ' Bahtyar', the name of one of the Kaizak
heroes ; the Kangli have a uran ' Bayterek which is
I
,

probably a corrupt form of the same name. This com-

munity of the uran confirms what is now known about
the relationship between the Kangli and the Jalair.
Sometimes the name of the clan is used as a uran, as
The Kirghis and Kara-Kivgkis of the Syr Dana Terri'1ory1
1829,pp. 2-3.

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5-
k=
-
~ R A N P AYT P R E S E N T DAY
the Seykym clan of the Kaizak, whose uran
Js ' Seykym '.
n o u g h the Kaizak belong geographically to the
45
rn

b i a e d Turks, culturally they have on the whole

d S n i t y with the Mongols. T h e majority are still
c:'- cattle and horse breeders. Their method of
d l e - k e e p i n g is a most luxurious one. They leave the
6on the pastures the whole year round, hence
their only care is to find a fresh pasture every season.
Tire spring and autumn pastures may be the same. It
is only recently, since more of the land has been claimed
ky the Russian Immigration Committee, that the Kaizak
have begun to lay up winter stores for their cattle.
Each clan has defined limits to its pasture lands. Under
tke old Russian system the pasture land used by the
Yaizalr belonged to the State, and they were granted
&e w e of it, dividing it at their communal gatherings
according to the number of people, cattle, and vehicles
in each class. T h e permanent houses, gardens, arable
b d , and irrigation canals are hereditary.1
It is curious to note that the Kaizak, whose dwellings
are so light and portable, bury their dead in solid struc-
tures of wood, clay, and brick. This custom also exists
among the Kara-Kirghis, and was known to the old
Y&i-Kirghis. As it is not found among the non-
TbWlriE population of Central Asia, it seems to indicate
amt those who practise it now are perhaps the nearest
relatives of the people who built the old burial mounds
d &he Yenisei, called kuvgans.
THEKARA-KALPAK (' Black Caps'), another Tu,rkic
W e of the same group (134,313 in 1911 as against
Ferghana Territory, and some 20,000 in the Khanate'
of Khiva.
Half of them are settled agriculturists, the rest are
still nomad cattle-breeders, their pasture lands being,
however, more strictly fixed than among the Kaizak.
Some of them are also engaged in trading. Of all the
Kirghis group their language is the most nearly related
to that of the Western Turks.'
This may be explained by the fact that they belong'
to the stream of Turks who participated in the west-
ward migration some ten centuries ago.
Speaking of the origin of the Kara-Kalpak or
Chornyie Klobuki, as they were called in Kieff-Russia,
P. Golubowskie says that they were a mixture of
'
Ghuz Turks, Pyechenyeg, and others, and that they
formed that remnant of the Ghuz Turks who remained 1
in Russia when the new wave of Turkic invaders from
Asia-the Polovtsy-drove the other part of their tribe
across the Danube. The remnants of the Ghuz,
together, possibly, with other Turks, settled on the
Russian borderlands, accepted Christianity, and were
known as the Kara-Klobuk (Kara-Kalpak),while some of
them moved back to Asia, and, according to V. Moshkoff,
about 70,- of them live until now in ~essarabiaunder I

i
the name of Ghaghauzy (Gaga~zy).~ Whether the Kara-
Kalpak not living in Asia are the same as the Kara-

A. Maksimoff, 'The Kara-Kalpak', vol. XXIII, p. 454, of the

Encydopaedic Dictionary, ed. Jeleznoff.
The Pyechenyegi, the Torhi and the Polovtsy until the Tatar
Invasion, KieK 1884, p. 151.
V. Moshkoff, Examples of the Folk-Literature of the Turkic
Tribes, St. Petersburg, 1904, p. xxii.

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 v

ORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 47

ere the borderland
fficult to ascertain,
a from European
P w i a in the eighteenth century, where Howorth
w n k s they formed one tribe of the Nogai-Pyechenyeg
b the Yaik River.'

The Turnrzian Turks.

It is impossible to draw a well-defined line between
the Iranian and the Turanian groups of the Eastern
Turks. Thus the Kaizak, who are here reckoned among
the Iranian Turks, are in many respects closely allied
to the Kara-Kirghis, who may be called the descendants
of the Yenisei Kirghis. They have also affinities with
the Turks of Eastern Turkestan, of Northern Mongolia,
a.nd of Siberia, all of whom might be called Turanian.
It is important to bear in mind that at present the
adjective 'Turanian ', as applied to these people, really
means that they are under Mongolian, Chinese, and
Tibetan cultural influences, while they have also re-
k o e d to some extent t h e original traits of their pre-
Mahometan Turkic culture. T h e Iranian group has
kwer traits of this old Turkic culture left, owing to
the predominance of Persian and Arabic cultural ele-
z n t s , and when we pass to the Western Turks, the
mltration of Mediterranean and Central European
b e n c e leaves few points of resemblance, other than
uage, between them and the Turanian Turks living
re on each side of the main mass of Turkic-speaking
les.
KIRGHIS,as hasbeen said, are to be distinguished
48 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
from the people erroneously called Kirghis; namely
the Kaizak, who were dealt with among the Iranian
Turks. The Kirghis, or ' Eastern Kirghis ', are as a
matter of fact, together with the Altai 'Tatars' and the
Kirei, the truest representatives of the Turanian Turks.
The name seems to be derived1 from kir (kr),' cultivated
field', and shows that these people were originally
agriculturists, as indeed we know they were during
at least the period from the sixth century up to the
time when the occupation of the upper Yenisei, first by
the Mongo1 Altyn Khan, and then by the Russians,
forced many of them to migrate farther south, and to take
up a pastoral life. Even now part of them are agri-
culturists and hunters, and it is only that section which
was subjected to the most frequent migrations that have
adopted what may be called horse-culture. This may
be defined as a mode of life dependent on cattle and
especially horse breeding, hence their nomadic habits.
They use the horse for riding, he provides them with
food, and to a certain extent with clothing, while for
heavy draught work it is the dromedary which is
chiefly used.
T h e Kirghis are called by the Russians ' Eastern ',
' Burut ', ' Black ' (Kara), or ' Mountain ' Kirghis ; the
latter is used to distinguish them from the Kaizak
Kirghis of the plains. Their home was since the
beginning of our era in the valley of the Yenisei,
whence they moved south under the advance of the
Another derivation of the name is kyrR kys, meaning 'forty
girls', and the legend tracing the Kirghis from forty women from
China who married forty men of U-si seems to uphold this
r iichten Kirgisen ', Abhandl. BerIin~
(Schott, ~ b e die Akad., 1865,
p. 432). But as a matter of fact the name by which they call
themselves is not Kirghis but Krgyz.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 49
Russians. Some few of them still live in the upper
Yenisei valley, where they are mixed with the Abakan
' Tatars ', but the majority of them are now to be found
south of Yarkand, round by Pamir and Alai, to the
north of Kashgar and Aksu (the Issyk-kul district).
Many of them are known under their clan-names, others
form the nation of the Kara-Kirghis.
The Kara-Kirghis fall into two branches, a right
branch, called Ong, and a left, called Sol. The Ong
branch is divided into two groups, Edigzne and Tagai.
The Tagai group is composed of seven clans :
I. Bugu (Stag), near the River Tekes, and to the
east of Lake Issyk-kul.
2. Sary Bagish (Yellow Elk), to the south and west of
Lake Issyk-kul.
3. Solto, south of the River Chu.
4. Sayak.
5. Cherik (Army) in Ferghana.
6. Chong Bagish (Great Elk), west of Kashgar.
7. Bassyz.
The Sol branch is less numerous, and lives chiefly
along the River Talas. It includes three clans, Saru,
Koshi, and Munduz.
All these Kirghis clans are related by intermarriage
to the Naiman and the Kipchak, who, however, are
reckoned to be quite a different nation.
It must be noted that Kirghis occurs also as a clan-
name among the Usbegs and the Altaians.
The Kara-Kirghis have clan tamgas like the Kaizak,
but the headship of their clan is a hereditary office, in
contradistinction to the custom of the Kaizak, whose
heads are elected. The head of the Kara-Kirghis clan
is called manap, and the head of a confederation of
Aristoff, op. a?.,p. 430.
2103 G
50 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
clans is called aga-manap. A comparison of--the social
structure of the Kara-Kirghis with that of the Kaizak
shows that the former is of a type more suited to the
needs of a sedentary people, and the latter to those
of nomads.
T h e comparative isolation of the Kirghis from any
but Turkic tribes gives some assurance that their
customs have more right than those of many other
tribes to be taken as typically Turkic. A picture of
their marriage ceremony may be of interest in this
connexion.
In general the wife is purchased, but as the bride-
price (kalym) is usually paid in instalments there exists
a special de passage between the arrangement of the
marriage and the final wedding ceremony. After the
first part of the bride-price is paid, the bridegroom and
his companions, bringing rich presents to the bride's
family and to the match-makers, drive to the aul (village)
of the bride, in the neighbourhood of which he halts.
Meanwhile the d j n a i (female match-makers) prepare
a special tent, to which they lead the bridegroom, while
the bride is carried away from her parents to another
tent belonging to some relative. Then a feast is held
by the bride's parents, at which neither the bridegroom
nor the bride is present. Late at night the Ginai
conduct the bride and bridegroom from their separate
tents to the house of the bride's parents. The bride
resists ceremonially, while the bridegroom is cere-
monially hindered from reaching the house by the djinai,
one of whom pretends to be a fierce dog, another a wild
cow, and so on.
Early in the morning the bridegroom goes away, and
for the whole day he must avoid his parents-in-law.
This goes on for about a fortnight, after which the

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 51
bridegroom leaves the azrl. Some time after, when the
whole kalym is paid, he returns to fetch his wife, who
again pretends to defend herself, and to be loath to
leave her parents' aul. There is a show of taking her
away by force. The first stage of the marriage, when
the bridegroom lives in the house of the bride's parents,
in regard to whom he must observe the custom of
avoidance, cannot be dispensed with even if the whole
kalyttz is paid at once.
Among some other Turks, such as the 'l'urkomans
and the Kazan ' Tatars ', the period during which the
bride remains with her people after the first marriage
ceremony extends over several months, or even a couple
of years.
T h e Kirghis
- are strictly exogamous as far as the
blood-clan is concerned. Before marriage a young
woman is allowed a good - deal of freedom with the men
of her own clan, but custom forbids her to meet men of
other clans.'
THESIBERIAN T U R K fallS ~ into two groups, one
consisting of the nation of the Yakut, the other of a
conglomerate of clans and tribes known as the ' Siberian
Tatars ' ; various branches of them are called according
P.,'The Customs of the Kirghis of the Semipalatinsk Terri-
tory', Russian Messenger, 1878, No. g, pp. 32-7; A. Levshin,
Descviplion ofthe Kirghis-Kaizak Hordes and Steppes, 1832, pp. 100-
102 ; P. E. Makovyetski, Materials for the Study of the Juridical
Cusfonzs of the Kirghis, 1890, pp. 16-19; N. Grodekoff, The Kirghis
arrd the Kaua-Kirghis of the Syr Dark Tewitouy, pp. 63-5.
a To be distinguished from these Siberian Turks, who have
been settled in the country since the very beginning of our era,
are the 'Tatars' who migrated back from European Russia fairly '

recently. In 1897 the number of these in Asiatic Russia was

94,000, in 1911 they numbered 1a4,ooo. They are partly Nogai
of the northern Caucasus, and partly Kazan 'Tatars', and many
of them differ from the Russian colonists only in their Mahometan
religion.
52 - T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
to their geographical distribution : the ' Baraba Tatars',
the ' Altaians ', the ' Abakan Tatars ', and so on.
T h e YaRut, who are now the northernmost branch of
Turkic-speaking people, live along the River Lena right
up to the Arctic shore,and in the region between the Lena
and the Yenisei as far south as Lake Baikal. They are
superior in numbers to all the ' Siberian Tatars' taken
together. In 1911 they numbered 245,000, as against
225,000 in 1897, while the ' Tatars' numbered 208,000
in 1911, plus some 4,000 people classed by the Russian
officials as 'Turks of undefined nationality', as against
175,000 in 1897, plus some 3,000 'Turks of undefined
nationality '?
Under the influence of their new environment2 the
Yakut have been 'driven to take up reindeer-breeding
and a nomadic tundra life, but in their social and
religious institutions survivals of the more settled con-
ditions of their southern home are still to be seen?
Of all the Turks of Asia the Yakut are the most
typical representatives of what may be spoken of as
' reindeer-culture '." The reindeer is to this region what
the horse is to the Central Asian steppe-nomads. It
supplies food, clothes, bone-implements, and is used for
draught work. But while the people who have been
living for a long time at the stage of reindeer-culture,
such as the Koryak of the north-east or the Samoyed
of the north-west, never use reindeer for riding, the
Yakut ride their reindeer as their ancestors rode the
horse, a practice which is looked upon with disfavour

Asiafic Russia, vol. I , pp. 79-80.

See p. 41.
M. A. Czaplicka, Aborignal Siberia, 1914,pp. 107,277, 297.
* B. Laufer, The Reindeer and its Domestication ', Men$. of the
Anrer. Avzfhrop. Assoc., vol. IV, No. 2, 19~7.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 53
by their neighbours. It must be remembered that
while the reindeer is not known to the Turks of Tian-
Shan and the upper Yenisei, the latter people have
) several other species of deer, especially the elk (Cemus
ekes) and the maral (Cervus elephas). The domesticated
1 deer is rare.
Forming a wedge between the Tungusic and the
Palaeo-Siberian tribes, the Yakut impose their language,
together with many of their customs, on both these
groups, as well as on the Russian settlers. In religion
;" theyare typical Shamanists.

I On meeting a Yakut among the various Mongoloid

peoples of the north, one is at once struck with the
difference in his physiognomy. His hair and eyes are
darker, his nose narrower and better marked, and on
the whole he gives the impression of possessing
Southern, and one might almost say Semitic, character-
istics. And yet he can hardly be suspected of having
any Arabic strain.
The Siberian Tatars live chiefly in the Tomsk and
Yeniseisk Governments. In the Tomsk Government,
70 per cent. of them do not know any language but
their own; the remaining 30 per cent. speak Russian
also. In the Yeniseisk Government only 12 per cent.
speak the Russian language besides their own.
As to their religion some of them are Mahometans,
namely :
I. Tobolsk Tatars and 'Siberian Bokharians" of the
Tobolsk district.
2. The Baraba Tatars of the Kainsk district.
3. The Tomsk Tatars of the Mariinsk district.
4. The Kuznietsk Tatars of the Kuznietsk and Barnaul
district.
Others are still Shamanists or ' Christian-Shamanists',

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54 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
people who mix their pagan practices with' some of the
Russian Orthodox Church beliefs. Those are :
5. The Forest (Chern) Tatars of the Riisk district.
6. The Teleut and Telengit of the Biisk and Kuznietsk
districts.
7. The Kumandits (or 'White Kalmucks') of the
Kuznietsk and Riisk districts.
8. The Shortes and Lebyedints of the Kuznietsk
district.
g. The Kyzyl and Chulim natives of the Achinsk
district.
10. T h e Abakan Tatars (Kachints, Koibal, Beltir,
and Sagai) of the Minusinsk district.
11. T h e Karagass of the Nijneudinsk district of the
government of Irkutsk.
12. The Kamashints of the Kansk district.
T h e Teleui of the Kuznietsk district are perhaps the
most Russified, while the Telengit, along the rivers
Biya and Katun, are very much mixed with the Mongols.
The following tribes are said to be mixed with the
Ugrian-Ostyak, the Yenisei-Ostyak, and the Samoyed,
though in culture, language, and tradition they are now
Turkic :
I, The Kamashints ; 2, the Karagass ; 3, the Koibal ;
4, the Beltir; 5, the Kyzyl; 6, the Shortes; 7, the
Kumandints.
T h e racial origin of these tribes has been defined,
often superficially, merely judging from the names of
their clans. T h u s the Kyzyl (Kysi, 'man') are com-
posed of ten classes : Kyzyl, Malo-Achin, Bolshe-Achin,
Agy, Bassagar, Kamnar; Argyn, Kalmak, Kurchik,
Shui. Of these, Argyn clan is said to be the remnant
of the Kaizak of the Middle Orda, because those people
have also had a clan of this name. Kalmak clan is also

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 55
found among the Teleut, and Shui among Yenisei
Ostyak, hence the admixture of the two races is attri-
buted to Kyzyl by Kadloff.'
Most of the Siberian Tatars, as well as Northern
Uriankhai, call themselves Tuba, either exclusively or
alongside with their tribal name, Tuba being the name
of one of their clans. This name Tuba, Tubas, Tupo
or Doztbo, like the word Tafar, should be used with
great caution, until its origin and meaning have been
more clearly defined. It seems to have been adopted
by the Chinese as a collective term for the people
living in the Southern Yenisei Region, probably along
, the river of this name, the right tributary of the Yenisei.
The Russian historians of Siberia, Miller %ad Fischer,"
mention the people of Tuba as paying tribute to the
Mongol Altyn Khan, and opposing for a long time
Russian conquest, but it is not clear whether this name
had a racial meaning, designating, e.g., the extinct
Arine, Kottes, &c., or the Samoyed, or was used only
as a geographical term for all peoples living near the
River Tuba. Now at any rate it does not seem to be
limited entirely to the tribes whom one can suspect
of having some Samoyed blood in them, for it is found
among the Altaians, whom even Castren and Kostroff
with all their ' Pan-Samoyedic' theory could not call
' Tatarised Samoyed '. It is found moreover among the
Kaclzints, who, according to Katanoff,' were Kuchum-
Khan people, who moved to the River Kacha, near
Krasnoyarsk, after the defeat of Kuchum, and farther
A. A. Yariloff, The Kyayl and their Industry, 1899, p. I .
a G. F. Miller, Descn)tion of the Tsardom of Sibericr (1750).
' J . E. Fischer, Sibirische Geschichte (1768).
' 'Legends relating to old deeds and old people among the
tribes living near the Sayan Mountains', Mefir. I. R. G. S., vol.
XXXIV, Igog, p. 280.
56 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
south later on. But its distribution is still wider: the
eastern neighbours of the Uriankhai, the Uarkat and
the U$ur, living on the shores of Lake Kossogol, have
a clan called Tuba, though no tribe here uses this name
for itself as a whole. The Darkat now speak a Mon-
golian language, but in tradition they seem to have
more in common with the Turks than with the
Mongols.
The Tuba is not the only clan-name so widely spread ;
there are others, such as Kirghis, Sokka, Oirat Ari,
&c., while some clan-names, such as Kaska among the
Kachints, are peculiar to one tribe. On the whole,
the Siberian Tatars cannot be compared to the Kaizak
with regard to their memory of the tribal and clan past.
Katanoffl found that this lack of tradition seems to
characterize all the Turks known as 'Tatars'. The
Kazan Tatars do not have any written or oral record
relating to the important fact of the fall of Kazan, under
the pressure of Ivan the Terrible, and the Tobolsk
Tatars scarcely have any records giving accounts of
the Tsar Kuchum and his wars with the Russians.
But perhaps the fault rests more with Kuchum's
personality, for it is not so much the events which are
important in history as the personality of heroes that
inspire the oral tradition. Thus a certain hero Kangza,
unknown in history, has very many tales devoted to
him among the Teleut (RadlofT), the Altaians (Vyerbitski),
and the Abakan Tatars (Katanoff).
Of all the Siberian Tatars the most interesting ethno-
logically are the Chem (in Russian) or Black Forest
' Tatars', also known as Alfaians, though the name
Altaians is wider and includes also some other Tatars,
such as the Kumandints. T h e Altaians call themselves
Op.cif., p. 267.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 57
risk Kysi (lish, ' black forest ', .' chern ' ; Kysi, ' men ').
In language and religion they keep free from foreign
admixture, they are therefore typical Turanian Turks.
Their mode of life is sedentary whenever the environ-
ment allows them to practise agriculture. In religion
they are Shamanists.
THE TURKS OF NORTH-WESTERN MONGOLIA AND
EASTERNTURKESTAN. While the Altaians or Chern
' Tatars' occupy the Northern Altai, there lives in the
Southern, so-called Little Altai, along the Black Irtish,
in -Jungaria
- and in Eastern Turkestan, another Turkic
tribe, a rival of the Altaians as representative of the
pure Turanian type. This is the tribe called Kirei,
Kern?, Kewait, or Kirai. The chief distinction between
the Kirei and the Altaians is now a religious one, the
Kirei being Mahometans. W e know that from the
eleventh to the thirteenth centuries they were adherents
of Christianity in the form of Nestorianism, and it is
among them that the fabulous Christian king Prester
John (probably the native king Ouang-Khan, a con-
temporary of Jinghis Khan) is said to have lived. In
mode of life they are at present nomads, and are well
known as hunters.'
The Kirei are sometimes called Kirei-Kkrghis, and
it is possible that in the period from the beginning of
our era till the sixth century, when the Kirghis were
spreading in the basin of the upper Yenisei, one clan,
the Kirei, were left behind, and settled in the Kemchik
valley. Again, when in the seventeenth century the
Yenisei-Kirghis were retiring before the Russian ad-
vance, from the Minusinsk steppes southwards to
and Mongolia, some of them may have settled
D. Carruthers, Unk~ownMongolia, vol. 11, pp. 351-5.
H

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 58 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
among the Kirei, who had meanwhile becoliie to some
extent Mongolized.'
T o the south-west of the Kirei, in Kulja and in the
western part of Chinese Turkestan, on the slopes of
the Tian-Shan, live remnants of various Turanian
Turks, sometimes called Kashgariavzs, many of whom
are perhaps the direct descendants of the old Uigur,
and possibly have also a strain of the pre-Turkic Aryan
. population of which traces are still to be found in
Central Asia. In language, and probably in physical
type, they are among the purest Turanians. Most of
them, especially those who are Chinese subjects, are
Mahometans. They are chiefly cattle-breeders. Such
are the YerZik, the KashgarZik, and the YeiisherZik.
Those subject to Russia number some 54,000 (in 1911).
Since the great upheaval caused by the conquests of
Jinghis Khan, and the migrations which followed, these
people have remained stationary to a degree impossible
anywhere but in the heart of the Asiatic continent, but
it is not in~possiblethat under a helpful and sympathetic
government all of them, whether Russian or Chinese
subjects, might awake to play their part in the future
history of Asia.
The country to the east of the region occupied by
the Chern 'Tatars' or Altaians, and to the south of
that occupied by the Abakan ' Tatars ', i. e. that part
of the Yeniseisk Government between the Sayan Moun-
tains and the Tannu Ola range, is called Uriankhai, and
its ~oo,oooinhabitants are usually grouped together
under the same name, Uriankhai, sometimes in its
Chinese form, Uriangut. The northern part of the
country, along the River Ussa, began to be colonized
While Vambtry and Cahun reckon the Kirei as Turks, Skrine
and Ross reckon them as Mongols. See note to p. 72.

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r I N HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 59
by the Russians in 1856, and was practically annexed
by them in 1886. The whole country became almost
independent of China after Mongolia declared its inde-
pendence in 1914, and the old Russian Government,
intending to occupy this rich pasture land, had begun
to colonize it energetically. This aroused some opposi-
I
tion among the natives, who, having scarcely felt their
dependence on China, were not prepared to give up
their best lands to the Russian Colonization Committee.
Many Uriankhai have for the last three years been
moving in clan order, with all their herds, into the
steppes of Northern Mongolia. This is, in fact, the
most recent en masse migration in Central Asia. It
has ceased, however, since the Russian Revolution,
owing to the influence exercised by Siberian scholars
and public men, such as G. Potanin and A. Adrian06
in the protection of the rights of the natives.'
The Uriankhai are sometimes called Soyod (sing.
Soyan, from the clan-name Saya). But it is not certain
whether this name ought to be applied to all of them.
The name by which they call themselves in the North
is Tuba.
According to the East Turkic scholar Katanoff, the
language of the Uriankhai is Turko-Tatar? but of
course they are now mixed to a great extent with the
Mongols. It must be remembered that Castren and
some of his followers are inclined to see in the Uriankhai
members of the original Samoyed-Yeniseian race, who
mixed with the Turks and adopted a Turkic language."
See articles in Sibirskaya Jisn, Feb. 26, 1916, May 3, 1917.
' E. K. Yakovleff, Ethnographical Survey of the Native Population
of the Val@ of Sotrfhwn Yenisei, Minusinsk, 1900, p. 18.
M. A. Castren, Nordische Reisen und Forschungen, vol. IV,
pp. 83-6; D. Carruthers, op. a?.,vol. I, pp. zo,52-5,200 ; vol. V,
pp. 11617.

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60 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
That at one time a Samoyed group might have migrated
to the Soyot (Uriankhai) is not out of the question,
since many clan-names of the Samoyed and the Urian-
khai are alike. But no other signs of this relationship
can be found now, and the southernmost Turks, who
may have been originally Samoyed, are the Kamashints,
some of whom, at the time of CastrCn's travels (1840- -
50)) were speaking a Samoyedic dialect. When Radloff
visited them, however (about 1865)~all signs of Samo-
yedic speech had disappeared, and only a Turkic dialect
was in use.
Radloff thinks that the Uriankhai are the forefathers
of the present YakutI1 which, however, sounds im-
probable, if only because the Uriankhai are almost the
most successful reindeer-breeders known, whilst the
Yakut learnt that art only after 'their migration to
the north.
The number of the Uriankhai is some ~oo,ooo. Until
recently they formed one aimak or province of China.
They are subdivided into nine local groups (khodzun
or kopun), which again are divided into sumo or tribes.
The sumo is further subdivided into, sok, clans, or
perhaps moieties. T h e clan-names are mostly of Turkic
origin, many of them being found also among other,
Turanian Turks, e. g. Irgit, Soyan, Kirghis, Kaizak,
Koeluk, Uigur, &c.
T h e Uriankhai living in the steppe country are mostly
cattle-breeders; some of them, however, depend chiefly
on hunting and fishing. It is only in this region that
we find the breeding of horse, yak, and reindeer for
RadlofT, Die Jakutische Sprache', Bull. I.A.S., 1908,pp. 54-6.
For opposite opinion see I. P. Silinich, 'On the question of the
physical type of the population of North-west Sibeiia', Russ.
Anthr. J., Nos. 3-4, 1916, pp. 51-3.

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r
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I N HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY
draught purposes carried on together, and in a way
61

it characterizes the Uriankhai, for they seem to combine

the traits of the Mongol horse-nomads, the Turkic
hunters and cattle-breeders, and the Tungus reindeer-
breeders.
History.
L
The history of the Turks in Central Asia falls roughly
into the following periods :
I
I. From the first vague mention of' them in the
Chine~e~annals of the Tang and Yu dynasties
(2356-2200B.c.), and the no less vague mention
in the ~ v e s t a(if it is right to identify 'Tura'
with Turks), to the middle of the sixth century
A. D., when the name Tu-kiu (Turks) appears for
the fir'jt time.
11. From the rise of the Tu-kiu, through the period
- of rapid independent development, to the Mon-
golian invasion in the thirteenth century.
111. From the thirteenth century through the period
of' the great migrations started by the Jinghis
Khan conquests, and of the still independent
Turkic states under Mongolian dynasties, to the
beginning (of the Russian advance in the seven-
teenth century.
IV. From the seventeenth century, through the period
of the wars with Russia and of subsequent
Russian rule, to the Russian Revolution of 1917.
First Period. T h e probable ancestors of the Turks
lived to the north of China, and were mentioned by the
, ,-
Chinese chroniclers as long ago as the third millennium
I B.C. on account of their raids on China, but of course
scarcely any mention is made by the Chinese of the
Turks living to the far north and far west of China.
 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
The first name now identified as that of the ancestors
of the Turks is H i u n g - n u . According to Professor
Parker,' there exists ' a Hiung-nu tradition that about
1200 B.C. a (Chinese) royal personage who had most
probably been misconducting himself fled to the nomads
of the north and founded among them a sort of
dynasty'. The Chinese are concerned with their
neighbours on the north-west, the Hiung-nu, and on
the north-east, the Tung-hu (subsequentlyTungus), only
so far as these barbarians annoyed them. T h e Emperors
of the Tsin dynasty (255--2og B. c.) built the Great Wall
to protect their northern frontiers, and this directed
the strategic movements of the Hiung-nu in the second
century B. C. towards the west. It is possible that some
branches of them may have migrated westwards before
the construction of the Great Wall, and then continued
to develop quietly in their new home, otherwise it is
hard to understand the high degree of organized culture
in which we find them in the Altai and Yenisei region
about 200 B. c.,2 when we hear that the Kirghis and the
Usuni were already there, and had found some remnants
of still earlier Turkic immigrants. They may possibly
have been in possession of this region already in the
Bronze Age, unless, of course, we assume the inde.
pendent origin of the Altai and Yenisei Turks, and take

E. H. Parker, A Thousand Years of the Tartars, 1895, p. 3.

Another Chinese translator, Father Jakinth Bichurin, gives a
different version of the origin of the Hiung-nu dynasty : Shun-wei,
son of the last emperor of the Hia dynasty, went in 1764 B. c. to
Mongolia, and there started the Hiung-nu dynasty. Bichurin
considers the Hiung-nu to be Mongols. (Collecfion of Information
concwning Peoples living in Central Asia, 1851, vol. I.)
N. A. AristolT, Affempt at an Explanation of the Ethnic Com-
position, &c., p. 460.

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IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY

-- - 63
: Hiung-nu as representing a stage when the
ere not yet differentiated from

fined stage is that of the Hun-nu

rm derived from Hiung-nu), which
ination most of the Turkic tribes

i
Central Asia. The reign of Met6 (209-179 B.c.)
>msto mark the climax of their power in Asia. The
information gathered from the Chinese annals gives us
the geographical distribution of the Turks of that time,
who were divided into two hostile groups, Western and
Eastern, both subject to Mete. The Eastern Turks
'
were composed of the Uigur, between Tannu Ola and
the Yellow River, and between the Tian-Shan and the
basin of the Tarim. T o the north of them lived the
Din-lin (Telengit?), near Tannu Ola. The Kirghis
(Khakas) lived along the Yenisei, and the Karluk and
Tu-kiu in the Altai, and as far south as Tarbagatai.
The Western Turks comprised the Usun (Usuni),
who lived to the south of Lake Balkash; the Kangli
(Kan-giu), farther west as far as Amu Daria; the
Yue-Chi,' still farther to the south-west as far as the

I Caspian Sea; and the Yao-Chi, to the north of the last-

named.
The Usun power in the western part of Turan
((rivers Ili and Chu) dates chiefly from the end of the
{second century B. C. to the first century A. D. Since
I they found on their arrival the Kangli (Kan-giu) Turks
settled in the Tian-Shan, it was with them that they
I struggled for the predominance, and both sides called
(for help either to the Chinese or to the H ~ n - n u . But
~
64 THE T U R K S OF C E N T R A L ASIA
when both of them were subdued by the ~ u n - n utheir
,
two tribes intermingled, and a part of them migrated to
the northern outskirts of their territory, to escape the
despotic rule of their conquerors, the Hun-nu. It is
possible to look upon these groups as the earliest
Kaizak organization, later imitated by the Cossacks.
All these probably Turkic tribes, and many remnants
of 'Aryan' peoples and states in Central Asia, were
under the rule of MCtC,' who divided his empire into
twenty-four parts, governed by six princes and six
administrators. Within each part a strictly military
organization prevailed, with units of 10,IOO, 1000, and
10,000 men.
Nineteen of these twenty-four groups were composed
of Uigur. Ten of them formed a confederation called
On-Uigur, and nine another confederation called Togus-
Uigur. The latter lived to the north of the On-Uigur.
Professor Radloff thinks that as the bulk of the Hun-nu
Empire was composed of On-Uigur, it is possible that
the name Hun-nu is only a corrupt form of On-Uigur,
On-Uia
The Chinese feared the power of the Hun-nu so
much that about the middle of the second century B. c.
they tried to make a defensive alliance with the Yiie-
Chi, who, at the end of the pre-Christian era and the
beginning of our own, formed one of the most powerful
empires of Central Asia. Though that attempt failed,
we hear that the Hun-nu, after having defeated the

Though Professor Radloff reckoned the YUe-Chi as a Turkic

tribe, it is more probable that they were a Tung-hu tribe sur-
rounded by Turkic people, with whom the Chinese confused
them. They are later known as Kushan.
Radloff, of. n't., p. 127.

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 IN HISTORY AND AT P R E S E N T DAY 65
Wusun (Usuni) near Ili in 176 B.c., and the Yiie-Chi
near the Tarim valley, were subsequently conquered by
the Yi.ie-Chi at the end of the first century B.c., and
that in the same century a Hun-nu prince submitted
to China.'
Subsequently the eastern half of the Hun-nu Empire
was divided into northern and southern parts, both of
which had finally fallen by A. D. 215. T h e downfall of
the Hun-nu Empire was thus due to the combined
efforts of the Chinese and the Tung-hu, and indeed
a Tung-hu power (Sien-pi, Toba, and Moyun) was then
arising between China and the Turks.
It would seem as if the Hun-nu, their power in Asia
ruined by all these defeats, migrated westwards in the
second and third centuries, particularly the On-Uigur
branch of them. Taking these to be the Huns who
terrified Europe in the fifth century, we know that in
A. D. 275 they were on the Volga, afterwards advancing
farther west. At the same time another stream of the
Hun-nu directed its course towards Transoxania, where
1 they were known as the White Huns of Ephthalites.
From there they successfully advanced on Persia and
India, until in A. D. 528 their movement was checked by
a confederation of Hindu princes.
Some of the tribes who entered into the composition
of the Hun-nu Empire of Mdte, and already at. that
period had a marked individuality, were the Khakas,
later called Kirghis, and the Kiao-Che (' High-Carts '),
I later called Uigur. The Chinese historians say that
the Kirghis and the Uigur (both of whom they call

I
eometimes Tingling, sometimes Kankalis) use the same
8. Chavannes, Les Documents chi~oisdkmwverts par Aurel
Sfeirt dnns les snbles dn Turkestan orieiztnl, Oxford, 1913,p. vii.
9103 I

A
66 THE T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
language, and Professor Parker makes the suggestion
that all the ?art-using people of Hiung-nu origin north
of the desert region of Issyk-Kul and Syr Daria were
once called Ting-ling?
How far the other tribes of Central Asia prominent
towards the end of the pre-Christian era, for instance
the Saka, were related to the Hun-nu it is difficult to
ascertain, but in any case the 'Aryan1 population of
West Central Asia must have been considerably long
after the Graeco-Bactrian kingdoms were destroyed
by the Yile-Chi. T h e lack of information about the
linguistic affinities of these people makes it difficult to
define them in the very early centuries of our era. It
is known, for instance, that the Hun-nu used the Turkic
language in the fourth century A. D . , ~but whether it was
their original language is not clear.
W e hear that the Usuni (Wusun) of Ili and Balkash,
and the Khakas (later Kirghis), were fair-haired and
blue-eyed. This may be explained either by their
contact with some 'Aryan' people, or by attributing
to them an ' Aryan ' origin. In 95 B. c. the Chinese
said that the Khakas lived in the regions of the Kem
and the upper Yenisei. Then again in the third century
A. D. we hear about the 'blond Kirghis' (Kien-kun) as
being very powerful and providing 20,ooo men in time
of war.s Of course, we have no proof that the fair
Khakas of that time, and their kin the Uigur, were
Turkic-speaking people, except that some names of
objects and of the months mentioned by the Chinese
Parker, op. cit., p. 265.
a Barthold, review of Aristoff's Attempt at an Explanation of the
Ethnic Cmposifion,&c., p. 343.
0.Donner, ' Sur l'origine de l'alphabet turc du Nord de 1'Asie ',
J. Soc. Fin.-Oargr., Helsingfors, 1896, XIV, p. 70.

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I
I N HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 67
Iin connexion with the Khakas are in a Turkic language?
After the ninth century the Chinese no longer speak
of them as Khakas, but as Kili-ki-dze,which, according
to Klements, is a Chinese pronunciation of the name
Kirghis. The time of the greatest development of the
Kirghis belongs to the seventh to ninth centuries, i. e.
to the second period of Turkic history.
1 The Uigur are first heard of about the second century
B. c., and the Chinese had constant relations with them
from that time till the sixteenth century, so that the
history of the Uigur runs through all the first three
periods of Turkic history. But as the evolution of this
important tribe is an essential part of the history of
the Turks in Central Asia it will be useful to give here
a consecutive. account of them in some detail.
The Uigur were known to the Chinese under the
names Hao-Hui, Kao-Che, Kan-Hui, Vei-He, U-He,
U-Hu, Hon-He, and Hu. It was through the various
Asiatic transliterations of the name Uigur that European
writers came across it. The first mention of it is found
in P t ~ l e m y . ~In its present form the name seems first
I to have been used in the Mahometan histories at the
beginning of the thirteenth ~ e n t u r y . ~Rashid al-Din
1 says that in his time the name Uigur was applied to
a large group of Turkic tribes living between the
sources of the Yenisei and the Selenga. But after
this, in fact until the seventeenth century, most of the
I
Eastern Turks were known under this name.
1 While most Turkic scholars, such as Rashid al-Din,

N. N. Kosmin, D. A. Klements andHktori'calandEthnographical

Researc/g ivt the Minusillsk County, Irkutsk, 1916, p. 7.
' Serica, Liber IV, p. 16,3.
Skrine and Ross, op. cit., p. 96.
68 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
Abul Ghazi, Kasem Beg, Vambtry, la broth, and
Schott, derive the name Uigur from a Turkic root,
J. I. Schmidt refers it to the Mongolian language, and
places the origin of the Uigur people in Tibet.' If we
accept Professor RadloffJs view that the bulk of the
~ u n - - n u or
, rather the southern branch of them, were
the On-Uigur, then we know that most of them moved
towards the west along the steppes lying north of Tian-
Shan. But the people who played their part in the
history of Central Asia were those of the On-Uigur
who remained behind in Eastern Turkestan, especially
in the basin of the Tarim, and the Togus-Uigur in the
northern part of the present Mongolia. That branch
of them who were already established near the Aral
Sea in the second century A. D. are often called by their
neighbours simply On or Onlar ('Ten '),a Later, when
after the death of Attila the Hunnic Empire broke into
separate tribes, they again assumed their tribal names,
viz. On-Uigur, Utigur, Sary-Uigur, Kotrigur, while the
name Hun almost disappears. Of these tribes, the On-
Uigur are known to have been in the north of the
Caucasus in the seventh century, on their way back
to Asia?
It is difficult to follow the exact fate of these remnants
of the Hun-nu Empire. Presumably a part of them
settled among the Finnic tribes of the steppe forest
near the Urals, but there is so far very little proof in
support of the somewhat vague assumption that the
1 Fmschungen auf dew Geliiete der Yolk# Mittelasiens, St. Peters-
burg, 1824,P. 95.
9 Among the Turks a confederation of tribes very often has as

its name the number of the tribes composing it, e.g. Uz, 100,
probably the same as Ghuz. Radloff, op. at., p. 128.
Radloff, op. Eit., p. 128.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 69
powerful Finnic state of U p , which in the tenth and
eleventh centuries stretched between the Volga and the
Urals, owes its name to the Uigur.
Of the Uigur who stayed in Asia, i. e. the Togus
Uigur, we know that in the fifth century they emanci-
pated themselves from the power of the Jwen-Jwen,
and created an independent state called by the Chinese
Hao-fu. At the time of the hegemony of the Tu-kiu
the Uigur also were subdued to them. When in turn
the leading r61e among the Turks of Central Asia
passed to the Uigur dynasty (A. D. 74.4-847), the name
of the state was again Togus-Uigur ('Nine Tribes1),
though it was composed of more than that number of
tribes. The capital of the Khagan of the Togus-Uigur
was Karakorum on the River Orkhon. Some fourteen
Khagans ruled during the period of Uigur power.
When, in consequence of the intrigues of the Chinese
with the other Turkic tribes, the Uigur dynasty and
political power were undermined and finally overthrown
at the hands of the Kirghis (A. D. 847), the Uigur culture,
which was of a high order, still flourished in Western
China, Eastern Turkestan, and the district of Hami.
It was in that district that the later Uigur state, under
the dynasty of the Arslan Khans, continued its exist-
ence, and curiously enough it enjoyed an independent
and influential position, since its civilization spread
among the nomadic Mongols, and even in Transoxania.
This position the Uigur owed solely to their great
ability, and to their sedentary agricultural mode of life,
which raised them, as it did the Yenisei Kirghis, above
their nomadic neighbours. They came under the in-
fluence of Buddhism, of Christianity, and later on of
Islam. In the western part of the Uigur country

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70 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
a new political power, that of the Islamic Uigur dynasty
of Ilek Khan, arose, and its domination spread as far
as Bokhara. But the advance of the Kara-Kidan once
more overthrew the power of the Uigur, who were
obliged to recognize the suzerainty of the Kara-Kidan.
These in their turn succumbed before Jinghis Khan.
Yet even in the times of the Mongolic rule of Jinghis
Khan the Uigur culture did not fail to make itself felt,
-

and still later it was able to produce the well-known

Nestorian patriarchs, Rabban Cauma and Jaba1aha.l
Second period. It is not easy to trace the history
of any other Turkic tribe with the same continuity.
Turning to the Tu-kiu, with whom begins the second
period of the history of the Turks in Central Asia, we
meet with them first about A. D. 550, at the time when
the Sassanides were reigning in Persia, when we find
them living, under the name of Assena, between the
Altai and the Syr Daria.
Professor Parker derives the word Tu-kiu from the
Turkic word durko, meaning ' helmet ', from the shape
of the mountain to which the Turkic tribe of Assena
migrated to escape from the despotic rule of the Sien-pi '

(Tung-hu). They seem, however, not to have been

independent even there, since they had to serve the
then powerful Jwen-Jwen as workers in iron.2 They
J. B. Chabot, Histoire du Patriarche Mar ]abalaha ZII et du
Moine Rabban Cauma, traduite du Syriaque, 1893, vol. I, p. 578.
a The Jwen-Jwen (Zhu-Zhu) are possibly the ancestors of the
Avars, who appeared in Europe in the sixth century, and forming
a wedge between the Eastern and Western Slavs, soon amalga-
mated with them. Blochet identifies the name Jwen-Jwen with
Ib-Ib, Ibim, Ibil, Ibir, from which he derives Sybir, Siberia, and
he believes the Jwen-Jwen to be of Tungus stock, and identical
with the Sien-pi ('Le Nom des Turcs dans 1'AvestaV,J.RA.S..
19159 P. 305).

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 r IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY

adopted the name of the mountain Durk6 as a tribal

name.
71

There seems to be some confusion as to the geo-

graphical position of the mountain thus connected with
the rise of the D u r k ~ ,Tu-kiu, or Turks. Professor
Parker1 places it not far from the city of Shan-tan in
I
the modern province of Kan-su, which in the sixth
century was called Kin-shan, i. e. ' Golden Mountains'.
But the birthplace of the Turks is usually held to be
the Altai Mountains, which are also called Kin-shan.
Since when we first hear of the Turks they are expert
metaliworkers, it would seem that the Altai, with its
incomparable mineral wealth, is more likely to be the
Kin-shan of the Chinese sources. All modern archaeo-
logical and ethnological investigations support this view.
At the end of the fifth century the Tu-kiu became
very prosperous, probably thanks to their metal industry
and the richness of the mountains near which they
settled, and in A. D. 530 their prince Tumen (Tumin)
threw off the yoke of the Jwen-Jwen and soon sub-
jugated all the Turkic states of Central Asia to himself,
adopting the title of Il-Khagan.2 For a short time-
Parker, op. d.,p. 178.
9 It would seem that the title Khagan (Khan), usually so closely
associated with the Turks, and occurring in the Turkic inscriptions
of the Orkhon, is not Turkic, but Tungus. But this hypothesis of
Blochet holds good only if it be assumed that the Jwen-Jwen were
Tungus, and that Tumen used their title after taking the hegemony
in Central Asia from them. T h e title used by the chiefs of the
Huns was Chab-gu, and at the time when the Huns were at the
height of their power the chiefs of the Jwen-Jwen Tungus adopted
the title Chab-gu, until at the beginning of the fifth century they
were strong enough to impose on other people their own title of
Khagan, which was taken up by Tuimien in 552 (Blochet, op. nf.,
P*305).
72 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
from the middle of the sixth to the middle of the
seventh centuries-the Turks of Central Asia were
again united and independent, as at the time of Mete.
Soon, however, the eastern part of the empire passed
under Chinese domination. Then it again became in-
dependent under the Uigur dynasty (A. D. 744-847).
T h e western part of the Tumen Empire escaped the
domination of the Chinese only to fall under Arabian
influence, and subsequently under the intelIectua1
supremacy of Iran, during the renaissance of Iranian
culture under the dynasty of the Samanides in the
tenth century. Thus the splendour of Transoxania at
that time was obviously the work of the Persians, not
of the Turks, who must be judged rather by the civili-
zation of the Eastern Empires. It was from these
Eastern Empires that the main migrations of the Turks
of that epoch originated.
From the tenth to the thirteenth centuries the Turks
under Karluk and Seljuk advanced into Turkestan,
increasing the Turkic population there and destroying
the Iranian culture. Some of them pushed on farther
towards Asia Minor, while others followed a northern
route via the Caspian and Black Sea steppes.
Four main groups of Turkic invaders of Southern
Russia can be distinguished between the ninth and the
thirteenth centuries : the Pyechenyeg or Kangli, the
Khazar (possibly the plural of Khazak, Kaizak), the Uz
(Ghuz) or Turki, and the Kuman (Kipchak) or P o l o v t ~ y . ~
A. Vambery identifies the people of Karluk with the tribe of
Naiman, and says that they were Turks (op. nl., p. IS). Cahun
would also class the tribe of Naiman, as well as the other Christian
tribe, the Kirei, as Turks (op. cit., pp. m8-g), while Skrine and
Ross class both Kirei and Naiman as Mongols (op. cit., p. 152).
a P. Golubowski, op. n't., p. 56. See p. 46.

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 I N HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 73
When the Khazar appeared in Eastern Europe at the
end of the ninth century they pushed the Pyechenyeg,
who had already been there for about half a century,
towards the west. Again, the Pyechenyeg, as they
were forced westwards, drove before them', into the
Danube region, the Magyars, the Asiatic people who
preceded the Pyechenyeg in their .westward migration.
The Kirghis appear again in this second period.
During the supremacy of the Karluk (from the middle
of the eighth to the middle of the twelfth centuries)
they occupied the country stretching from the9Yenisei
to the westernmost part of Tian-Shan. Here they
developed almost independently of the Karluk. When
in the twelfth century the Kara-Kidan extended their
power over Tian-Shan, they had great trouble in sub-
jugating the Kirghis.
Thid Period. A new era in the history of the
Turks begins with the Jinghis Khan invasions at the
very beginning of the thirteenth century. It is still
a disputed point whether the Jinghis Khan invasions
can be called Mongol, or whether they were largely
Turkic, but carried out under the military supremacy
of a handful of Mongolian steppe nomads. It began,
as Professor Parker says, 'in the humblest way, grew
as it rolled over the plains like a huge snowball,
absorbing almost everything in its way'.'
Until then the main struggles of China had been
with the two neighbouring races, the Hiung-nu and the
Tung-hu, and it is somewhat obscure what position
the Mongols occupied towards these races. One thing
is certain, however, that culturally the Mongols were
the most backward people, since the Tung-hu were
Parker, op. n'f., p. 303.
1101 K

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74 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
always influenced by Chinese civilization and the
Hiung-nu by Chinese plus Iranian.' This will explain
why Jinghis Khan himself and all his dynasty were
under obligations to Turkic culture. W e hear that
Jinghis Khan had as preceptor'for his sons a Uigur
Turk named Tatatungo,= and in the religious and
cultural toleration he is known to have shown to the
conquered countries the preference was given to the
Turks. Two Turkic sovereigns contemporary with
Jinghis Khan, Ouang Khan ('Prester John') of the
Kirei and Tai-Yang-Khan of the Nalman, were devoted
Nestorian Christians.
Thanks to the researches of Rashid al-Din, it is
Such would be the view obtained from a s independent a
standpoint as possible. It must be remembered, however, that
Mongolian scholars would be ready to find a much larger Mongol
element present in pre-Jinghis Khan times, and would attribute
the Jinghis Khan conquests to the genius of the Mongolic race.
There are tribes, such as the ancient 'TatarsY-some of them,
namely the Otui and Tokus 'Tatars', mentioned in the inscriptions
of Bilghe Khan in the Orkhon valley as dependent on Turkic ela
(confederacy)-whom Mongolian scholars such as Father Jakinth
Bichurin would reckon with the Mongols, while the Turkic
scholar N. A. Aristoff reckons them with the Turks. And if a
Tungus scholar cared to trace the origin of the name Tatar (a sub-
division of Tatan) in the Chinese annals as translated by Bichurin,
he would find that the name Tatan was adopted in the ninth
century by a branch of the Mo-ho (Mokho) who were descendants
of Sushen and Ilu, now recognized a s being of Tungus race. In
the twelfth century the Tatan confederacy was composed of
Mongol, Khere, Taigut, and Tatar tribes. Bichurin gives Jinghis
Khan as one of the four princes belonging to it. (W. Thomsen,
' On the Orkhon and Yenisei Monuments with Inscriptions ',
J. Min. Educ., June, 1898; J. Bichurin, Notes on Mongolia, vol. 11,
pt. iii, pp. 174-7 ; N. A. Aristoff, ' Notes on the Ethnic Composition
of the Turkic Tribes and Nations', L.A. T., 1896, I11 and IV,
PP. 277-456.) ,
Skrine and Ross, op. cit., p. 155.
 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 75
possible to obtain a clear idea of the tribes inhabiting
Central Asia in his time. From his knowledge of them,
and the information he collected, he divides them into
three groups : (I) the Ogus Turks and their kindred, of
I
purely Turkic blood; (2) the tribes which were taken
for Mongols in the thirteenth century, but who were
in fact Mongolized Turks; (3) the tribes of purely
Mongol blood, who lived on the eastern and northern
outskirts of the Turkic lands? Hence the tribes called
pure Turks by Rashid al-Din probably inhabited the
lands which are known to have recovered their Turkic
features after the death of Jinghis Khan.
Of the states that arose after the death of Jinghis
Khan in 1227 the most Turkic were the Middle Empire
(Eastern and Western Turkestan), ruled over by his son
Jagatai and his descendants, and ~ a s h t - i - ~ i ~ c hi.ae.
k,
the country of the lower Volga, the North Caspian
Steppes, the Aral Steppes, and Western Siberia, ruled
over by another son, Juji, and his descendants.
Turkic in feeling and in culture as were Jagatai and
his line, they were succeeded in 1360 by Timur, a chief
of Moghulistan, purely Turkic in blood as in sympathies,
who founded the brilliant Timurid dynasty.-The
annals of this house were rendered illustrious by the
names of poets, philosophers, and theologians which are
still household words throughout the E a ~ t . ' ~Among
its famous members was the great general, philosopher,
and writer Mirza Baber, whose Memoirs still remain
as a monument in the Jagatai language?
Radloff, Concerning the U@r, p. I .
L. Cahun (of. a't.)takes Timur to be a descendant of Jagatai.
Skrine and Ross, op. cit., p. I&.
See p. 27.
76 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
The splendour of the Timurids was checked by the
advance of the Kaizak-Usbegs at the end of the fifteenth
and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. These
brought new blood, partly Turanian, partly Mongol;
into a region which was becoming Iranized. The
Usbegs,who claimed descent from Jinghis Khan through
his son Juji, appeared in Transoxania about the time
when the Turko-Tatars were losing their dominion
over Muscovite Russia, forming, as it were, a returning
wave of Turks, whose three hundred years of mastery
in Eastern Europe proved a failure, in that they neither
entirely subdued their Russian foes, nor entirely
assimilated themselves with them.
T h e history of the Usbegs in ~ransoxaniais the
history of three separate Khanates, those of Bokhara,
Khiva, and Kokand, for the Usbeg conquerors were
never strong enough to form an empire equal to that
of the Timurids or of Jinghis Khan, or perhaps had not
enough of the spirit of unity and the power of organiza-
tion so strongly developed among the Timurids to
achieve such a task.
The Turks of the Altai and Western Siberia, who
had succumbed to the power of Jinghis Khan after but
slight resistance, became independent after the fall of
the Golden Horde. Their western branch started an
independent state along the River Ishim. In the middle
of the fourteenth century they divided into two, one
with its capital at Chingi-Tura (now Tiumien), and later
at Isker (Sybir), and the other along the River Ishim.
In the fifteenth century Khan Kuchum moved with his
Kaizak from the Aral-Caspian steppes and overran
both empires, creating a great Siberian Khanate from
the Urals to the left tributaries of the Ob. In 1583

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A
 I N HISTORY AND AT PRESENT DAY
his capital Isker fell into the hands of the Cossacks
under Yermak.
Another Turkic state, which had also become inde-
pendent after the death of Jinghis Khan, offered more
resistance to the Russians than did the Khanate of
Kuchum. This was a state of the Kirghis, or rather
a confederacy of four states: including among its
kyshtylszy (subjects, slaves) many Finnic and Samoyedic
peoples.
Very little is heard of the Kirghis from the thirteenth
to the fifteenth century. They appear again in the
fifteenth century at the time of the fall of the Jagatai
dynasty, when it is recorded that the Kaizak population
was enlarged by new additions from the Kangli and
Kipchak tribes. In the seventeenth century the Kirghis,
emancipated from the rule of the Jagatai, were employ-
t ing the Kaizak in their fights against the Mongol
Kalmuck. It was probably then that t h e - ~ i r ~ handis
the Kaizak began to intermix, and as the result of this
struggle with the Kalmuck part of the Kirghis and the
Kaizak migrated to Ferghana.
At the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the
seventeenth centuries the Kirghis state on the Yenisei,
though its position was not to be compared with what
it was in the most flourishing period from the seventh
to the tenth centuries, still carried on the tradition of
the old Khakas, and was an agricultural state, highly
organized politically, if not strong in a military sense.
The first Russians to invade the Kirghis state in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, namely thecossacks
from Tomsk, made a distinction between these Kirghis
The four states were Altir, Altisar, Isar, and Tuba or Tubiu.
(N. N. Kosrnin, op. cil., pp. 14-21. See also Historical Documenks,
m~erialArchaeological Commission.)

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78 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
and the Kaizak whom they came across in their conquest
of the Kuchum Khanate? It was only subsequently
that the Kaizak were named by the Russians Kirghis-
Kaizak, and that the Kirgliis of Yenisei, after their
migration southwards before the Russian advance,
became known as the Burut-Kirghis and the Kara-
Kirghis.
Fourfh Period. T h e fourth and last epoch in the
history of the Turks in Central Asia begins with the
Russian conquest of a more regular character than
the exploits of the Volga Cossacks. In the north it
began with the foundation of Tomsk (1604) on land
wrung from the Kuchum Khanate, and it ended in 1647
with the foundation of Okhotsk on the Pacific. In the
south the first milestone of the Russian advance was
the destruction .of the Khanate of Kazan in 1552; the
Khanate of Astrakhan shared its fate in 1556. For
a moment the Russian success was checked by the
rising of the Yaik Cossacks, to whose efforts the pre-
vious advance was largely due. After the suppression
of their rising these Cossacks, renamed the Ural
Cossacks, again became a Russian weapon, moving
against the Kaizak and the Turkic tribes of the steppes.
Although the Kaizak were nominally subjugated in I 734
they were not really conquered until Russia became
master of Turkestan, and there was a great rising
against Russia in 1840, when Kenissari, the Sultan of
the Great Orda, made another attempt to unite the
Kaizak into one great independent nation. In 1864
the Russians succeeded in encircling the Kaizak terri-
tories with a line of military defences, thus cutting them
See M. A. Czaplicka, 'The Evolution of the Cossack Com-
munities ' , J .Cenfr.As. S.,May, 1918.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 79
off from the other Central Asiatic powers, just as in
the eighteenth century they succeeded in encircling the
Finno-Turkic nation of the Bashkir between the Volga
and the Urals.
The first Turkic intellectual centre to fall into Russian
hands was Tashkent in 1865, and three years later the
capital of the Iranian Turks, Samarkand (known to
the Greeks as Marakanda, and captured by Alexander
the Great in the fourth century B.c.), lost its inde-
pendence. This decided the fate of Bokhara, which
became a dependent state, and a little later, in 1875,
Khiva succumbed also. The Khanate of Kokand, con-
quered in 1875, was renamed the Ferghana Territory.
The next tribe to be subdued was the Turkomans,
whose courageous and obstinate defence was broken
by the fall of Gheok-Tepe in 1881. In 1895 the eastern
boundary of Russian territory was fixed at the Pamir.
The Central Asiatic territories were never colonized
to the same extent as Siberia, or even the Caspian
Steppe country; they might be called dependencies
rather than colonies. Economically during the last two
decades these provinces have begun to increase their
output of cotton, fruit, and other local products, but
intellectually the Iranian Turks have vegetated in the
antiquated remnants of the Arabo-Persian civilizations,
influenced gradually by the slow, heavy progress of
Russian culture. The Turanian Turks, in much greater
political subjection than the Iranian, and economically
entirely dependent on Russian colonization, have kept
their primitive culture from spurious elements, either
Arabo-Persian or Chinese, but they are, of all the
Turks, the most amenable to the influence of Russian
peasant life.
80 THE T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
-
Archaeology.
Special attention is now being given by scholars to
the archaeological remains of Turan, especially to those
of Southern Siberia and Northern Mongolia. Although
it is only recently that organized investigations have
been carried out, they were already known to the early
Russian travellers, for some mention of them is made
by Witsen, who visited this region in 1692, while the
next traveller, Dr. Messerschmidt (1720)~speaks of the
existence among the Russian settlers of the 'industry'
of plundering the old graves for the sake of the iron,
bronze, and particularly gold objects found in them.
The men engaged in this, called bugrovshchiki, would
organize parties of between two and three hundred, and
start on their expedition in the ' season of the hunter ', '
i. e. in the spring, and return with their pluhder in the
autumn, living during the winter on the proceeds.
The fame of this old metal-work reached Peter the
Great-the same emperor who, as the legend runs,
used to summon Siberian shamans to his court. H e
issued a Ukaz prohibiting plundering, and ordered the
local officials to purchase such objects. Though a
certain number of them have thus been saved for
.European museums, plundering had not ceased even
in the summer of 1915, when the author saw old bronze
and iron in common use among the Russian settlers.
The early travellers give merely descriptive accounts,
and archaeological investigations did not begin until
the nineteenth century. Among those whose energies
have been thus employed are such earnest workers
as RadlofF, Aspelin, Klements, Yadrintseff, Adrian06
Tallgren, and Griin6.
 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 81
T o pass now to a short review of these antiquities.
Though they consist chiefly of metal cultures, some
mention must be made of the pre-metal remains.
There are remnants of Stone Age stations along the
southern Yenisei and its tributaries, between Krasno-
yarsk and Minusinsk, but nearer to Krasnoyarsk than
to Minusinsk. According to Adrianoffl they may be
ascribed to the Neolithic period, but another Russian
scholar, Savyenkoff, would place them in the Palaeo-
lithic period.' It seems, however, fairly certain that
although some of the implements found by Savyenkoff
in Bazaikha, on Mount Afontova near Krasnoyarsk,
and in other places, may be of Palaeolithic type (ac-
cording to the catalogue of the Peter the Great Museum
in Petrograd they are of Mousterian and Aurignacian
types), the stations are more accurately described as
Neolithic. Many of them might be called kitchen-
middens. In any case the Stone Age remains lie
outside the scope of this essay, though stone implements
have been found together with the bronze, copper, and
gold objects of the succeeding age, and even with
objects of the Iron Age.
Burial-mounds, called kurgans, are spread in hundreds
and thousands from the River Irtish to the River
Orkhon. Judging from the objects found in these
kurgans they belong either to the Bronze or to the
Iron Age. Connected with the kurgans are the stone
figures called by the Russians baby (sing. baba), and
by the Turkic natives kqyotash, and also the stone

A. V. Adrianoff, Sketches of the Minusins& Country, 1904.

I. T. Savyenkoff, The Stone Age in fhe Minusinsk Country, 18g6,
and The Palaeolithic Epoch in the Neighbourhood of Krasnoyarsk,
1892
¶1M L

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82 THE T U R K S O F CENTRAL A
memorial tablets covered with inscriptions2in the Old
Turkic language, called Uigur, many of which have
now been deciphered. Independently of these inscrip-
tions, there are on the cliffs and rocks of this region
traces of pictographic writings, so far uninterpreted?
Russian investigators call the Old Turkic characters
' runic inscriptions ', and the pictographs pisanitsy. In
addition to all this, there are remnants of irrigation
canals, copper-mines, and fortresses, these last called
by the natives shibe.
Generally speaking, all these antiquities of the Metal
Ages, known by the Russians under the vague appella-
tions of 'Chud' or 'Tuba' remains, fall into two
groups :
I. Remains of the Bronze Age, including copper and
gold objects, the burial masks, the remnants
of mines, and some of the pictographs.
2. Remains of the Iron Age, with which must be
reckoned the stone memorial tablets with in-
scriptions, the stone figures, and the remnants
of fortresses.
The Bronze Age of this region is divided by Tallgren
into the following periods :
I. Period dating (possibly from about 3000 B. c.) to
~ o o oB. C. No kurgans of this period are yet
known. Chief implements : daggers, light
N. S. Voronyeis, 'Rock Pictures found on the frontier of
Turgai and S y r Daria Territories along the River Lack-Pay',
Russ. Antkr. J., 1916, Nos. iii and iv, pp. 57-61 ; A. V. Adrianoff,
' Preliminary Information regarding the Pisanitsy collected in the
Minusinsk Country in summer 1907 ', Bull. RUSS.Committee, 1908,
No. viii, p. 37.
A. M. Tallgren, Collection Tovostilze, Helsingfors, 1917,p. 20.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T PRESENT DAY 83
spears, and socketed celts. Ornament purely
geometric.
11. Period dating between 1000 and 500 B. c. No
kurgans of this period are yet known. Chief
-
implements : socketed double looped celts,
daggers, knives in great number. Ornament
partly geometric, partly zoomorphic. Figures
of animals as handles of daggers.
111. Period after 500 B.C. Kurgans, or burial-places
surrrounded by quadrangular stones. Orna-
ment chiefly zoomorphic; towards the end of
the period vegetable ornament appears. Con-
tact with Scythian art is strongly noticeable.
The majority of the bronze objects found in this
region belong to the third period. Here also must
be placed the collection of knives of various shapes
almost uilknown in Scythia. A common type is a knife
with a well-formed ring at the end, recalling the Chinese
knife which degenerated into the round copper ' cash ',
but to the same period belongs a type of dagger with
a heart-shaped guard, reminiscent of the Scythic dagger
of Eastern Europe.
As far as the Iron Age is concerned, its place is
usually defined by the dates of the historical events
mentioned in the inscriptions. The greater number
of the graves of this period are estimated to belong to
the time between the sixth and seventh centuries A. D.
But the Iron Age must have started much earlier, as
we know from the Chinese histories that in the second
century B.C. the Hiung-nu, then living to the north of
the Chinese, were using iron implements? Judging

I
I
from the forms of the implements, the early Iron Age
A. V. Adrianoff, Sketches of the Minusinsk Country, p. 5.

D grl~zedby Mic osoft

84 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
of this region
- seems to be a continuation of :he Bronze
Age in another material. It is only in the late Iron
that new forms appear,' and hence it is probable
that while the early Iron was evolved by the people
responsible for the Bronze culture, the late Iron culture
may have been brought by some new-comers, possibly,
though not necessarily, of another race.
T h e honour of having first deciphered the Old Turkic
inscriptions belongs to the Danish scholar Professor
Vilhelm Thomsen, of Copenhagen,=working in 1893,and
the investigation was continued by Professor Wilhelm
Radloff of Petrograd from 1894 onwards.
The Yenisei inscriptions are chiefly funeral tributes to
deceased Khans or Khaga~zsof the ' Kyrgys ' (Kirghis) ;
those of the River Orkhon in North-West Mongolia,
which, judging from the more finished form of the
writing, are of later date, contain historical and ethno-
graphical information, and are ascribed to the Tu-kiu.
Thus our knowledge of the Turanian Turks, which has
been obtained by analysing the often confusing annals
W. W. Rndloff, 'Siberian Antiquities', Materials for the
Archaeology of Russia, St. Petersburg, 1888, 1891, 1894, 1902; Aus
Sibirien, vol. 11, chap. vii ; F. R. Martin, ~ ' d du~ bron&e
e azr mus6e
de Minoussinsk, Stockholm, 1893;D. A. Klements, Anhquities of
the Minusinsk Museum. The Remains of the Metal Ages, Tomsk,
1886; I. P. Kuznietsoff-Krasnoyarski, The Minusinsk Antiquiiies,
Copper, Bronze, and Transitional Periods, Tomsk, 1908; J. R.
Aspelin, AnhquifJs du Nord Finno-Ougrien, Helsingfors, 1877.
Inscriptions de I'l4nissei recueillies et publikes par la Sm2te'
Finlandaise d'Arch&ologie, 1%; Inscy1Ptions de I'Orkhon renreillies
par I'expkdilion finnoise 1890 et publiees par la Soci6td Finno-
Ougrienne, 1892; V. Thomsen, 'Inscriptions de I'Orkhon dechif-
frees', Mkm. Soc. Fin.-Ougr., V ; N. Yadrintseff,Ancient Monuments
and lnsc&ptionsin Siberia, Literary Collection, 1885.
W. W. RadlofT, P. Melioranski, &c., Collechbn of Doctrmenfs of
the Orkhon Expediion, 1897.

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 IN HISTORY AND AT P R E S E N T DAY 85
of Chinese historians, has been amplified, and difficult
points to some extent cleared up, by the interpretation
of these inscriptions.
The older type of inscriptions is engraved ; the later
type is written on the stone, in some cases even in
colours, but the art of using colours was apparently
introduced by the Mongols and the Chinese. T h e
Orkhon inscriptions are bilingual, the second language
being Chinese.
The richest collections of objects of both Bronze and
Iron cultures are to be found in the Minusinsk Museum, .
and in the Petrograd and Moscow Museums. Next to
these come the Museums of Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk.
The beginning of the excavation of the kurgans dates
from about 1881; among the last thorough investigations
are those of A. M. Tallgren (1915)in the Minusinsk
region, and of A. V. Adrianoff in the Uriankhai country.
Several attempts have been made to classify the
various types of kurgans. Radloff distinguishes as
many as ten types; these, however, are not sufficiently
clearly differentiatid to admit of their being referred to
ten distinct cultures. A broader division, based on the
more apparent external differences between them, is
into two groups. The graves of the first group have
their surface level with the surface of the ground, and
are surrounded by quadrangular stone slabs. They
are usually associated with the Bronze culture, and the
implements they contain are such as would be character-
istic of a more or less settled population. T h e graves
of the second group are covered with a raised mound,
and are often surrounded by high slabs of stone re-
sembling monoliths, which sometimes reach a height
W.W.Radloff, Aus SSitiq vol. 11, pp. 68-143.

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86 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
of ten feet. These graves are usually associated with
the Iron Age, and contain a large number of weapons
of war. T o the former type may be added the large
mounds, called by the local natives Chaa-tas, which are
collective graves, but usually contain one grave situated
a little apart from the others, and showing much more
finished workmanship. Graves of the first type are
found especially on the banks of the upper Yenisei, and
in the Abakan and Minusinsk Steppes. Graves of the
second type occur in the basins of the Irtish and the
Tobol, and also side by side with those of the first type
in the Abakan and Minusinsk Steppes, so that the
classification cannot be pressed too far. Until further
investigations provide sufficient ground for making a
more detailed division, Tallgren, following CastrCn and
Aspelin, proposes to keep to this dual grouping?
It is not possible in this essay to go into further
details with regard to the archaeology of this region,
but, accepting the conclusions of the archaeologists, an
endeavour will be made to trace the course of culture
contact during the Bronze and Iron Ages, beginning
with a cbnsideration of the question how far the Siberian
culture can be compared with similar cultures of corre-
sponding periods elsewhere.
As we know, the kurgans of the later, i. e. the Iron
Period, are not confined to these regions, but stretch
all along Southern and Central Russia, Lithuania, and
Poland, as far as the Vistula. Yet the kurgans of the
Irtish-Orkhon region have their own characteristic
features, which permit of their being treated separately.
As to the other centres of the Bronze culture, the
Kama-Ural centre is sometimes considered to be the
prolongation of the Minusinsk centre. But Tallgren,
Tallgren, op. cit., p. 14.

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 I N HISTORY AND AT PRESENT DAY 87
after comparing the objects found in both regions,
comes to the conclusion that the two groups are quite
independent, and that what features they have in common
are due to the fact that they were both influenced by
the same civilization from the south and west.* E. H.
Minns lays stress on the resemblance between the
Bronze culture of Minusinsk and that of the ~ c ~ t h i a n s ?
While agreeing with Minns that the resemblance is con-
siderable, Tallgren sees also a great difference, namely,
that the Iranian influence coming from Turkestan at
that time was stronger in Turan than in Scythia. In
any case it is not the Scythian bronze that influenced
the Minusinsk bronze, but rather the reverse."
Just as the late Professor Donner looked upon the
region of the ancient Sogdia, Bactris, and Iran as
possibly hiding the earliest form of the Yenisei inscrip-
tions, Tallgren looks upon it as the place where the
Bronze culture of Minusinsk originated.
- From this
I
archaeological evidence it would seem that the people
of Turan took their knowledge of bronze-working from
Tallgren, op. d., p. g.
Ellis H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, p. 241: 'The resem-
blances between the culture I have called Scythic and that of the
early inhabitants of Siberia . ..
are so great that it is impossible
to treat the archaeology of South Russia without touching that of
Siberia.' Thus Minns approaches the question of the Siberian
remains from the study of Scythic remains, while Tallgren adopts
the opposite method of taking the Minusinsk culture as the
standard and comparing the other with it. This is the method
that I have tried to follow in ethnographical questions, for it is
always safer to define the Asiats in Asia before attempting to
define the Asiats who invaded Europe. Recently a book appeared
(J. Strzygowski, Altai-Iran und Ydlkemandemg, Leipzig, 1917)
which on its purely archaeological merit deserves to be placed next
to Tallgren's and Minns's valuable contributions, but the tendency
of the author is strikingly Pan-German, and this prevents him
from confining the subject within its proper geographical limits.
Tallgren, op. cif., p. 11.
88 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
Iranian Turkestan, and developed it themselves. The
Chinese influence, which was so powerful in the Iron
Age, is not so noticeable in the Bronze Age. Thus, for
instance, zinc, which enters into the composition of the
bronze implements of Minusinsk; does not occur in
the bronze of China? One of the most remarkable
resemblances emphasized by Tallgren is that between
the Minusinsk bronze and the products of the La Tkne
Celtic civilization. This is especially significant in the
decorative motives, such as the geometrical p a t t e r q
and the form of the handles of dagger^.^
A few words must be said about the attempts at the
representation of human figures in this old culture of
the Minusinsk region. While geometric, zoomorphic,
and, later on, plant ornament reaches a high stage of
development, representations of the human form are
rare and obscure. In the Bronze Age we find scarcely
any. One of the few which were found forms the
handle of a knife, and recalls a human figure now in
the collection of the British Museum. Perhaps the
most successful attempts at giving an idea of the human
face are the burial masks found in some kurgany
associated with the late Bronze Age, especially the
gypsum casts.
Even during the Iron Age little progress is made in
this form of ornamentation, but from this era onwards we
have numerous stone figures, whose object is probably
the same as that of the masks of the earlier period,
H. Struwe, 'Analyse verschiedener antiken Bronzen und
Eisen aus Abakan und Jenissei', Bull. I. A. S.,St. Petersburg,
1866, X, pp. 282-9; Brandenburg and Ivanowski, Tvansachbns of
the Commission for //re Chemical Technical Analysis of Ancient
Bronse, St. Petersburg, 1882.
Tallgren, op. n'f.,p. 34.
Ibid., p. 11.

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 I N HISTORY AND A T PRESENT DAY 89
namely, to picture the dead person. The figures, some
of which reach a height of three to four feet, are made
of rude stone blocks, and almost all of them are
characterized by the curious position of the hands,
clasping in front a cup, or cup-like object. While the
general appearance of the figure is highly conventional-
ized, the faces differ greatly. They are of both sexes;
in fact the female sex predominates. Only some of them
show Mongolian traits. Stone figures of similar appear-
ance are found in Southern Russia, where they coincide
with the belt known for its Scythic remains. These,
however, are of much later date, since we know that
some of the Turkic tribes who invaded Russia before
the time of Jinghis Khan, such, for instance, as the
Polovtsy (Cumans), were in the habit of erecting such
figures? Though the custom of placing a small wooden
figure of the deceased on the grave is known to many
Turkic and Finnic tribes in Siberia, these old stones
are taken by the modern natives for images of gods,
and sacrifices are often offered to them.
The burial masks have, so far as is known at present,
a very limited distribution. They have been found on
Tagara Island quite close to Minusinsk, and at a spot
about sixty versts to the south-east (Salt Lake).z Alto-
gether not more than twenty masks are known from
this region. But some have been found also in the
Graeco-Scythic tombs of the Crinlea at Glinishche.
The masks are either white or coloured, and are
found associated with the skull, or, in cases where the
Minns, op. cit., p. 240.
K. I. Goroshchenko, 'Burial masks of gypsum and a special
type of trepanation in the Kurgans of the Minusinsk District ',
Bull. of Tenth Arch. Congress in R&a, 1896,p. 4.
go T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
skull is missing, separately on a specially erected stone
slab. In some cases it seems likely that the masks had
been broken or partially burnt, together with other
objects belonging to the dead person. In one kurgan
at Salt Lake we find, besides the plaster covering the
skull, clay and gypsum covering the first five vertebrae
also; in this case the mask has not been taken from
the face of the deceased, but covers the skull on a
foundation of clay moulded to imitate the features.
Thus we have to deal with two types of mask in this
region. One is a plaster cast of gypsum, taken from
the face of the deceased by the modern method of
making a mould and taking a cast from it. Such masks
are typical of the kurgans of Tagara Island, and are
associated with the custom of burning the body and
burying the ashes, or of burying the whole corpse in
a standing position. T h e ashes are often buried along-
side of the skull and the mask, and obviously the mask
must have been taken immediately after death.
The other type, found in the kurgans called Chaa-fas,
or communal kurgans, near the Salt Lake, is, properly
speaking, not a mask but an artificial reconstruction
of the face of the deceased superimposed upon the
skeleton. This type is connected with the custom of
burying the skeleton in a standing position,' and it
must be supposed, therefore, that after death' the corpse
was left either outside the kurgan or in a temporary
grave until the flesh had completely disappeared from
ones." And indeed this custom corresponds to
what we know from Chinese and Greek writers about
the burial customs of the old Turks. 'If a man die
in spring or summer they wait for the leaves to fall,
Goroshchenko, op. cit., p. 3. Ibid., p. g.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 91
if in autumn or winter they wait for leaves and flowers
to come out. Then they dig a ditch and bury him.''
In fact, in the difficult task of disentangling the Hiung-
nu (Turks) and the Tung-hu (Tungus) tribes in the
Chinese annals, one of the safest guides is the burial
customs of these peoples, since the Tung-hu buried
their dead, as they do sometimes now, on a high
platform, while the Hiung-nu left the body in the tent
or outside the tent for a long time. T o this custom
is due the fact that so few kurgans include the complete
skeleton. The frequent absence of the skull, where
the mask replaces it, may, however, be explained by
the custom of keeping the skull among the living as
a memento.
Moreover, the fact that some of the skulls found in
the same communal kurgans have undergone post-
humous trepanning in the region of the temple suggests
that the skull was not left for the flesh on it to decay
naturally, but that artificial means were employed to
prepare it for the final burial ceremony. After the
skull had been thus cleaned of all its soft tissues, all
the openings were plugged with clay, and then the
features of the face were reconstructed. In most cases
a layer of clay covers the calvaria also. Sometimes a
coating of gypsum is put on the top of the clay.
The artificial method of cleaning the skull and then
reconstructing the features, so well known among
various primitives of Melanesia and, as has been
pointed out to me by Mr. Henry Balfour, also of
Mexico, might very well be taken for the genuine
custom of the aborigines of the country, which were
doubtless of Turkic race, while the more refined
Minns, op. cit., p. 94.
 :E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
gypsum casts may have been introduced by the people
who brought the Bronze culture to this region. In
support of the first part of this statement it is worthy
of mention that Father Bichurin, whose translations of
the Chinese annals have been made use of extensively
in this investigation, says that a people living in
Southern Mongolia, and possibly contemporary with
the construction of these kurgans, had the custo~nof
'tearing off the skin from the dead', which seems to
be a direct reference to this second mode of burial as
being prevalent in Central Asia.'
Goroshchenko, the Siberian anthropologist to whose
thorough study of the osteology of the kurgans the
author is indebted, thinks that the masks of the Chaa-
tas type developed out of the casts of the Tagara type.
But if we consider the archaeological remains there
seems to be very little to show the difference in age
between these two groups of kurgans, both of them
differing from other Bronze Age kurgans in this, that
they include both bronze and iron implement^.^ They '
should therefore be ascribed to the late Bronze Age type.
There is no doubt that the clear and refined features
of the masks of the Tagara type, some of which can
he seen in the Helsingfors and Moscow Museums,
approach the ' Aryan ' type-to retain this unsatisfactory
but convenient term-while the masks of the Chaa-tas,
with broader face and coarse features, approach the
Mongolian type. But it is possible that the difference
is merely superficial, and is explained by the different
Father Jakinth Bichurin, Collecfion of Information concerning
Peoples living in Central Asia, vol. 111, pp. IW-9.
K. I. Goroshchenko, Skulls from the Kurgans of the Minusinsk
District, ~ p o pp.
, 8-9.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 93
method of construction. The face as reconstructed on
a skull would naturally be coarser than the mask taken
from a face, unless of course the constructor were a
master more skilled in the moulding of human features
than was the man of the Bronze Age of Minusinsk.
It is noteworthy that the craniometric measurements
of skulls found in these kurgans do not give us evidence
to support the theory of two distinct physical races.
The results of these measurements are summed up by
Goroshchenko as follows : l that the type of these skulls
shows great uniformity with that of other Bronze Age
skulls, that they resemble the skulls of the older kurgans
of the Moscow Government, and that they do not
correspond with any measurements of skulls on living
people of the modern population of this region, whether
Mongol or Turk. The most striking feature of these
skulls is their long-headedness. Out of 96 skulls of the
kurgans of the Minusinsk region, 42 were dolicho-
cephalic and 21 sub-dolichocephalic.2
This brings us to this most unsettled problem: the
definition of the physique of the Turks of Central Asia.
Goroshchenko, op. a?.,pp. 7-8,
Ibid., p. 30. The measurenlents of the male skulls of the two
groups of kurgans where the masks were found give the following
result (Table 11) :
Cephalic Index.
....
Tagara Kurgans 74.6 (16measurements)
Chaa-tas ....... 73.2 (13 99 1
Horizontal Circumference.
....
Tagara Kurgans 522 (18 measurements)
Chaa-tas ....... 527 (14 $9 1
Altitudinal (Height) Index.
....
Tagara Kurgans 76 (6 measurements)
Chaa-tas .
....... 72.5 (10 ,, 1
 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
As has been said in dealing with the history and
archaeology, the mention of fair-haired and blue-eyed
people1 leads us to the conclusion that this type must
have entered into the composition of the modern Turk
of Central Asia. Besides, nothing else was to be
,
expected in the region of Altai and Sayan, considering
how close this region is to the Amu-Daria (Oxus) and
Tarim valleys, where it is fairly certain that the brachy-
cephalic Alpine type of Western Europe originated.
Whoever studies the altogether insufficient anthropo-
metric data of Central ~ s i must a necessarily wonder
with Joyce 'whether indeed the race is not the result
of an admixture in varying proportion, y o r d i n g to
locality, of Aryan and Mongol stocks '.a LEven if we
agree that the Central Asiatic Turks have their indi-
viduality historically and ethnologically, this is not
necessarily associated with a distinct physical - - race.
And yet, although the amount of research as yet
accomplished, and perhaps also the present state of
anthropology, is not such as to justify us in speaking
of a separate Turkic race or sub-race, there seems to
be some national type, or types, which we can distin-
guish in the Turks when we meet them outside their

1
proper territory. Thus, the Yakut, who have now
inhabited the Ar c region for several hundred years,
stand out amongst the other Arctic peoples on account
of what might be called their Southern type. T h e
admixture of the 'Tatar' blood of Southern Yenisei in
the Samoyed of the Ob is also clearly apparent.
A. V. AdrianofF, Sketches of the Minusinsk Country, p. 7 ; G. E.
Grum-Grzymailo, Desm?tion of Travels in Western China, ch. viii,
18967.
T. A. Joyce, 'On the Physical Anthropology of the Oases of
Khotan and Keriyas,J.A. I.,1903,vol. XXXIII, p. 315.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 95
Among the earliest investigators of the anthro-
pology of Central Asia is the well-known Hungarian
scholar Ujfalvy.' Then there should be mentioned
Grenard? Troll: Shishoff: and Gorosh~henko.~The
Russian anthropologist I v a n o ~ s k iwho
, ~ is responsible
for a compilation containing a greater number of
anthropometric data than that of any other living anthro-
pologist, distinguishes what he calls the Central Asiatic
anthropological type. H e defines its characteristics as
follows: dark-coloured hair and eyes, light hair and
eyes being exceptional ; stature of the majority medium,
with a tendency towards high stature among the Kaizak
of the Middle Orda, the town Taranchi, and some Sarts ;
the head is brachycephalic (broad-headed) or hyper-
brachycephalic ; the nose among the majority is leptor-
rhine (narrow), broad noses being met with chiefly
among the Kaizak of the Middle Orda; the trunk is
long and the chest dimensions are medium, with a
tendency
. , to very small. Taking this as the standard,
-we see that the Kara-Kirghis differ from it by being

C. E. Ujfalvy, Essai d'une Carfe efhnogrc~hiquede l'Asie

ce~trale; Les Aryens au nord et au st4d de l'Hindou Kouch, 1896;
Exphdition scienhtque en Russie, SibJrie et duns le Turkestan, 1878.
F. Grenard, ' Le Turkestan et le Tibet', in Mission scienfifique
darts la Haute Asie, 1890-5 ; J. L. Dutrueil de Rhins, pt. 11.
Troll, ' Individual-Aufnahmen centralasiatischer Eingeborner',
2.f.E., 1890, pt. iii.
A. Shishof, The Sark;, vol. 111, Anthropology, 1905.
I<. I. Goroshchenko and A. A. Ivanowski, 'The Natives of the
Yenisei', Russ. Anthr. J., 1907, Nos. i, ii; K. I. Goroshchenko,
'Materials for the anthropology of Siberia', Bull. Krasn. S. E.
Sib. Secf. I. R. G. S., vol, I, No. ii, 1905.
A. A. Ivanowski, Anthropologikal Composiiion of fhe Population
of Russia, 1904, pp. 207-8; and Population of the World, 1911,
PP. 391-2.
 96 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
less dark in colouring, taller, with a longer face; the
Yakut approach nearer in type to the Mongol-Buriat;
while the 'Tatars' of Southern Yenisei stand nearer
to the Samoyed.' This similarity must naturally be
attributed to later admixture.
There are no anthropometric data regarding the
various Altaian Turks (namely, the Chern 'Tatars',
Kumandints, Teleut, Teles, Altaian Oirot, same as Altai
Kalmuck, and the Chu Telengit). W e have, however,
most valuable observations about their physical type
by the late Siberian scholar Yadrintseff. In an essay

Some of the chief measurements of the Turks of Central Asia,

based on the work of Ivanowski (Population of the Wovkf) and
Joyce (op. cit.) :

Stature Height Full-face Nasal Au-

Tribe. (medium). Ceph. Ind. Index. Index. Index. thority.

Tarallchi (374) 1646 (368) 86.4 (107) 74.5 2 Ujf.

Blag.
Sarts
Kaizak and
Kipchak
(a381 1677 (223) 83.6

(418) 1644 (405) 87.0

( I ) 61.5
I Sbi.
Troll

Usbegs (aga) 1675 (a8a) 86.1

3
8 { Kara-Kirghis (83) 1676 (78) 85.9
3
cl Soyot (72) '597
Sagai (60)1620 (60) 80.8
Kachin ts (42) 1619 (34) 82.4
Beltir (78) 167 (74) 79.5
(23)87.4 (23) 71.7 Skin
Keriyans (16)8a.4 (16)81.1 &in

For the measurements of the Yakut see 'Report of the Ex-

pedition to the Yenisei ', by M. A. Czaplicka and H. U. Hall (to be
published shortly).

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 97
on the Altaians, published in 1881,' he says that many
Altaians who have as yet had no contact with the
colonists resemble in their type the Caucasians (Aryans).
Blue eyes, chestnut and fair hair, and non-prominent
cheek-bones are often met with, especially among the
Kumandint~.~And yet no record is known that the
Aryans ever spread as far as the Altai Mountains; on
the other hand, we know of the close association of
the Turkic race with this region. The only plausible
suggestion, therefore, is that the prehistoric contact of
the Turks and Aryans, which brought the knowledge
of bronze to Turan, affected the physical type of the
Asiatic Turks just as it affected their nomad life, leading
them to settle down to agriculture.
When remains of two archaeological periods are
found in one place the popular conclusion is that the
later culture was brought to that place by the later
comers. For a long time the archaeology of the
Minusinsk district was treated in accordance with this
rule. The Bronze period of the region was ascribed to
some local autochthonous people. They were said to
be peaceful, since there are hardly any weapons among
the remains of this period. From the abundant remains
of implements connected with agriculture and mining
they were put down as agriculturists and miners, and
finally they were described as democratic, because we
find at that time communal graves and graves of common
people generally, while in the Iron Age it is mostly the
chiefs who enjoyed the privilege of burial in a kurgan.
On the other hand, the Iron Age people were supposed
N. M. Yadrintseff, 'On the Altaians and the Chern Tatars',
BwU.1. R. G.S., 1881.
Ibid., pp. 5-7.
SIOS N
 98 THE T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
to have been warlike nomads, who left behind them
many weapons of war, who lived on their horses, and
who were more or less like the nomad Scythians of the

1
Greeks. T h e Bronze Age people are often set dowa
as Finno-Samoyedic, or vaguely as Palaeo-Yeniseians,
while the Iron Age people are set down as Turks,
But a closer study of the region shows that the problem
is not yet solved, and it may be stated as follows : Were
the Bronze Age people quite different from the Iron
Age people, and what is the relation of either or both
of them to the remnants of the Turanians now living
in this region ?
The solution of this problem has usually been sought
by the historical method of investigation, that is to say,
by quoting disconnected facts obtained from free trans-
-
I
lations of the Chinese writers, who could not, of course,
have a very intimate acquaintance with regions so far
away. Again, in dealing with the present natives it
has usually been linguistic considerations that have I

1
been taken as a basis for determining racial affinities.'
But with all respect to the Chinese annals (which may
perhaps one day be given to Europe in a full and
authoritative translation), it would seem that as we are
now able to read the history of these people from their
archaeology and from their own inscriptions, it is
possible to adopt an archaeological method, and to
compare the results thus obtained with those arrived
at by ethnological research. This provides a ineans of
checking the work done by the historical method.
W e have no direct information from the Chinese or
any other sources as to the Bronze Age people of this
This has been the case especially since the famous linguistic
researches of CastrCn some fifty years ago.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 99
region having been overrun by steppe nomads belonging
to the Age of Iron. Archaeological evidence proves
that the first period of the Iron Age evolved naturally
out of the A& of Bronze, while thefact that the second
period of the Iron Age is, as it were, interrupted by
a new influx of Iron civilization-possibly owing to an
invasion-does not necessarily mean that the invaders
were of quite different race; they may have been of
the same race but of more pastoral habits, and this may
also account for the fact that the invasion escaped the
comments of foreign historians. Since it is established
that the late Iron Age is to be ascribed to the Turks,
and that the early Iron Age does not differ sufficiently
from it to warrant the assumption that these two stages
of the Iron Age are the product of two different races,
it follows that the Bronze Age people may well have
been of Turkic, or at least Turkic-Iranian (Turkic-
Aryan?) origin. However, even if we go so far as to
assume an association between the Old Turkic race
and the Bronze remains, it is necessary at the same
time to remember that the knowledge of bronze-
working and the t.ypes of implements produced were
obtained from some centre of 'Aryan' culture, just as
the characters of the inscriptions were borrowed from
Semitic.
The ability of the old Turks to develop these borrowed
arts is surprising, in view of the fact that no later Turks in
Central Asia have reached so high a standard of civiliza-
tion, but the explanation may possibly be that the Turks
of that time were freer from Mongolian admixture than
they have been since the thirteenth century, and that
the 'Aryan' element in Central Asia was, at the time of
this old culture, very considerable.

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IOO T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
In his recent book on the archaeology of this region
Tallgren says : ' The people who developed the Bronze
Age civilization of the Upper Yenisei might have been
Turc or else Indo-European." H e rejects the idea that
they may have been some Palaeo-Siberian people of
the same stock of the Ostyak of the Yenisei, who still
live in this region, since, as he very rightly says, they
could only produce ' une civilisation des non-civilises',
and even if it were right to call them autochthones of
the country they could never play any part in its history.
T h e author's personal knowledge of these people cor-
roborates Tallgren's opinion.
The forests of Altai have been regarded by many
prominent scholars of Siberia as a natural environment
for the beginning of settled life. Whether as cattle-
breeders, as agriculturists, or as miners and smiths,
the Altaians must always have been more settled than
the people of the Caspian-Aral steppe. A study of the
implements, both ancient and modern, bears out the
hypothesis that we have here to do with a continuous
sedentary culture. Furthermore, the continuation of
the pictographs through both Bronze and Iron Ages
points in the same direction, and the talnga or tribal
(clan ?) marks found on the implements and gravestones
of both periods may still be seen at the present day on
the reindeer and implements of the modem natives.
But though the passing of the Bronze Age into the
Iron Age may have been a process of natural evolution

Op. d.,p. 30.

I
a N. N. Kosmin, 'Chern', Sibirskiya Zapiski, Aug. 1916, No. 3,
pp. 95-112 ; D. A. Kiemenfs and Historical and Ethnographical
Research in the Minusinsk C o ~ n t t y ; N . M . Yadrintseff, OH the
Alfaians and the Cherw Tatars.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY IOI

of the same people, this does not exclude the fact that
about the middle of the Iron Age some invasion took
place, which gave rise to wars, and to a correspondingly
great development of implements of war. There is,
however, as has been said, no proof that these invaders
were of different race from the men of the Bronze
and early Iron Ages, but as they came from a steppe
environment they may quite well have brought other
customs with them. Some fall in the scale of culture
may also have occurred as a result of a decrease in,
or perhaps entire absence of, contact with the people
(probably Aryan) who must have influenced the Yenisei
Bronze culture. But though changes there were, they
were not fundamental, since the general culture was
never destroyed, as it was after the Kalmuck of the
Russian conquests.
The Yenisei and Orkhon inscriptions so far known
were written at the time when the supposed Turkic
invaders were settling in the land they had conquered
from the autochthones, but they certainly do not show
the spirit of unacclimatized new-comers. T h e Turks
of that time speak of themselves as inhabitants of the
forest, not of the steppe. It is the dense forest yish
(the same as Chem, 'black forest') that is constantly
referred to in the Orkhon inscriptionsS1 The Orkhon
Tu-kiu, when describing their fights with the Kirghis
or other Turks, always say that these took place in
theyish, and that their country, as well as the country
of the Kirghis, is the yish. Judging from the original
names of the rivers flowing in the forest regions of the
upper Yenisei, they were all named by the Turks.
The present Altaian 'Tatars' call themselves6Tuba', 'Tubalar',
or ' Yish-kis'.
102 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
T h e Russians who first colonized this couitry from
the north took up the name Yenisei from the Tungus,
whom they met first; they came in contact with
the Southern Turks only after they had subjugated
the Tungus. But even now, in the upper Yenisei
region, the Yenisei is known as the Ulu-Kem, which
again is formed by the junction of two streams with
Turkic names, Bii-Kem (Bei-Kem) and Kha-Kem
(Hua-Kem). These names recall the terms for the
two chief rivers of the Altai, Biya (Bi) and Katun
(Khatun), which were probably also named by the
Turks.
The dense forests of this region made communication
between various tribes more difficult than it would have
been in the open steppe. Hence arose the necessity
of making on the bark of trees, or the flat surface of
the rock, signs conveying various kinds of information.
These signs, called by the Russians myety,, gave rise
to the pictographic writings called pisanitsy. Some of
them seem to have been a means of conveying tribal
information and a chronicle of events, others to have
been connected with the religious cult, and these latter
are very much like some of the pictures on the modern
shaman's drum? Still others may be nothing more
than tribal tamgas. Great numbers of such engraved
or painted pictographs are met with in the forest region
of the northern Altai and upper Yenisei, while they are
never found in the open steppes, where communication
can be carried on much more easily by means of
messengers on horseback or by smoke signals, and
where chronicles are handed down by word of mouth.
N . M . Yadrintseff, The Ancienf Monwwents and Inscriptions in
Sibenb, pp. 456,476.
 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 103
Curiously enough, it is recorded in the old Russian
Cossack reports of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, made accessible of late years, that the
Kirghis, who were then fighting with the Mongolians
of Jungaria, tried to communicate with the Cossacks,
and to show them tracks through the forest, by means
of such pictographic signs.'
In comparing the life of the old inhabitants of this
region with that of the modern population it is natural
to begin by considering the form of their dwellings.
Unfortunately there are no indications as to the type
of habitation of the people of the Bronze or the Iron
Ages. The region furnishes, however, such a collection
of various types of dwelling, that it is not fanciful to
- -

assume a long evolutionary development. First there

is the very primitive tent, suyulfa, or alenchk if covered
with birch bark. Then there are quadrangular wooden
dwellings called aida, still without windows. Next
come wooden structures covered with earth, and pro-
vided with a window. These are called kuzenek, -and
in them a clay stove, chrdval, has already replaced the
smoke-hole of the more primitive types. There is an
elaborated form, called spa, in which the whole structure
is raised higher from thk ground, and given a hexagonal
shape, with a sloping roof. Within, it has a kind of
small vestibule. T h e tent also has its line of develop-
ment, for the use of such of the population as devoie
their attention to cattle-breeding, and hence are seasonal
Memoirs of Sibmhn History, Seventeenth Cenfuty, vol. I, No. 58.
N. N. Kosmin, in one of his recent journeys in the Amy1 Taiga of
the Minusinsk country, records that his Tatar guide, on striking
camp left behind a notched stick, the notches on which indicated :
' Five of us slept here one night and went away in two boats'
(N. N. Kosmin, Chern, p. 99).

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104 THE TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA
nomads. This, in its most elaborate form, is
and resembles to some extent the so-called
properly speaking Kaizak, tent, from which, however,
it differs in having a conical top instead of being built
round a circular frame. There also exist hexagonal,
octagonal, and polygonal varieties. These are usually
covered with felt, and are called yurta.'
As regards the botanical environment, more data are
available for comparison. There are certain forest
plants, very plentiful in the Altai and Sayan Mountains,
whose roots are much esteemed as food by the modern
Turks, as they seem to have been by the ancient.
Among them are sarana (Lifium Martagon), kandyk
(Erithronium dens canis),and cheremsha (Allium rminum).
1
S o characteristic are these roots as articles of food
among the present-day Turks that the nanies for the
different times of the year are taken from the plants
that are then in season. Thus Bes-ai is 'the month
of kana?yk' (May), and Ak-sep-ai is 'the month of sarana
(June).
T h e agriculture carried on in the clearings of the
forest was in the olden days similar to what it was at
the time when the Russians first occupied the country.

I
Barley seems to have been the chief product. On spots
where the cattle have been pastured for some time the
modern Altaians grow hemp. T h e vegetable ornament
found in the late Bronze Age, and in abundance in the
Iron Age, proves that the ancient inhabitants knew and
used the same plants as are utilized by the present
natives.
Among the agricultural implements found in the

N. M. Yadrintseff, ONthe Alhinns and fhe Cher~Tafavs, p. 8.

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 I N HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 105
kurgans are some which are in use up to the present
time among the Tatars. Such are the ozyp, a kind of
hoe used for digging up roots, and the obyl, a kind
of primitive plough, which, if it has shafts, is called
azrdazyn. Instead of a harrow they now use the trunk
of a small tree with stumps of the branches left pro-
jecting. Many of the present Tatars, for instance those
along the River Chu, reap their corn by tearing it
off in handfuls; only in some places is a knife with
a curved handle used for this purpose. No threshing
implement occurs either in the graves or among the
present inhabitants, but possibly in the olden days, as
in some places up to modern times, there existed the
practice of singeing the straw in order to dry it, when
the grain can be separated by stirring it with a stick.
There are not found, either in the graves or among
the Southern Altaians, the typical mill-stones which are
used by the Chern Tatars, but flat slabs of stone are
met with between which the grain is rubbed. T h e
remains of the irrigation canals, called aryk, show that
they were more elaborate in the Bronze and Iron
periods than their modern substitutes, sometimes called
sngak. It is not known in what way land was fertilized
in the olden days, but at the time of the arrival of the
Russians, and to a certain extent until now, the natives
chose old camping sites on which to sow their grain.'
While some Turkic tribes, for instance the Kaizak,
even now do not trouble to lay up winter stores for
their cattle, the Altaians twist up straw into rolls, and
store it in that way, which is also convenient for
carrying? Among the forest Tatars hay is prepared
Yadrintseff, op. d.,p. 11.
lbid.
010s 0

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106 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
by being hung in bundles from the bGanches of
trees?
As for the animal world, there is a record that the
Cossack Ataman Vasili Tumenets? who passed through
the land of Tuba on his way to Mongolia in 1616, found
these people in possession of horses and reindeer, but
without cattle or sheep. It is interesting to note that.
in all the archaeological remains both of the Iron and
of the. Bronze periods, a great many different species of
deer are represented. Among the present Turkic tribes
the deer, syn, is still the most popular animal. T h e
horse and the goat are also favourite motives in the
bronze zoomorphic ornament, and the mountain eagle
and the swan are the most frequently represented birds:
All this seems to prove that the metal-workers must
have lived in the same environment as the modern
inhabitants. But we find in the Bronze Age also
representations of animals not known to frequent the
upper Yenisei, such as the dromedary and the donkey.!'
This would point to Southern influence, or at least to
contact with a Southern people during the Bronze
Age.
Thus it becomes clear that the people who were
responsible for the early pictographs, and possibly for
the bronze implements, as well as the people responsible
for the Uigur inscriptions and the iron implements, are
connected with the present remnants of the local Turkic
population in the way in which they reacted to their
botanical and zoological environment. No such simi-
larity can be traced between the ancient inhabitants
N. N. Kosmin,Chern, p. 98.
A. V. Adrianoff, Skefches of the Minwsind Country, IW, p. 5.
Kosmin,ibid.

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 IN HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 107
and other sections of the modern population such as
the Ostyak or the Samoyed.
Finally, it is curious that among the many primitive
races of Northern and Central Asia only two tribes
have a reputation as iron-workers, the Yakut and the
Kuznietsk ' Tatars '-from kuzniets (Russian), ' smith '.
At the time of the Russian conquest the latter were
paying tribute to China with iron implements of their
own manufacture. It seems impossible to dissociate
these people, whose original home was in the region
of the Iron Age remains, from the ancient iron-workers.
Of course, it is more difficult to trace their ancestry
further back, though there is no evidence to prove that
the Bronze Age people were of a different race from
the people of the Iron Age.
The presence of rich mineral deposits in the country
of the old Turks gave rise to an extensive mining
industry, the high value of which, added to the richness
of the animal and vegetable world, made the population
of the yish self-satisfied, and disinclined to leave their
lands. The Orkhon inscriptions contain many allusions
to 'the benevolent earth and waters of the Turks', and
unfriendly comments on the people who migrate from
the forests and mountains to the open plain, take up
Chinese trade, and develop the war instinct. I will
allow myself to quote one of the most instructive
passages of the Orkhon inscriptions. The author
addresses his tribesmen : ' Whence came your lust for
warfare? Ye went away, ye people of Utukan Yish,
some to the west and some to the east, but all that ye
found there, in the place to which ye came, amounts
to this, that your blood was shed like water, and your
108 T H E T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
now serfs, and your clean daughters are fallen into
slavery.'l Surely this quotation does not bear out the
idea cherished by some scholars, that the Turanian
Turks, at the time when they enter history, were very
similar to the Mongols, that is, were warlike nomads
of the steppes. Such a description would to a great
extent be applicable to the border population of the
Kirghis, the nomadic Kaizak. But to judge the old
Turks by the Kaizak would be equivalent to estimating
the culture of modern Russia by that of the European
Kaizaks or Cossacks.
'
Even if we find among some Turkic tribes of the
present day a tradition of their having been originally
steppe nomads, this notion may be classified with
another fictitious Turkic tradition, namely, that which
provides them with a descent from the Mongol Jinghis
Khan.
Some Conclusions.
From this review of the archaeological, historical,
and ethnological evidence, it seems obvious that the
Turanian Turks may be considered to be a remnant
of the old Turkic race which has passed through
various changes in Central Asia, having been originally
known as Hiung-nu. The Turks, who are here called
Iranian, have lost to a much greater extent than the
Turanians the line of genealogical continuity with the
Hiung-nu, or even the Tu-kiu. Still more is this
the case with those Turks who have passed through
several more 'racial filtrations' and environmental in-
fluences, namely, the Azerbeijan and the Osmanly
Turks. In fact, were it not for their Turkic language,
the Osmanly would have to be classified among the
Kosmin, op. cit., p. 106.

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 I N HISTORY AN- A T PRESENT DAY 109
Europeans 'by adoption', like the Hungarians or the
Bulgarians.
It is not the author's aim to append a political moral
to a work whose object is to show the unscientific
character of one of those high-sounding terms that
begin with ' Pan-'. T o wish for conquest and expansion
is one thing; to claim a land on grounds of ethnical
and traditional continuity is quite another. Linguistic
relationship has often been used-and abused-as a
plea for subjugating a weaker race to a stronger. The
fact remains, however, that if there is no other com-
munity than a distant relationship in language, there
need be no community of interest at all. Of course, the
Turkic people of Central Asia, who, though numerous,
are divided into small nations, may be at the mercy
of a stronger invader; and, should the course of this
war or of the Russian Revolution bring about such a
situation, they may be subdued to such a power in
a political way. But to speak of the Osmanlis and the
Turanian Turks as a racial and cultural unity would
be by a stroke of the pen, or by means of a propagandist
pamphlet, to wipe away all the invasions, migrations,
massacres, and fusions which for twenty centuries have
played havoc with that part of the world.
It is now clear that Asia cannot in the future be
artificially divided from her peninsula Europe, and that
she will rapidly return to conditions similar to those
which existed before our era, when the White and
Yellow races met on the heights of Turan. Of course,
the plan for a ' Middle-Asia' involves fewer practical'
difficulties than that for a ' Mittel-Europa', in so far
as the national consciousness of the Central Asiatic
Turks is weaker than that of the Central European
IIO THE T U R K S O F CENTRAL ASIA
neighbours of Germany. But is it feasible that any
single power or any single European culture should
have the monopoly of Central Asia? Before such a
state of affairs could disturb the balance of Europe, it
would surely disturb the balance of the power that
made the attempt. For the utmost effort on the part
of a highly organized European or Asiatic Government
would be needed in order to bring about any permanent
unity of feeling throughout that vast continent; and
until this consummation is reached no economic advan-
tage can follow either for the aboriginal people or for
any others.
Throughout its whole history, except perhaps for
a period .between the fourteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies, Central Asia has been the scene of the mingling
of various cultural and political influences. The scientific
investigations carried on there of late years give an
excellent illustration of this. An example is afforded
by the monumental explorations of Sir Aurel Stein.
Though the explorations themselves were carried on
under the British flag, yet in the preparation of the
results for publication men of almost every European
nationality have been engaged.' The archaeological
trophies brought home at various times by Sir Aurel
Stein are as rich and varied as the influences to which
Central Asia has in the course of its history been
subjected. Hence no single man, not even a single
nation, would be qualified to undertake a thorough
digest of this material. And we see here a wonderful
collaboration of European scholars : a Dane, Professor
Thomsen of Copenhagen; Frenchmen, MM. Chavannes,
Sylvain LCvi, 'Central Asian Studies ', J.R.A.S., 1914, pp.
953-454.

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 I N HISTORY AND A T P R E S E N T DAY 111

Germans, Professors von Le Coq and F. W. K. Muller;

a Russian, Professor Radloff; and Englishmen, Sir
Aurel Stein, Dr. Hoernle, and Dr. Cowley. Will any
League of Nations bring about a harmony more com-
plete than this, which has been proved to be possible
among scientific men of all nationalities in their work
on Central Asia? Could the voice of such unbiased
scholars be heard in the Council Chambers of the
diplomatists, it might not be too much to hope that
the same international collaboration which has proved
of such benefit in the sphere of scientific research
may likewise become possible in the politics of the
future.
' Whose most regrettable death at the Front was announced
some time ago.

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 APPENDIX A

WHENspeaking of ' Central Asian riches ', it is understood

to mean all the natural resources found in what is called
Russian Central Asia. I n particular, one stretch of land
deserves the reputation of possessing a value surpassing
all known colonial possessions. This is the part inhabited
by various Turkic-speaking people, stretching from the mouth
of the Ob on the Arctic, through the forest, agricultural and
cattle-breeding regions of Western Siberia, the Steppe country
and Turkestan, as far south as the frontiers of Persia.
In commercial value this area represents-rich fishing in
the sub-Arctic region ; rare fur animals in the forest region ;
valuable timber, of which in Western Siberia alone some
I I O million dessiatins were registered by the Russian
Government; rich cornfields, almost half of which are
occupied by wheat ; steppes swarming with cattle, and lakes
abundant in fish ; mountains rich in minerals; and finally, the
irrigated fields of Turkestan covered with cotton plantations,
not to mention such promising industries as butter and eggs,
fruit and vegetables.
As to the minerals, the ' Golden ' or Altai Mountains, as
well as the Northern Steppes are equally rich in gold, silver,
iron, coal, copper, and almost all known mineral resources.
However, in the production of gold it is Eastern Siberia
which occupies first place in the Russian Empire (in 1910
it produced 2,828 puds; in 1914, 2,729 puds); the second
place belongs to the Ural Mountains (in 1910, 642 puds;
in 1914 299 puds), and Western Siberia stands third (in
1910, 416 puds ; in 1914, 133 puds). This can be accounted
for chiefly by the lack of enterprise and capital. T h e chief
deposits of gold in Western Siberia are in the following

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 APPENDIX A 113

districts : I, Tomsk ; 2, Krasnoyarsk-Achinsk ; 3, Southern

Steppes ; 4, Yenisei ; 5, Altai ; 6, Minusinsk ; 7, Northern
Steppes. Probably some gold deposits could be found in
Bokhara and Turkestan.
The silver deposits are found in great number in the Altai
and north of Semipalatinsk. The richest deposits of coal,
iron, and copper are found in the district between Novo-
Nikolaevsk, Tomsk, Barnaul, and Kuznietsk ; also in the
region of Semipalatinsk. T h e Kuznietsk basin alone occupies
some 15,000 sq. klm.
The best-known oilfields are situated on the western coast
of the Caspian. But it is possible that the Transcaspian
oilfields, now almost entirely limited to Chikishliar and some
other points along the railway, may prove to be no less
abundant. In Ferghana the oilfields are being exploited
in four regions : I, Shar-Su ; 2, Maili-Su ; 3, Chimionand ;
4, Sel-Kokko, but so far the export is fairly limited; in 1914
it amounted to some 2,000,ooo puds.
But it is cereals that form the most important product of
export from Western Siberia, and go per cent. of the popula-
tion is devoted to agriculture. Agriculture is found chiefly
between 60" of N. lat. and 50' of S. lat. Beyond these limits
the country is only half agricultural ; while fishing, shooting,
and cattle-breeding is carried on alongside. Out of some
12 million dess. occupied by cornfields in Asiatic Russia in
1911, some 44 niillions were situated in Western Siberia,
2 4 millions in the Steppe country, and 34 millions inTurkestan.
The chief centres of the corn export are Novo-Nikolaevsk,
Omsk, Kurgan, Pyetukhovo, Barnaul, and Semipalatinsk.
In 1906-10average early export = 93,014-4 thousand puds.
Closely connected with agriculture is sheep-breeding, which
is especially carried on in the Kirghis Steppes. While in
European Russia at the outbreak of war for a hundred
inhabitants there were only 32 sheep, in Russian Central
Asia it amounted to some 200. The area of pasture land in
Western Siberia amounted to some six million dess. ; in the
Steppe country some three million, and in Turkestan half
910s P
a million. Next to sheep in importance is the=breeding 01
horses and cows. In the cattle-breeding area the butter
industry is very successfully carried on, especially in the
governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk, and the chief centres
of its export are Barnaul, Omsk, and Kurgan. I n 1913 the
exports equalled 4.9 million puds as against 1.7 million puds
in 1903. Closely allied to these industries is the export or
live stock, bacon, game, wool, hair, skins and furs. But
although they occupy a considerable place, itjs the corn which
comes first in quantity and cotton first in value among all
Central Asiatic products. T h e pre-war export along the
railway shows the following proportion- between the various
goods : Corn, 35.6 per cent. (of all exported goods) ; cotton,
4.3 per cent. ; butter, 1.5 per cent. ; fish, 1.2 per cent. ; meat,
1.0 per cent.
I n the prodiction of corn Western Siberian ranks first;
7 per cent. of the native population scarcely take any part
in this industry; while out of 93 per cent. of European
population, 87 per cent. is composed of Great Russians, on
whom agriculture chiefly depends. The cattle- and especially
sheep-breeding depend to a great extent on the Kirghis and
other Turkic tribes, forming 50 per cent. of the population
in the Akmolinsk and 85 per cent. in the Semipalatinsk
territories. But it is the cotton industry which almost
entirely rests upon the native (Sarts and other Turkic tribes)
labour.
T h e cotton industry is closely connected with irrigation,
and again the irrigation canals form the most valuabk
possession of the natives. T h e canals seem to have beer
much more numerous in ancient times, and the remnants or
them are found even in such barren deserts as Kizyl-Kumakh
or Gary-ishek-otran. The native law codes (shariat as well
as 'Zdat) recognize that the water is common property, which
cannot be sold o r bought, and that the land belongs to him
who irrigates it. T o look after the equal use of the irrigation
canals, called aryka, an elder, called snirab, is chosen from
among one settlement, and over several mirabs an aryk

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 APPENDIX A 115

dsffkala is elected, looking after the whole system of the

chief canal. The lands irrigated by the natives in Turkestan
(including Transcaspia), Bokhara, and Khiva equal 4,758,000
dess., or 2.6 per cent. of all the area. Since the Russian
occupation, many attempts were made at reconstructing some
of the ancient canals on modern lines. As the result of this,
in the last few years before the war the Murgab canals were
accomplished, irrigating some 25,000 dess., and the Romanoff
canal, irrigating some 65,000 dess., in the north-eastern part
of the Golodnaya (' Hunger ') Steppe. A plan for irrigating
a further four million dess. has been drafted.
No doubt this energy of the Russian administration was
guided by appreciation of the immense value of the cotton
industry. In 1913 some 550,000 dess., includini the vassal
Khanates, was under cotton plantations, realizing about
134 million puds of cotton fibre (in 1914 some 675,000 dess.,
realizing some 13.9million puds). Ferghana, which, it must
be remembered, is the best-irrigated province, produced
75 per cent. of all cotton. Next comes the Tashkent district
of Syr-Daria territory ; the Katta-Kurgan, Khojent, and
Samarkand districts of Samarkand territory; and the
Merv and Tejent districts of the Transcaspian territory.
It is owing to Russian influence that the old Central Asian
specie of cotton (GossypBm herbaceum, L.) was almost entirely
replaced by the American specie (Gossypizcm hirsutum, L.).
The cotton plantations form a chief revenue of the Central
Asiatic people, and were designated almost entirely for
export. At the outbreak of war Russia occupied fifth place
in cotton production (after U.S.A., Great Britain, Egypt, and
China), and fourth place in cotton manufacture (after Great
Britain, U.S.A., and Germany), and only one-fifth of her
cotton was grown outside Central Asia (in Transcaucasia).
Other industries which might have a prosperous future are
the rice and tobacco plantations and the rearing of silk-worms
(at present Turkestan produces about ~ w , o o opuds of dry
cocoons per annum).
It has been said that this rich area has no communication
116 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
with the world outside, and difficult communications within.
It is true that the only sea-outlet is through the mouths of
the Ob and the Yenisei; but with the recent re-opening
of the Kara Sea route the northern river-ways have a great
commercial value. This will especially be the case when, on
the completion of the Ob-Arctic Ocean Railway, there will be
no necessity to cross the Kara Sea with its dangerous straits
Within this region the communication is carried on-
(a) By means of natural roads, of which there are some
~og,oooversts in Siberia, and 58,000 versts in Russian
Central Asia, not counting the secondary roads.
(b) By means of river-ways, in which especially Western
Siberia is very well endowed. The basin of the River Ob
alone is navigable for a distance of some 15,000 versts, while
some 16,000 more is passable for floating. Turkestan, with
its two chief rivers Syr-Daria and Amu-Daria, has much more
limited river communications; Amu-Daria is navigable for
a distance of some 1,400 versts, but for steam-ships only
800 versts. Syr-Daria could be made navigable for a distance
of 1,200 versts, but at present the river is more important
for irrigation purposes. The southern rivers are free from
ice for about six months in the year, while the rivers north
of the Altai Mountains are navigable from three to four
months a year.
(c) T h e railway is, of course, the most important means
of communication, and each new line causes a great industrial
and social upheaval in the district. T h e Trans-Siberian has
only a relative value, and much greater importance is attached
to the southern line of theTrans-Siberian(Che1yabinsk-Omsk)
and the new branches; the Altai (Novo-NikoIaevsk-Biisk-
Semipalatinsk) and the Minusinsk (Achinsk-Minusinsk). T h e
Central Asiatic (Krasnovodsk-Andijan), covering 2,368 versts,
and the Tashkent Railway (Orenburg-Tashkent), covering
some 1,756 versts, unite to some extent Russian Central Asia
with Western Siberia. A line between Semipalatinsk and
some point on the Tashkent Railway will be of enormous
importance for the further development of Western Siberia,

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 APPENDIX A 117

the Steppe country and Inner Turkestan, and would thus

help the communications between the northern and southern
part of this rich area, which so far is carried on partly by
means of river-ways (Ob, Irtish), and chiefly above the old
caravan route. Out of two most important old roads in
Central Asia, the first one-Orenburg-Tashkent-was utilized
for the Tashkent Railway; the second-Tashkent-Semi-
palatinsk-is awaiting the same fate. It is the most lively
route along which the post, the passenger and goods trafic
is carried on. It starts at Kabul-Sai (some 120 versts north

L of Tashkent), and passes through Chimkent, Aulieata,

Pishnek, Viernyi, Kopal, and Sergiupol (the latter lies 272
versts south-east of Semipalatinsk). Branches of smaller
roads connect this big route with Pjevalsk and Kulja.
The last plan of the old Russian administration was to
connect European Russia with Turkestan by a second line
parallel to the Tashkent line, i. e. along the River Arnu-Daria.
Western Siberia has gained enormous experience during
the present war. At the first stage of the war she was the
chief storing-place for army supplies. After the Russian
retreat many industries from Poland and Western Russia
were transferred here owing to the abundance of coal and
other cheap raw products in Western Siberia.
See :
Statistical Year Book, edited by the Minister of the Interior
(Russ. Petrograd, 1910-16).
Torgovo-Promyshlennaya Gazeta (Russ. Petrograd, 1910-17).
Asiatic Rtcssia, edited by the Immigration Committee (Russ.
St. Petersburg, 1914).
Siberia, by P. M. Golovacheff (Russ. Moscow, 1914).
Economic Geography of Sibenb, by P. M. Golovacheff (Russ.
Moscow, 1914).
Russian Year Book, edited by N. Peacock (London, 1910-16).
Times Russian Supplement (1914-16).
Department of Customs. Revue of the foreign trade of Russia
through her European and Asiatic Frontiers (Russ. St. P., 1912).
Malakhowski, N. Statistics concerning transport of goods on the
Central-Asiatic and the Tashkent Railways (Russ. St. P., 1914).

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 APPENDIX B
THEambitious plans of the Germans for the conquesi
the East had as their first aim the plan of -the Berlin-Bagc
railway. When the British successes cut short this p.,.,
and Southern Russia became the prey of German influence,
the Berlin-Bagdad was put aside by some, in favour of a plan
to revive the ancient route through the highlands of Central

I Asia : Berlin-Bokhara-Pekin. Whatever the ultimate fate

of the German activity in the East may be, it has at least
served to force the Pan-Turanian question upon the attention
of the British public. See articles in The Round Table,
No. 29, December 1917 ; in The Times, January 3rd) 5th, and
7thJ 1918 ; in The Quarterly Review, No. 455, April 1918 ;
in The Round Table, No. 31, June 1918; and in Land and
Water, July 4, 1918.
Meanwhile, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ceded to
Turkey the territories of Ardahan, Batum, and Kars (belong-
ing to Russia since 1877), was the first step towards the
realization of the Pan-Turanian dream. The population of the
district-Armenians (two millions), Georgians (two millions),
Tatars (two millions), and Russians (one million)-refused to
recognize the Treaty (see The New Europe, July 25, 1918).
However, the Caucasian Tatars soon deserted the cause of
the ' Transcaucasian Republic ' for that of the advancing
Osmanly. The Georgian-Armenian forces were defeated, and
the country was split into 'independent' Georgia (May 26,
1918) with its capital in Tiflis, ' independent ' Armenia, con-
sisting of the Armenian lands round Erivan, and an 'inde-
pendent' North Azerbeijan, the capital of which, Tabriz, was
occupied by the Turks.
This easy success inflamed the desire for conquest of
the Turkic militarists. The popular paper of the Com-
mittee of Union and Progress, Tasvir-i-Efkiar, on April 15
contained the following passage (quoted in The Ca?nbdge
Magasine, August 24, 1918) :
'To penetrate in one direction into Egypt, and to open
the road to the ~oo,ooo,ooo(sic) of our co-religionists, on
 APPENDIX B 119

the other side to advance to Kars and Tiflis, to liberate

the Caucasus from Russian barbarism, and to occupy
Tabriz and Teheran, to open a road to those Mussulman
countries such as Af@anistan and India-?is is the task we
have assumed. Thls task, with the aid o AUuh, with the
assistance of our Prophet, and thanks to t e union imposed
on us by our religion, we will carry through to the end . . .'
It is noteworthy that the Turkish desire for expansion in
the East was supported in the Press of opposite political
opinions. Thus Tasviv-i-Efkiar, Sabah, and the Government
organ Talain supported it just as much as the papers of the
Opposition, Ikdam and Zeman, though the latter Press was
not so particular as to whether they would use the Central
Powers or the Allies' support in carrying out their designs
(see The New Europe, August 15,1918). T h e German-Russian
Supplementary Treaty added to the clash between the Osmanly
and German Eastern policy (The Times, Sept. 10,1918). Ger-
many is aware that her political and conlmercial interests in
the East depend to some extent on the goodwill of the non-
Turkic inhabitants of Transcaucasia, Persia, and Turkestan,
whom the Osmanly tend to disregard. Also, it was against her
aims to distract the Osmanly armies from the re-conquest of
Arabia, Mesopotau~ia,Syria, and Palestine. This accounts for
the warm protection which Berlin has shown towards the new
Georgian Republic (see The Times, June 19, 1918)) and the
indignation of the German Press with ' the growing demands
1 of the Pan-Turks' (Mt&zchenaPost, June 19,1918; Deutsche
Tagesseitzmng, June 5, 1918 ; and Kveuz~eifung, July 16,
1918). The Frankjurfw Zeitung (May 28, 1918, quoted by the
Cambridge Magasine, July 27, 1918) argues that 'the Bagdad
Railway is of infinitesimal value compared to the traffic which
needs organizing from the Black Sea into the interior of
Asia. These routes are destined to revolutionize the trade
map of the world.'
There is no doubt that the presence of British forces
in Near Asia was the only obstacle to the German plan for
connecting Berlin with Bagdad, or even with Simla. But
while the German papers played about with such schemes as
Berlin-Bagdad and Hamburg-Herat-schemes which under
he circumstances sound most fantastic-their commercial

~icrdd
w
w-
120 APPENDIX B
agents were fully awake to the opportunities afforded to them
by the Brest-Litovsk Treaty.
T h e immediate danger of Pan-Turanianism has dispersed
with the collapse of Turkey. T h e character of the Allies'
armistice with Turkey announced by the Press Bureau on
November I, 1918, shows complete military collapse, as the
result of which the Ottoman Empire falls out of the Great
War. Still, it is doubtful whether the mischief done by the
spoken and written word will be remedied as rapidly as
that of military action, so there yet remains a great need
for niaking clear the true ethnological facts of the problem.
Then only the Osmanly and Pan-Turanian designs
will be discredited in Central Asia, just as the Pan-
Mahometan propaganda which Osmanly have carried on in
Egypt and Arabia was exposed by the subsequent British
successes. However, the greatest military and political
successes of the Allies will not bring peace to the life of
the Turks of Central Asia as long as the Russian element
of the East is in a ferment. For it must be remembered
that Bolshevism, Social-Revolutionism, Monarchism, and
other propagandas have been at work there, and though the
social upheaval in Central Asia does not reach such tragic
expression as it does in Russia, no military or political
settlement can be final before the social revolution has its
dknoueme~t. One can even prophesy that the Pan-Turanian
problem will remain one of the burning questions long after
the peace settlement is achieved in Europe and Asia. It
is possible that with the great economic changes which
can be expected in that part of the world, Central Asia
will become part of a large confederate state before its
peoples develop a feeling of national unity in the European
sense of the word, thus exchanging their tribal for a-republican
mode of life?
I take the opportunity of thanking my friend Mr. Harold
Williams, Ph.D., for his kindness in reading the chapter on the
Pan-Turanian Movement and Appendix B.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL
RELATING T O T H E EARLY TURKS AND T H E
PRESENT TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA

THISbibliography is to the author's knowledge the first attempt to

bring together a list of works relating to the origin of the Turks and
their life in Central Asia from the earliest times up to the present day,
and covering their history, ethnology, and archaeology. A some-
what vague suggestion of a work of this kind was made as far back
as 1879 by the great Central Asian scholar Ujfalvy, who, in the
second volume of his Exfldition snkrfrjfguefrangaise en Russie,
en SiMrie ef dans le Turkestan, says, 'On pourrait Ccrire un livre
sur la bibliographie de cette contrde, et il est bien nature1 que les
auteurs russes occupent dans cette bibliographie la place la plus
importante' (p. xii). As will be seen from the bibliography, the
scientific data has increased since that time both in quality and
quantity.
Chinese, Persian, and Turkish sources are given only so far as
:hey have been translated into English or some other European
aliguage. Existing bibliographies dealing with special aspects
>f the subject have been laid under contribution, and the data
verified so far as the books are available in this country.
The greatest debt is due to A. N. Samoylovich's Materialsfir
an Index g t h e Literature relating to the Ymisei-Orkhn Inscrz)tion
( 1 9 1 2 ~ ;in Russian), from which some two hundred titles were
laken and revised, and, to a certain extent, also to Inostrantseff
and Smirnoff's Maferials for the Bibliography of the Mussulntan
Archaeology (1906 ; in Russian).
The author is fully aware of the shortcomings of the present
This bibliography, again, is to some extent based on Orientalische
Bibliogra#iic, begriindet von F. A. Miiller, bearbeitet und heraus-
gegeben von Dr. L. Scherman, Berlin, 1888--1915.
st05
Q
122 T H E TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA
collection, the probable omission of some valuable~workson this
subject, and the arrangement of the material merely in alphabetical
order. At the present stage of research it is often difficult to
isolate the Turks from other peoples in Central Asia without
injuring the subject. I t is, moreover, impossible to define which
works are historical, which ethnological, and which archaeological.
However, even in this crude form these bibliographical materials
may serve as a starting-point for further research.
The following abbreviations have been used throughout the
bibliography :
Bab. Orient. Rec. = Babylonian and Oriental Record. London.
J. R. G. S. =Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. London.
J. R.A. S. =: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. London.
J.R. A.I. =Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. London.
J. Centr. As. S. = Journal of the Central Asian Society, London.
A. R. '= The Asiatic Review (formerly ' The Asiatic Quarterly
Review '). London.
E. R. E. = Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.
Aberdeen.
Bull. Soc. Antiqu. = Bulletins de la SociCtC Antiquariennc de France.
Paris.
Rev. Or. = Revue Orient.de pour les Btudes Oural-Altai.ques.
Paris.
J. A. = Journal Asiatique. Paris.
M. 0. = Le Monde oriental. Paris.
Le MusCon = Le Museon. Paris.
La GCographie = La GCographie. Paris.
Rev. Numis. = Revue Numismatique. Paris.
Bull. gc. F r a n ~ .= Bulletins dc 1~8cole
fransaise de l'Extr&me Orient.
Paris.
N. E. = Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothkque du
Roi, Ac. des Inscriptions et Belles-Le~tres. Paris.
E. I. = Thc Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leyden and London.
0.B. = Orientalische Bibliographie. Berlin.
L. Z. = Literarischer Zodiacus. Leipzig.
Z. D. M. G. = Zeitschrift der Deutschen fi10rgenlindischen Gesell-
schaft. Leipzig.
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL 123
W. Z. K. M. = Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes.
Vienna.
Z. f. E. = Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie. Berlin.
T. P. = T'oung Pao. Leyden.
1;. S. = Keleti Szemle. Budapest.
J. Soc. Fin.-Ougr. = Journal de la SociClC Finno-Ougrienne .
Helsingfors.
MCm. Soc. Fin.-Ougr. = Memoires de la SociCtC Finno-Ougrienne.
Helsingfors.
L. A. T. = Living Ancient Times. X h a n Ompnurr. Pe~rograd.
Russ. Anthr. J. = Russian Anthropological Journal. Pyccldlt h p o -
no~~omecKifi B i y p ~ m . Petrograd.
bless. I. R. G. S. = Messenger of the Imperial Russian Geographical
Society. B b m m Ifm~opampc~rnP y w m I ' o o ~ m c c ~ m
061qoc~~m Petrograd.
Ethn. Rev. = Ethnographical Review. 9morpa~~rnecm 0603pBnic.
AIoscow.
Government News (preceded by the name of the Government in
question), I'y6epncKin B f q o ~ o m .
Oren. Gov. News = Orenburg Government News. Opea6gprc~h
Q G e p ~ c ~ B%,no~rocru.
ia Orenburg.
Tob. Gov. News = Tobolsk Government News. To60mKirIQ 6 e p ~ -
cIEia B%,qoxocm. Tobolsk.
Semip. Terr. News = Semipalatinsk Territory News. Cammuam-
cIZ~R 06nacmb1~Bkgoxm. Semipalatinsk.
Turk. News = Turkcstan News. T y p x e c m c ~ BQo~ocm.
Tashkent.
J. Min. Int. = Journal of the RIinistry of the Interior. Z g p m
Hmimpc~na,B q q e m m z ,lI,b. Petrograd.
J. Min. Educ. = Journal of the Ministry of Education. Zypnam
MawcmpcTBa Hapomam Ilpocpbrqeh. Petrograd.
J. Min. Prop. State = Journal of the Ministry of the Property of the
State. 31iyp1m.m M m m p m I'ocyppc~~emsm Hqqem.
Petrograd.
Men]. I. A. S. = Aiemoirs of the Imperial Academy of Science.
124 THE TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA
Bull. I. A. S. = Bulletins of the Imperial Academf of Science.
EI3~IimkEdnepampcmt m e h Haym. Petrograd.
Bull. Soc. F. S. Anthr. E. = Bulletins of the Society of the Friends of
Science, Anthropology and Ethnography at the Imp. University
of Moscow. E~~B%cT%~ 0 6 q w ~ JII06mw1et
~a E C T B C T B OAE-S~,
~ponoaori~ n 3 ~ ~ 0 r p * iVH
~ h e p . Moc~co~c~om Y~~~epcmd
Moscow.
Bull. Russ. Committee = Bulletins of the Russian Committee for thc
Study of Central and Eastern Asia with regard to its history,
archaeology, linguistics and ethnography. IbATia P y c c m
IComera AJLII ~3yqe~iR CpemeB n Boc~omottk i n , w Hmpme-
cxom, apxeoaorwecmnrq ~ H C T W ~ C KH Om~r p a Q , ~ ~ w m f i
ornomeaim. Petrograd.
Proc. Turk. Circle F. Arch. = Proceedings of the Turkestan Circle
of the Friends of Archaeology. IIpo~ommT p x e c m c m
Xpywa W m e t Apxeoaorin. Tashkent.
Mem. Ural S. F. S. = Memoirs of the Ural Society of Friends of
Science. Sarmcmi Y p a a c m O6qecm Mrne~leiiE c m o e - .
~;t& Ekaterinburg.
Bull. S. Arch. H. E. 1. Univ. Kaz. = Bulletins of the Society of
Archaeology, History and Ethnography at the, Imperial
University of Kazan. Hs&Tia 061qec~~a Apxeonoriq Hc~opin
n 3rnorpaQIh n p ~ HMnepampcmm ICasa~cmmY m p c d
Kazan.
Rep. I. Russ. Hist. Museum = Reports of the Imperial Russian His-
torical Museum. Omem h e p a ~ 0 p c m Pyccxaro I l c ~ o p m e c m
M~&. MOSCOW.
Rep. I. Arch. Commission = Reports of the Imperial Archaeological
Commission of the Russian Historical Museum : the Moscow
Popular and Rumyantseff Museuins. O m m &nepampcmi
Apxeonommot ICOHMHCC~Mocm~cmr0I I y b m m H Ppmi
q e s c m Myseem, HMnep. Poccittcm H c ~ o p n w c mMFW.
Moscow.
Bull. I. Arch. Commission = Bulletins of the Imperial Archaeological
Commission of the Russian Hiaorical Museum : the Moscow
Popular and Rumyantseff Museums. H 3 M a HMnepampcd
Apxeoxorwecmt Eoxn~ccinM O C I C OIIy6wnaamB~~ H P ~ H -

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 BIBLlOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL
qencmn, Myeeeaa, k p . Pocc*rcan,
-125
H C T O ~ KY ~ ~p O
-
-
I
Mem. I. R. Arch. S. = Memoirs of the Imperial Russian Archaeo-
logical Society. Sa~mcxaELmepa~~pcxwn, P y c c m Apxearo-
m w r o 06qemm. Petrograd.
Bull. I. R. Arch. S. = Bulletins of the Imperial Russian Archaeo-
logical Society. Ifs- h n e p a m p c w Pycmm Apxmo-

I-
rmmam 06qoc~na. Petrograd.
Trans. E. Sect. I. R. Arch. S. = Transactions of the Eastern Section
of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. T p y ~ b ~
Boc~owaroOT&KA B m e p p c m P y c c m Apx-
0 6 4 m . Petrograd.
Mem. E. Sect. I. R. Arch. S. = Memoirs of the Eastern Section
of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. 3amcm
B m w o 0- h p a m p c m Pyccm Apxoo.'~omec~

I
06qemm. Petrograd.
Mem. Russ. and Slav. Arch. Sect. I. R. Arch. S. = Memoirs of the
Russian and Slavonic Archaeology Section of the Imperial
Russian Archaeological Society. S ~ G K -aB PyccmA
E C ~ ~ B A H Apxeonoria
C K , O ~ ~ h n e p a m p c m P y c c m Apxeanorwe-
c m 06rqec~~a.Petrograd.
Trans. I. Moscow Arch. S. = Transactions of the Imperial Moscow
Archaeological Society. TPWI HMnepampcxaro M O C K O B C ~
Apxeoaomecmro 061uecm~ Moscow.
Trans.E. Comm. I. Moscow Arch. S. = Transactions of the Eastern
Commission of the Imperial Moscow Archaeological Society.
T p p Bocrogaoii ICommccia Harnepa~opcmM O C K O BApxeo- C~
a m - 06qec~m. Rloscow.
Mem. I. R. G. S. = Memoirs of the Imperial Russian Geographical
Society : section of Ethnography. 3amrcm Haanepampcm
P y e c m I ' o o r p a $ m ~ O61qecm: no @e~im 3TIIoqw)jia.
Petrograd.
Bull. I. R. G. S. = Bulletins of the Imperial Russian Geographical
Society : section of Ethnography. ELsdmia ETmepampcmn,
P y c c m l?eorpa@necm O 6 q e c ~ ~ : ano o q h e & 3morpa4i~.
Petrograd.
Mem. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Memoirs of the Siberian Section of

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126 THE TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA
the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. 3aamcrea Cn6np-
c m O& Harnep~mpcmP y w m I'oorpaQHmecm O ~ ~ I ~ C T B
Petrograd.
Bull. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Bulletins of the Siberian Section of
the Imperial Russian'Geographical Society. H S M R C n 6 q
cmro OTA&I;L Hmepampcmro Pyccmm FeorpaCpnsecmo 0 6 q e m
Petrograd.
Mem. CV. Sib. Sect. I. R. G . S. = Memoirs of the West Siberian
Section of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. 3 m c 1 ~ 1
3awao-Cn6npcxaro OTA&I;L h e p a m p c m r o P y w m reorpa@-
secmm 06qecm. Omsk.
Bull. W. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Bulletins of the West Siberian
Section of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Xis&i9
3 a ~ q ~ o - C n 6 n p cO~ m T ILunepmopcK;1m
~ P y c c m FeorpaCp~
secmra 0 6 q m Omsk.
Mem. Semip. S. W. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Memoirs of the Semi.
palatinsk Sub-section of the West Siberian Section of the
Imperial Russian Geographical Society. 3amcm Cearmrann-
THncIcaro IIo~oqtfua3 m ~ o - C a G ~ p cOmq h a H m e p a m p m
P y c c m I'eorpaCpn~ecm 06qecm. Semipalatinsk.
Mem. E. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Memoirs of the East Siberian Section
of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. 3a1mcm
Bocmnno-Cn6npc~amO q b a Eljmepampcmo Pycortan, reorpa,
Cp~sec~aro O6rqecm. Irkutsk.
Bull. E. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Bulletins of the East Siberian Section
of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. lT3~h~Tix
Bocmwo-Cn6npcm O q b 2bmepampcm Pyccm reorpa.
ifmecmro 0 6 q e m ~ a Irkutsk.
Trans. E. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Transactions of the East Siberian
Section of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. T p y ~ b ~
Bms~o-Cn6qcxam0- Hxnepampmm Pycc~caro.reorpa.
Q,mecm 06mec~~a.Irkutsk.
hlem. Krasn. S. E. Sib. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Memoirs of the Kras-
noyarsk Sub-section of ttie East Siberian Section of the Imperial
Russian Geographical Society. 3 m c m ICpacaospc~aroIIOA
o w a Bocmmo-Cn6~pc~aro0-a lbmepampcmro Pyccm
r e o r p a ~ w e c m0 6 q e c ~ ~ a Irkutsk.
.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHICAI, MATERIAL 127
Trans. T.-K. S. Amur Sect. I. R.G. S.=Transactions of the Troits-
kosavsk-Kiakhta Sub-section of the Amur Section of the
Imperial Russian Geographical Society. T y p , ~~ i o c a ~ c ~ i o -
~ C I I Io Auypcxm
~ ~ Ibepampcm
P y c c m I'eorpa@%~iecm 064mm. Troitskosavsk.
Mem. Cauc. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Memoirs of the Caucasian Section
of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. ~~W I SI
lh~'13~1mro 0- Huuopa~opc~aro Pycc- I'oorp~-~~.ro
061qee~na. Tiflis.
Bull. Turk. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Bulletins of the Turkestan Section
of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. ~~EYXTLI
T y p ~ ~ ~ ~ c r OT&I;~
; a n , ~ B P ; ~ T O ~ C K WPYCCIOPO
O reorprr4mw-
C ~ P O06qemm. Tashkent.
Riem. Oren. Sect. I. R. G. S. = Rlemoirs of the Orenburg Section
of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. 3armcrc~
OpenGyprcmro 0 - Elrmepampcrcan, P~CCIUNI I'eorp@)~=~ecrcruu,
0 6 r q c c m . Orenburg.
The abbreviations of other publications used tliroughout the
bibliography need no further explanation.
T o facilitate the use of the bibliography relating to the Turkic
tribes at present inhabiting Central Asia, a table is appended giving
the main existing groups and the names of modern authorities
on each of them. The titles of the works will be found in the
bibliography.
Altcians (ificluding the Telengit, the Kyzyl, and the Chulim
natives).-Adrianoff, Aristoff, CastrCn, Gorokhoff, Kalacheff,
Korsh, Kosmin, Kostroff, Lutsyenko, Radloff, Shchukin, Shvet-
soff, Shvetsova, VambCry, Vyerbitski, Yadrintseff, Yariloff.
W1tir.-Adrianoff, Goroshchenko, Kostroff, Katanoff, Yakovleff.
-hints.-Adrianoff, CastrCn, Goroshchenko, Karatanoff, Kata-
noff, Kostroff, Ostrovskikh, Yakovleff, Stepanoff.
Eaie-Alektoroff, Aristoff, CastrCn, Czaplicka, Daulbaeff, Geins,
Grodekoff, Ibrahimoff, Kazantseff, Icharusin, Krassovski,
Kustanaeff, Kittary, Levanewski, Levshin, Medvyedski, Plleyer,
Mikhailoff, Nazaroff, Nikolski, Potanin, Radloff, Reypolski,
Schmidt, Troll, Ujfalvy, Velyaminoff-Zernoff, IVulfson, Ya-
drintseff, Yevreinoff, Zeeland, Zelenin.
128 THE T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
Kamashint8.-Castrdn, Kostroff, Donner, Radloff, Stepanoff.
Karagass.-Katanoff, Prelovski, Radloff, Shtubendorff, Vasilyeff,
Zaleski.
Karaka1pak.-Maksimoff, Radloff, CastrCn.
Kashgarians.-Ujfalvy.
Khotanians.- Joyce (Stein).
Kirei (Kerians, Kerraits).-Carruthers, Joyce (Stein), Kohn.
Kirghis (Kara-Kirghis, Burut).-Alektoroff, Aristoff, CastrCn,
Chermak, Czaplicka, Divayeff, Geins, Golubyeff, Grodekoff,
Ivanowski, Kharuzin, Kosmin, Krasnoff, Nazaroff, Nikolski,
Potanin, Radloff, Shkapski, Troll, Tronoff, Ujfalvy, VambCry,
Valikhanoff, Venyukoff, Wulfson, Yadrintseff, Yastreboff,
Zagrajski.
Koiba1.-CastrCn, Goroshchenko, Kostroff, Radloff, Yakovleff.
Kumandints.-Radloff, Sherr.
Sagai.-Adrianoff, CastrCn, Goroshchenko, Radloff, Yakovleff.
Sarts.-Mayeff, Nalivkin, Ostroumoff, Shishoff, Sorokin, Troll,
Ujfalvy, VambCry, Wulfson, Yaworski.
Soyot (Uriankhai).-Adrianoff, Africanoff, Carruthers, CastrCn,
Fabritsius, Goroshchenko, Ivanowski, Katanoff, Maltseff, Olsen,
Ostrovskikh, Shishmaryeff, Silinich, Yadrintseff.
Taranohi.-Geins? Gorbachoff, Khoroshkhin.
Tatars (SiberianTurks).-Adrianoff, CastrCn, Czaplicka (and Hall),
Golovacheff, Goroshchenko, Katanoff, Kosmin, Kostroff,
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Yadrintsef, Yakovleff, Yushloff.
Turkomans.-Arkhipoff, Bode, Galkin, Ilyenko, Ivanowki,
Kuropatkin, Lessar, Neboksin, Tarnowski, Ujfalvy, Yaworski.
Usbegs.-Bogdanoff, Grebyenkin, Khoroshikhin, Malyeff, Radloff,
Troll, Ujfalvy, VambCry, Velyaminoff-Zernoff, Zaborovski.
Yakut.-Clark, Jochelson-Brodsky, Jochelson, Maak, Middendorff,
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Fraser, M. F. A. - 1Iy~e111ec~~ia ~a BepxoBba Opxo~a, hw
p a 3 ~ m ~~ pma ~ o p y m .
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I. R. G. S., 1882, IV, p. 146. - O F I ~ nOo h j & ~ 1880 r.
w ropmi? Ami?, rn Teneq~~xy oaepy n w BC~IIIFIHH &qm.
- Ancient monuments and inscriptions in Siberia. Literary
collection of the 'Eastern Review ', pp. 456-76. St. P., 1885.
- nennie nawmum n mcrxi ~b C ~ 6 q .
-Rdsultats de son exploration archdologique dans la Mongolie
occidentale au sud du lac Baical et aux sources de I'Orkhon,
Bull. Soc. Ant., 1890, 111, pp. 255 ff.
-Archaeological album of nI. S. Znamyenski. Eastern Review,
1884, XXV. - Apxoonomsec~ifim6om 11. C. 3m~eacmm.
-An ancient town of the Usuni on the shore of Lake Issyk-
Kul. Eastern Review, I 885, 111. - Ape~nifiycyrnmiil mpom
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XXII. -&~?BKZ~I CTO- Cn6npc~aroII,tlpC% APxCOJIOIZIS~CK~~
~nxolpcnM. C. S a a ~ e ~ c r m .
Yakovleff, E. K. Ethi~ographicalsurvey of the native population
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Minusinsk Museum, IV. Minusinsk, I goo. 3morpa4mecxiB
232 THE TURKS OF CENTRAL A= - 7
Yariloff, A. A. The past and the present of the S i r i t n natives.
Pt. ii : the natives of Myelyetsk. Pt. iii : the Kyzyl ad their
farms. Yuryeff, 1899. - Hpunosz, A. A. Bbmoe n mmoqgee
C ~ 6 ~ p c m xHa~ o p o m m . TI. ii : Mmeqxie MHopow. P. iii :
Ewh~~H q HbX~'~XO~IJBCTBO.
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Yaworski, I. L. An
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Yermolayeff, A. Description of the collection of th
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Epaonaeez, A. Onnwxie ~o.ure~cqin Icpac~oa
Yevreinoff, A. The Middle or Bukeyeff Orda of the'Kirghis-
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 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL ,a33
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234 THE T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
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seem J ~ ~ ~ O C K O B ~

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 INDEX
Abakan, 41, 49, 52, 54, 58,86. Aral-Caspian Steppes, 76, loo.
Abdan, 39. Aramean, 24, 25, 26, 42.
Abd-ul-Aziz, 12. Ardahan, I I 8.
Abuldji-Khan, 14. Ardashir, 25.
Abul Ghazi, 26, 68. Arghyn, 38, 40.
Achinsk, 54, 113, 116. Ari, 56.
Adrianoff, A. V., Sg, 80, 81, 82, Arines, 55.
83,85,94, 106- AristoA; N. A, 26,42, 49, 62,63,
Afghanistan, 20, 37, I I g. 65, 74.
Afontova, Mt., 81. Armenia, Armenians, I I 8.
AfrlsiyAb, I g. Arsasides, 24, 25.
Africa, 40. Arslan, Khan, 69.
Ahmed Shinassy Bey, 12. Aspelin, J. R., 80, 84, 86.
Airya, Arya, Aryan, I 8,1g, 35,36, Assena, 70.
58, 64,66, 92, 94, 96,99, 101. Astrakhan, 17, 20, 78.
Akhal, 34. Atilla, 14,68.
Akmolinsk, 29, I 14. Aulieata, I 17.
Aksu, 49. Aurignacian, 81.
Alai, 49. Australia, 40.
Albanian, I 5. Avars, 70.
Alchin, 40. Avshahr, 33.
Alexander the Great, 79. Azerbeijan, 20, 21, 23, 24, 108,
Alpine, 94. I 18.
Altai, Altaians, g, 10, 14, 22, 30,
311 37, 43, 48, 49, 52, 551 56, Babur, Baber, 26, 27.
57, 58,62970, 711 76,949 96,979 Bactria, 87.
100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 112, Bagdad, 119.
113, 116. Baikal, 41, 52.
Altai Railway, 116. Balfour, H., 91.
Althura, 20. Balkan War, I I.
Altir, 77. Balkash, 63,66.
Altisar, 77. Baraba, 52, 53.
Altin, Khan, 48, 55. Barnaul, 54, 113, 114.
American, I I 5. Barthold, V. V., 66, I I I.
Amu-Dar-ia, 34, 45, 6 5 9 4 , 117. Bashkir, 24, 79.
Amy1 Talga, 103. Bassyz, 49.
Anatolian, 23. Batum, 118.
6. Bayterek, 44.
Arabia, Arabian, 10, 12, 13, 15, Bazaikha, 81.
29, 36, 47, 53,72, 119, 120. Belgian, I I I.
Arabo-Persian, 79. Beltir, 32, 54, 96.
Aral, 39, 4 4 68, 75. Beresin, Professor, 23.
Gg=

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236 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
Berlin, I 19. Chingi-Tura, I g,'j6.
Berlin-Bagdad Railway, 118,119, Chokayeff, Mustafa, 42.
120. Chong Bagish, qg.
Berlin-Bokhara-Pekin Railway, Chu, C h u ~ a ,179 39, 491 631 96,
118. 105.
Beveridge, A. S., 27. Chud, 82.
Richurin, J., 62, 70, 74, 92. Chulim, 54.
Bii-Kem, BeiSKem, 102. Constantinople, 10, 23.
Biisk, 54, 116. Copenhagen, 84, I 10.
Bilghe, Khan, 74. Cossacks, 64, 77, 78, 103, 106,
Biya, Bi, 54, 102. I 08.
Black Sea, 72, I 19: Cowley, A., I I I.
Blagovyeshchensk~,I., 96. Crimea, Crimean, 20, 23,89.
Blochet, E., 18, 70, 71. Czaplicka, M. A., 31, 52, 78,96.
Bokhara, Rokharians, 16, 26, 33,
37, 531 709 76, 79, 113, 114. Dane, I 10.
Boshal, 42.
Brandenburg, 88, Danube, 46.
Brest-Litovsk, I 18, 120. Darkat, 55:
British, 28, I 18. Dasht-i-Klpchak, 75,
British Museum, 88. Derbent, 23.
Buddhism, 28,29, 69. Dik-Bakni, 14.
Din-lin, 63.
Bugu, 49. Djizak, 17.
Bulgarians, I 1, 109.
Donner, O., 24, 25, 66, 87.
Cahun, L., 26, 57,72, 75. Dulat, 39, 44.
Calvinists, 29. Dungans, 36.
Carruthers, D., 57, 59. Diirko, 71.
Caspian Sea, 10, 34, 63, I 13. Dutreuil de Rhins, J. L., 95.
Caspian Steppe, 17, 21, 22, 72,
75, 79. Edigzne, 49.
castren, 55, 59,609 86,980 Edward the First, King of
Caucasus, Caucasian, 17, 20, 21, England, 27.
33, 51,689 97, 118, 119. Egypt, 115, 11% 1 2 a
Celtic, 88. English, 13, 27, 28, 111.
Central Asiatic Railway,.. I 16. Ephthalites, 65.
Chaa-tas, go, 92, 93. Erivan. 118.
Chab-gu, 7 I. ~rsari,'~~.
Chabot, J. B., 70. Erskine, W., 27.
Chandor, 34. Eversley, Lord, 10.
Chavannes, I?., 65, 110.
Chelyabinsk, I 16.
Cherik, 49. Ferghana, 28, 34, 35, 37, 4449,
Chikishliar, 113. 77, 7 q 113, 115.
Chimionand, I 13. Finn, Flnnic, 18, 19, 20, 68, 69,
Chimkent, I 17. 77989.
China, Chinese, 16, 20, 21,22,24, Finno-Samoyedic, 98.
36, 47, 48, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, Finno-Turkic, -79.
-
629 63, 649 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, Firdusi, 18.
72, 73, 74, 79, 83. 85, 88, 90, Fischer, I. E., 55.
92,98, 107, 115. France, 27.
Chingl, Beg, 19. French, 13.

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Gskha, 35. Ib-Ib, 70.
Gangetic, 19. I bi), 70.
Gry-ishek-otran, I 14. Ibim, 70.
GautMot, R., 25, I I. Ibir, m.
Georgia, I 18, r 19. Ilek! Khan, 70.
Georgian-Armenian, 118. Ilek~ds,26.
Germany, Germans, g, 10, 12~13, Ili, 63, 65, 66.
15, 110, I I I , 115, 118, 119. Ili-Tatarq 36.
Germanus, J., 13. 11-Khagan, 71.
Gheok-Tepe, 79. India, 65, 119.
Chuz, 46,68, 72. Indo-Bactrian, 25.
Gibbon, Professor H. A., 10. Indo-European, loo.
Glinishche, 89. Iran, Iran~an,18, 19, 21, 22, 23,
Goklan, 34. 259 28, 331 343 359 369 37. 451
Golovacheff, P. hl., 19, 117. 4.7, 72, 74, 76, 79, 87.
Golubowski, P., 46, 72. Irglt, 60.
Gordlewski, V., 13. Irkutsk, 54.
Goroshchenko, K. I., 89, go, 92, Irtjsh, 39, 59, 81, 117.
939 959 96. Irt~sh-Orkhon,86.
Graeco-Bactrian, 66. Isar, 77.
Graeco-Scythic, 89. Ishim, 76.
Griino, 80. Isker, 76, 77.
Great Britain, 115. Islam, Islamic, Islamism, Pan-
Greek, go, 98. Islamism, 10, 12, 21, 26, 69.
Grenard, F., 95. Issyk-Kul, 17, 49.66.
Grodekotf; N. 1.. 44, 51. Ivanowsk~,A. A. I., 88, 95, g6.
Grum-Gnymailo, G. E., 94. Ivan the Terrible, 56.
Grunwedel, A., I I I.
Guignes, de J., 14, 15. Jabalaha, 70.
J a g p , 23, 24, 36, 27, 34, 75, 77-
Haltvy, J., 20. Jalalry 38, 44. ,
Hall, H. U., g6. Janay, 42.
Hamburg-Herat Railway, 120. Jeleznoff, 46.
Hami, 69. Jinghis Khan, 40, 57, 58, 61, 7 4
Hanifite. 28. 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 89, '08.
Hao-fu, -69. Joyce, T. Am,94, 96.
Hao-Hui, 67. Juji, 75, 76-
Hartmann, M.,13. Jungaria, 11, 22, 41, 57, 103.
Helsingfors, 92. Jwen-Jwen, 6 9 70, 71.
Hia. 62.
~imalayas,10. Kabul-Sai, I I 7.
Hindu, 65. Kacha, 55.
Hiung-nu, 6% 63, 66, 73, 741 91, Kachints, 32, 54, 55, 56, 96.
I 08. Ka~nsk,53.
Hoernle, A. F. R., 111. Kaizak, 16, 29, 3 4 37, 389 39,
Hon-He, 67. 40, 41, 429 43, 459 469 473 48,
Howorth, H. H., 47. 4% 50, 56, 60, 649 721 762 771
Hu, 62. 78, 95, 96, 104, 105, 108.
Humboldt. A.. 10. Kaizak-Usbegs, 76.
~ u n ~ a r i a nisr,, 95, Iog. Kalmuck, 77, 96, 101.
Hun-nu, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 83. Kama-Ural, 86.
Huns, 1465, 68, 91. Kamashints, 54 60.
238 T H E TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA
-
Kangli, 38, 44, 63, 72, 77- Kirghis, ~ a r a - ~ i r ~ h iBurut.
s,
Kangza, 56. Kirghis, 17, 24, 29, 3 4 39, 40,
Kan-Hui, 67. 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
Kankalis, 65. 50, 51, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63,- 65,
Kansk, 54. 66, 671 69, 73, 77, 969 101, 1039
Kan-su, 71. 104 108, 113, 114.
Karachai, 24. Kizyl-Kumakh, 114.
Karagass, 54. Klaproth, H. J., 68.
Kara-Kalpak, 24, 36, 41. A<. 46, Klements, D. A., 67, 80.
47. Koeluk. 60.
Kara-Khan, 14.
Kara-Kidan, 70, 73.
Kara-Klobuk, 46. Koman, 24.
Karakorum, 69. Konkrat, 38, 40.
Kara-Sakal, 41. Kopal, I 17,
Kara-Sea, 115, I 16. Koryak, 52.
Karluk, 63, 72, 73. Koshi, 49.
Kasem Beg, Mirza A., 23, 68. Kosmm, N. N., 31, 41, 67, 77,
Kashgar, Kashgarians, 49, 58. 100, rog, 106, 108.
Kashgarlik, 58. Kossogol, 55.
Kaska, 56. Kostro, N. A., 55.
Kataghan, 38. Kotrigur, 68.
Katanoq N. T., 55, 56, 59. Kottes, 55.
Katta-Kurgan, I I 5. Krasnovodsk. I 16.
Katun, 54, 102. ~rasnoyarsk,'55, 81, 85, 113.
Kazan, 20, 24, 51, 56, 78: Krgyz, 48.
Keben, 17. Kuchum, Khan, 19, 55, 56, 76,
Kem, 66. 77, 78.~
Kemchik, 57. Kul~a,34, 5 8, 117.
Kenissari, 78. Kul-Tek~n,Khan, 42.
Kerensky, A. T., 17. Kuman, 24, 72, 89.
Khakas, 63, 65, 66, 67, 77. Kumandints, 5 4 96, 97.
Kha-Kern, Hua-Kem, 102. Kundar, 38.
Kharosthi, 25. Kurgan, 113, I 14.
Khazar, 72, 73. Kuropatkin, Gov.-General, 17.
Khere, 74. Kushan, 64.
Khingan Range, 10. Kuznietsk, 54, 107, 113.
Khlya, 33, 34, 37, 4 4 76, 79, 114. Kuznietsoff; P., 38.
Khojent, 115. Kuznietsoff-Krasnoyarski, I. P.,
Khotan, Khotanese, 96. 84.
Khoya Salih, 34. . KYZYl, 54.
Kiao-Che, 65,67.
Kichik-Yuz, 40. La Tkne, 88.
Kieff-Russia, 46. Laufer, B., 52.
Iiien-Kun, 66. La VallCe Poussin, I I I.
Kili-Ki-dze, 67. Lebyedints, 54.
Kin-shan, 71. Le Coq, A., I I I.
Kipchak, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 49, Lena, 4 I, 52.
72, 77, 96. LCvi, S., 110.
Kirei, Kerrait, Kereians, 25, 38, Levshin, A., 51.
43, 48, 57, 58, 72, 74, 96. Leyden, J., 27.
Kirghis-Kaizak, 78. Lithuania, 86.
 INDEX
Lohitic, 19. Muscovite, 76.
Lo*, 12,27. I Mussulman, 17, 21,zg, 3% 1x9.
Magyars, 73. Naiman, 38, 40, 43, 49, 72, 74.
Mahomet, Mahometans, Maho- Namyk Kemal Bay, 12.
metanism, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, Navai, Mir Ali Shir, 27.
2 8 ~2 9 ~so, 34, 35, 47, 551, 53, Neolithic, 81. -
57, 58, 67, 70, 120. Nestorian, 25, 28, 29, 42, 57, 70,
Maili-Su, I 13. 74.
Makovyetski, P. E., 57. Nijneudinsk, 54.
Maksimoq A., 46. Noah, 14.
Malakhowski, N., I 17. Nogai, 24, 47, 51.
Malayic, 17. Novo-Nikolaievsk, I 13, I 16.
Mallitski, N., 26, 42.
Marakanda, 79. Ob, 76, 112, 115, 116, 117.
Mariinsk, 53. Ob-Arctic, I 16.
Martin, F. K., 84. Ogus, 75.
Marxian, 17. Ogus-Khan, 14.
Maynagashe6 S. D., 33. Oirat, 56, 96.
Melanesia, 91. Okhotsk Sea, 78.
Melioranski, I. P., 30, 32, 84. Omsk, 113, 114, 116.
Mew, 34, 115. On, 40. 68.
Meshcherak, 24.
Mesopotamia, I 19. 0n%i,'6~.
Messerschmidt, 80. On-Uigur, 64, 65, 68.
MCtC, 63, 641 65, 72. Orenburg, 39, I 16, I 17.
Mexico, 91. Orkhon, 24, 26,30,43,6gr 7
Miller, G. F., 55. 80, 84, 85, 101, 107.
Minns, E. H., 87, 89, 91. Os~nanly,g, 10, 11, 12, 13, I
Minusinsk, 24, 32, 44, 54, 57, 81, 20, 23, 24, 37, 108, 109,
85, 86, 87, 88, 8% 93, 97, 103, 11% 120.
113, 116. Ostrorbg, Count LBon, 10.
Minusinsk Railway, 46. OttomGl 10, 13, 15, 20,33,
Moghulistan, 75. Otui Tatars, 74.
Moho, Mokho, 74. Ouang-Khan, 57,74.
Mongolia. Mongols, Mongolian, oxus, 94.
A i4, 19', 20, 22, 27, 37138, 40,
43, 45, 47, 48, 53, 54, 55, 55, Pacific,. 78.
57, 58, 591 61, 62, 65, 68, 69, Palaeol~thic,81.
7 4 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80, Palaeo-Siberians, 53, 100.
84, 85, 89, 92, 93, 941 99, 1°3, Palaeo-Yeniseians, 98.
106, 108. Palestine, I 19.
Mongol-Buriat, 96. Pamir, 49, 79.
Moscow, 85, 92, 93. Paris, 27.
MoshkofT, V., 46. Parker, E. H., 62, 66, 70, 71, 7;.
Mousterian, 81. Parthia, 24.
Moyun, 65. Peacock, N.,1 17.
Miiller, Professor F. W. K., 25, Pelliot. P.. 1I I.
111. ~ e r s i a ;~ersian, 12, 13, 15, 18,
Miiller, Max, 19. 201 27, 33, 34, 36, 38, 47, 65,
Munduz, 49. 70, 72, 112, 114.
Murgab, 37, 115. Peter the Great, 80.
240 T H E TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA
-
Peter the Great Museum, 8 I. Sary-Bagish, 49. -
Petrograd, 81,84, 85. Sary-Uigur, 68.
Philip le Bel, King of France, 27. Sassanian, Sassanides, 25, 70.
Pishnek; I 17. Savyenkoff, I. T., 81.
Pjevalsk, 117. 49-
Poland, 86, I 17. Sayan Mts., 22, 55, 58, 94, 104.
Polovtsy, 46, 72, 89. Schmidt, J. I., 27, 68.
Pontus, 21. Schott, W., 48, 68.
Potanin, G., 59. Scythian, 83, 87, 89, .g8.
Prester, Johnl 57, 74. Selenga, 67.
Proto-Pehlev~,24. Seljuk, 41, 72.
Ptolomy, 67. Sel-Kokko, I 13.
Pyechenyeg, 4672, 73. Semipalatinsk, 29, I 13, I 14, I 16,
Pyetukhovo, I 13. 117.
Semlrechie, 17~26,29, 36.
Kabban Cauma, 70. Semites, Semitic, 20, 25, 53, 99.
Radloff,W. W.,15, 56, 60, 63,64, Sergiupol, I 17.
68, 75, 89, 84, 85, 1x1. Seykym, 45.
Ramsay, Slr W., 10. Shan-tan, 71.
Rashid al-Din, IS, 67, 74, 75. Shar-Su, I 13.
RCmusat, A., 27. Shashli, 42.
Roman, 14. Shaw, R. B., 38.
Romanoff Canal, I 15. Shisho$ A., 95.
Romulus and Remus, 14. Shortes, 54.
Ross, Sir E.D., ~g,57,67,72,74, 75. Shun-wei, 62.
Rumelian, 23. Siberia, Siberian, Sibiriak, 1I, 17,
Russia, Russians, 10, 13, 16, 17, 19, 219 22, 23, 242 26, 299 379
18, 20, 21, 22, 261 2% 30, 339 47, 51, 52, 532 54, 559 569 5%
36, 37, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47, 489 70, 75, 76, 79, 80, 86s 87, 899
49, 51, 5 5 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 92,96, loo, 112, 113, 114 116,
58, 59, 61, 72, 76, 77, 78, 79, I 17.
80, 81, 82, 86, 89, 101, 102, Sien-pi, 65, 70.
105, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113, Silinich, I. P., 60.
114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 117, Simla, I 19.
120. Skrine, V., 19, 57, 67, 72, 74,
75.
Sagai, 19, 54, 96. Slav, Slavonic, 15, 18, 70.
Sairima, 18. Sogdia, Sogdian, 25, 87.
Saka, 66. Sol. 49.
Sakhalar, Sakky, Sokka, 41, 56. soito; $9.
Salt Lake, 89, go. Soyot, Soyan, Saya, 59, 60, 96.
Samanides, 72. Stavropol, 17.
Samarkand, 17, 28, 35, 372 79, Stein, M. A., 96, 110, 1x1.
115. Steohens. W.. 10.
Samoyed, 19, 53, 54, 55, St. keter;burg, 22, 27.
77, 95, 96, 107. Struwe, H., 88.
Samoylovich, A. N., 42. Stnygowskil J., 87:
Sarik, 34. Stiirmer, P r ~ m eMinister, 17.
Sarron, H. M. A., 13. Sufi, 35.
16, 17, 29, 3 4 35, Sunni, Sunnites, 28.
95, 114. Sushen, 74.
Saru, 49. Sybir, 70, 76.

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 INDEX 241

Syr-Daria, 28, 34, 37, 39, 46, 66, Tobolsk, 53, 56, 114.
70, 115, 116. Togus-Tatars, 74.
Syria, Syrian, Syriac, 20, 25, 119. Togus-Uigur, 64, 68, 69.
Tomsk, 53, 54, 77, 78, 85, 113, 114.
Tabriz, 118, 119. Toru-aibgyr, 42.
Tabyn, 38. Transcaspia, 28, 33, 36, 113, 1 1 4,

Tadjik, 29, 34, 35, 37, 38. 115.

Tagai, 49. Transcaucasia, 115, 119.
Tagara, 89, 90, 92, 93. Transoxania, 65, 69, 72, 76.
Taic, 19. Trans-Siberian, 116.
Taigut, 74. Troll, 95, 96.
Tai- Yang- Khan, 74. Tsin, 62.
Talas, 39, 40. Tuba, Tupo, Doubo, Tubalar, 54,
Talbot, F. G., 27. 55, 56, 59, 77, 82, Id, 106.
Tallgren, A. M., 80, 82, 85, 86, Tuirya, Turya, 18.
87, 88, 100. Tu-Kiu, 14, 24, 61, 63, 69, 70,
Tama, 38. 71, 84, loi, 108.
Tamulic, 19. Tung-hu, 62,64, 65, 70, 71, 74, 91.
Tang, 61. Tungus, Tungusic, 19, 43, 53, 61,
Tannu Ola, 58, 63. 62, 70, 71, 74, 91-
Taranchi, 36, 95, 96. Tura, 18, 20, 61.
Tarim, 63, 65, 68, 94. Turkestan, 9,
11, 17, 20, 21, 22,
Tartary, Tatars, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 29, 33,
34, 36, 37, 47, 57,
24, 30, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 68, 69, 72, 75, 78,87, 112,
55, 56, 57, 58, 74, 95, 96, loi, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117.
103, 105, 107, 118. Turkey, 120.
Tashkent, 79, 115, 116, 117. Turkic-Aryan, 99.
Tashkent Railway, 116, 117. Turkic-Iranian, 99.
Tatan, 74. Turkmen, 33.
Tatatungo, 74. Turkomania, Turkoman, 24, 33,
Teheran, 119. 36, 51, 79.
Tejent, 115. Turko-Tatars, 76.
Tekes, 17, 34, 49. Turner, J. Hudson, 27.
Tekin Alp, 13, 16. Turu, River, 19.
Telengit, 37, 54, 63, 96. Tyrkova, A., 13.
Teles, 96.
Teleut, 54, 56, 96. Ugra, 69.
Tevkeleff, K. B., 17. Ugrian-Ostyak, 54, 107.
Thomsen, V., 74, 84, no. U-He, 67.
Thrace, Thracian, 9, 15. U-Hu, 67.
Thraetona, 18. Uigur, 2, 4, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36,
Tian-Shan, 53, 58, 63, 68, 73. 55, 58, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
Tiavka, Khan, 39, 43. 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 82, 106.
Tibet, Tibetan, 47, 68. Ujfalvy,.C. E., 20, 95, 96.
Tiflis, 118, 119. Ulugh-Yuz, 39.
Tilaou, 38. Ulu-Kem, 102.
Timur, Timurids, 14, 75, 76. United States of America, 1 1 5.

Ting-Ling, 65, 66. Ural, 14,68, 69, 76, 78, 79, 112.
Tiumien, 19, 71, 72, 76. Ural-Altaic, 10, 19.
Tiumienets, V., 106. Uralsk, 29.
Toba, 65. Uriankhai, Uriangut, 54, 55, 58,
Tobol, 39. 59, 60, 61, 85.
242 T H E T U R K S OF CENTRAL ASIA
Yakovleff, E,K., 59.
Urta-yiiz, 39.
Usbegs, 16, 24, 29, 34, 36,37,38,
39, 41,499 76, 96.
I Yakut, 30, 31, 41, 52, 53, 60, 94,
96, 107.
U-si, 48, Yao-Chi, 63.
Ussa, 58. Yarkand, 49.
Usuni, Wussum, 62,63,65,66. Yellow River, 63.
Utigur, 68. Yenisei, 2 4 25, 26, 30, 39, 41, 43,
Utukan Yish, 107. 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 55, 57,
62, 63, 66, 67, 73, 77, 81, 84,
Vambery, A., 21, 24, 26, 29, 57, 86, 87, 95, 96, 100, 101, 102
68, 72. 106, 113, 115, 116.
Vei-He, 67. Yenisei-Ostyak, 54, 100.
Velyaminoff-Zernoff,V. V., 38. Yeniseisk, 53, 58.
Viernyi, I 17. Yerlik 58.
Vistula, 86.
Volga, 14, 24 21, 26, 40, 65, 69,
75, 78, 79-
Voronyets, N. S., 82. .
I ~ e r r n i k ;77.
Yetisherlik, 58.
Yish-Kiz. 101.
Yomut, 34.
Yiie-Chi, 63, 64, 65, 66.
Vyerbitski, V. I., 56.
Yu, 61.
Williams, Harold, 120. Yur,70.
Yiisuf Khass Hajib, 26.
Yabbas, 40.
Yadrintseff, N. M., 80, 84, 96, Zenker, J. T., 23.
100, 102, 104, 105. zhu-zhu, 70.
Yaik, 47, 48. Ziya Bey, 12.

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