Introduction to Earth and Planetary

System Science
Naotatsu Shikazono

Introduction to Earth and

Planetary System Science
New View of Earth, Planets and Humans
Naotatsu Shikazono
Professor
Department of Applied Chemistry
Keio University
[email protected]

CHIKYUU SISUTEMU KAGAKU NYUUMON

CHIKYUU WAKUSEI SISUTEMU KAGAKU NYUUMON
© 1992 Naotatsu SHIKAZONO
© 2009 Naotatsu SHIKAZONO
All rights reserved
Original Japanese edition published in 1992 and 2009 by University of Tokyo Press
English translation rights arranged with University of Tokyo Press
through Japan UNI Agency, Inc., Tokyo

ISBN 978-4-431-54057-1 e-ISBN 978-4-431-54058-8

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8
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Preface

More than 10 years have passed since the beginning of the twenty-first century, and
problems associated with the global environment, resources, and the world econ-
omy have been distinctly realized. It is highly desirable to create long-term safety
and a sustainable human society by solving these serious problems.
Is it possible to build a sustainable society? How can we construct such a ­society?
Human society greatly influences the earth’s environment, causing such problems
as global warming, acid rain, and destruction of the ozone layer. Thus, it is inferred
that long-term safety and a stable human society cannot be established without a
scientific understanding of the earth’s surface environment and the earth’s interior
as it influences the surface environment. We should consider what human society
ought to do in the near future based on scientific understanding of interactions
between humans and nature.
What are the nature–human interactions? The basic study that can give us the answer
to these questions is earth system science, which has been developed significantly in
the last 20 years. According to earth system science, the earth system consists of sub-
systems such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere (lithosphere), biosphere, and
humans, and earth system science clarifies the interactions among these subsystems.
Matter and energy are circulating, and the total earth system has been irreversibly
changing with time since the birth of the system. Earth system science can clarify the
evolution of the earth system as well as the modern earth system.
Twenty years ago I described an outline of the earth system in Introduction to the
Earth System (1992) (in Japanese). Following this publication, earth system science
has developed considerably. For example, a great deal of information on solar plan-
ets, the relationship between the solar planets and earth, and the origin and evolution
of earth and the solar system have been elucidated, clearly indicating that the earth
system is open to external systems (the solar system; universe). In addition to the
influence of the external (solar) system on the origin and evolution of the earth sys-
tem, the materials, temperature distribution, and hot and cold plumes in the solid
interior of the earth have been investigated by high-temperature and high-pressure
experiments, three-dimensional seismic wave tomography, multi-element and multi-
isotope analyses, and radiometric age dating of earth materials and solar ­system

v
vi Preface

materials (e.g., Martian rocks). Further, global climate change from ancient times to
the present and global material cycles (e.g., the global carbon cycle) have been
studied by computer simulations and isotopic and chemical analyses. It can be said
that earth system science is developing and is changing to earth and planetary sys-
tem science. Thus, in this book, the intention is to present earth and planetary sys-
tem science including topics that are not in my earlier publication, Introduction to
Earth System Science. For example, plate tectonics and plume tectonics are briefly
described in this book (Chap. 3) because the earth’s surface environment where
humans and organisms are living are greatly influenced by these tectonics. In addi-
tion, the relationship between humans and organisms, which has been extensively
investigated (origin of life, evolution of biota, mass extinction, underground bio-
sphere) has been included (Chap. 6). In the last chapter (Chap. 7), the relationship
between the earth system and nature (earth and the planets) is considered. Earlier
views regarding the earth and nature are summarized and compared with the views
presented here (earth and planetary system sciences, earth and planet co-ori-
ented human society).
This book has arisen mainly from several courses on Earth and Planetary System
Science and Earth’s Environmental and Resources Problems for undergraduate and
graduate students at Keio University and also from many classes at other universities
(The University of Tokyo, Gakushuin University, Nihon University, Hiroshima
University, Yamaguchi University, Tokushima University, Kyoto University, Shizuoka
University, Tsukuba University, Yamagata University, Tohoku University, and Akita
University). In these courses during the last 30 years, I received many comments,
questions, and responses from numerous undergraduate and graduate ­students.
Discussions with them have allowed me to develop and clarify the ideas presented
here, particularly the earth’s environmental co-oriented society (Chap. 7).
In writing this book I am greatly indebted to many people in the Geology
Department of The University of Tokyo, the Applied Chemistry Department of Keio
University, the Geology Department of Tokyo Gakugei University, and the
Department of Earth and Planetary Science of Harvard University.
I express my great appreciation for the late professors emeriti T. Tatsumi of The
University of Tokyo, advisor for my Ph.D. thesis in 1974, and T. Watanabe of The
University of Tokyo for teaching me economic geology (ore genesis) and isotope
geochemistry. They showed that the integration of each discipline of earth sciences
is necessary and very important in order to deeply understand the nature of the
earth’s environment and resources in relation to geological, geochemical, and geo-
physical processes. Drs. Y. Kajiwara, T. Nakano, and K. Fujimoto read the manu-
script and gave me useful critical comments. I very much appreciate Ms. M. Aizawa,
Ms. N. Katayama, and Ms. K. Suga for their skillful and patient word processing.
Ms. M. Shimizu and Ms. M. Komatsu of The University of Tokyo Press and
Mr. Ken Kimlicka of Springer Japan edited with care the manuscripts for the
Japanese version of the books Introduction to Earth System Science and Introduction
to Earth and Planetary System Science and the English version of Introduction to
Earth and Planetary System Science, respectively.
Preface vii

I want to dedicate this book to my wife, Midori Shikazono, and two daughters,
Chikako and Hisako Shikazono, and to my parents, Naoharu and Yoshiko Shikazono,
who have patiently provided understanding and moral support during the more than
30 years of my academic research and teaching.

Tokyo, Japan Naotatsu Shikazono

Contents

1  Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science:

A New View of the Earth, Planets, and Humans.................................... 1
1.1 What Is the Earth and
Planetary System?.............................................................................. 2
1.1.1  Hierarchy in the Earth and Planetary System........................ 2
1.1.2  Interactions Between Subsystems.......................................... 2
1.1.3  Earth as a System................................................................... 3
1.2  What Is the Earth’s Environment?...................................................... 5
1.3  Development of Earth and Planetary System Science....................... 6
1.3.1  Geology, Geochemistry, and Geophysics............................... 6
1.3.2  A New View of the Earth, Planets, and Humans:
Earth and Planetary System Science...................................... 8
1.4  Chapter Summary............................................................................... 9
References................................................................................................... 9

2  Components of the Earth System............................................................ 11

2.1  Fluid Earth.......................................................................................... 11
2.1.1  The Atmosphere..................................................................... 11
2.1.2  The Hydrosphere.................................................................... 14
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere)............................................................... 18
2.2.1  The Earth’s Interior Structure................................................ 18
2.2.2  The Composition of the Crust................................................ 19
2.2.3  Composition of the Mantle.................................................... 20
2.2.4  The Composition of the Core................................................. 21
2.2.5  The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere...................................... 22
2.2.6  Average Composition of the Earth as a Whole...................... 23
2.2.7  The Cosmic Abundance of Elements..................................... 24
2.2.8  Meteorites............................................................................... 28
2.2.9  Materials in the Solid Earth................................................... 29

ix
x Contents

2.3  The Soils............................................................................................. 38

2.4  The Biosphere.................................................................................... 38
2.5  Chapter Summary............................................................................... 40
References................................................................................................... 41

3  Material Circulation in the Earth .......................................................... 43

3.1  Interactions in the Multispheres......................................................... 43
3.2  Hydrologic Cycle............................................................................... 44
3.3  Carbon Cycle...................................................................................... 45
3.3.1  Global Geochemical Cycle and Box Model.......................... 48
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions............... 60
3.4.1  Plate Tectonics....................................................................... 60
3.4.2  Plume Tectonics..................................................................... 71
3.5  Chapter Summary............................................................................... 73
References................................................................................................... 73

4  Nature–Human Interaction...................................................................... 75
4.1  Interactions Between Nature and Humans......................................... 75
4.2  Natural Disasters................................................................................ 76
4.2.1  Classification of Natural Disasters......................................... 76
4.2.2  Earthquakes............................................................................ 77
4.2.3  Volcanic Disasters.................................................................. 78
4.3  Natural Resources.............................................................................. 79
4.3.1  Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources.............................. 79
4.3.2  Resources Problems............................................................... 80
4.3.3  Exploitation of Natural Resources and
Associated Environmental Problems..................................... 81
4.3.4  Mineral Resources.................................................................. 82
4.3.5  Water Resources..................................................................... 88
4.3.6  Energy Resources................................................................... 89
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems........................................................ 94
4.4.1  Global Warming..................................................................... 95
4.4.2  The Destruction of the Ozone Layer...................................... 98
4.4.3  Acid Rain............................................................................... 99
4.4.4  Soil Problems......................................................................... 101
4.4.5  Water Pollution....................................................................... 103
4.4.6  Waste Problems...................................................................... 103
4.4.7  Provisions for Earth’s Resources
and Environmental Problems................................................. 105
4.5 Chapter Summary............................................................................... 108
References................................................................................................... 109
Contents xi

5  The Universe and Solar System............................................................... 111

5.1  Origin and Evolution of the Universe................................................ 111
5.1.1  Big Bang Universe................................................................. 111
5.1.2  Evolution of Stars................................................................... 112
5.2  Formation of the Protosolar System................................................... 113
5.3  Planets in the Solar System................................................................ 116
5.3.1  Comparative Planetology....................................................... 116
5.3.2  The Earth’s Moon................................................................... 117
5.3.3  The Earth-Type Planets.......................................................... 117
5.3.4  The Giant Planets................................................................... 120
5.3.5  Asteroids, Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), and Comets............ 120
5.3.6  Characteristic Differences Between
the Earth and Other Planets.................................................... 121
5.4  Chapter Summary............................................................................... 122
References................................................................................................... 123

6  Evolution of the Earth System................................................................. 125

6.1  Geochronology................................................................................... 125
6.1.1  Relative Age Dating............................................................... 126
6.1.2  Radiometric (Absolute) Age Dating...................................... 126
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System......................................... 129
6.2.1  Formation of Early Earth
(About 4.6–3.0 Billion Years Ago)........................................ 129
6.2.2  From 3.0 to 2.0 Billion Years Ago......................................... 135
6.2.3  2.0 Billion Years Ago to Present............................................ 138
6.2.4  Origin of Life......................................................................... 142
6.2.5  Extraterrestrial Life................................................................ 144
6.2.6  The Biosphere Deep Underground......................................... 145
6.2.7  The Evolution of Life............................................................. 146
6.2.8  Mass Extinction...................................................................... 147
6.2.9  Climate Change in the Tertiary and Quaternary.................... 150
6.2.10  Anthropogenic Influence on the
Earth’s Changing Environment.............................................. 152
6.2.11  Prediction of Earth’s Environment in the Future................. 153
6.3  Chapter Summary............................................................................... 155
References................................................................................................... 156

7  A Modern View on Nature and Humans................................................ 159

7.1  Anthropocentrism............................................................................... 159
7.2  Naturecentrism................................................................................... 160
xii Contents

7.3  A New View of Nature and Humans.................................................. 161

7.3.1  Earth Environment Co-oriented Society................................ 161
7.3.2  Earth and Planetary System Science...................................... 162
7.4  Chapter Summary............................................................................... 163
References................................................................................................... 163

Afterword......................................................................................................... 165

Index................................................................................................................. 169
Chapter 1
Introduction to Earth and Planetary System
Science: A New View of the Earth, Planets,
and Humans

Earth and planetary system science has been developing very rapidly recently due
to (1) the establishment of plate tectonics and development of plume tectonics that
provide explanations for the movement of the solid earth, (2) development of obser-
vation technologies and analysis of the earth and other planets, and (3) considerable
research into the interactions between nature and humans such as the earth’s envi-
ronmental, resources, and disaster problems.
Plate tectonics can explain geological processes in the earth’s solid surface envi-
ronment, but cannot describe what occurs deep in the earth’s interior, in the mantle
and core. Recently, the concept of plume tectonics was proposed, resulting in a bet-
ter understanding of the dynamics of the earth’s interior and the genesis of earth-
type planets. The development of observation and analysis technologies is
accelerating, and this development may become very rapid in the near future. For
example, simulations of global material circulation between the fluid and solid parts
of the earth could be used to elucidate the origin and evolution of the earth and
planets. The interaction between humans and nature poses more difficulties than the
other two developments noted above because current methodologies do not yet
offer solutions to its problems. With this purpose in mind, scientific understanding
of the earth and other planets is the first step. Earth itself is not independent from
any external system. It interacts with other bodies and is open to energy and mass
exchange with the outside. The earth and planets did not form in isolation. The
earth’s history is intimately related to other planets in the solar system, and we need
to know that history as well as the earth’s present-day conditions to truly understand
our own planet. Knowledge about the other planets has been expanding rapidly in
recent years. Therefore, in this book the features of the earth, together with those of
the other planets, will be described and the relationship between them will be con-
sidered. We present basic information about the earth and planets (e.g. their con-
stituents and chemical and isotopic compositions) and describe the interactions in
the earth/planets system. Recently, the earth itself as a system, particularly at the

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_1, © Springer 2012
2 1  Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science…

surface, environment has been modified by human activity. Thus, nature–human

interactions will also be considered. Then, a new view of the earth, planets and
humans will be presented.

Keywords  Catastrophism • Earth and planetary system science • Earth system

• Earth’s environment • Nature–humans interactions • Uniformitarianism

1.1 What Is the Earth and Planetary System?

1.1.1 Hierarchy in the Earth and Planetary System

The atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere (lithosphere), which are the
main components of the earth, interact with each other. Thus, we can regard the earth
as a system. The earth system is composed of subsystems (reservoirs) such as the
atmosphere (thermosphere, mesosphere, and troposphere), the hydrosphere (seawater
and terrestrial waters), and lithosphere (geosphere) (crust, mantle, and core) (Fig. 1.1).
Each subsystem is divided into several parts. For example, the crust is divided into
oceanic crust and continental crust. Oceanic crust is composed of basalt and ultrama-
fic rocks, while continental crust contains granitic rocks, volcanic rocks (basalt,
andesite, dacite, and rhyolite), sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These
rocks, in turn, consist of minerals, and minerals are composed of elements. Therefore,
the earth system can be characterized as a hierarchy (Fig. 1.2). Most of the planets
in the solar system have an atmosphere and a solid portion made of silicates and/or
metals (Fig. 1.3). Water in the solar system is mostly in its solid state (ice) except in
the surface environment of the earth where liquid water is present.

1.1.2 Interactions Between Subsystems

Heat and mass transfer occur between subsystems. For example, in recent years,
anthropogenic emission of CO2 gas to the atmosphere due to human activity (i.e.
burning of fossil fuel) has been increasing. The increase in atmospheric CO2 con-
centration causes an increase in the CO2 concentration of seawater. This kind of
mass transfer between the atmosphere and seawater is always occurring.
Heat also transfers between subsystems. For example, magma ascends from
deeper parts of the earth associated with heat and mass transfer. Magma is generally
generated in the upper and lower mantle. For example, generation of hot spot magma
as seen in Hawaii is related to plume activity. Lower mantle exchanges heat and
mass with the core. Hydrothermal solutions also transfer significant amounts of heat
and mass in relatively shallower parts of the crust (generally less than 10 km). These
examples illustrate how heat and mass are exchanged continuously between subsys-
tems in the earth system.
1.1  What Is the Earth and Planetary System? 3

Thermosphere

Mesosphere
Atmosphere
Stratosphere

Troposphere

Seawater Biosphere
Hydrosphere
Terrestrial Water

Oceanic Crust
Crust
Continental Crust

Upper Mantle
Lithosphere Mantle
Lower Mantle

Outer Core
Core
Inner Core

Fig. 1.1  Constituents of earth system

1.1.3 Earth as a System

It is essential to understand the general principle of a system to understand the earth

and planetary system. Generally, “open” and “closed” systems are defined as those
that exchange heat and mass with other systems and systems that do not, respec-
tively (Fig.  1.4). The forces that drive heat and mass transfer include chemical
potential and temperature and pressure gradients. They cause diffusion, reaction
and advection (flow). The characteristics of the earth as a system and its subsystems
(its compositional and spatial distributions) change irreversibly over time due to
heat and mass exchange. These temporal changes are represented by differential
equations. The most important purpose of earth and planetary system sciences is to
elucidate the irreversible changes that the system undergoes. The first step in this
4 1  Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science…

Fig. 1.2  Hierarchy of nature

Universe
(modified after Hirose 1987) 1025
m

Galaxy
1020

1 Light- Steller
1015 year
Solar system
Sun-earth
1010
Moon-earth
Radius of earth
105
1km Mt. Fuji

1 1m Human
1cm
Mineral
10-5 Cell
1µm

10-10 1å Atom

Nucleus
10-15 Elementary Particle

Fig. 1.3  Relative sizes km

and structures of the inner, Crust
6000
terrestrial planets, and of the
Mantle
moon (Meadow and Solomon
1984; Ernst 2000) 4000

2000 Core

0
Moon Mercury Mars Venus Earth

Open system Closed system

C1, C2, C3, Heat, Material C1, C2, C3, Heat, Material

External system External system

Cn, Cn,
Cn : Component

Fig. 1.4  Open system and closed system C1, C2, …, Cn, …: component
1.2  What Is the Earth’s Environment? 5

endeavor is to describe the natural system from various points of view (geology,
chemistry, physics, biology, etc.). Then modeling of the system is required. Various
models such as time-independent and dependent models, linear and nonlinear mod-
els, and deterministic and probabilistic models have been used to simulate the earth
as a system. Therefore, first, we have to decide which model we should choose.
In the field of earth and planetary system sciences, the following should be inves-
tigated: (1) Different kinds of subsystems (e.g. the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
geosphere), (2) subsystem components (rocks, minerals, ions, complexes, colloids,
etc.), (3) the chemical and physical states of the components of the subsystems (e.g.
temperature, pressure, chemical, and isotopic composition), (4) interactions between
subsystems (input and output fluxes of mass and energy), (5) the changes in subsys-
tems’ characteristics over time, and (6) the mechanisms of mass and heat transfer
that determine flux caused by diffusion, reaction, and advection.
There are various interactions between subsystems. We discuss the chemical
reactions between aqueous solutions and the solid phase (water–rock interactions)
in detail in this text. More detailed discussions on mass transfer mechanisms can be
found in “Chemistry of Earth Systems” and “Environmental Geochemistry of the
Earth System” published by the author (Shikazono 1997, 2010).

1.2 What Is the Earth’s Environment?

The time scale used to discuss “earth’s environmental problems” is generally short
compared with the history of the earth from its origin to its present state. “Earth’s
environment” is influenced by direct interaction between nature and humans. We
call this viewpoint “earth’s environment in a narrow sense”, and will discuss it in
Chap. 4. We will also consider the long-term, global scale earth environment, which
we term the “earth’s environment in a broad sense” (Fig. 1.5) in more detail.

Earth environment
in broad sense
Universe
Earth environment
in narrow sense
Earth
Spatial scale

Mineral

Atom
Fig. 1.5  Earth environments
in a narrow sense and a broad
sense in spatial scale and
temporal scale diagram Formation Formation Present Future
of universe of earth
(Shikazono 1992) Time scale
6 1  Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science…

Global
CO2 variation Composition Origin of
Global of atmosphere earth and life
climate
10 000km system Plate tectonics
Glacier Mantle convection
Ocean Mountain building
circulation
1 000km Mass extinction
Formation
Spatial Scale

of soil
100km
Plant Metallogenesis
Earthquake seasonal
cycle cycle
10km Volcanic Nutrient
eruption cycle
Atmospheric
1km circulation

Local
1s 1min 1day 1y 100yrs 104yrs 106yrs 109yrs
Temporal scale

Fig. 1.6  Relationship between spatial scale and temporal scale for the geologic events and envi-
ronmental problems (modified after NASA 1986)

Figure  1.6 shows the relationship between geologic events and environmental
problems and the temporal and spatial scales of the earth’s environment as discussed
in this book.

1.3 Development of Earth and Planetary System Science

1.3.1 Geology, Geochemistry, and Geophysics

Geology started in Ancient Greece. In its early stages, geology developed in rela-
tionship with mining activity. Agricola (1494–1555), a pioneer in mineralogy, who
was born in Sachsen, southern Germany, described and classified minerals. At that
time, the differences between rocks, minerals and fossils was not recognized.
Agricola called them all “fossils”. In the eighteenth century, the geological study of
rocks began. James Hutton (1726–1797) studied mineralogy and geology in
Edinburgh, Scotland. He (1788) emphasized the importance of igneous activity in
the formation of rocks. His theory is called “plutonism”. In contrast, A. G. Werner
(1749–1817) of the Bergakademie Freiberg mining school in Germany thought that
all types of rocks formed in oceans. His theory is called “neptunism”. After consid-
erable debate between plutonists and neptunists, neptunism was defeated ca. 1820.
Hutton thought geologic events were the accumulation of present-day geologic
1.3  Development of Earth and Planetary System Science 7

phenomena that change very slowly. His manner of thinking led to Charles Lyell’s
(1830) “uniformitarianism”. Lyell’s theory can be represented by the phrase “the
present is a key to the past” which means that present and past geologic events are
both governed by the same rules. Uniformitarianism significantly influenced
Darwin’s theory of evolution. “Catastrophism” is a theory from the early nineteenth
century by G. D. Cuvie (1769–1832) that contrasts with uniformitarianism. An
example of catastrophism is the story of Atlantis which tells us that Atlantis, which
lay somewhere in the mid-Atlantic ocean sank suddenly to the seafloor one night
12,000 years ago because of an earthquake and volcanic eruption. This theory was
also consistent with Noah’s Ark of the Old Testament. Later, when a method for
determining the earth’s age was developed, it became clear that earth has been
changing for around 4.6 billion years, so uniformitarianism appeared to be more
plausible than catastrophism. However, recent findings of an iridium-rich layer at
the unconformity between the Cretaceous and Tertiary ages and evidence of a mass
extinction at that time (Alvarez et al. 1980), neither of which are known to be occur-
ring at the present time, can be explained by catastrophism (a bolide impact) and not
by uniformitarianism. After the middle of the nineteenth century, geology and min-
eralogy developed a great deal through the use of analytical equipment. For exam-
ple, minerals came to be identified using the optical properties they exhibit under
the microscope. Also, the X-ray diffraction method came to be used for determining
crystal structures. Numerous chemical analyses of rocks and minerals were per-
formed. For example, V.M. Goldschmidt (1888–1947) investigated metamorphic
rocks and classified the elements they contain as siderophile (Fe, Co, Ni, etc.), chal-
cophile (Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd, Hg, etc.), lithophile (alkali earth, rare earth, etc.), and
atmophile (H, N, C, (O), and inert gases (Ar, Xe, etc.)). Geochemistry began in the
nineteenth century and developed in the early twentieth century. Harold Urey
(1893–1981) established isotope geochemistry in middle of the twentieth century.
Geophysics began late in the nineteenth century. One early development in that
field was when Lord Kelvin (William Thompson) (1867–1934) estimated the age of
earth to be 2 × 107 years based on calculations of the thermal history starting with
the earth as a molten body. In 1896, Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852–1908) discov-
ered radioactivity. After the discovery of radium by Pierre Curie (1859–1906) and
Marie Curie (1867–1934) in 1898, many radioactive elements were discovered and
ages of the earth’s solid materials were determined using various radioactive meth-
ods such as U-Pb dating. Since that time, considerable numbers of geophysical stud-
ies on the thermal structure of the earth and seismic and electromagnetic observations
have been carried out. In the 1940s and 1950s, global weather forecasting began.
Plate tectonic theory, which synthesized the solid earth sciences (geology, geophys-
ics, etc.), was proposed in the 1960s. By the 1980s, it was an established theory that
aided understanding of the dynamic solid earth (e.g. mountain building and earth-
quakes). Plate tectonics, however, focuses on earth’s solid surface, mainly the crust,
and cannot explain activity deeper in the earth’s interior, in the mantle and core.
Recently, the theory of plume tectonics was proposed to explain the earth’s interior
dynamics. It is noteworthy that igneous activities in the terrestrial planets in the
solar system like Venus and Mars can be explained by this theory.
8 1  Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science…

1.3.2 A New View of the Earth, Planets, and Humans:

Earth and Planetary System Science

Recently, the field called “earth system science”, which integrates various fields of
earth science including geophysics, geology, geochemistry, geography, meteorol-
ogy, oceanography, etc. has been developed. The concept of earth system science
was proposed by NASA (1986). The author published “An Introduction to Earth
System Science” (Shikazono 1992) and “The Chemistry of the Earth System”
(Shikazono 1997, 2010). Earth system science as treated by the author is a wider
field than NASA’s; we treat not only earth’s surface environment, which is NASA’s
main focus, but also earth’s interior, how the earth has changed over time (history,
evolution) and nature—human interactions such as use of resources and environ-
mental problems. In the United States, starting in the late 1990s after NASA’s
proposal, several books on earth system sciences were published (Gradel and
Crutzen 1993; Stanley 1998; Kump et al. 1999; Skinner et al. 1999; Jacobsen et al.
2000; Ernst 2000; Rollinson 2003). These books focus mainly on the global mate-
rial cycle, biogeochemical cycle, ocean system and interactions between the atmo-
sphere, biosphere, ocean, and the earth’s surface environment. Earth system science
as envisioned by NASA (1986) focuses on technological management of the global
system. This has resulted in an insufficient understanding of humans and the bio-
sphere and diversity in the earth system (Sacks 2002). Along with its focus on the
development of technology, NASA (1986) bases its concept of the earth system on
the delineation of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere in the earth sys-
tem, Suess’s (1875) idea of the biosphere coined by Vernadsky (1926, 1997), and
Hutton’s (1788) characterization of the earth as a “superorganism”. It is important
to review these early studies for their views and concepts of the earth and its
subsystems.
In Japan several important works were published before NASA (1986) that
regarded earth as a system. These works include Shimazu (1967, 1969), Takeuchi
and Shimazu (1969), Makino (1983), Hamada (1986), and Hanya and Akiyama
(1989). For example, Shimazu (1967) emphasized that nature is seamless, meaning
natural phenomena interrelate with earth other. Takeuchi and Shimazu (1969)
divided earth science development into three generations: first—description and
classification, second—analysis and reduction, and third—integration. Third gen-
eration earth science is systems engineering on earth. In 2005, the earth and plane-
tary union was created by the Japan Geoscience Union to establish earth and
planetary system science.
The content of this book is consistent with the development of earth and plane-
tary system science. In Chap. 2, the material aspects of the constituents (subsys-
tems) of the earth system are described. In Chap. 3, the dynamical aspects of the
solid and fluid portions of the earth (global cycles of solids and fluids, plate tecton-
ics and plume tectonics) are considered. Chapter 4 covers basic nature–human inter-
actions (disasters, resources, and environmental problems). In Chaps. 5 and 6,
historical changes in the solar system, planets and the earth and the evolution of
References 9

the  earth and planetary system are reviewed and described. In Chap. 7, modern
views on nature, the earth and planets are summarized, and the author’s new idea of
“earth’s environmental co-oriented society” will be presented.

1.4 Chapter Summary

1. The entire earth can be regarded as a system that we call the “earth system”. The
earth system consists of several subsystems: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, bio-
sphere, humans, and lithosphere (geosphere). The earth is open to other planets
with regard to mass and energy flow so the system that comprises the earth and
planets in the solar system is called the “earth and planetary system”.
2. These subsystems interact with each other, and each subsystem is open to mass
and energy flow to and from other systems.
3. The characteristics of the subsystems and the earth and planetary system change
irreversibly over various temporal and spatial scales.
4. There are two ways of viewing the environment: considering it in a narrow sense
or a broad sense. We focus here on the environment of the earth in a broad sense
from its origin through the present to the future and from local to global scales.
5. Descriptive, analytical and static studies on the earth and planets were done in
the early stages of earth sciences. Recently, research in the field has developed
into genetic, historical, dynamic, and integrated studies. In the 1990s, earth sys-
tem science was established by unifying many fields of earth sciences, and in the
early 2000s, earth system science is evolving into earth and planetary system
science, focusing on the interaction between humans and nature as well as the
interactions between non-human subsystems and the irreversible evolution of the
earth and other planets.

References

Alvarez LW, Alvarez W, Asaro F, Michel HV (1980) Extraterrestrial cause for the cretaceous-
tertiary extinction. Science 208:1095–1108
Ernst WG (ed) (2000) Earth system. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Gradel TE, Crutzen DJ (1993) Atmospheric change—an Earth system perspective. W. H. Freeman
& Co, New York
Hamada T (1986) Invitation to Earth science. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Hanya T, Akiyama N (1986) Human, society and Earth. Kagakudojin, Kyoto (in Japanese)
Hirose M (1987) Onion structure of nature. Kyoritsu Press, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Hutton J (1788) Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition,
dissolution and restoration of land upon the globe. R Soc Edin Trans 1:209–304
Jacobsen MC, Charlsn RI, Rodhe H, Orians GH (2000) Earth system science, International
geophysics series. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam, 72 pp
Kump LR, Kasting JR, Crane RG (1999) The Earth system. Rearsen Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Lyell C (1830) Principles of geology, vol 1 (London; J. Murrray, 1830: reprint, University of
Chicago Press, Chicago: 1990)
10 1  Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science…

Makino T (1983) Introduction to Earth—human system science. Central Press (in Japanese)
NASA (1986) Earth system science—overview—a program for global change. Earth System
Sciences Committee, NASA Advisory Council, Washington
Rollinson H (2003) Early Earth systems. Blackwell, Oxford
Sacks W (2002) Planet dialectics, explorations in environment and development. Shin–Hyoron
(trans: Kawamura K, Murai Yl) (in Japanese)
Shikazono N (1992) Introduction to Earth system science. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo (in
Japanese)
Shikazono N (1997) Chemistry of Earth system. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Shikazono N (2010) Environmental geochemistry of Earth system. University of Tokyo Press,
Tokyo (in Japanese)
Shimazu Y (1967) Evolution of Earth. Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Skinner BJ, Porter SG, Botkin DB (1999) The Blue Planet. An introduction to Earth system sci-
ence, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York
Stanley SM (1998) Earth system history. W. H. Freeman & Co, New York
Suess E (1875) Die Enstehung der Alpen (The Origin of the Alps). W. Braunmuller, Vienna
Takeuchi H, Shimazu Y (1969) Modern Earth science. Chikuma Shobo, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Vernadsky VI (1926) La Geochimie. Librairie. Felix Alcan
Vernadsky VI (1997) The biosphere (Langmuir DB, trans: revised and annotated by MAS
McMenamin). Copernicus Books, New York
Chapter 2
Components of the Earth System

The earth and planets in the solar system are characterized by their vertical zonal
structure. The structure and composition of the earth are briefly summarized below.
The earth can be divided into two parts: the fluid earth and the solid earth. The
fluid earth consists of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. The atmosphere is mostly in
a gaseous state, mainly consisting of N2 and O2. The hydrosphere is mainly water
(H2O) with many components dissolved in it. Most of the crust, mantle, and core are
in a solid state. However, liquid (magma) exists in the crust, mantle, and outer core.
It is primarily liquid Fe and Ni mixed with less than 10% light elements (O, H, S,
Si, and K) by weight.
This chapter describes the characteristics of the fluid earth (the atmosphere and
hydrosphere), the solid earth (the crust, mantle, and core), and earth’s surface envi-
ronment (the soils and biosphere).
The origins and formation processes of these structures are considered in Chap. 6.

Keywords  Atmosphere • Biosphere • Cosmic abundant of elements • Geosphere

• Ground water • Hydrosphere • Meteorites • Riverwater • Rocks • Seawater

2.1 Fluid Earth

2.1.1 The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a thin envelope of gases surrounding the solid earth (Fig. 2.1).
The temperature and composition of the atmosphere are distributed heterogeneously,
and their variations can be used to subdivide the atmosphere into the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere (Fig.  2.2). The troposphere, which
extends from the surface 10–15 km upward, is a region of intense convective mix-
ing. In the troposphere, the temperature decreases with altitude due to expansion of
air heated at the surface. In the stratosphere the temperature increases with ­increasing

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 11

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_2, © Springer 2012
12 2  Components of the Earth System

Atmosphere
Fluid
earth
Hydrosphere Biosphere, Humans

Crust

Upper mantle

Solid
earth Lower mantle

Outer core
Inner core

Fig. 2.1  Vertical zonal structure of earth

120
Thermosphere
100
mesopause
80

Mesosphere
60
Altitude (km)

stratopause
40 ozone
layer Stratosphere
20
10 cumulonimbus tropopause
cloud

Troposphere
altocumulus Mt. Everest
5 cloud

stratus cloud
0
160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Temperature (K)

Fig. 2.2  The average vertical variation of temperature as a function of altitude in the earth’s atmo-
sphere (Chameides and Perdue 1997)

altitude up to approximately −2°C at 50  km above the surface from −50°C at

10–15 km above the surface. This is due to solar ultraviolet radiation and absorption
of infrared radiation by ozone in the stratosphere. In the mesosphere, which ranges
from about 50–90  km above the surface, the temperature decreases rapidly with
altitude, caused by a rapidly decreasing ozone concentration.
In the thermosphere, above about 90 km from the surface, the temperature of the
constituent gases again increases with altitude, reaching to 1,200°C at 500 km from
2.1  Fluid Earth 13

Table 2.1  Compositions of earth’s atmosphere (Kawamura and Iwaki 1988)

Constant component Variable component
Volume (%) Volume (ppm) Source Atmosphere
N2 78.084 ± 0.004 O3 Ultraviolet ray 0–0.07 ppm (summer)
O2 20.746 ± 0.002 0–0.02 ppm (winter)
CO2 0.033 ± 0.001 SO2 Industry 0–1 ppm
Ar 0.934 ± 0.001 NO2 Industry 0–0.02 ppm
Ne 18.18 ± 0.04 Oxidation of Not certain
biogenic CH2O
He 5.24 ± 0.004
Kr 1.14 ± 0.014 I2 Industry Less than 10−4 g/m3
Xe 0.087 ± 0.001 NaCl Seasalt 10−4 g/m3
H2 0.5 NH3 Industry 0-trace
CH4 2 CO Industry 0-trace
N2O 0.5 ± 0.1 H2O Evaporation 0.35 g/m3

the surface. At that height, solar ultraviolet radiation photons associated with light
of wavelength less than about 120 mm are largely absorbed by O2 and N2 in the
thermosphere and converted to heat.
The atmosphere is mostly composed of three elements—nitrogen (N), oxygen
(O), and argon (Ar)—with minor concentrations of other elements and compounds
(Table 2.1).
The concentration of the major components (N2, O2, and Ar) is relatively
­constant, mixed by convection currents from the surface to an altitude of about
80  km. The concentration is particularly uniform up to about 12  km above the
­surface. In contrast, at 100 km above the surface, the concentration of N2 is smaller,
while H2 and He concentrations are larger than at lower altitudes.
Data available on the concentrations of minor and trace gases—H2, N2O, Xe,
CO, O3, NH3, CH2O, NO, NO2, SO2, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCl3, CF2Cl2), carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4), and methyl chloride (CH3Cl)—in the atmosphere is very sparse
compared with information about the major components. Recently, data on minor
and trace components consisting of aerosols and solid and liquid particles in
­suspension in the air have been obtained. Aerosols include particles derived natu-
rally from weathering, volcanic ash, marine salt (NaCl), etc., sulfate particles from
dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and anthropogenic particles from the burning of biomass
and fossil fuels. Much of the minor and trace components and aerosols are of human
origin, such as emissions from factories, cars, power plants, etc. They are heteroge-
neously distributed in the atmosphere and so are called variable components. The
concentrations of the major components are relatively constant so they are called
constant components. The average concentrations of the major and minor compo-
nents in the atmosphere are shown in Table 2.1. The heterogeneous concentrations
of the minor components are caused by their varying sources and high rates of
dissolution into rainwater.
For example, SO2 gas contained in emissions from factories is soluble in rainwater,
as is HCl. These gases are removed from the atmosphere quickly. The solubility of
14 2  Components of the Earth System

Table 2.2  Abundance of water in the hydrosphere (modified after Skinner 1976)
Place Amount (l) (%)
Fresh lake 125 × 1015 0.009
Saline lake and island sea 104 × 1015 0.008
Average riverwater 1 × 1015 0.0001
Soil water 67 × 1015 0.005
Shallow ground water (less than 80 m depth) 4,170 × 1015 0.31
Deep ground water 4,170 × 1015 0.31
Glacier 29,000 × 1015 2.15
Atmosphere 13 × 1015 0.001
Ocean 1,320,000 × 1015 97.2

Table 2.3  Average Cl− 19.353

composition of major Na+ 10.766
elements in seawater (salinity
SO42− 2.708
35‰) (Nishimura 1991)
Mg2+ 1.293
Ca2+ 0.413
K+ 0.403
CO32− 0.142
Br− 0.674
a
HCO3− is included in CO32−

gases in water is highly dependant on the gas species. Solubility differences also cause
minor and trace components in the atmosphere to be heterogeneously distributed.

2.1.2 The Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere consists of all the water on the earth. Earth’s water is mostly com-
posed of seawater, terrestrial waters, including riverwater, lakewater, ground water,
etc., and frozen water in the polar ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers. The earth’s
water is 97% is seawater and 2% frozen water (Table 2.2).

2.1.2.1 Seawater

Seawater has a relatively constant composition (Table  2.3) compared with other
geologic bodies (e.g. rocks, terrestrial waters). Seawater near the coasts and in the
open sea have different compositions. The salinity of seawater near the coast is
lower than that in the open sea mainly because of riverine input.
Seawater in closed areas like bays or inland seas is generally anoxic due to the
consumption of O2 dissolved in the seawater by the oxidation of organic matter.
The temperature of seawater varies as a function of depth. In shallower zones
(from 100 to 1,000 m deep) the water temperature is high, while in deeper zones it is
2.1  Fluid Earth 15

cold. The temperature in shallow seawater changes rapidly between 100 and 1,000 m
in depth. The shallow layer above the zone where the temperature change occurs is
called surface layer seawater and the layer below it is called deep layer seawater.
The average composition of the major elements in seawater is presented in
Table 2.3. Na+ is the most abundant cation but Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ are also found in
high concentrations. Cl− is the most highly concentrated anion. The concentration of
sulfate (SO42−) is also high. The sum of the concentrations of the six components
listed above exceeds 99.81% of the total concentration of dissolved species. Seawater
concentrations are relatively constant compared with the concentrations in terres-
trial waters, but this varies by location and depth. For example, the pH of surface
seawater is about 8.2, but the pH decreases with depth, because of the formation of
calcium carbonate by marine organisms like coral, foraminifers, and urchins, which
proceeds according to the following reactions:

Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - ® CaCO3 + H 2 O + CO2

CO2 + H 2 O ® H + + HCO3 -

The dissolution of calcium carbonate, which is written as

CaCO3 + H + ® Ca 2 + + HCO3 -

causes the pH to increase.
The concentrations of the minor elements vary with depth. There are three types
of this variation. The first is where a concentration is constant with depth (e.g. U and
Mo). This type of elements forms stable complexes. The second variation is where
a concentration increases with depth. Most elements (30 elements) belong to this
type. Their chemical features are similar to nutrient elements, (N, P, and Si), which
are used in biological processes, so this is called the nutrient type. The third varia-
tion is represented by Al and Pb, which are abundant in the shallow layer and
depleted in the deep layer. They are removed by scavenging and their residence time
(the ratio of the total quantity of any component to its rate of input or output) is short
(Al: 102 years, Pb: 102.6 years) (Holland 1978). The concentrations of elements in
seawater are governed mainly by biological activity, interaction with sediments, and
the reactions involving CO2.

2.1.2.2 Riverwater

Ca2+ has the highest concentration among all the cations in riverwater (Table 2.4).
Ca2+ is derived from the dissolution of calcium carbonate (calcite) in limestone and Ca
silicates in rocks. This is represented by the reaction

(CaO) + 2H 2 CO3 ® Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - + H 2 O

where (CaO) is the CaO component in minerals.
16 2  Components of the Earth System

Table 2.4  Average chemical composition of riverwater (mg/l). Japanese

­riverwater; Kobayashi (1960), World ­riverwater; Livingstone (1983)
Japan World Japan World
Na+ 6.7   6.3 HCO3− 31.0 58.4
K+ 1.19   2.3 SO42− 10.6 11.2
Mg2+ 1.9   4.0 Fe   0.24   0.67
Ca2+ 8.8 15.0 SiO2 19.0 13.1
Cl− 5.8   7.8

Mg2+, K+, and Na+ are also derived mainly from silicates. HCO3− is the most
abundant anion. Two thirds of the HCO3− in riverwater is derived from atmospheric
CO2, plant decomposition, and photosynthesis, and a small proportion comes from
the oxidation of organic matter in sediments.
Riverwater originates as rainwater, ground water, spring water, and surface water.
The mixing ratio of these waters determines the chemical composition of riverwater.
The chemical composition of major elements such as Si in ground water and spring
water are considerably influenced by water–rock interaction and the geology of the
watershed. Rainwater penetrates deeper underground, which brings it to react with
the surrounding soils and rocks. During these reactions, cations like Ca2+ and Na+
are released from the soils and rocks. The concentrations of the cations are largely
dependant on the kinds of rocks and minerals with which the water comes in con-
tact. In contrast, if the time that it takes for rainwater to reach the river is very short,
the chemical composition of the riverwater is not so different from that of the rain-
water. In watershed where limestone is widely distributed, the chemical composi-
tion of riverwater comes close to an equilibrium state with respect to carbonates.
Seawater salt particles in the atmosphere influence the chemical composition of
riverwater near the sea coast. For example, the concentrations of Na+ and Cl− in the
riverwater on Japanese Islands surrounded by the ocean are high (Table 2.4). Hot
springs and volcanic gases related to volcanic activity also influence riverwater
chemistry. For example, the acidity of riverwater is enhanced by inputs from hot
springs, volcanic gases, and sublimates such as native sulfur. Anthropogenic activi-
ties influence the chemical composition of riverwater in urban area to a considerable
degree due to inputs of various waste waters and wastes. Acid rain also has an
effect, reducing the pH of riverwater (Sect. 4.4.3).

2.1.2.3 Ground Water

Ground water is water that originated as rainwater that penetrated underground.

During the penetration and flow of ground water, water reacts with the surrounding
rocks and soils, causing changes in the chemical composition of the water (Fig. 2.3).
The chemical composition of ground water is determined by the kinds of rocks and
minerals it encounters, reaction time, and flow rate. The reaction time and flow rate
depend on chemical and physical properties of the rocks, especially grain size,
2.1  Fluid Earth 17

Lowland artesian basin Upland recharge area

Water table

Flowing artesian well

Aquiclude

Aquifer
Point of entry of
Confined water water into well
reservoir

Aquiclude (impermeable bed)

Fig. 2.3  A confined water reservoir is created where water enters an aquifer sandwiched between
two confining aquifers. The artesian well flows in response to the pressure difference between the
height of the water table in the recharge area and the bottom of the well before the well as drilled
(Holland and Petersen 1995)

porosity, and permeability. These properties vary widely so the chemical composi-
tions of ground water are different in different areas. The chemical properties of
rainwater also control the chemical composition of ground water. Rainwater is usu-
ally slightly acidic (pH ~ 5.6) due to the dissolution of atmospheric CO2. Recently,
acid rain caused by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels has become
common (Sect. 4.4.3). This acid rain penetrates underground, resulting in the release
of various elements from minerals and enhancement of pH by the reaction
(Fig. 2.4)

MO + 2H + ® M 2 + + H 2 O

where MO is the MO component in a mineral, and M is a divalent cation (e.g. Ca2+
and Mg2+). and

CaCO3 + H 2 CO3 ® Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 -

MgCO3 + H 2 CO3 ® Mg2 + + 2HCO3 -

Deep ground water is sometimes in equilibrium with rocks and minerals, whether
they be silicates (montmorillonite, kaolinite, feldspar, and opal) or carbonates (calcite
and dolomite). Ground water with slow flow rates and long reaction times tends to
achieve equilibrium, while the high flow rates and short reaction times in shallow
ground water systems do not.
18 2  Components of the Earth System

Rain water (weakly acidic)

CO2

CO2 is produced by bacterial activity Surface soil

Rain water (pH~5.7) + CO2 pH~4.7

Dissolution of silicates

[M(SiO4)]x + H2CO3 Mn+HCO3-+ [H(SiO4)]x

Mn+=K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+

Lower soil
pH increases due to the reaction with silicate rocks and limestone

Limestone
(CaCO3)
Fracture

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca2+ + 2HCO-3

MgCO3 + H2CO3 Mg2+ + 2HCO- 3

Fig. 2.4  Penetration of rainwater into soil and rocks and reactions between water and rocks

2.1.2.4 Classification of Earth’s Water

Various kinds of water are distributed in the earth system. They include seawater,
riverwater, ground water, lakewater, soilwater, water in organisms, water in minerals,
and rainwater. Water exists not only in the hydrosphere; but also in the atmosphere as
rainwater, snow, fog, hail, and water vapor; the lithosphere as water adsorbed onto min-
erals, water in crystal structures, and fluid inclusions in crystals; and the biosphere.
The abundance of types of water in earth’s system is shown in Table 2.2. The
most abundant is seawater (97%). The other relatively abundant types are terrestrial
water (ground water, riverwater, and lakewater) and ice (glaciers and ice sheets).
The other types occur in very small amounts, but they are used in various fields as
water resources (Sect. 4.4.5).

2.2 Solid Earth (the Geosphere)

2.2.1 The Earth’s Interior Structure

Direct and indirect approaches can be used to estimate the composition and structure
of the earth’s interior. Drillholes, xenoliths in volcanic rocks, and geological surveys of
the earth’s surface tell us directly about the composition of the earth’s interior.
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 19

The deepest people have drilled is about 10 km. However, there is a plan to drill
deeper for the purpose of seismic study and exploration of mineral and fossil fuel
resources in Japan. If this plan is implemented, we may get more information on
deeper parts of the earth. However, drilling data cannot give us three-dimensional
information on the earth’s interior. A xenolith is a rock fragment contained in igne-
ous rocks that are derived from magma deeper in the interior. We can know about
mantle material from xenoliths. They are usually composed of olivine, and so are
called olivine nodules. The distribution of olivine nodules is very restricted, and so
they do not provide information on the composition of the entire mantle.
In contrast, indirect approaches give us useful data on large parts of the earth’s
interior. These include high temperature and pressure experiments, and gravity,
seismic, and electric conductivity measurements.
A phase diagram for minerals can be constructed based on high temperature and
pressure experiments examining the stability of minerals. From the phase diagrams
and the mineralogy of xenoliths, we can estimate the temperature and pressure con-
ditions under which the xenolith material formed. Igneous rocks form by the solidi-
fication of magma. Data from the combination of high temperature and pressure
experiments with mineralogy can provide the information necessary to deduce the
temperature and pressure of the magma from which igneous rocks formed. However,
magmatic composition is not identical to that of the mantle material. It depends on
the degree of melting, temperature, pressure, and source materials.
Seismic waves are the most useful tool for deciphering the structure of earth’s
interior. An earthquake generates various kinds of waves. These seismic waves
include surface waves, which travel only across the surface, and body waves which
travel through the earth’s interior. Among the waves, P waves (primary waves) and
S waves (secondary waves) are useful in understanding the earth’s interior. The
velocities of P and S waves depend on the density and elastic constants of the mate-
rial through which they pass, and they are subject to reflection and refraction at
surfaces of discontinuity. From the relationship between the velocities of P and S
waves and depth, we know discontinuities exist in the earth’s interior (Fig. 2.5). The
velocities of P and S waves are represented by the equations

Vp 2 = (Ks + 4 / 3m ) / r

Vs2 = m / r

where Vp and Vs are the velocities of P and S waves, respectively, r is the density of
the material, Ks is the bulk modulus, and m is the rigidity. Using these equations,
seismic data and some plausible assumptions of the parameter values, we can deduce
the density and pressure distributions in the earth’s interior.

2.2.2 The Composition of the Crust

The crust extends from the surface of the earth to Mohorovicic’s (Moho’s) discon-
tinuity, which is the first plane of unconformity, or boundary between the mantle
20 2  Components of the Earth System

Upper mantle Crust

(Olivine, pyroxene)

Tra
nsi
tio
Lower man n
tle ( zo
Ox ne
ide
,p
er

ov
sk
Outer c

ite
rus
t(

stru
Li

cture
qu
er crust
Inn

id i

)
(S

ron)
olid iron)
6
5

4
3

2
1

(Unit : 1 000km)

Fig. 2.5  Earth’s interior structure (modified after Sugimura et al. 1988)

and crust. The thickness of the crust varies considerably. Oceanic crust is thin,
between 10 and 13 km deep. Below active mountain belts, however, it can descend
to as deep as 65 km from an average of about 35 km.
The average chemical composition of upper continental crust has been estimated
from large amounts of analytical data on surface rocks and large river sediments
(Table 2.5). From these data it is certain that the average composition of continental
crust is approximately granite:basalt = 1:1.

2.2.3 Composition of the Mantle

The mantle reaches from Mohorovicic’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km. It can

be divided into the upper and lower mantles based on seismic velocity measurements.
The boundary between the upper and lower mantle lies at a depth of about 680 km.
There is a low velocity zone where the velocity of seismic waves is slower than in the
other parts of mantle. This zone is considered to be partially molten. The average
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 21

Table 2.5  Average chemical composition of major elements in upper continental crust (wt%)
(Rudnick and Gao 2004)
Clarke and Goldschmidt Condie Taylor and Wedepohl Rudnick and
Washington (1924) (1933) (1993) McLennan (1985) (1995) Gao (2004)
SiO2 60.30 62.22 67.0 65.89 66.8 66.62
TiO2 1.07 0.83 0.56 0.50 0.54 0.64
Al2O3 15.65 16.63 15.14 15.17 15.05 15.40
FeOt 6.70 6.99 4.76 4.49 4.09 5.04
MnO 0.12 0.12 - 0.07 0.07 0.10
MgO 3.56 3.47 2.45 2.20 2.30 2.48
CaO 5.18 3.23 3.64 4.19 4.24 3.59
Na2O 3.92 2.15 3.55 3.89 3.56 3.27
K2O 3.19 4.13 2.76 3.89 3.19 2.80
P2O5 0.31 0.23 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.15
FeOt: Total iron (FeO + Fe2O3)

Table 2.6  Major element chemical composition of primitive mantle (wt%) (Palme and O’Neil 2004)
Ringwood McDonough Allegre Palme and
(1979) and Sun (1995) et al. (1995) O’Neil (2004)
MgO 38.1 37.8 37.77 36.77 ± 0.44
Al2O3 3.3 4.4 4.09 4.49 ± 0.37
SiO2 45.1 45.0 46.12 45.40 ± 0.30
CaO 3.1 3.5 3.23 3.65 ± 0.31
FeOt 8.0 8.1 7.49 8.10 ± 0.05
Total 97.6 98.8 98.7 98.41 ± 0.10
Primitive mantle: mantle before the separation of crust, FeOt: Total iron (FeO + Fe2O3)

chemical composition of the mantle has been estimated from analytical data on igneous
rocks and xenoliths, high temperature and pressure experiments, and the velocity of
seismic waves. Mineral phases change with depth in the mantle, varying with tem-
perature and pressure (Fig. 2.5). For example, quartz (SiO2) and pyroxene (MgSiO3)
change to stishovite (SiO2) and perovskite (MgSiO3), respectively, under higher pres-
sures. Estimates of the average chemical composition of mantle calculated by previ-
ous researchers are in general agreement with each other (Table  2.6). It has been
generally inferred that the chemical composition of the mantle is relatively uniform.
However, it was found that isotopic compositions of, for example, Pb and Sr in the
mantle are heterogeneous, suggesting varying compositions of major and minor ele-
ments in the mantle. Thus three-dimensional variations in chemical and isotopic
compositions of the mantle and their causes need to be investigated.

2.2.4 The Composition of the Core

The core is the part of the earth deeper than about 2,890 km below the surface. The
core is divided into an inner core and an outer core. S waves do not travel through
the outer core, indicating that the outer core is in a liquid state. The inner core is
22 2  Components of the Earth System

Table 2.7  Estimated composition of major elements (wt%) and minor elements (ppm) core in
(McDonough 2004)
H 600 Zn 0 Pr 0
Li 0 Ga 0 Nd 0
Be 0 Ge 20 Sm 0
B 0 As 5 Eu 0
C (%) 0.12 Se 8 Gd 0
N 75 Br 0.7 Tb 0
O (%) 0 Rb 0 Dy 0
F 0 Sr 0 Ho 0
Na (%) 0 Y 0 Er 0
Mg (%) 0 Zr 0 Tm 0
Al (%) 0 Nb 0 Yb 0
Si (%) 6.0 Mo 5 Lu 0
P (%) 0.20 Ru 4 Hf 0
S (%) 1.90 Rh 0.74 Ta 0
Cl 200 Pd 3.1 W 0.47
K 0 Ag 0.15 Re 0.23
Ca (%) 0 Cd 0.15 Os 2.8
Sc 0 In 0 Ir 2.6
Ti 0 Sn 0.5 Pt 5.7
V 150 Sb 0.13 Au 0.5
Cr (%) 0.90 Te 0.85 Hg 0.05
Mn 300 I 0.13 Tl 0.03
Fe (%) 85.5 Cs 0.065 Pb 0.4
Co 0.25 Ba 0 Bi 0.03
Ni (%) 5.20 La 0 Th 0
Cu 125 Ce 0 U 0

solid, composed predominantly of iron and nickel (Table 2.7). The density of the
inner core is 10% lower than an iron–nickel alloy, indicating that it contains about
8–10% light elements including S, H, O, and Si.

2.2.5 The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Seismic studies have revealed that S wave velocity decreases rapidly at a depth of
about 60–80 km depth. This range is called the low velocity zone. Electric conduc-
tivity also changes here. The lithosphere and asthenosphere are above and below the
low velocity zone, respectively (Fig. 2.6). The part below the asthenosphere is called
the mesosphere (Fig. 2.6). The lithosphere is divided into more than ten plates and
consists of the crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere varies from about 40–100 km
thick, averaging about 70  km. The structure and composition of the lithosphere
lying under oceanic crust is relatively constant, but continental crust is composed of
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 23

Crust
(thickness 10~40km)
Lithosphere
Crust (0~60km)
Mohorovici´cs Asthenosphere
discontinuity (60~250km)
Transition zone
Mantle (depth:1700km and 650km)
Mesosphere
thickness 2650km

Liquid core
Liquid core 1700km
(outer core)
Transition zone
500km
Solid core Solid core
(inner core) 1216km

Fig. 2.6  The structure of earth’s interior (modified after Sullivan 1974). Right side: present-day
view; left side: previous view

various (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary) kinds of rocks. The classification

of the lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mesosphere is consistent with the concept of
plate tectonics and is different from the division of the earth’s interior into only the
crust, mantle, and core. Plate tectonics is described in Sect. 3.4.1.3.

2.2.6 Average Composition of the Earth as a Whole

It is generally said that the earth was formed from chondrites. Chondrites are mainly
composed of silicates, iron sulfide (troilite, FeS), and iron–nickel alloys. They are
primitive meteorites and are characterized by having chondrules, which are small
particles of silicates. We can deduce the average composition of the earth as a whole
from models that begin with the origin of earth and estimates of the relative amounts
and compositions of the mantle and core (Tables 2.6 and 2.7). The alkali element
contents of the earth are relatively smaller than in chondrites and some minor ele-
ments differ from chondrites. However, the earth’s average elemental abundance
has been deduced mainly based on chondrite models (Table 2.8).
By weight, 90% of the entire earth is made up of Fe, O, Si, and Mg. Other elements
over 1% by weight include Na, Ca, Al, and S. K, Cr, Co, P, Mn, and Ti are each 0.1–
1% by weight. Thus the earth is essentially made up of these 14 elements. This is simi-
lar to the overall abundance in the cosmos and the chemical features of meteorites. Fe
and Si occur in cosmic abundances and Mg, Ni, Na, K, and Al are similar to their
abundance in meteorites. Volatile elements such as He, H, Ar, Cr, and Xe are very
small in abundance compared with the cosmos, as are C, N, and O. The depletion of
volatile elements in the earth is possibly due to intense degassing at an early stage of
the formation of the earth and degassing from source materials before its formation.
24 2  Components of the Earth System

Table 2.8  Average earth composition (ppm) (McDonough 2004)

H 260 Zn 40 Pr 0.17
Li 1.1 Ga 3 Nd 0.84
Be 0.05 Ge 7 Sm 0.27
B 0.2 As 1.7 Eu 0.10
C 730 Se 2.7 Gd 0.37
N 25 Br 0.3 Tb 0.067
O (%) 29.7 Rb 0.4 Dy 0.46
F 10 Sr 13 Ho 0.10
Na (%) 0.18 Y 2.9 Er 0.30
Mg (%) 15.4 Zr 7.1 Tm 0.046
Al (%) 1.59 Nb 0.44 Yb 0.30
Si (%) 16.1 Mo 1.7 Lu 0.046
P 715 Ru 1.3 Hf 0.19
S 6,350 Rh 0.24 Ta 0.025
Cl 76 Pd 1 W 0.17
K 160 Ag 0.05 Re 0.075
Ca (%) 1.71 Cd 0.08 Os 0.9
Sc 10.9 In 0.007 Ir 0.9
Ti 810 Sn 0.25 Pt 1.9
V 105 Sb 0.05 Au 0.16
Cr 4,700 Te 0.3 Hg 0.02
Mn 800 I 0.05 Tl 0.012
Fe (%) 32.0 Cs 0.035 Pb 0.23
Co 880 Ba 4.5 Bi 0.01
Ni (%) 1.82 La 0.44 Th 0.055
Cu 60 Ce 1.13 U 0.015

The crust of the earth is characterized by depleted amounts of Mg and Cr and

enriched Al, K, Na, and Ca, resulting from enrichment of feldspar in the crust.

2.2.7 The Cosmic Abundance of Elements

The cosmic abundance of elements is considered to be approximately equal to the

elemental abundance in the primitive solar system. The cosmic abundance is esti-
mated from chemical compositions of Cl chondrites and stars, especially the atmo-
sphere of the sun (Fig. 2.7). Cl chondrites are the most primitive meteorites, so their
composition reflects that of the primitive solar nebula, but the chondrites are depleted
in volatiles. Therefore, we estimate the cosmic abundance of volatiles based on
atmospheric data from the sun. The uncertainties of these data are large, but the
cosmic abundance can be estimated using Suess’s nuclear systematics, in which the
logarithm of the abundance of odd numbered elements varies smoothly with A
(mass number) when A ³ 50 (Table 2.8, Fig. 2.8).
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 25

Mg
106 Fe Si

Al
105
Ni Na
Ca
Cr

104 Cl
P
K Mn
Ti
Abundance of sun

F Co
103
V Zn

Cu
102
Ge
Sc
Sr
Zr
Rb Ga
10 B
Mo Y
Nb CdPb Ba
In Pt Sn
Ce Ru
1 Rh Ir Pd
Nd
W GdLa Be
Yb Dy
Lu Tl
Hf Sb Ag
Eu Pr Er Os
10-1 Tm Sm
Au
U

10-2
10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Abundance of Cl-chondrite

Fig. 2.7  Comparison of elemental abundance of sun and that of C1-chondrite (Ebihara 2006)

50 Refractories
Zn
Siderophiles
Ga
Volatiles 1300-600K
Abundance per 106 Si atoms

Ge Volatiles < 600K

10 As
Se
5 Br
Kr Y
Rb +
Sr87
Zr Xe

1 Nb
I La
0.5 Rh Sn Te Cs
Ru Pd Ag
Cd + Ba
Mo In113

In + Sb +
Sn115 Te123
0.1
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Mass Number

Fig. 2.8  Elemental abundance and odd number elements (Anders and Ebihara 1982). 14Si = 1 × 106
26 2  Components of the Earth System

Table 2.9  Cosmic abundances of the elements (atoms/106Si) (Anders and Ebihara 1982)
Element Cameron (1982) Anders and Ebihara (1982)
1 H 2.66 × 10 10
2.72 × 1010
2 He 1.8 × 109 2.18 × 109
3 Li 60 59.8
4 Be 1.2 0.78
5 B 9 24
6 C 1.11 × 107 1.21 × 107
7 N 2.31 × 106 2.48 × 106
8 O 1.84 × 10 7
2.01 × 107
9 F 780 843
10 Ne 2.6 × 106 3.76 × 106
11 Na 6.0 x 104 5.70 × 104
12 Mg 1.06 × 10 6
1.075 × 106
13 Al 8.5 × 10 4
8.49 × 104
14 Si 1.00 × 106 1.00 × 106
15 P 6,500 1.04 x 104
16 S 5.0 × 10 5
5.15 × 105
17 Cl 4,740 5,240
18 Ar 1.06 × 105 1.04 × 105
19 K 3,500 6,770
20 Ca 6.25 × 104 6.11 × 104
21 Sc 31 33.8
22 Ti 2,400 2,400
23 V 254 295
24 Cr 1.27 × 104 1.34 × 104
25 Mn 9,300 9,510
26 Fe 9.0 × 105 9.00 × 105
27 Co 2,200 2,250
28 Ni 4.78 × 104 49.3 × 104
29 Cu 540 514
30 Zn 1,260 1,260
31 Ga 38 37.8
32 Ge 117 118
33 As 6.2 6.79
34 Se 67 62.1
35 Br 9.2 11.8
36 Kr 41.3 45.3
37 Rb 6.1 7.09
38 Sr 22.9 23.8
39 Y 4.8 4.64
40 Zr 12 10.7
41 Nb 0.9 0.71
42 Mo 4.0 2.52
44 Ru 1.9 1.86
45 Rh 0.40 0.344
46 Pd 1.3 1.39
(continued)
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 27

Table 2.9  (continued)

Element Cameron (1982) Anders and Ebihara (1982)
47 Ag 0.46 0.529
48 Cd 1.55 1.69
49 In 0.19 0.184
50 Sn 3.7 3.82
51 Sb 0.31 0.352
52 Te 6.5 4.91
53 I 1.27 0.90
54 Xe 5.84 4.35
55 Cs 0.39 0.372
56 Ba 4.8 4.36
57 La 0.37 0.448
58 Ce 1.2 1.16
59 Pr 0.18 0.174
60 Nd 0.79 0.836
62 Sm 0.24 0.261
63 Eu 0.094 0.0972
64 Gd 0.42 0.331
65 Tb 0.076 0.0589
66 Dy 0.37 0.398
67 Ho 0.092 0.0875
68 Er 0.23 0.253
69 Tm 0.035 0.0386
70 Yb 0.20 0.243
71 Lu 0.035 0.0369
72 Hf 0.17 0.176
73 Ta 0.020 0.0226
74 W 0.30 0.137
75 Re 0.051 0.0507
76 Os 0.69 0.717
77 Ir 0.72 0.660
78 Pt 1.41 1.37
79 Au 0.21 0.186
80 Hg 0.21 0.52
81 Tl 0.19 0.184
82 Pb 2.6 3.15
83 Bi 0.14 0.144
90 Th 0.045 0.0335
92 U 0.027 0.0090
28 2  Components of the Earth System

Table 2.10  Classification of chondrite Numbers

meteorites (modified after
Carbonaceous chondrite (C chondrite)
Matsuhisa and Akagi 2005)
C1 5
CM 171
CR 78
CO 85
CV 49
CK 73
CH 11
CB 5
Ordinary chondrite (O chondrite)
H 6,962
L 6,213
LL 1,048
Enstatite chondrite (E chondrite)
EH 125
EL 38
R chondrite 19
K chondrite 3
Differentiated meteorite
A chondrite 554
Ironstone meteorite 110
Iron meteorite 770
Mercurian meteorite (SNC) 26
Moon meteorite 18

2.2.8 Meteorites

Many meteorites have been discovered on the surface of the earth. Many studies on
meteorites have revealed their composition, texture and origins. Meteorites are clas-
sified into several groups by composition and texture (Table 2.10). The main types
are (1) Chondrites (93%), (2) Irons, averaging 98% metal (6%), (3) Stony irons,
averaging 50% metal and 50% silicate (1%), and (4) Aerolites or stones.
There are three types of chondrites: carbonaceous, ordinary, and enstatite chon-
drite. They contain chondrules, which are small particles of silicate several millime-
ters in diameter. Chondrites are ultramafic in composition and generally consist of
olivine and pyroxene, but sometimes glass carbonaceous chondrites contain CAIs
which are calcium- and aluminum-rich and Si-poor inclusions. CAIs are thought to
have been heated to elevated temperatures, but the source of the heat required to do
so is uncertain.
The composition of the earth is similar to that of chondrites, indicating that the
earth originated mainly from materials similar to them. Normal chondrites are the
most common and can be subclassified into H, L, and LL types. Carbonaceous chon-
drites contain appreciable amounts of volatiles like carbon, water, and organic matter­
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 29

Fig. 2.9  Structure of Si–O

tetrahedron
O

O
Si
O

in addition to silicates. These volatiles are similar in composition to the atmosphere

of the sun, indicating that it is the most primitive chondrite in the solar system.
Some chondrites do not contain chondrules, such as evolved stony chondrites
(stony irons and irons). Some chondrites discovered on the earth have been deter-
mined to come from Mars and the Moon.
Iron meteorites consist of a nickel (Ni)–iron (Fe) alloy and are characterized by
Widmanstätten figures that are intergrowths of lamellae of Ni-rich taenites (Ni and
Fe) in Ni-poor Ni–Fe alloys (kamacite).
Stony iron meteorites are composed of Ni–Fe alloys and silicates in approxi-
mately equal amounts. The dominant silicate is olivine. Pyroxene occurs sometimes
in small amounts. The silicates are distributed in the iron–nickel alloy.

2.2.9 Materials in the Solid Earth

2.2.9.1 Minerals

The solid part of the earth is composed of rocks made from minerals. A mineral is
defined as a natural, inorganic, crystalline substance.
Most rocks are composed of crystalline minerals. However, some are noncrystal-
line and amorphous materials like volcanic glass, although these occur in small
amounts.
The most abundant element in the crust and mantle is oxygen (O). Next is silicon
(Si). Oxygen combines with silicon to form SiO44−, which is the basic unit of silicate
minerals. SiO44− is tetrahedral in form. It has a pyramidal structure with four sides,
composed of a central silicon ion (Si4+) surrounded by four oxygen ions (Fig. 2.9).
Usually, foreign cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ are contained in silicate
crystals, together with anions such as SiO44−.
Silicate minerals are classified into several groups according to their degree of
polymerization as measured by the number of nonbridging oxygens (those bonded
to just one Si4+) (Table 2.1). They include the monomer silicates olivine and garnet,
the chain silicates that make up the pyroxene group, double-chain silicates known
30 2  Components of the Earth System

c
b
a 5Å

(SiO4)-4 0
(Si2O7)-6 (Si6O18)-12

Fig. 2.10  Combination models of (a) independent silicon tetrahedra such as occur in olivine and
garnet, (b) paired tetrahedra as found in epidotes, and (c) six-member tetrahedral rings character-
istic of the mineral beryl. Small black spheres represent silicon, large open spheres represent oxy-
gen (Ernst 1969, 2000)

Table 2.11  The structural classification of silicate minerals (Mason 1958)

Silicon:oxygen
Classification Structural arrangement ratio Examples
Nesosilicates Independent tetrahedra 1:4 Forsterite, Mg2SiO4
Sorosilicates Two tetrahedra sharing 2:7 Akermanite, Ca2MgSi2O7
one oxygen
Cyclosilicates Closed rings of tetrahedra each 1:3 Benitoite, BaTiSi3O9
sharing two oxygens Beryl, Al2Be3Si6O18
Inosilicates Continuous single chains of 1:34:11 Pyroxene, e.g., enstatite,
tetrahedra each sharing two MgSiO3 Amphiboles,
oxygens. Continuous double e.g., anthophyllite,
chains of tetrahedra sharing Mg7(Si4O11)2(OH)2
alternately two and three
oxygens
Phyllosilicates Continuous sheet of tetrahedra 2:5 Talc, Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
each sharing three oxygens Phlogopite,
KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Tektosilicates Continuous framework 1:2 Quartz, SiO2 Nepheline,
of tetrahedra each sharing NaAlSiO4
four oxygens

as the amphibole group, sheet silicates that make up the mica group and clay miner-
als, and framework silicates including quartz and the feldspar group (Fig. 2.10).
Representative silicate minerals are quartz, feldspar, pyroxene, olivine, mica,
amphibole, and garnet. These minerals occur heterogeneously in earth’s interior.
Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals in continental crust. In the upper
mantle, pyroxene, olivine and garnet occur abundantly.
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 31

Ol
ivi
e n
Early, high An85

En ugit
temperature

+
sta e
a
tite

e
las
ioc
An50

g
Pla
Ho
rn

Bio
ble
An10
nd

tite
e

Late, low Alkali feldspar + quartz

temperature + muscovite

Fig. 2.11  The reaction series of mineral crystallization from a cooling, chemical differentiating
magma. The discontinuous sequence of minerals is illustrated on the left, the continuous sequence
on the right, An: anorthite (Bowen’s reaction series) (Ernst 1969)

Olivine
Calcic Plagioclase
Augite
Intermediate Plagioclase
Hornblende
Alkalic Plagioclase
Biotite

Potassium Feldspar

Muscovite

Increasing Quartz
mineral stability
during weathering

Fig. 2.12  Weathering sequence of silicate minerals (Goldich’s weathering series) (Goldich 1938;
Lasaga 1981)

Deeper in the earth’s interior, denser minerals, instead of above silicates, are
stable. For example, stishovite and perovskite appear in deeper regions instead of
quartz and garnet, respectively. Olivine changes to perovskite. In stishovite and per-
ovskite crystals, SiO44− is enclosed by six O2− ions (six coordinations) and the basic
unit is octahedral.
The crystallization sequence of silicate minerals in magma, known as Bowen’s
reaction series (Fig.  2.11) and their weathering sequence, known as Goldich’s
weathering series (Fig. 2.12) can be explained by the crystal structure of silicate
minerals. Silicate minerals with a high degree of polymerization of the silicate ions
32 2  Components of the Earth System

(e.g. quartz and feldspar) are more resistant to chemical weathering and form at
later stages when magma crystallizes.
Each mineral consists of several major elements and is represented by a chem-
ical formula. For example, quartz is SiO2. Three types of feldspar, Na-feldspar
(NaAlSi3O8), K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8) and Ca feldspar (CaAl2Si2O8), are common.
These feldspars form solid solutions. For example, the NaAlSi3O8–KAlSi3O8
solid solution is discontinuous, but the CaAl2Si2O8–NaAlSi3O8 solid solution is
continuous at high temperatures, and the Mg2SiO4–Fe2SiO4 solid solution (oliv-
ine) is ­continuous. The isomorphous substitution of ions in crystal structures
depends on ionic radii, crystal structure, temperature, pressure, composition, and
the thermochemical properties of the mother solution, e.g. magma or an aqueous
solution. For example, the ionic radii of Fe2+ and Mg2+ are very similar, and so
their substitution results in the formation of continuous solid solutions like
Mg–Fe olivine.
The difference between the ionic radii of Na+ and K+ is large, so their substitution
results in the formation of discontinuous solid solutions like Na–K feldspar. In crys-
tals where bonding has a covalent character, isomorphous substitution is prevented.
The minerals other than silicate minerals mainly found near the surface environment
include carbonate (e.g. CaCO3, CaMg(CO3)2, MgCO3, FeCO3), sulfate (e.g. CaSO4,
CaSO4·2H2O, BaSO4, SrSO4), sulfide (e.g. FeS2, FeS, ZnS, PbS, CuFeS2), oxide
(e.g. Fe2O3, Fe3O4), hydroxide (e.g. Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3), and halide (e.g. NaCl,
KCl). These minerals form from aqueous solution (e.g. seawater, hydrothermal
solution) such as evaporate, limestone and hydrothermal ore deposits.

2.2.9.2 Rocks

Rock is classified according to its genesis and chemical and mineralogical composi-
tions. From a genetical point of view, it is divided into igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks, which are volcanic, are classified into basalt,
andesite, dacite, rhyolite, etc. based on chemical composition, mainly their SiO2
contents by weight percent.

2.2.9.3 Igneous Rock and Igneous Activity

Igneous rock forms through the crystallization of molten magma, which is generally
silicate melt. Minerals crystallize from the molten magma mainly due to changes in
temperature and pressure. The chemical compositions of magma and minerals form-
ing from it are different, with the crystallization process causing the changes. For
example, the SiO2 content of olivine, which forms early in magma’s crystallization,
is lower than that of the coexisting magma. Thus, the crystallization of olivine
results in the enrichment of the SiO2 content of magma compared with olivine. The
SiO2 content of magma increases as the crystallization process proceeds. After the
crystallization of olivine, ferromagnesian minerals like pyroxene, biotite, and
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 33

Fig. 2.13  Phase diagram of

binary (A, B) continuous D
E
solid solution system
G Liquid
I

Temperature
J
H

F
Solid
(Mineral)

A C B

amphibole crystallize. In late stages of the crystallization process, feldspar (Na feld-
spar and K feldspar) and quartz crystallize.
The SiO2 content of magma varies with the degree of crystallization. From SiO2
content, igneous rock is classified into ultramafic rock (e.g. peridotite) that is about
40% by weight SiO2, mafic rock (e.g. basalt) that is about 50% SiO2, intermediate
rock (e.g. andesite) that is about 60% SiO2, and felsic rock (e.g. rhyolite) that is
about 70% SiO2. These rock types are subclassified depending on (1) the presence
or absence of quartz, (2) the content ratio of feldspars, and (3) the kinds of mafic
minerals present (Fe- and Mg-bearing minerals like olivine and pyroxene).
Next, the crystallization process during the cooling of magma is considered
based on its phase diagram. The thermochemical stability fields of minerals are
determined by temperature, pressure, and bulk chemical composition. A phase dia-
gram of binary (A, B) solid solution systems is shown in Fig. 2.13. In this tempera-
ture-composition diagram, the solidus (line EIHF) and liquidus (line EGJF) show
the chemical compositions of the solid and liquid phases, respectively, at ­equilibrium
with liquid and solid forms at constant temperature, pressure and bulk composition.
The assumed initial temperature and composition of magma are plotted as point D
in Fig. 2.13. Decreasing temperature causes crystallization at G.
As the temperature decreases from G, the compositions of the solid and liquid
phases change as I → H, and G → J, respectively. At H, the liquid phase disappears
and only the solid phase exists. The composition of the solid phase (A/B ratio) at
this point is AC:BC.
A solid solution whose composition changes continuously is termed continuous.
An example such a solid solution is albite, or Na-feldspar (NaAlSi3O8) with anorth-
ite, or Ca-feldspar (CaAl2Si2O8) in solid solution. The anorthite component of this
solid solution decreases with decreasing temperature.
A phase diagram showing the stability fields of minerals that do not form solid
solutions is given in Fig. 2.14. At temperatures above line EIF, the liquid phase is
stable. In the region encompassed by EIG and FIH, the liquid and solid phases are
both stable. In the region GABH, solid phases A and B are stable. If the initial tem-
perature and composition are plotted at D and the temperature decreases to J, the
34 2  Components of the Earth System

Fig. 2.14  Phase diagram of F

binary (A, B) discontinuous D
Liquid
solid solution system E
J
Solid Solid B
A +
+ Liquid Liquid
I
K
G H

Solid A+B

A B
C

A phase crystallizes. Further decreasing the temperature results in the temperature-

composition trend J → I. At I the liquid phase disappears and the solid phase B appears.
As magma cools, there are discontinuous and continuous reaction sequences called
Bowen’s reaction series. The discontinuous reaction series proceeds from early to late
stage crystallization from olivine to pyroxene to amphibole to mica to quartz and the
continuous reaction series is Ca-rich feldspar (anorthite) to Na-rich feldspar (albite).
Heavy minerals (e.g. magnetite, Fe3O4) crystallized from magma sink to the bottom of
the magma chamber. In this case, crystals separate from magma in a process called
fractionational crystallization. However, if a mineral crystallizes very slowly, it is
called equilibrium crystallization. Strictly, crystallization does not occur in equilib-
rium conditions, but here equilibrium crystallization does not mean fractional crystal-
lization. Fractional and equilibrium crystallizations are a source of the diversity of
magmas and igneous rocks with different mineralogical and chemical compositions.
Magma composition changes as magmas are mixed and contaminated by host
rocks. Primary basaltic magma is generated in the lower mantle. If mafic minerals such
as olivine and pyroxene crystallize fractionally out from basaltic magma, the SiO2
content of the basaltic magma increases. As the fractional crystallization proceeds, the
magma becomes andesitic and finally dacite and rhyolite with high SiO2 contents form.
Although this process can produce felsic magma, most instances of felsic magma form
by the melting of lower crust materials having high SiO2 ­contents. Felsic magma
formed in this way mixes with basaltic magma to form andesitic magma.
Different kinds of magma are formed by a variety of processes during the melt-
ing of source materials, the ascent of magma toward the surface and its solidifica-
tion. The diverse compositions of magma are caused by the source rocks from which
it is generated, the degree of partial melting of the source rocks, and the tempera-
ture, pressure and water content of magma.
For example, the water content of magma significantly influences its liquidus and
solidus. Heat supplied to source rocks changes the degree of partial melting, result-
ing in different magma compositions. In the early stages of the study of magma
genesis, fractional crystallization from primary magma (basaltic magma) was
thought to be an important process causing the diversity of igneous rock. However,
at present, other processes like magma mixing, contamination, the degree of partial
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 35

Fig. 2.15  Metamorphic

reactions and stability field of
some metamorphic minerals. Qz
+ d
Jd: jadeite, Qz: quartz, 15 Jd fel
Na-feld: Na-feldspar, Ne: a
N
nephelline, Kya: kyanite, Sil:
sillimanite, And: andalusite, e
Jd + N

Pressure (kb)
Ara: aragonite, Cal: calcite d
10 fel
Na
a
Ar l
Ca
Kya
5 Sil
And

400 500 600 700 800

Temperature (°C)

melting, and water content are thought to be the important processes and factors
causing magma’s variability.

2.2.9.4 Metamorphic Rock and Metamorphism

Minerals and rocks’ textures change when their temperature and pressure condi-
tions change. This process is called metamorphism. Rock that has suffered meta-
morphism is called metamorphic rock. For example, if the temperature and pressure
of rock consisting of only Na feldspar stays at point B in Fig. 2.15 for a long time,
the following reaction occurs.
NaAlSi3O8 (Na-feldspar) → NaAlSi2O6 (jadeite) + SiO2(quartz)
Natural rocks, however, are more complicated and consist of multiple compo-
nents and phases. Various metamorphic reactions occur simultaneously. Generally,
chemical reactions proceed at higher rates as temperature and pressure increase.
This kind of metamorphism is called progressive metamorphism. However, some
metamorphism also occurs with decreasing temperature and pressure. This is called
retrogressive metamorphism.
There are two types of metamorphism, the regional type and the contact type.
Wide areas of rocks are metamorphosed by regional metamorphism. Regional meta-
morphism is now thought to be caused by the temperature and pressure changes that
accompany plate subduction. These changes may depend on rate of plate subduc-
tion, the subduction slope, and the temperature and pressure distributions in the
subduction zone etc. We can observe regional metamorphic rocks lying on the sur-
face, implying that metamorphic rocks have been uplifted from deeper to shallower
parts of the crust. The uplift mechanism is not well understood.
36 2  Components of the Earth System

The heating of rocks causes contact metamorphism when magma intrudes into
the strata. For example, the heating and recrystallization of limestone by magma,
probably through circulating hot water, results in the formation of marble and horn-
fels, which are representative contact metamorphic rocks.

2.2.9.5 Sedimentary Rock and Sedimentation

Under surface conditions, metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks suffer

chemical, physical, and biological weathering, which produces secondary minerals
such as clay minerals. Weathered rock fragments are transported by rivers and wind
and are deposited to form river, lake, and seafloor sediments. Representative sedi-
mentary rocks include conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone.
Sediments are classified into gravel, boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand, silt, mud,
and clay according to their grain size. The sedimentary rocks form from the sedi-
ments. The other representative sedimentary rocks are limestone from shells and
coral reefs, mainly composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3, calcite), chert mainly
composed of silica (SiO2, quartz) from diatoms and radiolarian, and evaporite.
Evaporite is formed by the evaporation of shallow seawater pools and ponds, ­resulting
to the precipitation of salts (gypsum, CaSO4 · 2H2O; anhydrite, CaSO4; halite, NaCl;
calcite, CaCO3, etc.) Sediments being buried is associated with the dissolution and
precipitation of minerals and compaction of the sediments, which reduces their
porosity. This process is called diagenesis. Compact, solidified sediment is called
sedimentary rock.
In earth’s surface environment, mass transfer occurs continuously. This process
changes the surface topography on a geologic time scale. The total amount of sedi-
mentary rock is small compared to igneous rock, but it is very widely distributed.
Mass circulations associated with water and atmospheric circulations are driven
by energy from the sun. The annual amount of energy in the earth’s surface receives
from the sun is 1.3 × 1024 calories excluding energy absorbed by the atmosphere.
This is considerably larger than the energy from the earth’s interior (Table 2.12).

Table 2.12  Various energy flow (Spilo et al. 1985)

Energy transfer process Flux (cal/yr)
Total radiant energy from sun to universe 2.8 × 1033
Solar energy input to earth 1.3 × 1021
Solar energy influencing climate and biosphere 28.6 × 1023
Energy for vaporization of water 2.2 × 1023
Solar energy for photosynthesis 9.4 × 1020
Energy for primary production 7.2 × 1020
Energy from earth’s interior to surface 3.1 × 1020
Total fossil fuel energy used by humans (1975) 6.0 × 1019
Total energy used for food by humans (1975) 3.2 × 1018
2.2  Solid Earth (the Geosphere) 37

Sedimentation and transportation processes are proceeding, caused by energy

from the sun and from the earth’s interior. Igneous activity and metamorphism
occur, driven by energy derived only from earth’s interior. Thus, these internal
­processes are distinctly different from external process such as weathering, erosion,
transportation, and sedimentation, which are mainly caused by external energy from
the sun. However, the rocks that are the source of material for igneous and metamor-
phic rocks are sometimes sedimentary rocks formed through the influence of exter-
nal energy. Thus, the formation of igneous and metamorphic rocks is also influenced
by external energy.
Weathering can be separated into two types, physical and chemical weathering.
For example, temperature differences between day and night cause rocks to expand
and shrink, which causes them to fracture and break down. This physical weather-
ing does is not accompanied by chemical and mineralogical changes.
Chemical weathering is caused by chemical reactions between surface water like
rainwater and rocks and involves chemical and mineralogical changes. Surface
water contains CO2 derived from atmospheric CO2 and oxidation of organic matter
in soil. Dissolution of CO2 into water generates H+ by the reaction
H 2 O + CO2 ® H 2 CO3

H 2 CO3 ® HCO3 - + H +

and
H 2 CO3 ® CO32 - + 2H +

The pH of rainwater containing CO2 in equilibrium with atmospheric CO2
(PCO2 = 10−3.5 atm) is calculated to be 5.65, and so rainwater is usually acidic. H+
from the dissociation of H2CO3 and HCO3− reacts with minerals, dissolving cation
from them. For example, silicate minerals react with H+ according to the
reaction:
silicate mineral + H+ → cation + SiO2 + kaolinite (allophone (Al–Si–O–H
amorphous phase), halloysite (metastable phase of kaolinite))
where the reaction coefficients are omitted for simplicity.
The order of solubility of silicate minerals in aqueous solution, calculated based
on thermochemical data is consistent with Goldich’s weathering series that gives the
order of chemical weathering of natural rocks.
Other clay minerals such as smectite also form when silicate minerals dissolve.
The formation of secondary minerals by chemical weathering depends on the degree
of chemical reaction, the water/rock ratio, the type of aqueous solution, the rock and
mineral species, etc.
When rocks weather, elements dissolve into aqueous solutions and are trans-
ported by rivers and ground water. Dissolved species such as ions and complexes, as
well as colloids and fine particles are present in the aqueous solutions.
38 2  Components of the Earth System

2.3 The Soils

Soils are distributed widely in the earth’s surface environment. They are composed
of various constituents including primary minerals in rocks, rock fragments, weath-
ering products (secondary minerals like clays), and organic matter.
In addition to these solids, water, gaseous components, and organisms are found
in soils. The weathering of rocks depends on rainfall, temperature, biological activ-
ity, the kinds and abundance of the rocks, and the amount and type of organic matter
present. Climate and rock types are different in different regions, and so the proper-
ties of the world’s soils vary a great deal, making classification of soils difficult.
According to agricultural classification, there are the following types of soil: pod-
sol, andosol, gley (gley lowland soil), dark red soil, red soil, and yellow soil. Forest
soil includes podsol, brown forest soil, and black soil.
Soils are very important substances for agriculture, forestry, and mining, and
thus we need to understand and improve the properties of soils and eliminate pollu-
tion of soils caused by these activities.
Soils used as mineral resources include bauxite for Al, and laterite for Fe and Ni.
The bauxite is highly aluminous soil and is presently important Al ore. The laterite
is red soil rich in Fe oxicles and/or Al.

2.4 The Biosphere

The biosphere is the sum total of all living and dead organisms on the earth.
Components of the biosphere are found in every subsystem of the earth: surface
water, both terrestrial water and seawater, the atmosphere, soils, and organisms.
Recently, new species of microorganisms have been discovered deep underground,
and on the seafloor and subseafloor. The total amount of organisms is called ­biomass.
Organisms and other subsystems interact considerably. For example, photosynthetic
reactions reduce atmospheric CO2 and generate O2. In the soil oxidation-reduction
reactions (e.g. Fe2+ + H+ + 1/4O2 = Fe3+ + 1/2H2O) occur through bacterial activity
and significantly influence the geochemical behavior of elements including C, Mn,
S, N, and V.
Photosynthetic reactions and the formation of carbonates by organic activity in
aqueous solutions affect water quality.
Biological activity causes the formation of minerals. This process is called biom-
ineralization. For example, coral and foraminifera make carbonates. Radiolaria and
diatoms make shells of silica (SiO2). Fish and mammals form bones and teeth
­composed of a phosphate mineral (apatite) inside their bodies. Acids produces by
microorganisms dissolve silicate minerals. Life has evolved by interacting with the
environment surrounding it, developing its remarkable diversity.
 2.4  The Biosphere 39

a c
6 6
log (marine plant, ppm)

log (marine plant, ppm)

Ca K Ca
Na Na
K
4 Cl 4 Cl
Fe Mg Mg
Sr Sr Fe
Zn Zn
2 Ti
Mn Al B 2
Cu Ba
La Zr Cu
Pb Li F F
Ni V Rb
Nd
0 Co
Ga
Cr 0

−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2
log (seawater, ppm) log (river water, ppm)
b d
Cl
log (marine animal, ppm)

log (marine animal, ppm)

4 Ca
Mg Na
K
Fe 4
Zn
2 B
Sr
Cu Al Rb
Mn 2
Ti Co Ni F
0 Nd
Ga
Cr V Ba Li
Rb Zr
Sn La Y 0
Th
−2

−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2
log (seawater, ppm) log (river water, ppm)

Fig. 2.16  The relationship between the chemical compositions of marine and terrestrial organisms
and those of seawater and terrestrial waters (Nishimura 1991) (a) seawater vs marine plant, (b)
seawater vs marine animal, (c) river water vs marine plant, (d) river water vs marine plant

The chemical composition of organisms is related to their environment. The

relationship between the chemical compositions of marine and terrestrial organisms
and seawater and terrestrial waters is shown in Fig. 2.16.
The properties and abundances of the constituents that make up the earth’s
­surface environment, such as water, the atmosphere, soils, organisms, and humans,
are very diverse. Ecological systems (ecosystems) in which each organism interacts
with every other and exists in response to the flow of energy and mass can be clas-
sified according to the differences in their environments. The most basic subdivision
is into terrestrial and aquatic systems.
The terrestrial ecosystem includes forests, meadows, deserts, and arable land.
The aquatic system is subdivided into freshwater systems forests, rivers, lakes, and
coasts and marine systems (open and coastal oceans). The characteristics of each
ecological system, its diversity, the influence of human activity, and interactions
with other subsystems are different.
40 2  Components of the Earth System

2.5 Chapter Summary

1. Earth’s structure is characterized by vertical zones and is divided into the

atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere and biosphere.
2. The hydrosphere is divided into seawater, terrestrial waters (ground water, riv-
erwater, lakewater, etc.) and frozen water (ice sheets and ice glaciers).
3. The earth’s interior structure was determined mainly from seismic wave veloc-
ity data. Seismic waves include surface waves and body waves (P and S
waves).
4. The solid earth is divided into the crust (continental and oceanic crust), the
mantle (upper and lower), and the core (inner and outer) based on seismic wave
velocity. The earth’s interior is divided into the lithosphere, asthenosphere, and
mesosphere. The lithosphere is composed of plates.
5. The average elemental abundance of the earth as a whole is estimated from the
chemical composition and relative abundance in each subsystem. This abun-
dance is explained relatively well by the chondrite model.
6. Minerals are natural, inorganic crystalline substances and are the basic constitu-
ent of rocks. Minerals are classified by their chemical composition and crystal
structure. Although there are many minerals, the most common group is the
silicates, which include quartz, feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, mica, and garnet.
7. Rocks are classified into igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks based
on their genesis.
8. Igneous rock is solidified magma. Various igneous rocks are formed by crystal-
lization, fractional crystallization, magma mixing, and contamination. The
degree of partial melting of source rocks, the water contents of magma and the
source rock, the temperature, and the pressure determine the compositions of
magma and igneous rocks.
9. Metamorphic rocks form by metamorphism (changes in mineralogy, chemistry,
and texture caused by changes in temperature and pressure) of igneous or sedi-
mentary rocks. The important factors that produce different metamorphic rocks
are temperature, pressure, the original rock, water, and CO2.
10. Parental rocks are weathered, eroded, and transported by the action of surface
water such as rain, ground water, or riverwater and the atmosphere. Materials
transported mainly by rivers accumulate on the sea bottom as sediments (con-
glomerates, sand, silt, and mud). The sediments become buried, leading to
diagenesis and solidification of the sediments. Solidified sediments are called
sedimentary rock.
11. Soil occurs widely in earth’s surface environment and is composed of primary
minerals derived from original rock, secondary minerals such as clay minerals
formed by weathering, and organic matter. It is a useful resource for obtaining
metals such as Al, Fe, and Ni and for agriculture and forestry.
12. The biosphere exists in earth’s surface environment, and it interacts with and
influences other subsystems.
References 41

References

Anders E, Ebihara M (1982) Solar-system abundances of the elements. Geochim Cosmochim Acta
46:2363–2380
Ebihara M (2006) Chemistry of solar system, Shokobo (in Japanese)
Ernst WG (1969) Earth materials. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Ernst WG (ed) (2000) Earth system. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Goldich SS (1938) A study in rock weathering. J Geol 46:17–58
Holland HD (1978) Chemistry of the atmosphere and oceans. Wiley, New York
Holland HD, Petersen U (1995) Living dangerously. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Kawamura T, Iwaki H (eds) (1988) Environmental science I. Asakura Shoten, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Kobayashi J (1960) A chemical study of the average quality and characteristics of riverwaters of
Japan. Ber. Ohara Inst-Landwirtschaft. Biol, vol 11. Okayama University, Okayama, p 313
Livingstone DA (1983) Data of geochemistry. In: Fleisher M, Fleisher M (eds) Data of geochem-
istry, 6th edn. USGS Prof. Pap, Washington, p 4400
Mason B (1958) Principles of geochemistry, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York
Matsuhisa Y, Akagi T (2005) General geochemistry. Baihukan, Tokyo (in Japanese)
McDonough WF (2004) Compositional model for the earth’s core. In: Treatise on geochemistry,
vol 2, The mantle and core. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 547–568
Palme H, O’Neil HSC (2004) Cosmochemical estimates of mantle composition. In: Treatise in
geochemistry, vol 2, The mantle and core. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–38
Rudnick RL, Gao S (2004) Composition of the continental crust. In: Treatise on geochemistry, vol
3, The crust. Elsevier, Oxford, p 64
Spilo TG, Stigliani WM, Shoda M, Kobayashi T (translation) (1985) Science of Environment.
Gakkai Syuppan Center, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Chapter 3
Material Circulation in the Earth

The earth system has fluid properties. Convection, circulation and fluid flow
transport heat and materials continuously in the fluid and solid portions of the
earth.
Materials are circulating in the earth’s interior. It is thought that the mantle is
convecting on a global scale. Hydrothermal solutions and seawater are circulating at
midoceanic ridges and back arc basins at subduction zones. The terrestrial geother-
mal system circulates geothermal water that mainly originates from meteoric
sources. Through convection and circulation, elements and materials such as rocks
and minerals are transported locally and globally. The rates of movement of solid,
liquid and gaseous materials differ considerably in different geologic processes.
Earth’s fluid character explains circulation near the earth’s surface and in its interior
via the hydrologic cycle, carbon cycle, solid circulation, plate tectonics, and plume
tectonics.

Keywords  Carbon cycle • Global geochemical cycle • Hydrologic cycle • Japanese

island • Material circulation • Plume tectonics • Residence time • Subduction • Plate
tectonics

3.1 Interactions in the Multispheres

Figure  3.1 shows the interactions between the multispheres in the earth system.
Various materials and energies circulate within the system. The interactions occur
not only between those subsystems that contact each other directly but also those that
do so only indirectly. For example, plates generated at midoceanic ridges move later-
ally and subduct to the mantle. This is accompanied by magma generation deeper in
the subduction zone. Magma then ascends to the upper part of the crust. The earth’s
surface environment is influenced considerably by the earth’s interior activity as well
as by external factors. For example, a meteorite impacts the earth’s surface. If it is a

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 43

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_3, © Springer 2012
44 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

Universe

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Oceanic Continental
Crust Crust Crust

Upper
Mantle

Lower
Core

Fig. 3.1  The interactions in multispheres in the earth system.  Formation of ozone layer. 
Dissolution of CO2.  Weathering of basalt, circulation of hydrothermal solution, formation of
hydrothermal ore deposits, sedimentation.  Ground water–soil–rock interaction, sedimentation,
formation of weathering ore deposits.  Subduction of plate, metamorphism, igneous activity. 
Igneous activity.  Mantle convection.  Core–mantle interaction.  Volcanic gas, igneous activity.
 Meteorite impact

large body or bolide impact, mass extinction may result (Sect. 6.2.8). In the early
stages of the earth’s history, planetesimal and meteorite impacts on the earth’s sur-
face were very intense, and rapid degassing from the earth’s interior occurred. This
period is called the heavy bombardment period. Even at present, light gases like H2
and He are being released from the earth’s interior to the atmosphere.
The discussion above indicates that the earth is composed of several subsystems
that interact, with inflows and outflows of materials and energy continuously and
irreversibly occurring between subsystems. The various and complicated interac-
tions occurring in earth’s surface environment are considered in this book.

3.2 Hydrologic Cycle

Ocean water is heated by sun energy and evaporates, then falls as rain back into the
ocean. The rates of annual water evaporation and rainfall are the nearly same in
order of magnitude (Fig. 3.2). Inputs of water to the ocean from sources such as
riverwater and rainfall and ocean output through evaporation are nearly balanced on
a long-term scale. That means the amount of seawater is in a steady state. For the
ocean as a whole, this cycle is nearly balanced. Locally, however, evaporation flux
exceeds rainfall flux in arid regions. If evaporation proceeds considerably, salt
3.3  Carbon Cycle 45

Fig. 3.2  The global Precipitation 107

hydrologic cycle, reservoirs
of water (1015 kg and fluxes
Atmosphere
Evapotranspiration 15.5
1015 kg/year) (Natural 71
Research Council 1993; Ernst .001%
2000) Land
ice + snow 43,400
lakes + rivers 360 Precipitation Evaporation
underground 15,300 398 434
biota 2
~3%

Rivers
Oceans
36 1,400,000
97%

precipitates from evaporating seawater, resulting in the formation of evaporite (e.g.

Dead Sea). Water moves not only between the atmosphere and the ocean, but also
between the terrestrial environment, plants and the atmosphere. Figure 3.2 shows
water circulation in the earth’s surface environment.
Water circulates also globally in earth’s interior system, including in the mantle.
At midoceanic ridges, seawater circulates and reacts with oceanic crust, forming
hydrous alteration minerals. The sediments above oceanic plates contain consider-
able amounts of seawater as interstitial water and hydrothermal solution originated
from seawater. The hydrothermal solution reacts with oceanic crust, forming altera-
tion minerals containing water. The oceanic crust, containing water, subducts with
the plate. During the subduction, part of the water is released and moves upwards.
Of the remaining water that subducts deeper, some is contained in magma and
escapes as volcanic gas. Water generated by metamorphic dehydration reactions
also moves upwards. It is known that most hydrous minerals decompose at depths
shallower than 100 km. However, lawsonite (CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2H2O) is stable below
this depth. At high temperatures and pressures, lawsonite decomposes, releasing
water. The water generated by the decomposition moves upwards and reacts with
lehrzorite (a kind of ultramafic rocks) and brucite (Mg(OH)2)-like rocks in the man-
tle wedge to form hydrous minerals such as serpentine. If serpentine moves to
deeper parts, it may change to wadsleyite, a high pressure modification of olivine
g-Mg2SiO4. Thus, stable hydrous minerals and considerable amounts of water may
be present in the mantle, and convection can carry some of the water upward upon
its release from the decomposing hydrous minerals.

3.3 Carbon Cycle

It is important to consider the carbon cycle in the earth system for the following
reasons: (1) increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations play an important role in
global warming, (2) the carbon cycle has a significant affect on the energy cycle in
46 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

Table 3.1  The carbon content of important reservoirs (subsystems) (in units of 1015 g) (Holland
1978)
The carbon content of important reservoirs (in units of 1015 g)
1 Atmosphere 690
2 Terrestrial biosphere 450
3 Dead terrestrial organic matter 700
4 Marine biosphere 7
5 Dead marine organic matter 3,000
6 Dissolved in seawater 40,000
7 Recycled elemental carbon in the lithosphere 20,000,000
8 Recycled carbonate carbon in the lithosphere 70,000,000
9 Juvenile carbon 90,000,000

the earth system, (3) carbon played important role in the origin of the atmosphere,
seawater and life, and (4) carbon influences the cycles of other elements (S, O, etc.)
in the earth system.
To consider the carbon cycle, we first need to know the amount of carbon stored
in each reservoir or subsystem. Table 3.1 indicates that the amount of carbon in the
geosphere is very large compared with other reservoirs like seawater, the atmo-
sphere, and the biosphere. Fluxes between reservoirs are also summarized in
Table 3.1 The dominant chemical state of carbon is different in different reservoirs.
It is CO2 in the atmosphere, organic carbon in the biosphere, HCO3− in seawater, and
carbonates and carbon in the geosphere. Dominant reactions causing the transfer of
carbon between reservoirs are (1) photosynthetic reactions, (2) carbon oxidation–
reduction reactions, and (3) reactions between minerals and aqueous solutions.
These reactions can be expressed as the following: photosynthesis, CO2 + H2O →
 CH2O + O2; respiration decomposition of organic matter, CH2O + O2 → CO2 + H2O;
dissolution of calcite, CaCO3 + 2 H+ → Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O; dissolution of dolomite,
CaMg(CO3)2 + 2 H+ → Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 2HCO3−; dissolution of wollastonite, CaSiO3 + 
2CO2 + H2O → Ca2+ + 2HCO3− + SiO2; and dissolution of Mg-pyroxene (MgSiO),
MgSiO3 + 2CO2 + H2O → Mg2+ + 2HCO3− + SiO2.
Wollastonite is not common mineral. Ca-feldspar (CaAl2Si2O8) is a more abun-
dant Ca silicate mineral, but for simplicity of discussion, only the dissolution of
wollastonite is listed above to represent Ca-silicate minerals. These dissolution reac-
tions are caused by chemical weathering of silicate and carbonate rocks. HCO3− and
cations, especially Ca2+, Mg2+, produced by these reactions are transported by ground
water and rivers to the ocean and combine to form carbonates in reactions given by

Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - ® CaCO3 (calcite, aragonitee )+ CO 2 + H 2 O

Mg 2 + + 2HCO3 - ® MgCO3 (magnesite )+ CO2 + H 2 O

Combining these with the reactions accompanying the formation of carbonates
and weathering reaction of silicates, we obtain
3.3  Carbon Cycle 47

Table 3.2  The transfer rates of carbon between reservoirs (in units of 1015  g/year) (Holland
1978)
From To Process (in 1015 g/year)
1 2 Net photosynthesis on land 48
2 1 Rapid decay of terrestrial organic matter 23
1 4 Net photosynthesis at sea 35
4 1 Rapid decay of marine organic matter 5
2 3 Accumulation of dead terrestrial organic matter 25
4 5 Accumulation of dead marine organic matter 30
3 1 Decay of dead terrestrial organic matter 25
5 1 Decay of dead marine organic matter 30

CaSiO3 + CO2 ® CaCO3 + SiO2

MgSiO3 + CO2 ® MgCO3 + SiO2

In these reactions, atmospheric CO2 is transformed into carbonates. If carbonates

settle onto the ocean floor, they subduct with the oceanic plate to deeper parts of the
earth. CO2 degasses by igneous and metamorphic reactions to the oceans and the
atmosphere. This long-term carbon cycle is global and so is called the global carbon
cycle.
As shown in Table 3.2, carbon fluxes from the geosphere to other reservoirs are
small compared with other fluxes. Generally, the rate of inorganic reaction is
smaller than that of organic and biogenic reactions. Most of the carbon in seawater
and the atmosphere originated from the decomposition of carbon in dead organic
matter. The carbon fluxes from the decomposition of organic matter and from the
burning of fossil fuels including oil, coal, and natural gas are estimated to be
83 × 1015 and 4.2 × 1015g/year, respectively. Therefore, the anthropogenic emission
of carbon to the atmosphere is roughly 1/20 of the carbon flux due to the decompo-
sition of organic matter. CO2 in the atmosphere, transferred there by anthropogenic
and natural processes is removed from the atmosphere and the hydrosphere to the
biosphere by biological activity. Carbon is transferred to the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere via weathering (Fig.  3.3) and also hydrothermal solutions, volcanic
gasses, and gasses released by metamorphism. These fluxes are summarized in
Fig. 3.3.
The carbon cycle relates to the oxygen cycle, which is obvious from the
reaction

“CH 2 O” + O2 = CO2 + H 2 O

where “CH2O” is used as shorthand notation to represent organic matter.
Therefore, it is obvious that the carbon cycle has a large influence on atmo-
spheric O2.
48 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

Atmosphere
690

Net flux to carbonates 0.06

2 4
Terrestrial Marine
biosphere biosphere
450 7
Weathering of elemental Cº 0.09

3 5
Dead terrestrial Dead marine
organic matter organic matter
700 3,000

Oceans 0.22
40,000

Deposition of Deposition of

carbonates 0.16
Weathering of
C8 carbonates
0.12 0.22

7 8
Elemental
Carbonates
carbon
70,000,000
20,000,000

9
Juvenile carbon
90,000,000

Lithosphere

Fig. 3.3  A portion of the carbon cycle emphasizing C transfer during weathering and sedimentation
(Holland 1978). Figure is carbon contents in units of 105 g of C and transfer rates in units of 1015 g
of C/year

3.3.1 Global Geochemical Cycle and Box Model

As noted earlier, the earth system is composed of subsystems. These subsystems

can be envisioned as boxes. Mass transfer occurring between the boxes is solved
based on global material cycle models.
For simplicity, mass transfer between two boxes (Fig. 3.4) is considered below.
Fluxes between two boxes (box 1 and box 2) are represented by

F12 = k12 M1 (3.1)

3.3  Carbon Cycle 49

k12M1
M1 k21M2 M2

Fig. 3.4  A coupled two reservoir model system with fluxes proportional to the mass of the emit-
ting reservoirs (Jacobsen et al. 2000)

F21 = k 21 M 2 (3.2)

where F12 and F21 are flux from box 1 to box 2 and from box 2 to box 1, respectively.
M1 and M2 are the masses in box 1 and box 2, respectively, and k12 and k21 are rate
constants for mass transfer from box 1 to box 2 and from box 2 to box 1,
respectively.
Residence time (t) is given by

t = M / F = 1/ k (3.3)

The change of mass with time in boxes 1 and 2 is given by

dM1 / dt = F21 - F12 = k 21 M 2 - k12 M1 (3.4)

dM1 / dt = F12 - F21 = k 21M2 - k12 M1 (3.5)

If mass does not change with time, the steady state condition is given by

dM1 / dt = dM 2 / dt = F21 - F12 = k 21 M 2 - k12 M1 = 0 (3.6)

In this case, F21 = F12 and k12M1 = k21M2.
Next, we consider the nonsteady state where

M1 + M 2 = M = constant (3.7)

This condition means no input from other boxes to box 1 or box 2 and no output
from box 1 or box 2 to other boxes. From (3.4), (3.5), and (3.7), we obtain

M1 = M10 + k 21 (M12 + M 21 ) / (k12 + k 21 ) - {(k12 M12 - k 21 M 20 )

/(k12 + k 21 )}exp{-(k12 + k 21 )t} (3.8)

M 2 = M 20 + k12 (M12 + M 21 ) / (k12 + k 21 ) - {(k 21M 20 - k12 M10 )

/(k12 + k 21 )}exp{-(k 21 + k12 )t} (3.9)

where M10 and M20 are equal to M1 and M2 (t = 0), respectively.

Equations 3.8 and 3.9 indicate that the change of mass with time beginning at
t = 0 depends on the response time, 1/(k12 + k21). The responses of reservoirs (boxes)
that undergo perturbations (rapid flux increases or decreases) can be determined
50 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

Atmosphere Ocean
M1 M2

Fig. 3.5  A coupled two reservoir (seawater, atmosphere) system

based on (3.8) and (3.9). In a two-box model, the differential equations can be
solved easily if the values of the parameters k and M0 are known. However, a mul-
tibox model is difficult to solve based on analytical methods. Numerical and matrix
solution methods are useful for determining changes of mass over time. Examples
of applications of these methods to the global geochemical cycle can be found in
Berner et  al. (1983), a BLAG model; and Berner (1994), which are GEOCARB
models, Chameides and Perdue (1997) and Kashiwagi and Shikazono (2003).
Rapid increases in human activity have caused a perturbation in the CO2 concen-
tration of the atmosphere. We consider the response of the atmosphere to this per-
turbation and the change of mass of carbon in the biosphere.
The changes in M1, the amount of carbon in the atmosphere (box 1), and M2, the
amount of carbon in the biosphere (box 2) with time are given by (Lasaga 1981) as

M1 = 690 + 50 exp( -0.11015t) (3.10)

M 2 = 450 - 50 exp( -0.11015t) (3.11)

where t is time in years and the values of initial mass are M10 = 740 and M20 = 400.
Ten years later, the amounts of carbon in the atmosphere and the biosphere are
calculated to be 707 × 105 and 433 × 105 g, respectively.
Carbon in the atmosphere moves into seawater, as well as into the biosphere. The
interaction between the atmosphere and seawater will be considered below.
Here, the atmosphere and seawater are regarded as box 1 and box 2, respectively
(Fig. 3.5).
Using the amount of carbon in box 1 and box 2 and fluxes from box 1 to box 2
and from box 2 to box 1 (80 Gt/year), the rate constant, k, can be estimated. Using
estimated k values, we can calculate changes in the amount of carbon in the atmo-
sphere and seawater over time (Fig. 3.6). In this case, the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere and seawater settles at a constant value (a steady state condition) ten
thousand years later.
The exchange reaction for carbon between seawater and the atmosphere consid-
ered above is CO2 + H2O = HCO3− + H+. However, in addition to this reaction, there
are reactions in seawater as follows.

Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - = CaCO3 + CO2 + H 2 O (3.12)

HCO3 - + H + = CH 2 O + O2 (3.13)

3.3  Carbon Cycle 51

6.0

Atmospheric CO2 (×1018mol)

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0 10 000 20 000 30 000

year

Fig. 3.6  Atmospheric CO2 variation with time for atmosphere–seawater system (Shikazono 2007).
Thick curve is for the amount of present-day atmospheric CO2 = 5.5 × 1016  mol and oceanic
CO2 = 3.3 × 1020  mol. The other curves are for the different initial amounts of atmospheric and
oceanic CO2

These reactions are caused by biological activity. If we take these reactions into
account, a three-box model has to be used to represent the atmosphere, seawater,
and the biosphere.
Next, let us consider the carbon cycle in the seawater–atmosphere (fluid earth)–
crust (solid earth) system in which the response of each subsystem, particularly the
solid earth, is very slow. Here, the atmosphere and seawater can be modeled as one
box by assuming that equilibrium between the atmosphere and seawater has been
attained. This assumption is reasonable because the reaction rate between the atmo-
sphere and seawater is very rapid. Although the solid earth consists of the crust,
mantle and core, the mantle and core are not considered in this model.
Changes in the amount of carbon in the two boxes (the crust and seawater + atmo-
sphere) over time were calculated using values of rate constant (k) estimated from
the amounts of carbon in the boxes and the fluxes today (Fig. 3.7). We assumed that
k does not change with time and the atmosphere and seawater are in equilibrium
with respect to CO2.
Figure 3.7 show the changes of the amounts of carbon in the crust over time for
the last 30 Ma. This shows it takes 105 years to attainment a steady state condition.
This suggests that the geosphere (crust) does not play an important role in the effi-
cient removal of atmospheric CO2 produced by human activity.
The calculations shown above seem to be useful in making a first approximation
of the response of reservoirs to an external perturbation. However, the following
problems remain.
1. The real natural system is more complicated than a two-box system, and consists
of multiple boxes.
2. The results of calculations based on the two-box model cannot be evaluated by
comparing with the changes in the real system.
3. k is not constant but rather variable with time.
52 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

1.8×1017
1.6×1017
1.4×1017
1.2×1017
MCO2 (mol) 1×1017
8×1016
6×1016
4×1016
2×1016
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (100My) (Present)

Fig. 3.7  Carbon cycle between atmosphere. ocean (fluid earth) and crust (solid earth) (Shikazono
2007). M1, M2 and MCa (Ca mol in ocean) is assumed to be 1,000 × 1022 mol, 33,875 × 1018 mol and
Vs(volume of ocean = 1.32 × 1021 l) × 0.01 mol, respectively

1. Atmosphere
690

96
Gross 48 80 Air-Ocean 79.9
Production Respiration Exchange
0.1
Weathering
2. Living 4. Surface Gross
Terrestrial
Deforestation
48 Ocean 40 Production
Biosphere Decay Fossil
1,000 6. Living Fuel
830
36 Marine Burning
48 Ocean Biosphere
Literfall 33.3 37
Circulation
1.8
3.9
3. Dead 0.2
Net
Terrestrial 5. Deep Production
Weathering Ocean
Biosphere 0.1
Sedimentation
1,500 38,000

8. Carbonate Sediments 0.2 7. Organic (or Elemental) C

Sedimentation Sediments
70,000,000
20,000,000

Fig. 3.8  The preindustrial, steady-state global cycle for C using eight-box model (Chameides and
Perdue 1997). The boxes represent specific reservoirs, with the numbers inside the boxes being
reservoir amounts in units of Gtons C (1 Gton C = 1 × 109tons = 1 × 1015 g) and the arrows fluxes
between reservoirs with the numbers having units of Gtons C/year. The heavy arrows denote the
pathways by which anthropogenic activities perturb the global cycle

4. Flux from human activity into the atmosphere is assumed to be simultaneous, but
it should be expressed as a function of time.
5. We assumed that F is linearly correlated with M, but this is uncertain.
Chameides and Perdue (1997) performed model calculations taking into account
problems 1–4. They considered seven boxes: the atmosphere, terrestrial living
3.3  Carbon Cycle 53

organisms, the surface seawater, deep seawater, living marine organisms, organic
matter in sediments, and carbonate sediments.
According to the multibox model, the change of mass with time is expressed as
N
dM i (t ) / dt = å K ij M j (t ) (i = 1,2,¼, N)
j =1 (3.14)

K ij = k j® i(i ¹ j)

æ N ö
K ij = - ç å k ij ÷
è j¹ i ø

Assuming eight boxes in Fig. 3.8 and steady state conditions, we obtain

dM1 / dt = F21 + F31 + F41 + F71 - F12 - F14 = 0

dM 2 / dt = F12 - F21 - F23 = 0
 (3.15)

We can obtain k values from (3.15). Then, using initial values of mass, assuming
constant values of k and using the differential matrix equation, we can calculate how
M changes with time (Chameides and Perdue 1997).
Figure 3.9 shows the results for the case where CO2 input from humans to the
atmosphere changes rapidly in 1920. This calculation does not agree with records of
the change of atmospheric CO2 over time. The most serious problem with this cal-
culation method is that this does not take into account time-dependent k. In contrast,
using a pseudo-nonlinear model that assumes that k is variable with time produces
results that agree fairly well with the historical data. The pseudo-nonlinear model,
then, is more useful for predicting atmospheric CO2 concentration in the future. It
has its own problems, however, including the following:
1. Predicting future atmospheric CO2 concentration is difficult because we are not
very certain of parameter values and
2. The assumption of F = kM is difficult to apply to a real system.
Changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration depend on many anthropogenic factors
like economics, ethics, policy, science, and technology. We do not discuss these issues
here, but limit our consideration to the models and their applicability. The pseudo-
nonlinear box model is based on the equation F = kM where k is a function of time.
However, in real system, the nonlinear equation F = kMn seems more appropriate.
We need to know reaction coefficient (n) value and the rate-limiting mechanism to
use this model.
For example, the flux of carbon from the left to right side of the equation for
photosynthetic reactions (CO2 + H2O = CH2O + O2) is given by Holland (1978) as

F = a {1 - exp( - bPCO2 )}- c (3.16)

 54 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

a 8 8
Emissions Actual
Emissions (Gtons C/yr)

Emissions
6 Emissions used in 6
Boxes simulations

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
b
360
Atmospheric C (1000 Mtons)

Atmospheric Reservior

Atmospheric CO2 (ppmv)

750 Calculated using
"nonlinear" BOXES 340
700 Observed
320

650 300

Calculated using simple 280

600 version of BOXES
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Years (after 1860)

Fig. 3.9  The impact of human activities in the global C cycle since 1860. (a) Anthropogenic CO2
emissions since 1860. (b) The atmospheric C reservoir (left-hand axis) and CO2 mixing ratio (right
hand axis) as a function of year since 1860 (Chameides and Perdue 1997)

F does not correlate linearly with PCO2 (a,b: constant, c: respiration rate in the
absence of CO2).
Next, we consider the mass transfer between the geosphere and the hydrosphere.
The transfer of carbon between the crust and seawater is given by the reaction

CaSiO3 + CO2 = CaCO3 + SiO 2 (3.17)

Equation 3.17 is a simplified reaction and can be derived from the following two
reactions.

CaSiO3 + 2CO2 + 2H 2 O = 2HCO3 - + Ca 2 + + SiO2 (3.18)

Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - = CaCO3 + CO2 + H 2 O (3.19)

Atmospheric CO2 is fixed as CaCO3 through reactions (3.18) and (3.19) for
weathering, precipitation of CaCO3 in the ocean and sedimentation on the seafloor.
3.3  Carbon Cycle 55

In order to estimate the carbon flux using these reactions, the reaction rates in
(3.18) and (3.19) must be estimated. These reaction rates do not have a simple linear
relation with PCO2. The general equation expressing dissolution and precipitation
reactions of solid phases is given by

dC / dt = k(s m - 1)n (3.20)

where C is concentration, s is the saturation index, equal to I.A.P./Keq (I.A.P is the

ion activity product, and Keq is the equilibrium constant), k is apparent reaction rate
constant, and m and n are constant coefficients.
This equation means that the reaction rate (dC/dt) does not depend on concentra-
tion in a linear relationship. In one component system, the precipitation rate is rep-
resented by

dC / dt = - k {(C / Ceq ) m - 1} n (3.21)

where Ceq is the equilibrium concentration.
Here, we assume that the reaction occurs irreversibly.
In the case of m = 1 and n = 1, (3.21) is converted into

dC / dt = - k(C - Ceq ) (3.22)

If C >> Ceq (far from equilibrium conditions), we obtain

dC / dt = - kC (3.23)

This equation indicates that the flux decreases linearly with time.
The relationship between V, C and M is given by

VC = M (3.24)

where V is volume of the system and M is the mass of the water.

If V is constant, d(M/V)/dt = −k(M/V) and dM/dt = −kM.
This indicates M decreases linearly with time. Therefore, a linear relation,
F = kM, is established if n = 1, m = 1 and the system is far from equilibrium. In this
case, a pseudo-nonlinear multibox model is useful for deriving the relation between
mass and time. The pseudo-nonlinear model has been successfully used to simulate
the biogeochemical cycles of C, S, P, N, and O (Chameides and Perdue 1997).
A global sulfur cycle model and flux is shown in Fig. 3.10 and Table 3.3, respec-
tively. The change in the amounts of S in the soils and the atmosphere with time
after rapid addition of anthropogenic S by influences the preindustrial global S
cycle, which had been in steady state.
It is noteworthy that the time needed to attain steady state is very short, about
30 years, about the same as for the N cycle, but shorter than the carbon cycle, which
takes more than 100 years.
56 1.85
River Runoff

0.6 1.9
Reduced S 4. Atmosphere Wet & Dr y
Emissions Deposition
1.2 1
Wet & Dry
Deposition 2.4
Reduced S
Emissions
3. Soils & Seaspra y 5. Ocean
0.033 0.067
3,000 Volcanoes 50,000,000
Volcanoes

0.75
Weathering 0.817
0.5 & Volcanoe s Pyrite
Weathering 1. Oxidized 2. Reduced Deposition
& Volcanoes Sediments Sediments
(CaSO4 • 2H2O) (FeS2)

200,000,000 150,000,000

0.533
Gypsum
Deposition

Fig. 3.10  Global sulfur cycle (Chameides and Perdue 1997)

Table 3.3  Preindustrial fluxes of sulfur for the five-steady reservoir steady state model (Chameides
and Perdue 1997)
Fluxes Flux (Tmoles year−1)
From oxidized S sediments to soils (F1→3) to atmosphere (F1→4) Weathering = 0.4
Volcanoes = 0.1
Total = 0.5
Volcanoes = 0.033
From reduced S sediments to soils (F2→3) to atmosphere (F2→4) Weathering = 0.6
Volcanoes = 0.15
Total = 7.5
Volcanoes = 0.067
From soils to atmosphere (F3→4) to ocean (F3→5) Reduced S emissions = 0.6
River runoff = 0.85
From atmosphere to soils (F4→3) to ocean (F4→5) Wet and dry deposition = 1.1
Seasalt deposition = 0.1
Total = 1.2
Wet and dry deposition = 0.6
Seasalt deposition = 1.3
Total = 1.9
From ocean to atmosphere (F5→4) to oxidized sediments (F5→1) Reduced S emissions = 1.0
to reduced sediments (F5→2) Seaspray = 1.4
Total = 2.4
Gypsum deposition = 0.533
Pyrite deposition = 0.817
3.3  Carbon Cycle 57

Fig. 3.11  The cycles of Hg a Total flux to

at preindustrial (a) and atmosphere 250
postindustrial (b) stages Atmosphere Ra
X1 40
in
(Garrels et al. 1975) 3
r8 3

Va X 3

16
8

po
po

7X
in
Va

r1
X2
Ra

4
67
Continent River 13 Ocean
100,000 415,000
X7

n
"U
pl

io
ift it

at
X6 "1 ip
3 ec

X5
Sediment P r
330,000,000

Prehistoric age
b
Total flux to
Atmosphere atmosphere 480
R
Rain 102

ai por
Vap 36
3

n
Va
or 8
V
1

27
223

2
River
Continent water Ocean
23 50 64

on
"U

a ti
p li

ent
90

ft "

35
32
d im

Se
Mine Sediment
-87

Present

The anthropogenic influences on other elements’ global cycles could be studied,

but few such works have been carried out. The cycles of toxic base metals (Hg, Mn,
Pb, etc.) in the pre- and postindustrial stages have been studied (Fig. 3.11) (Garrels
et al. 1975), but no computations on the cycles are available.

3.3.1.1 Factors Controlling the Chemical Composition of Seawater

Inputs from riverwater to the ocean and outputs from the ocean by sedimentation
are important factors controlling the chemical composition of seawater. Residence
time (t) of an element in seawater is defined as

t = A 0 / (dA R,O / dt) (3.25)

 58

Table 3.4  Residence time (log t, in year) of elements in ocean (Holland 1978)
H 4.5 He
Li 6.3 Be (2) B 7.0 C 4.9 N 6.3 O 4.5 F 5.7 Ne
Na 7.7 Mg 7.0 Al 2 Si 3.8 P4 S 6.9 Cl 7.9 Ar
K 6.7 Ca 5.9 Sc 4.6 Ti 4 V5 Cr 3 Mn 4 Fe 2 Co 4.5 Ni 4 Cu 4 Zn 4 Ga 4 Ge As 5 Se 4 Br 8 Kr
Rb 6.4 Sr 6.6 Y Zr 5 Nb Mo 5 Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag 5 Cd 4.7 In Sn Sb 4 Te I6 Xe
Cs 5.8 Ba 4.5 La 6.3 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au 5 Hg 5 Tl Pb (2.6) Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra 6.6 Ac
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th (2) Pa U 6.4
3  Material Circulation in the Earth
3.3  Carbon Cycle 59

Cloud

CO2 Artificial
pollution
Volcanic
gas
Rainfall
Evaporation (H2O) River water
River water Aerosolfall
Backarc
Island
2+ 2-
Volcanic gas Continent
Sedimentation Ca +CO3 Ridge
Continent arc Submarine Marine snow Sea floor
volcano
CaCO3
(SiO2) weathering
Seawater
circulation Low temperature
Seawater seepage
Low temperature circulation
Magma
seepage
n
Magma tio
duc
S ub Magma
Hot spot Magma

Fig. 3.12  Various processes controlling chemical composition of seawater (Shikazono 1992)

where A0 is the total amount of a given element in seawater and dAR,O/dt is the flux
of the element from riverwater to the ocean. The t of various elements can be calcu-
lated because the values for dAR,O/dt and A0 are known (Table 3.4). Residence times
vary widely in a range of 102–108 years. One important factor controlling t is the
chemical state of the element in seawater. Elements with large t values such as alkali
earth, alkaline elements, and halogens are stable as ions and complexes in seawater.
Base metal elements with small t values tend to be present as fine particles and col-
loids. These particles and colloids settle onto the seafloor in a short time.
Seawater’s chemical composition is determined not only by riverine input and
sedimentation, but also by evaporation, weathering of seafloor basalt, formation of
evaporites, aerosol fall, biological activity, circulation of seawater and hydrothermal
activity at midoceanic ridges, island arcs and back arcs, volcanic gas inputs, seepage
from seafloor sediments near subduction zones and continental coasts, and mass trans-
fer between bottom seawater and interstitial water in seafloor sediments and anthropo-
genic pollution (Fig. 3.12). The most important factor controlling the concentration is
different for different elements. For example, the removal of Mg from seawater
through the circulation of seawater and hydrothermal solutions below the seafloor,
such as happens at midoceanic ridges, has a considerable effect on seawater’s  Mg
concentration. Alkali elements such as Li and K and base metal elements such as Cu
and Zn are released from the oceanic crust by hydrothermal solutions into seawater.
Potassium is removed from seawater and precipitated in clay minerals in weathered
basalt. Ca transported by hydrothermal solutions to seawater precipitates as carbonate
through biological activity. Carbonate dissolves in deep seawater. The seawater depth
below where carbonate dissolves is called the CCD (carbon compensation depth).
Silica in seawater is enriched into the shells of diatoms and radiolaria. Dead diatoms
settle onto the seafloor, resulting in their being the main component of biogenic SiO2
in sediments. The marine snow settling onto the sea bottom adsorbs dissolved species
and colloids and adsorbed matter can also desorb during settling. Thus, we are certain
that biological activity is very important for controlling seawater chemistry.
60 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

3.4 Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions

3.4.1 Plate Tectonics

3.4.1.1 Theory of Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), a German meteorologist and geographer posited that

all the continents had once been assembled into a supercontinent, which he named
Pangaea, meaning “all Earth”. He thought that Pangaea had become separated into
several continents, which drifted into the positions they occupy today. His continen-
tal drift theory was based on evidence of similarities between the coast lines
(Fig. 3.13), geological structures, mountain ranges, fossils, and distributions of past
climate zones, as witnessed by the presence of glaciers coal, or rock salt, of two
continents that are very distant from each other today. However, many scientists,
particularly geophysicists, rejected this idea because it did not include any physical
mechanism that could drive the motion of the continents. But in the 1950s, paleo-
magnetic data supporting this view became available. Paleomagnetic characteristics
of many rock samples from many locations in various continents clearly indicated
that if the magnetic poles have been fixed, the continents have been drifting.

3.4.1.2 Ocean Floor Spreading

In 1950s, mountain ranges called ridges, which run long distances (totaling about
60,000 km) under the center of many oceans, were discovered on the seafloor. Detailed
investigation revealed ridge valleys, or rifts, in the middle of these ridges. Rifts are
observed on the continents. Figure 3.14 shows a cross section of a rift valley in east
Africa. The topography of this rift valley is notably similar to that of the midatlantic
rift. Deep lakes like Lake Tanganyika are distributed along the rift valley.
Many measurements revealed a strong correlation between seafloor topography
and continental heat flow. Heat flow at ridges is high compared with other areas.
This suggests that heat convection may be occurring in the mantle, causing mantle
convection, as proposed by Arthur Holmes (1890–1965) (Fig. 3.15) and continental
drift. Peleomagnetic evidence strongly supports mantle convection theory. As
shown in Fig. 3.16, magnetic anomalies are distributed as nearly straight lines paral-
lel to the ridge axis. When magma intrudes at ridges, it cools and solidifies. Beyond
the Curie point of about 570°C, the rocks are magnetized in the direction of earth’s
magnetic field at the time of cooling. The recorder model, called the Vine–Mathews
hypothesis can reasonably explain measured magnetic anomaly data (Vine and
Mathews 1963). Paleomagnetic study has clearly indicated a continuing history of
ocean floor spreading.
Ages of ocean floor sediments were obtained from radiometric age and micro-
fossil data. The ages obtained by these methods and magnetic anomaly data showed
that the ocean floor gets older as its distance from the ridge increases (Fig. 3.17); the
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions 61

Fig. 3.13  The jigsaw-puzzle fit of continents bordering the Atlantic ocean formed on the basis of
Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift (Bullard et al. 1965; Holland and Petersen 1995)

age of ocean floor is generally younger than the continents; and the oldest ocean
floor is from the Jurassic period. These pieces of evidence lead to the idea of ocean
floor spreading and renewal.

3.4.1.3 Plate Tectonics

According to plate tectonics the earth’s solid surface is divided into more than ten
separate rigid blocks or plates (Fig. 3.18). They are moving laterally and interact
62 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

9000
Rift Valley
6000
3000
0
Altitude(feet)

−3000
0
−3000 Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Rift
−6000
−9000
−12000
−15000

Fig. 3.14  Cross section of rift valley, Africa and Mid-Atlantic ridge (Holmes 1978)

Fig. 3.15  Cartoon of mantle Continent

convection
Trench
Ridge
Mantle

Core

0 1000km

Fig. 3.16  Measured

magnetic anomaly pattern for
is
ax

a small portion of the 62N

Mid-Atlantic Ridge just
southwest of Iceland. Positive
anomalies are shown in
black; negative anomalies in
white (Heirtzler et al. 1966;
Ernst 2000)
60N

REYKJANES RIDGE
ge
rid

MAGNETICS
58N
30W 25W
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions 63

Fig. 3.17  Age of the ocean floor based on magnetic anomaly patterns (Pitman et al. 1974; Holland
and Petersen 1995)

Eurasian
North plate
American
Farallon plate
plate
Caribbean
Arabian
plate
African plate
Philippine Sea Cocos plate
plate plate

Pacific plate

Indian Nazca South

Australian plate American
plate plate

Antarctic plate

Fig. 3.18  Major lithospheric plates and their boundaries as deduced from worldwide seismicity
tectonics (Dewey 1980; Ernst 2000)

with each other, causing the characteristic features of geological structures observed
in the crust like mountain building, folding, faulting, etc.
The plates include both the crust and upper mantle. A low-velocity zone was
found in the upper mantle by seismological investigation. The plates are considered
to be the section above this zone, which is called the lithosphere. The thickness of the
64 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

lithosphere ranges from 60 to 200 km. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere,

a region of the upper mantle that acts like a fluid rather than a solid.
Methods for estimating plate movement velocity are (1) use of ocean floor age
data obtained by paleomagnetic and other means, (2) calculation of the rotation of
a rigid body around an axis of rotation (Euler pole), (3) study of hot spots, and
(4) very long base line interferometry (VLBI), which can precisely measure long
distances such as the distance between Hawaii and Japan. All these studies indicate
that plate movement velocity is several cm year−1 and their velocity estimates are
consistent with each other. For example, the velocity of convergence for the Eurasian
and Pacific plates estimated from rotating velocities is nearly the same as the result
of VLBI measurement.

3.4.1.4 Hot Spots

As shown in Fig. 3.19, the age of the islands of the Emperor Sea mount and Hawaiian
Island Chain is older toward the northwest. This trend can be explained by the com-
bination of magma ascending from the deeper part of mantle over the last 108 years
and lateral movement of the Pacific plate. Based on the ages of the volcanic islands
it is estimated that the Pacific plate has moved at 8 cm/year relative to hot spot dur-
ing the last 6 × 105 years (Fig. 3.20).

3.4.1.5 Plate Boundary

There are three types of plate boundaries (Fig. 3.21). They are (1) convergent, (2)
divergent, and (3) parallel movement or transform boundaries. Each type is associ-
ated with different topography. Trenches like the Japan trench or Mariana trench,
mountain ranges such as the Himalaya, Andes, and Rocky Mountains, ridges, and
transforms characterize (1), (2), and (3), respectively.
Mid-ocean ridges are representative of divergent plate boundaries. At these
boundaries stresses are pulling apart the lithosphere. The faults that form boundary-
parallel margins are known as transform faults. For example, the axis of a midoce-
anic ridge is vertically cut and moved laterally by transform faults.
There are two types of plate convergence: subduction and obduction. Generally,
obduction does not occur frequently, but subduction is very common. Subduction
means that one plate moves to another plate, sinking into deep earth’s interior
(mantle) at a convergent plate boundary, while obduction is one model of the plate
convergence, that oceanic crust overridges or overthrusts onto the leading edge of
a continental lithospheric plate. In obduction, a part of the oceanic crust known as
an ophiolite is thrust onto the continental crust. Studies on ophiolites can give us
information on the structure and composition of the ancient oceanic crust. An ophi-
olite is a section of the earth’s oceanic crust and consists of sediments, basaltic
pillow lava, sheeted dikes, gabbro, cumulate peridotite, and tectonized peridotite,
in descending order.
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions 65

160° 180° 160° 140° 120°

Meiji NORTH
Seamount AMERICA
50° s
land
Aleutian Is 50°

Em p e
ror Se
PACIFIC OCEA N
40°

amo
unts
Suiko Hawaiian-Emperor bend
Smt. 30°

Nintoku Seamount Haw

aiia
nR 20°
40° idge Hawai
Jingu Seamount
10°
Ojin
Smt.
Koko Seamount

Daikakuji Seamount
Kimmei
Smt. Abbott Seamount
Yuryaku
Seamount 30°
30° Midway

Pearl and Hermes Reef

Kure
Laysan
Gardner Pinnacles
Necker
Northampton Nihoa
Kauai
Bank
La Perouse Oahu
0 1000 km Pinnacle Maui
Niihau
Molokai 20°
20° Hawaii
Lanai
170° 180° 170° 160° Loihi 150°

Fig. 3.19  Bathymetry of the Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain (Holland and Petersen 1995).
Contours at 1 and 2 km depths are shown in the area of the chain only. The inset shows the location
of the chain (outlined by 2 km depth contour) in the central North Pacific (Clague and Dalrymple
1989)

In deeper parts of subduction zones such as in the area of the Japanese archipel-
ago or the Andes Mountains, magma is generated and ascends to form intrusive
bodies of igneous rocks like granite, and regional metamorphism occurs. In subduc-
tion zones high mountains are built. For example, the Indian continent, on the Indian
and Australian plates, collided with the Eurasian plate and subducted underneath it,
resulting in the building of the Himalayan Mountains.

3.4.1.6 Plate Convergent Boundary

Figure 3.22 is an outline index map of the Japanese subduction zone. In the figure,
thick lines with trenches are converging plate boundaries and arrows indicate the
relative plate motions.
 80

Meiji
/yr
Suiko 2 cm
±.0
60 8.6
Potassium-Argon age (m.y.)

Nintoku
Ojin

Koko
Yuryaku
40 Colahan Kimmei
Abbot
Midway
Northampton
Laysan
20
Tholeiitic shield lava
F F Shoal Alkalic postshield lava
Alkalic rejuvenated lava
Kauai Nihoa Fossil data
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Distance from Kilauea (km)

Fig. 3.20  Age of volcanoes in the Hawaiian-Emperor chain as a function of distance from Kilauea.
The solid line represents an averax rate of propagation of volcanism of 8.6 ± 0.2 cm/y. The dashed
line is two-segment fit a sign the date from Kilavea to Gaeder and from Laysan to Suiko (Clague
and Dalrymple 1989; Holland and Petersen 1995)

d a

c
c
b
a

Fig. 3.21  Three types of plate boundary (Sugimura et al. 1988). (a) convergence, (b) divergence,
(c) parallel movement (transform fault), (d) transform fault links
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions 67

Fig. 3.22  Outline index map of the Japanese subduction zones (Uyeda, 1991). Thick lines with
teeth are converging plate boundaries. Arrows indicate relative plates motions. Abbreviations: su,
Suruge trough; su, sagami trough; sf, south Fossa Magna triple junctions; Och, Off Central Honshu
triple junctions; ISTL, Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line; KSML, Kashima VLBI station (Uyeda,
1991)

A deep trench, known as the Japan trench, runs parallel to northeastern Japanese
Island on the Pacific side (Fig. 3.23). The Japan trench is more than 104 m deep in
some places. It was formed by the subduction of the Pacific plate. In the Japanese
Islands, there are high mountains like the Japanese Alps and rapid uplift is observed
in mountainous areas. This uplift and mountain building were caused by the com-
pression of the Eurasian plate and North American plate by the Pacific plate and
Philippine Sea plate. Numerous dykes run in the strata with many trending nearly
E–W. This indicates that Pacific plate is moving nearly E–W.
68 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

W Stations E
0

50
Depth (km)

100

150 Top of slab

200

250
140°E 142°E 144°E

Fig. 3.23  Section showing the focal depth distribution of small earthquakes along an east–west
line across the northeastern part of the Japan arc and the double-planed deep seismic zone detected
by the Tohoku University seismic network. The hatched zone shores the position of the boundary
between the descending slab and the overlying mantle (Bott 1982)

The Philippine Sea plate, which collides with the Asian plate, is moving nearly
N–S. This suggests that the Izu Peninsula collided with the Honshu, the main island
of Japan about 3 million years ago. It is believed that microcontinents like Izu
Island, volcanic islands, coral reefs, and seafloor sediments have collided with the
Japanese Islands. It is thought that widespread occurrences of chert, which formed
deep in the sea, limestone of coral reef origin and volcanic rocks of seamount origin
in the Japanese Islands are due to this accretion.

3.4.1.7 Earthquakes and Volcanic Rocks

Earthquakes in subduction zones occur deep along a plane, called a Wadachi–

Benioff plane. The cross section of northeast Honshu, Japan clearly indicates how
the plate subducts and earthquakes and volcanisms occur along this plane (Figs. 3.23
and 3.24). Volcanic zones are distributed parallel to Japan trench and Nankai trough
where Pacific plate and Philippine Sea plate subduct, respectively.

3.4.1.8 Subduction Mode

Uyeda and Kanamori (1979) summarized the slopes of Wadati–Benioff zones

(zones of active seismicity) in subduction zones around the world (Fig. 3.25).
The slope of the subduction at Mariana is the steepest, while the slab subduct-
ing with the shallowest slope is under Chile. Uyeda and Kanamori (1979) classi-
fied the mode of subduction into Mariana- and Chilean-types (Fig.  3.26).
According to their study, the features of geologic events associated with these
two modes of subduction are distinct. For example, a back arc basin exists
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions 69

130° 150°E

East Japan volcanic front

West Japan volcanic front

40° Eurasia plate

h
renc
an t
Jap

Pacific plate
Sag
trouami
h gh
ug
t ro
ai
nk
Na
Philippine plate
30°N

Fig. 3.24  Distribution of volcano, volcanic front and plate boundaries in Japanese Islands and
surrounding area (modified after Sugimura et al. 1988). Solid circle: active volcano, Open circle:
the other Quaternary volcano

between the continent and the island arc in Mariana-type subductions, but not in
Chilean-type subduction zones. Big earthquakes like those in Chile in 1960,
Alaska in 1964 tend be associated with Chilean-type but not Mariana-type sub-
duction. One possible explanation for the two distinct modes of subduction is the
different ages of plates. Young plates have relatively high temperatures and low
densities. Thus, young plates like the Chilean plate subduct at a gentle slope,
causing a compressional stress regime, generation of big earthquakes, intermedi-
ate-type (andesite) volcanism and associated ore deposits like porphyry copper-
type deposits. In contrast, older plates subduct with steep slopes, causing
extensional stress regimes and forming backarc basins, bimodal mafic (basaltic)–
felsic (dacitic) volcanism and associated ores known as Kuroko deposits which
are massive stratabound polymetallic deposits formed on the seafloor in sub-
seafloor environments (Sect. 4.3.4).
70 Andaman
M. America (12 N), C. Aleution, L. Antitles 100 km
0
S.Chile (40°S) Depth, km
Sumatra (5°S)
S.Chile (30°S)
100
Alaska Peru (10°S)

Scotia
200
N.Chile (20°S)
New Hebrides
Ryukyu
New Zealand 300

Solomons 400
NE Japan

Kermodee(33°S) 500
Philippine
Kuril
Izu-Bonin(30°N)
Tonga 600
New Britain Java
Mariana
700

Fig. 3.25  Dip of Benioff–Wadati zones (Uyeda and Kanamori 1979)

Chilean type
shallow
uplift
bulge trench compression
prism forward
continental
motion
forced
retreat
of trench
great thrust
events shallow
dip

Mariana type no uplift

tension barren trench wall
deep trench

no bulge
backward or
slow forward
continental
motion no great
thrust events
spontaneously
retreating
(or stationary)
trench
steep dip

Fig. 3.26  Two modes of subduction boundaries (Uyeda and Kanamori 1979)
3.4  Circulation of the Solid Earth and Associated Interactions 71

3.4.1.9 Geologic History of the Japanese Islands

The geologic history of the Japanese Islands can be explained in terms of plate
tectonics.
The Japanese Islands are thought to have been formed mainly by accretion. They
are composed mostly of accretional prisms from the Permian, Jurassic and
Cretaceous ages including chert, limestone, sandstone, basalt, etc. The Japanese
Islands were originally located at the eastern margin of the Asian continent.
Paleomagnetic study has revealed from 20 to 15 million years ago, the Sea of Japan
opened rapidly and the Japanese Islands separated from the Asian continent and
moved to their present-day position.
In the Tertiary (Miocene) age, intense submarine volcanism occurred on the
seafloor of the Sea of Japan accompanied by the deposition of Green tuff, a thick,
altered pile of volcanic materials associated with mudstone and the formation of
Kuroko deposits. Northeast Japan (Honshu) uplifted starting in the late Miocene
and its terrestrial area expanded. In the Quaternary age volcanism occurred related
to subduction of the Pacific plate and the Philippine Sea plate.
In the Cretaceous age intense igneous activity occurred. Granitic rocks formed at
that time. Granitic rocks are widely distributed in the Japanese Islands. This is due
to uplift and erosion after the Cretaceous age.
Regional metamorphic rocks like those found in the Sanbagawa metamorphic
belt, which is composed of high pressure type metamorphic rock, and Hida meta-
morphic complex, which is low pressure type are distributed as zones in the Japanese
Islands. The Hida metamorphic rocks are old, up to 2 Ga, indicating that they have
been a part of the Asian continent and then separated from it.

3.4.2 Plume Tectonics

The use of earthquake tomography revealed the three-dimensional structure of the

earth’s interior. P wave velocity increases with increasing density, and density
depends on temperature. Thus, using earthquake tomography, we can estimate the
distribution of temperature in the earth’s interior in three dimensions. This method
revealed that high- and low-temperature zones exist in the interior (Figs. 3.27 and
3.28). This heterogeneous distribution of temperature is explained by the presence
of hot plumes and cold plumes. It has been posited that hot plume activity causes
hot spot volcanism and volcanism at midoceanic ridges. If hot plume activity inten-
sified, volcanic activity at midoceanic ridges, as well as oceanic crust production
rates and thus subduction rates, would increase, resulting in magma generation,
degassing from magma, an increase in the atmospheric CO2 concentration, and
global warming.
Plume tectonics is the theory that plumes govern mantle dynamics. Plume tec-
tonics may control plate tectonics, meaning that plume tectonics has considerable
effects on both earth’s surface and interior systems.
72 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

Fig. 3.27  Tomographic

image of the earth’s mantle km
beneath the Japanese arc,
down to the core/mantle 410
boundary showing the
distribution of slow and fast 660
seismic waves. The wave
velocity distribution also
reflects temperature
distribution and shows the
penetration of a cold
subducting slab through the
transition zone into the lower
mantle (Rollinson 2007)

Slow Fast
(warm) (cold)

Fig. 3.28  The Cambell and a HADEAN (pre-4.0Ga)

Griffiths (1993) plume-driven
mantle convection model. (a) Cool chemically depleted
Lithosphere boundary layer
The pre-4.0 Ga earth with
descending, depleted cold
plumes, and (b) the 2.0–0 Ga
earth with ascending enriched
plumes (Rollison 2007) MANTLE

Cold plume
Hot plume

Depleted
mantle
CORE

b POST-ARCHAEAN (0-2.0Ga)

Lithosphere
Subducted
slab

Hot plume

MANTLE

Enriched
mantle

CORE
References 73

One possible explanation for the generation of hot and cold plumes is that
subducting slabs stay at the boundary between the upper and lower mantles and
these “stagnant slabs” fall as cold plumes deeper into the mantle, resulting in the
formation of hot plumes as hotter mantle material ascends.
Scientists think that igneous activity in earth-type planets (Mercury, Mars, and
Venus in our solar system) is caused by plume tectonics. However, no evidence of
plate tectonics is available for these planets. Thus, it is likely that subduction of
plates and stagnant slabs is not what generates hot and cold plumes there.

3.5 Chapter Summary

1. In the earth system, circulation of fluids such as the atmosphere and water and
solids including plate movement, plume movement, and mantle convection are
occurring.
2. Geochemical cycles of various elements and climate changes can be elucidated
using computer simulations based on multibox models.
3. Geological processes in the earth’s surface environment such as mountain build-
ing, earthquakes, faulting, folding, volcanism, and metamorphism can be
explained in terms of plate tectonics.
4. The dynamics and physical properties of the earth’s interior can be explained in
terms of plume tectonics. Plume tectonics may control plate tectonics and the
earth’s surface environment in terms of long-term climate change and cause
igneous activity in the earth-type planets Mercury, Mars, and Venus.

References

Berner RA, Lasaga AC, Garrels RM (1983) The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its
effects on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years. Am J Sci 283:641–683
Berner RA (1994) GEOCARB II—A revised model for atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic time.
Am J Sci 294:56–91
Bott MHP (1982) The interior of the Earth: its structure, constitution and evolution. Elsevier, New
York
Bullard EC, Everett JE, Smith AG (1965) The Fit of the continents around the Atlantic. Phil Tras
Roy Soc Lond 1088:41–45
Cambell IH, Griffiths RW (1993) The evolution of the mantle’s chemical structure. Lithos
30:389–399
Chameides P (1997) Biogeochemical cycles. Oxford University Press, New York
Clague DA, Dalrymple GB (1989) Tectonics, geochronology and origin of the Hawaiian-Emperor
volcanic chain. In: Winterer EL, Huss DM, Decker RW (eds) The Eastern Pacific Ocean and
Hawaii, vol N, The geology of North America. Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp
188–217
Dewey JL (1980) Episodicity, sequence and style at convergent plate boundaries. In: RW Strangway
(ed) The continental crust and its mineral resources. Geological Association of Canada, Special
Paper 20:553–574
74 3  Material Circulation in the Earth

Ernst WG (2000) Earth systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Garrels RM et  al (1975) Chemical cycles and the global environment—assessing human influ-
ences. William Kaufmann, Los Altos
Heirtzler JR, LePichon X, Baron JG (1966) Magnetic anomalies on the Reykjanes Range. Deep
Sea Res 13:427 (Abstract)
Holland HD (1978) The chemistry of the atmosphere and oceans. Wiley, New York
Holland HD, Petersen U (1995) Living dangerously. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Holmes A (1978) Principles of physical geology, 3rd edn. Nelson, London
Jacobsen MC, Charlson RI, Rogue H, Orians GH (eds.) (2000) Earth system science. International
Geophysics Series, vol 72. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam
Lasaga AC (1981) Dynamic treatment of geochemical cycles. In: Lasaga AC, Kirkpatrick RJ (eds)
Kinetics of geochemical processes: reviews in mineralogy, vol 8. Mineralogical Society of
America, Washington, pp 69–110
Natural Research Council (1993) Solid-Earth sciences and society. Natural Academy of Sciences,
Washington, DC
Rollison H (2007) Early Earth system. Blackwell, Oxford
Sugimura A, Nakamura Y, Ida Y (eds) (1988) Illustrated Earth science. Iwanamishoten, Tokyo (in
Japanese)
Uyeda S (1991) The new view of the Earth. Freeman, San Francisco
Uyeda S, Kanamori H (1979) Subduction of oceanic plate and formation of marginal sea. Kagaku
48:91–102 (in Japanese)
Vine FJ, Mathews DH (1963) Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges. Nature 199:947–949
Chapter 4
Nature–Human Interaction

In previous chapters, we described non-human subsystems and the interactions

between them. In this chapter, we undertake the interactions between humans and
natural non-human subsystems including (1) natural disasters, (2) earth’s environ-
mental problems and (3) natural resources.

Keywords  Acid rain • Destruction of ozone layer • Earthquake • Energy resources

• Global warming • Mineral resources • Natural disasters • Natural resources
• Nature–humans interaction • Water resources

4.1 Interactions Between Nature and Humans

Figure  4.1 shows the different features of interactions between the natural and
human systems in which materials and heat flow. Humans take natural resources
from earth’s surface environment. These natural resources are consumed by human
society, which also generates wastes. Most of the wastes emitted by humans are
stored in the natural system. The stored waste changes the earth’s surface environ-
ment, causing environmental problems. There are both direct and indirect environ-
mental problems. In direct problems, wastes directly influence humans. For
example, drinking water that has been contaminated by human activity is a direct
environmental problem. An example of an indirect environmental problem is
global warming due to an increase in atmospheric CO2 emitted by human activity.
In this case, CO2 emitted by human activity does not directly influence humans, but
the temperature increase caused by higher atmospheric CO2 causes changes in
earth’s environment, thus influencing humans. If an environmental problem is
global, we call it one of earth’s environmental problems, while if it is local, it is a
waste problem and/or environmental pollution. Waste emitted from humans to
natural systems pollutes the environment, then returns back to humans and influ-
ences them directly and indirectly. This sort of feedback system characterizes
earth’s environmental problems.

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 75

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_4, © Springer 2012
76 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Fig. 4.1  Earth environmental

Natural resources Human society
problem associated with mass
and energy flow between

Waste
humans and nature
Disaster
Earth environmental
problem

In contrast, natural disasters are characterized by a one-way flow of energy and

matter from the natural system to humans. This flow is not continuous but intermit-
tent with respect to time and is generally not global but local.
Humans cannot control the generation or scope of natural disasters. It is expected
that with the development of scientific research and technology, we can predict
when and where natural disasters occur and prevent them in the future.

4.2 Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are natural phenomenon causing damage to humans. The charac-
teristic features of natural disasters are as follows:
1. There are various kinds of natural phenomena, and so there are also various
kinds of natural disasters.
2. Secondary disasters are often precipitated by primary disasters. Examples of
­secondary disasters are fires, tsunamis, and mudflows associated with earth-
quakes and volcanic eruptions.
3. The features and types of natural disasters change over time. For example, natu-
ral disasters like earthquakes have come to cause more intense damage to human
society with the development of civilization.

4.2.1 Classification of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are classified into external and internal forms based on the driving
force and natural phenomenon involved. Exogenic energy comes from outside of
the earth, mainly being energy from the sun, while endogenic energy comes from
the earth’s interior.

4.2.1.1 External Force Natural Disasters

Climate disasters such as those caused by wind, snow, rain, drought, crop damage
from cold weather, mist, etc; seawater disasters involving waves and tidal waves
and riverwater disasters (floods) are caused by external forces.
4.2  Natural Disasters 77

4.2.1.2 Internal Force Natural Disasters

Volcanic disasters like lava or pyroclastic flows and ground disasters like landslides,
mud floods, liquefaction of sandy ground, and earthquakes are caused mainly by
internal forces. The main driving force for landslides, mud floods and floods is grav-
ity energy. Water plays an important role in causing these phenomena. The water
cycle is mainly driven by external energy from the sun. Thus, it could be said that
external energy also causes these phenomena indirectly.
Climate disasters are also caused by atmospheric circulation driven mainly by
external energy from the sun. Topography also has a significant influence on atmo-
spheric circulation patterns. The balance of erosion, uplift, sedimentation, and sub-
sidence combine to form topography. Those processes are in turn caused by both
internal and external forces. Thus, internal force is also important as a cause of
quick-onset climate disasters. In addition to this sort of natural disasters, human
society suffers long-term disasters. Representative long-term disasters are sea level
change, desertification, and El Nino. El Nino is a phenomenon where seawater
along the coast of Ecuador and northern Peru becomes warmer by several degrees
in winter.
In some cases, natural disasters are caused by both anthropogenic and natural
effects and it is not easy to decide which effect is dominant. Landslides are some-
times considered to be natural disasters caused by anthropogenic activity such as
development of building estates and deforesting.

4.2.2 Earthquakes

Earthquake disasters are characterized by widespread damage and frequent large-

scale generation of secondary disasters. For example, tidal waves and landslides
often happen associated with earthquakes. Subduction of oceanic plates causes
accumulation of regional stress energy in continental plates, resulting in faulting if
the stress exceeds the maximum strength of rock with respect to fracturing. If the
seafloor is uplifted by faulting due to an earthquake, tidal wave can be generated
that can travel a very long distance.
For example, the tidal waves generated by the huge magnitude 9.5 Chilean earth-
quake (23 May 1960) and magnitude 9.0 Japanese earthquake (11 March 2011)
caused extensive damage to the south coast of Hokkaido and the east coast of Iwate,
Miyagi, Fukushima, and Ibaraki prefectures in Japan.
There is a tendency for huge earthquakes to occur on the east coast of the Pacific
region but not on the west coast (Fig. 4.2). This is thought to be because the regions
have different modes of subduction. Generally, huge earthquake generation is asso-
ciated with Chilean-type subduction but not with Mariana-type (Fig. 3.27).
The borders of the Pacific plate, Philippine Sea plate, Eurasian plate, and North
American plate all lie in the vicinity of the Japanese Islands. The distribution of
earthquakes that occur and mechanisms that generate them can be explained by
78 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Fig. 4.2  Huge earthquake during 1904–1976 (Kanamori 1978). 1904–1976 Ms > 8.0 and Araska
1958(7.9), Chishima 1969(7.8), Azores 1975(7.9), Peru 1966(7.9), Peru 1970(7.8), Tokachi off
1968(7.9)

considering their interactions. Earthquakes occurring near the Japanese Islands are
classified into the following types: plate boundary, inland shallow, and subducting
oceanic plate interior. For example, the Hanshin earthquake in 1995 in Japan was an
inland-type related to the movement of an active fault. In addition to subduction-
related earthquakes, magma-related earthquakes can happen. Earthquakes associ-
ated with magma intrusion at midoceanic ridges and island arcs are this type.
Generally, shallow-type earthquake and earthquakes that happen in a series are not
huge. Examples of series earthquakes in Japan are the Matsushiro earthquake and
the Izu earthquake.

4.2.3 Volcanic Disasters

Volcanic disasters are caused by volcanic sedimentation and crustal movement asso-
ciated with volcanic eruption. Examples are disasters caused by volcanic eruptions,
pyroclastic flows, lava flows, mud flows, landslides, and volcanic gas emissions.
Pyroclastic flow means the high-speed flow of a very hot mixture of pyroclastics
and volcanic gases on the surface. This can cause serious disasters. This phenome-
non is associated with felsic-andesitic volcanism. The basaltic magma flows with
relatively high speed due to its low viscosity compared with felsic and andesitic
magma. Due to this property, basaltic lava flows cause disasters such as the collapse
of houses as in Maunaloa, Hawaii. The pyroclastic flow associated with felsic and
intermediate (dacite and andesite) volcanism causes intense disasters such as those
that occurred at the Unzen-fugen and Asama volcanoes in Japan.
4.3  Natural Resources 79

If volcanic ash and volcanic gas reach the stratosphere, climate changes like a
decrease in temperature can result. For example, the eruption of Pinatubo volcano
in the Philippines resulted in global cooling. More than 1,700 people died due to the
large amounts of volcanic gas containing CO2 that erupted from Lake Nyos,
Cameroon. SO2 and HCl gases from volcanic gas that enters riverwater enhances its
acidity, lowering its pH. Changes in pH and toxic base metal concentrations can
influence riverwater ecosystems. The characteristics of volcanic disasters men-
tioned above can be summarized as follows:
1. Volcanic eruptions are not continuous but intermittent. There are many volca-
noes in the world, but few are active.
2. Volcanoes are distributed in restricted areas. More than 60% of the volcanoes in
the world are concentrated in the Circum-Pacific belt. Active volcanoes occur in
subduction zones. In the Japanese Islands, located in a subduction zone, there are
many volcanoes distributed in volcanic zones, but the area where volcanism
occurs and the area suffering volcanic disasters are very limited, lying only near
the volcanic eruption center.
3. Generally, volcanic disasters are not as destructive as earthquake disasters.
However, exceptionally huge volcanic eruptions and pyroclastic flows associ-
ated with them can cause disasters over a wide area. The biggest historic volca-
nic eruption damaged an area several hundreds of kilometers in radius. In another
example, the volcanic eruption of Sakurajima in southern Kyushu, Japan more
than 12,000 years ago was its largest, and its volcanic ash has been found as far
as Aomori, northern Japan, 1,100 km away.

4.3 Natural Resources

4.3.1 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

When metallic ores are exhausted from a mine, we can no longer obtain metals from
that site. These types of resource is called nonrenewable. Minerals and fossil fuels
like oil, coal, and natural gas are nonrenewable resources, while biomass and water
are renewable. In general, however, it is not easy to distinguish between nonrenew-
able and renewable resources. Recently, hydrothermal ventings and formations of
ore deposits on the deep seafloor were discovered. These submarine hydrothermal
ore deposits develop very rapidly. Thus, it seems likely that substantial amounts of
new hydrothermal ore could form after mining of existing submarine hydrothermal
ore deposits begins. In this case, we could not classify these hydrothermal ore
deposits as nonrenewable resources. In a long-term geological process, new mineral
resources and fossil fuels may form if humans mined out currently existing resources.
However, the short-term recovery of these resources by humans is impossible. We
can control the character, quantity, and distribution of biomass, but two of the
80 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Fig. 4.3  Consumption rate (109 ton/year)

of total metal with time 3
(Meadows et al. 1992)

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990year

c­ haracteristics of mineral resources and fossil fuel energy resources are that (1) we
cannot control these features, and (2) we cannot obtain the same resources from the
same place after they are mined out.

4.3.2 Resources Problems

Recently, we have faced resources problems such as (1) the extraction, refinement,
and consumption of resources have increased rapidly, and (2) humans have used up
much of the known energy and mineral resources. The rate at which humans use
energy and mineral resources has been growing over time. A rapid increase in the
rate of consumption of total metals over time is shown in Fig. 4.3. The causes of this
rapid increase are considered to be an increase in the worldwide population, the use
of metals in various ways, and the development of technology. These increases in
the extraction and consumption of resources may result in their serious depletion.
The other resources problem is the uneven distribution of resources across the
world. For example, most of the chromium (Cr) ore in the world is produced in the
Republic of South Africa. Many metal mines have been operated in Japan; however,
only a few metal mines are operating today and Japan imports most of the metallic
ores it uses. Figure  4.4 shows amount of aluminum (Al) resources consumed on
each continent. It clearly shows that Al consumption per capita in Asia is small,
irrespective of Asia’s large population.
It is generally said that our main resources problem is energy. However, there are
various natural resources besides energy, among these minerals. The reasons min-
eral resources problems are not seen as a major part of the general resources prob-
lem are that we have generally been able to find alternatives to use in place of
particular minerals and recycling of mineral resources is sometimes possible. In
contrast, the recycling of fossil fuels or the energy derived from them is not possi-
ble, and alternatives to fossil fuels are not widely used yet. Large amounts of gas,
4.3  Natural Resources 81

Consumption Population
amount (kg) (million)
America 5.43 151.7 17.30 250.0
Old USSR 1.04 207.0 5.88 289.3
China 0.57 1139.1
India 0.02 358.0 0.51 827.1
Japan 0.23 82.9 19.54 123.5

1950 1990

17.03 204.9
5.28 242.8
0.23 771.8
0.30 539.1
8.91 104.3
1970

Fig. 4.4  Resources consumption amount on each continent (Nishiyama 1993)

especially CO2, are produced in the use of fossil fuels. These gasses are difficult to
fix, although some disposal technologies such as underground CO2 sequestration
are being developed (Sect. 4.4.6).

4.3.3 Exploitation of Natural Resources and Associated

Environmental Problems

As mentioned above, humans use a variety of resources. In exploiting natural

resources we damage the environment. For example, we have caused a global
decrease in biomass due to deforestation. The annual mass decrease of tropical for-
ests in Asia, Africa, and South Africa is about 18 × 105, 13 × 105, and 41.2 × 105 ha,
respectively. The main causes of this decrease are slash-and-burn agriculture and
over-pasturage. For example, 70% of the loss of tropical forests in Africa is due to
slash-and-burn agriculture. The forest mass reduction caused by slash-and-burn
agriculture is related to decreased productivity of the land over the last 40 years,
corresponding to rapid population growth.
Currently, the amount of water people use is increasing. The rate of increase in
various fields like agriculture, mining, and industry is higher than the population
growth rate. Generally, water resources are thought to be renewable, but recently we
have been using so much that it is becoming nonrenewable. For example, we have
used large amounts of ground water, resulting in a lowering of ground water levels.
If the amount of ground water in reservoirs decreases, we turn to using more surface
82 4  Nature–Human Interaction

water from rivers etc. instead of using ground water, resulting in environmental
destruction. To illustrate this change, runoff from the main rivers in the world in
1971–1975 was only 17–40% of the amount of runoff before 1955. This change was
caused by agricultural use. Pollution and acidification of riverwater and lakewater
are also serious environmental problems. They are caused by drainage from indus-
try and acid rain. The pollution of water leads to decreased dissolved oxygen
­concentrations and increased toxic base metals and organic matter in water.
Organisms in polluted water die, and the water becomes unusable.
Sometimes, pollution crosses borders. In Europe, large rivers like the Rhine flow
through several countries. If the upper reaches suffer considerable pollution, the
countries further down the watershed of downstream are influenced by that con-
tamination. The construction of dams leads to destruction of ecosystems in rivers
and lakes, erosion of soils, salinization of soils and desertification.
Not only surface water contamination of rivers, lakes, and rainwater, but ground
water contamination has become a serious issue as well. For example, global warm-
ing causes sea levels to rise, pushing the freshwater (ground water)/(brine water
(seawater) boundary underground near the coast inland and causing salinization of
the ground water there.

4.3.4 Mineral Resources

Mineral resources include all the minerals that are useful to humans. They are
divided into metallic and nonmetallic types.

4.3.4.1 Metallic Mineral Resources

Metallic mineral resources are taken from metallic ore deposits in which useful
metallic elements are enriched. The degree of enrichment of metal elements in ore
deposits is represented by their economical concentration factor, defined as the ratio
of the concentration of metals in the leanest minable ore to their concentration in
average crustal rocks (Skinner 1976). This ratio differs for different elements
(Fig. 4.5, Table 4.1). Generally, the concentration factor for elements that are com-
mon in the crust (“common elements”) such as Al and Fe is low, but for elements
that are rare in the crust (“rare elements”) such as Hg, W, or Au, the ratio is high
(Fig. 4.4).

4.3.4.2 Classification and Genesis of Metallic Ore Deposits

Metallic ore deposits are classified according to their genesis: (1) magmatic ore
deposits, (2) hydrothermal ore deposits, (3) sedimentary ore deposits, and (4) weath-
ering ore deposits.
4.3  Natural Resources 83

Fig. 4.5  Economical 100 000 Hg

80 000
concentration factors of some 60 000
commercially important 40 000
elements (Skinner and Porter
1987). Economical 20 000
W
concentration 10 000
factor = abundance in ore 8 000
6 000
deposit divided by crustal
4 000 Au
abundance

Economical concentration factor

Mo
2 000 Pb
Sn
Ag
1 000
800 U
600 Pt
400
Zn
200
Ni
100 Cu
80
60
40

20

10
8
6
Fe
4 Al
2

Table 4.1  Economical concentration factors of some commercially important

elements (Siever et al. 2003)
Economical
Element Crustal abundance (wt%) concentration factora
Aluminum 8.00 3–4
Iron 5.8 5–10
Copper 0.0058 80–100
Nickel 0.0072 150
Zinc 0.0082 300
Uranium 0.00016 1,200
Lead 0.00010 2,000
Gold 0.0000002 4,000
Mercury 0.000002 100,000
a
Economical concentration factor = abundance in ore deposit divided by crustal
abundance

Magmatic Ore Deposits

Magmatic ore deposits are formed by the enrichment of minerals containing useful
metallic elements that become separated out from magma. The separation of sulfide
melt from silicate melt and the sinking of heavy minerals (e.g. magnetite (Fe3O4)) in
84 4  Nature–Human Interaction

magma chambers due to gravity cause the enrichment of certain elements.

Representative magmatic deposits are Ni, Cu, Fe, Cr, and Pt deposits associated
with ultramafic rocks and Ti deposits associated with anorthosite. Ni tends to occur
as sulfides (e.g. NiS) and Fe and Cr as oxides (Fe3O4 and Cr2O3).
In late stages of crystallization of felsic magma, silicate melt forms that contains
a large amount of water and CO2. Uncommon elements like rare earth elements are
enriched in late-stage felsic magma, from which pegmatite forms. Carbonatite is
rock formed from carbonate melt. Thus, the rare earth elements Ti, Nb and P are
enriched in carbonatite ore.

Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

A hydrothermal solution is a high temperature (100–600°C) aqueous solution.

Hydrothermal ore deposits form from hydrothermal solutions via precipitation of
useful metal elements.
An example of a hydrothermal ore deposit formed at high temperatures is
­porphyry copper, which is characterized by dispersion of Cu sulfides in granitic
rocks and is associated with Mo and Au.
Hydrothermal ore deposits form at 200–350°C at midoceanic ridges and backarc
basins. Mixing of hydrothermal solutions and cold seawater near the seafloor is
considered to be a main formation mechanism. Seawater penetrates deeper below
the seafloor and is heated by magma. Heated seawater interacts with host rocks,
accompanied by changes in the chemical composition and hydrothermal alteration
of the host rocks. Heated modified seawater, as a hydrothermal solution, contains
considerable amounts of base metals released from host rocks, and ascends rapidly
to the seafloor through fractures and fissures. Base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, etc.),
precious metals (Au, Ag) and rare metals (Mo, As, Sb, etc.) in the hydrothermal
solution precipitate near the seafloor due to mixing with cold seawater. Figure 4.6
shows a hydrothermal solution circulation system associated with midoceanic ridge
hydrothermal ore deposits. The hydrothermal system consists of a heat source
(magma), rocks, and the hydrothermal solution. Heat and mass are transported by
the hydrothermal solution. Precipitation of minerals onto the seafloor forms chim-
neys (Fig.  4.7). Black smokers containing fine particles of sulfides (chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2), pyrrhotite (Fe1−x-S), pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), galena (PbS), etc.)
and white smokers containing white minerals such as barite (BaSO4), anhydrite
(CaSO4), and silica (SiO2) issue from chimneys (Fig. 4.6). Since the first discovery
of black smokers and chimneys 2,600 m deep at 21°N East Pacific Rise in 1979,
many hydrothermal ore deposits have been found at midoceanic ridges and back arc
basins (Fig. 4.8).
Metals enriched into back arc deposits such as in Okinawa, Mariana, Fiji, and
Izu-Ogasawara contain Zn, Cu, Pb, Ba, Au, and Ag. This metal association is differ-
ent from that of midoceanic ridge deposits in which Cu and Zn are rich but Pb, Ba,
Au, and Ag are not. These features of back arc basin deposits are similar to those of
Kuroko deposits, which are polymetallic stratabound sulfide–sulfate deposits and
4.3  Natural Resources 85

is
ax
Ridge hydrothermal nt
ore deposit e me
r g
nla
t ee

Seawater
Pl a

Hydrothermal
Fault

Seawater

solution
magma

Fig. 4.6  Hydrothermal solution circulating system accompanied by the midoceanic ridge hydro-
thermal ore deposits

Fig. 4.7  A composite sketch illustrating the variety of structures observed at the different RISE vent
sites and the mineral distributions associated with these structures (Haymon and Kastner 1981)

were formed at mid Miocene on the seafloor of the Sea of Japan. Kuroko-type
deposits have been formed near the subduction zones (back arc basin, island arc)
throughout earth’s history since Archean to present time. These deposits are accom-
panied by various base metals and precious metals such as Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Au, Ag,
Ga, In, Mo, Sb, As, etc.

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Sedimentary ore deposits form by precipitation of ore minerals from low tempera-
ture seawater, lakewater, or riverwater and by the transportation and accumulation
86 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Fig. 4.8  Distribution of submarine hydrothermal ore deposits (solid circle)

of ore minerals as placer deposits. Representative deposit types are sandstone-type

U deposits, banded iron formations (BIF), and placer deposits of Fe, Au and Sn.
Uranium is removed easily as +6 cations (U6+) in an oxygenated solution. The
stable chemical states of U in solution are carbonate complexes and organic com-
plexes. The reduction of these complexes by organic matter results in its precipita-
tion as U4+ compounds such as UO2. BIF is widely distributed in the sedimentary
rocks deposited between 3,800 and 1,800  Ma. The iron reserves in BIF are very
large, and so most iron ore is taken from BIF. BIF is characterized by its banded
structure consisting of layers of silica minerals (quartz) and iron minerals (hematite
and magnetite).
It is generally accepted that the oxidation of Fe2+ in oceans by oxygen produced
by photosynthetic bacteria cause the precipitation of iron minerals on the seafloor,
resulting in the formation of BIF at that time.
Large amounts of manganese (Mn) in the form of nodules and cobalt (Co) crust
are distributed on the seafloor. Manganese nodules are distributed on deep sea sedi-
ments. Cobalt crust occurs on seamounts at shallow depths. In addition to Fe and
Mn, base metal elements such as Cu, Ni, Co, and Zn are concentrated in manganese
nodules and cobalt crusts (Tables 4.2 and 4.3). They have high potential as mineral
resources in the oceans.
Figure  4.9 shows a schematic distribution of mineral resources on the ocean
floor, island arcs, back arcs, and continents with respect to topography and geology.
As shown in the figure, different types of ore deposits form in different tectonic set-
tings, which are caused by uneven heat flow and plate motions. Besides internal
energy, ocean currents caused by external energy from the sun play an important
role in the formation of sedimentary deposits.
4.3  Natural Resources 87

Table 4.2  Chemical composition of manganese nodule (wt%) (Yoshimatsu and Ogawa 1986)
Area
Indian Mid Atlantic
Ocean Ocean Pacific Ocean
Baha
California California Central
Element West East seamount near continent seamount Northeast South
Mn 13.56 15.83 16.3 15.85 33.98 13.96 22.33 16.61
Fe 15.75 11.31 17.5 12.22 1.62 13.10 9.44 13.92
Ni 0.32 0.51 0.42 0.35 0.10 0.39 1.08 0.43
Co 0.36 0.15 0.31 0.51 0.01 1.13 0.19 0.60
Cu 0.10 0.33 0.20 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.63 0.19
Pb 0.06 0.03 0.10 0.09 0.01 0.17 0.03 0.07
Ba 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.31 0.14 0.27 0.38 0.23
Ti 0.82 0.58 0.8 0.49 0.06 0.77 0.43 1.01
Depth (m) 3,793 5,046 1,146 3,003 1,757 4,537 3,539

Table 4.3  Chemical composition of cobalt crust (wt%) (Yoshimatsu and Ogawa 1986)
Depth (m) Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Mn/Fe
4,400~4,000 19.7 16.7 0.67 0.24 0.10 1.17
4,000~3,000 25.5 18.0 0.63 0.35 0.13 1.41
3,000~2,400 20.5 19.5 0.69 0.18 0.09 1.05
2,400~1,900 25.5 16.1 0.88 0.41 0.07 1.58
1,900~1,500 24.7 15.3 0.90 0.42 0.06 1.61
1,500~1,100 28.4 14.3 1.18 0.50 0.03 1.90

Kuroko
deposits Hot Vein deposits
spring Cobalt crust
Seamount
Manganese nodule
Ridge hydrothermal ore deposits
Continent Back arc Island
basin arc
Ridge

Fig. 4.9  Schematic diagram showing distribution of ore deposits on ocean floor and land
(Shikazono 1988)

Weathering Ore Deposits

If rocks are in contact with the atmosphere and rainwater, riverwater, or other sur-
face waters, elements are released from the rocks and secondary minerals such as
clay minerals form. The chemical weathering reactions are caused by the presence
of H2CO3. The reaction between organic acids and rocks and minerals occurs via
biological activity. As chemical and biological weathering proceeds, insoluble
88 4  Nature–Human Interaction

­elements (e.g. Al, Ti) are concentrated in the weathering rocks and soils. Bauxite,
an Al ore, forms through the weathering process. It forms in tropical forest regions
where there are high temperatures and a great deal of rainfall. In such environments,
decomposition of organic matter causes a decrease in the pH of surface waters and
creates a reducing environment. In such environments, Fe is released from the rocks,
but Al is not, resulting in the enrichment of Al. Al is soluble and Fe is insoluble in
oxidizing environments and in lower pH conditions where there is little rainfall.
In  those environments, laterite containing high amounts of Fe forms. REE are
enriched into clay minerals in weathered granitic rocks and soils as iron-adsorption
fraction. This type of REE deposits is called ion-adsorption type REE deposits from
which more than 90% of ore production of REE (particularly heavy rare earth
­elements (e.g. Nd, Sm, Dy)) are produced from Southern China.

4.3.4.3 Nonmetallic Mineral Resources

It is difficult to classify nonmetallic mineral resources based on their crustal abun-

dance and genesis. Generally, classification is based on their use. The main nonme-
tallic mineral resources include fertilizer, which requires N, K, P, and S; chemical
products using NaCl and borate minerals; building materials including stone, sand,
and gravel; processed rocks that produce cement, lime, gypsum, clays, and glass;
and functional materials including nonconductors, polishing materials, and ­powders.
Some nonmetallic mineral resources are taken from nonmetallic ore deposits, but
some are not. For example, clays, gypsum, sulfur, and silica are concentrated in
nonmetallic ore deposits. Most nonmetallic ore deposits are formed at low tempera-
tures, while some including clays, gypsum, sulfur and silica deposits are of hydro-
thermal origin.
In recent years, the rate of consumption of nonmetallic resources has gradually
increased. However, the reserves of nonmetallic resources are very large, and thus
we do not face the problem of depletion of nonmetal resources.
As an illustration, the reserves of KCl amount to 360 × 108 t in Russia, 440 × 108 t
in Canada, and 123 × 108 t in the United States. There are also 133 × 108 t of phos-
phorous ore in Russia and 590 × 108  t in Morocco (Holland and Petersen 1995).
Nonmetallic resources are not as localized as metallic resources. This is an advan-
tage when using nonmetallic resources in various ways. New products made from
nonmetallic resources instead of metallic resources are being developed.

4.3.5 Water Resources

Water resources are classified according to their usage. They are used for agricul-
ture, city water, industry, power generation, and so on.
Surface water, generally in the form of riverwater or lakewater, and ground water
are used extensively but seawater is not much used. Seawater is used for cooling in
4.3  Natural Resources 89

power generation, in agriculture by changing seawater to fresh water through artificial

desalination, and in power generation by using the temperature difference between
seawater at the surface and deep seawater. The amount of fresh (terrestrial) water we
use has increased very rapidly in recent years, and we may face the problem that
water resources could dry up with the depletion of water resources we can use. On
the other hand, we are currently developing and using artificial water such as alkali
water, ultrapure water, supercritical water, and mineral water.
In the recent past, we have used large amounts of ground water for industry and
other uses, resulting in the depletion of ground water reserves. Thus, we have turned
to using more surface water instead of ground water. The construction of dams and
reservoirs may result in impacts on the ecosystem. Generally, ground water is better
for drinking than is surface water.
Rainwater penetrating underground reacts with soils and rocks. During this pro-
cess, some elements dissolve into the penetrating water. The water, now containing
mineral components such as Ca and Mg is good for drinking and other purposes in
industry etc. It is important to understand the chemical process and behavior mecha-
nisms of the rainwater penetrating downward and of ground water flow in order to
prevent the depletion of high-quality ground water reserves. The hydrologic cycle
of the rainwater–ground water–soil–rock system and the influence of anthropogenic
activity on it should be understood for this purpose.
Ground water is not a nonrenewable resource like metallic minerals and fossil
fuels, but we should take into account that it may become a nonrenewable resource
if we overpump large amounts of ground water.

4.3.6 Energy Resources

Energy resources are divided into (1) external energy resources and (2) internal
energy resources.

4.3.6.1 External Energy Resources

Fossil Fuels

The main source of energy we use today comes from the fossil fuels oil, coal, natu-
ral gas, gas hydrate, oil shale and shale gas. Solar energy is stored in these fossil
fuels. The processes through which fossils fuels formed are considered briefly
below.

Coal
Land plants are the source of coal. The main components of land plants are cellulose
(C6H10O5) and lignin (C12H18O9). Lignin is the main source of coal. Soon after plants
90 4  Nature–Human Interaction

are buried, they change to peat through biological activity. As peat and coal become
buried more deeply, their carbon content increases while their volatile (mainly H2O)
content decreases as temperature and pressure increase with depth. Increases in the
base metal contents of coal during burial is caused by the reduction of sulfate ions
to hydrogen sulfide and the formation of sulfide minerals.

Oil
The source of oil is not clear because no recognizable traces of the source materials
are preserved in the oil. However, it is certain that oil formed from organic matter
in a reducing (anoxic) subseafloor environment. The reducing condition is neces-
sary to form oil because in oxidizing environments the organic matter oxidizes to
yield CO2 and H2O. The organic matter that became oil is considered to be biogenic
in origin, probably from plankton. Soon after the burial of organic matter-bearing
sediments, aerobic bacterial activity enhances the decomposition of the corpses of
marine organisms. Then, as temperature and pressure increase, kerogen, which is a
highly polymerized amorphous substance of biogenic origin dispersed in sediments,
changes to hydrocarbons such as paraffin, naften, and aromatic compounds. As
mentioned above, chemical, physical, and geologic conditions favorable to the for-
mation and accumulation of oil are necessary. The occurrence of cap rock and highly
porous reservoir rock and high sedimentation rates that protect the decomposing
organic matter are important geologic conditions.

Natural Gas
The source of natural gas is similar to that of coal. Coal seams, especially those
buried too deep to mine, are both source rocks for natural gas and reservoir rocks
where it can be trapped. Natural gas is mainly composed of methane (CH4).The
burning of natural gas releases less CO2 per unit of energy than the combustion of
coal or oil. Oil and coal contain more abundant pollutants including C, N, and S.
Natural gas resources are comparable to those of crude oil. Therefore, recently the
use of natural gas has increased rapidly.

Gas Hydrate
Gas hydrate is the solid phase of a natural gas (methane)-water compound. It is
stable under low-temperature/high-pressure conditions. It has been discovered from
under the Atlantic, to the tundra in Siberia and on continental shelves. Near the
Japanese Islands it has been found in the Nankai Trough, south of Shikoku and the
Kii Peninsula.Gas hydrate reserves are very large, and so gas hydrate has great
potential as an energy resource. However, gas hydrates are dispersed in sediments
and do not occur as massive bodies, so that mining them is not efficient. During the
mining process, the gas hydrate may change to methane gas due to temperature and
pressure changes. If methane gas is released to the atmosphere, it may cause global
warming.
4.3  Natural Resources 91

Other Energy Sources

The force driving wind and ocean currents is solar energy. The kinetic energy of
wind and ocean currents can be transformed to electric energy. Solar light energy is
stored in solar batteries. Amorphous silicon and polycrystals are used for solar bat-
teries. Solar energy is clean and virtually inexhaustible, and thus its use is expected
to increase. However, there are problems with solar energy: (1) its energy density is
very low, (2) the efficiency of transforming solar energy is low, (3) its energy varies
widely with time, and (4) solar energy is difficult to transport and concentrate.
However, it is highly expected to use much renewable energy (solar, wind, geothermal
energies etc.) because they are clean, do not produce pollutant, and the depletion
does not occur.

Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen and oxygen react to form water, but the reaction can generate electric
power as well. The energy generated by the reaction, H2 + 1/2O2 ® H2O is used in
fuel cells. Water formed by this reaction is clean, and so research in several advanced
countries, including Japan, has been focusing on developing technologies to use fuel
cells. However, hydrogen is usually produced from organic matter. The reaction also
forms CO that is toxic and CO2 that may cause global warming. The benefits of
hydrogen energy are hydrogen energy reserves are very large and there are also vast
sources of hydrogen, water in particular. Its demerits are that (1) large amounts of
energy are necessary to decompose water to generate hydrogen, (2) transportation
and storage of hydrogen energy are difficult, and (3) if we use organic matter to
produce hydrogen, CO2 are also produced, which may cause global warming.

Biomass

Biomass energy comes from organic matter. The problems that limit its use are the
low efficiency of transforming its energy and the small amount biomass reserves
that are available. It is difficult to get enough wood and other organic matter.
Biomass is generally thought to be clean energy because the CO2 emitted by the
burning of biomass returns to plants, which means that biomass energy is clean.

4.3.6.2 Internal Energy Resources

Geothermal Energy

Heat and mass transfer are occurring in the hydrothermal system. The system is
composed of heat sources, rocks, vapor, hydrothermal solutions, and passages for
the hydrothermal solutions and vapor including fissures, fractures, and pores in rocks.
92 4  Nature–Human Interaction

b Discharge
Vapor Hydrothermal
300 kg / s 600 kg / s Recharge
Surface 10 km 0.1 km2
2
1 km2100 km2
0
2 km2 1 y 20 y
a 150 y
1 10 km2 Recirculation
West Surface East 1 270 kg / s ~1 000 y
670 kg / s
2

Depth (km)
100° 26 000 y
1 km 250° Margin of
200° cold zone
3
1 km2
600 kg / s
<200C° 110 y
4
300°

0 1 2 km
350 5
5 km ° Heat source

Fig. 4.10  Hydrothermal system (Elder 1966). (a) Temperature distribution in Wairakei geother-
mal system (New Zealand) and (b) interpretation of hydrothermal solution movement based on
pipe model

Geothermal gradients in hydrothermal systems are very steep compared with in

other areas. Geothermal energy is obtained by changing the kinetic and thermal
energy of vapor and hydrothermal solutions to electric energy.
An example of a hydrothermal system is shown in Fig. 4.10. As shown in the
figure, convection of a hydrothermal solution is occurring. Most hydrothermal solu-
tions originate as meteoric water, but it is likely that hydrothermal solutions origi-
nating from magma (magmatic water) and volcanic gas is incorporated into a
hydrothermal system. The flow pattern of the hydrothermal solution and the mass
transfer in the hydrothermal system (Fig. 4.8) can be estimated by solving the mass
conservation law, conservation of momentum law, physical state equations, chemi-
cal equilibrium, and kinetic equations. Geothermal energy is generally clean,
although sometimes toxic metals such as As are associated with hydrothermal sys-
tems. Geothermal energy is used in several countries where igneous activity is
intense such as Ireland, New Zealand, the western part of the United States, Mexico,
the Philippines, and Japan.

Nuclear Fission Energy

Atoms consist of nuclei and electrons. Nuclei consist of protons and neutrons. The
number of protons determines the positive charge of the nucleus and the number of
orbiting electrons. The mass of the electrons is negligible compared with that of the
protons and neutrons. The total mass of an atom depends on the total numbers of
protons and neutrons.
4.3  Natural Resources 93

Nuclear fission can occur without neutron bombardment, as radioactive decay.

This type of fission (spontaneous fission) is found in a few heavy isotopes. Several
heavy elements such as U, Th, and Pu undergo both spontaneous fission (radioac-
tive decay) and induced fission (a form of nuclear reaction).
The nuclear fission has been used in atomic bombs and in nuclear power plants.
In nuclear power plant, a neutron reacts with a U235 produce U236. This fissions
almost immediately into two nuclei and liberates about three neutrons. Not all
breakups of U235 nuclei produce barium and kryptron. The reaction of a neutron with
a U235 nucleus is given by

n1 + 92 U 235 ®92 U 236 ®36 Ba141 + 36 Kr 92 30 n1 + g rays + neutrinos

0

A great amount of electric energy can be produced by such nuclear fission reac-
tions in various types nuclear reactions (BWR (boiling water reactor), PWR (pres-
surized water reactor), HWR (heavy water reactor), HTGR (high temperature, gas
cooled reactor).

Nuclear Fusion Energy

Large amounts of energy are emitted when a light nucleus combines with others and
produce a heavy nucleus. However, it is difficult to cause nuclear fusion reactions
in the earth’s surface environment because the energy level needed to cause the
reaction is very high.
Nuclear fusion occurs in the sun and in other stars. The main fusion reactions are
the proton–proton (P–P) reaction and the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen (C–N–O) reac-
tion. P–P reactions are occurring in the core of sun, whereas C–N–O reactions occur
inside heavier stars. The P–P and C–N–O reactions are given as follows.
P–P reaction:
P + P → 2H + e+ + n
2
H + P ®3 He + g


3
He + 3 He ® 4 He + 2P

where P is a proton, e+ is a positron, n is a neutrino and g is a gamma ray.

C–N–O reaction:
12
C + P ®13 N + g


13
N ®13 C + e + + n
13
C + P ®14 N + g


15
O ®15 N + e + + n

15
N + P ®12 C + 4 He
94 4  Nature–Human Interaction

In the P–P reaction, four protons combine to form one He (4He). A quantity of
4.0316 g of protons results in 4.0026 g of He. The mass difference, 0.029 g, corre-
sponds to 2.61 × 1012 joules of energy release.

4.4 Earth’s Environmental Problems

After World War II, industrial production increased greatly thanks to developments
in scientific research and technology. Accompanying that development, we have
faced serious resources and environmental problems. We have recognized that the
earth’s resources are limited. Various global environmental problems have greatly
influenced humans and the ecosystem. In 1962, Rachel Carson (1907–1964)
­published “Silent Spring (Carson, 1962)”, in which she stressed how toxic organic
matter destroys ecosystems. Even after that, however, pollution increased in
advanced countries. For example, in Japan, there were serious pollution problems
such as the pollution of riverwater and soils around the Ashio copper mine area,
Minamata disease, which was caused by organic mercury compounds derived from
industrial drainage and Itaitai disease, caused by Cd from Pb and Zn mining.
Recent recognition of resources and environmental problems has been based on
“The Limit to Growth” commissioned by the Club of Rome and published in 1972.
It clearly indicated that the depletion of natural nonrenewable resources and the
increased pollution were caused by the rapid growth of the population, and so the
growth rate has limits. This was the first report to attempt a quantitative analysis and
prediction of temporal changes in the amounts of resources that would be consumed
and pollutants that would be produced.
The subject of global environmental problems was first taken up at the World
Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972. In that Conference, the damage
to fish in lakes in Scandinavia by acid rain was discussed. In 1985, the ozone hole
was discovered in the stratosphere over the Antarctic. In 1985 the Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the ozone layer was agreed upon and in 1987 the Montreal
Protocol calling for freon emissions to be reduced by half until 1998 was opened for
signature.
In 1988, the global warming problem was discussed by the Summit in Toronto and
then James E. Hansen, a famous meteorologist, reported that global warming was
caused by an increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. After that point, global
warming was widely recognized as one of our most serious global environmental
problems. It is obvious that three problems noted above (acid rain, the ozone hole,
and global warming) are urgent and should be solved by the development of technol-
ogy. In addition, there are other global environmental problems such as the disappear-
ance of tropical forests, extinction of species, desertification, and ocean pollution.
In 1992, the Earth Summit (UNCED: UN Conference on Environment and
Development was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In this conference, the Rio
Declaration on the Environment and Development, United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, FCCC), and Convention on Biological
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 95

Diversity (CBD) were adopted. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was made with regard
to reduction of greenhouse gases such as CO2. According to the protocol, Japan’s
emission of CO2 must be reduced by 6% of the 1990 emission level by 2008–2012.

4.4.1 Global Warming

Global warming is thought to be caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse

gases such as CO2 in the atmosphere.
Sunlight contains visible light with wavelengths in the range of 0.17–4.0 mm.
The energy in sunlight is not absorbed by the N2, O2, Ar, H2O, or CO2 molecules in
the atmosphere and so reaches the earth’s surface. Sunlight energy is, however,
absorbed and reflected by aerosols and clouds. Infrared rays with long wave lengths
radiate from the earth’s surface.
Greenhouse gases such as CO2 and H2O absorb the infrared radiation from the
surface and emit part of it back as thermal energy, resulting in an atmospheric tem-
perature increase near the earth’s surface. This is called the greenhouse effect.

4.4.1.1 Increased Atmospheric CO2

Increased atmospheric CO2 caused by human activity is mainly due to industrial

CO2 emissions and deforestation. Enlargement of farms, the occurrence of forest
fires, and the use of slash-and-burn agriculture in developing countries also contrib-
ute to this increase. Most of CO2 emissions from industrial activity come from the
burning of fossil fuels. CO2 emissions from industrial activity have been increasing
exponentially during the last 50  years. The recent warming trend correlates well
with the increase of CO2 from emissions since the industrial revolution of the nine-
teenth century. Figure  4.11 shows the change in atmospheric CO2 concentration
measured at the top of Mauna Loa (a 4,300 m high volcano in Hawaii) observatory
since 1958. As shown in this figure, the atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased
from 315 ppm in 1957 up to 380 ppm in 2008. Similar upward CO2 trends have been
measured at many different stations around the globe. The average atmospheric CO2
concentration before the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century was about
280 ppm, shown by analysis of CO2 in ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica.
Seasonal variation in atmospheric CO2 concentrations can also be observed.
Atmospheric CO2 in spring and summer is higher, and lower in the autumn and
winter. In spring and summer, atmospheric CO2 is removed by the photosynthetic
activity of plants and CO2 is emitted by the decomposition of dead plants in autumn
and winter.
If all the CO2 emitted by human activities were stored in the atmosphere, we
could estimate the annual rate of atmospheric CO2 concentration increase because
the annual CO2 emissions and total amount of atmospheric CO2 can be estimated.
The measured atmospheric CO2 concentration is about one half of the estimated
96 4  Nature–Human Interaction

CO2 concentration (µmol/mol) 350

300

250

200

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

year

Fig. 4.11  Atmospheric CO2 concentration in recent years based on direct determinations at Mauna
Loa Observatory. Data from Keeling and Whorf (2003) (Marini 2007)

concentration. This means half of the CO2 added annually to the atmosphere is
removed within a short time. There are two processes that could achieve this reduc-
tion. One is dissolution of atmospheric CO2 into the oceans. The other is removal of
atmospheric CO2 by photosynthesis in forests plants. The forests in the northern
hemisphere forest probably reduce atmospheric CO2 considerably and may be the
major sink for the “missing CO2”.

4.4.1.2 Other Greenhouse Gases

Gases besides CO2 that can promote the greenhouse effect include freon (the com-
mon name for a group of chlorofluorocarbon compounds including CFCl3), halons
(CF3Br etc.), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), ozone (O3), and nitrous oxide
(N2O). These gases absorb infrared radiation but do not emit radiant energy. The
contribution of each greenhouse gas to global warming is different: carbon dioxide
is responsible for 49%, methane 18%, nitrous oxide 6%, freon 14%, and the others
contribute 13%. Chlorofluorocarbons (F11 (CHCl3) and F12 (CF3Cl2)) are 100%
anthropogenic, but other gasses are both natural and anthropogenic in origin.
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 97

Fig. 4.12  Prediction of

worldwide average 4
Scenario A
(atmospheric temperature Measured temp.
until 2060 (Hansen et al. Scenario B
1988)) 3 Scenario C
A

T (ºC)
2

B
1
C

1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060

4.4.1.3 Prediction of Temperature Increases in the Future

due to Greenhouse Gases

There have been several predictions of atmospheric temperatures that take into
account the effect of greenhouse gases. Figure 4.12 shows one example, the predic-
tion by Hansen et  al. (1988), which predicts the smallest possible temperature
increase during 2000–2033 as 0.3°C, meaning a rate of increase of 0.9–1.0°C per
100  years. This rate is considerably higher than what has occurred in the past
100 years (0.4–0.6°C). However, the prediction of atmospheric temperature is very
difficult due to the large uncertainty in the estimation parameters. If we knew how
much atmospheric CO2 would increase, we could estimate the increase in tempera-
ture because the greenhouse effect of CO2 is well studied. However, if temperature
increases, the rate of evaporation of seawater increases, resulting in a larger green-
house effect due to an increase in absorption of infrared radiation by water vapor in
the atmosphere. Also, the area of the polar ice sheets decreases with increasing
temperature. Due to this decrease, the albedo of the earth’s surface (the fraction of
the sun’s energy that is reflected back into space) decreases because the albedo of
ice sheets is higher than other surfaces such as rocks, forests, and oceans. The melt-
ing of methane hydrate in tundra that occurs as temperatures increase also generates
methane gas emissions, promoting the greenhouse effect. These examples all exhibit
positive feedback. Cloud cover may be involved in both positive and negative feed-
back cycles. It absorbs infrared radiation and heat in the atmosphere but also reflects
the sun’s energy. Its role as a factor controlling atmospheric temperature is not well
understood.
As mentioned above, it is certain that we have to take into account various posi-
tive and negative feedback systems accompanying the change in atmospheric CO2
concentration when we predict climate change in the future.
98 4  Nature–Human Interaction

350

325

300
Total ozone (Dobson units)

275

250

225

200
Dobson
SBUV
175
BUV

150
1956 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88
Year

Fig. 4.13  October monthly mean total ozone measurements over Harley Bay Plusses are Dobson
measurements by Farman et al. (1985). Triangles are Ninbus-4 BUU measurements from 1970 to
1972; squares are Nimbus-7 measurements from 1979 to 1986 (Stolarski 1988; Holland and
Petersen 1988)

4.4.2 The Destruction of the Ozone Layer

Recently it was discovered that an ozone hole is present over Antarctica. The ozone
concentration over Antarctica has gradually decreased since 1956 (Fig.  4.13).
Atmospheric temperature increases from 10 km above the ground to about 50 km
where the atmospheric temperature is at a maximum. This is caused by the absorp-
tion of solar ultraviolet radiation by ozone. Solar ultraviolet radiation is harmful to
living matter and thus the ozone layer protects ecosystems and humans. A decrease
in the ozone concentration increases the incidence of diseases like skin cancer and
cataracts.
In the ozone layer solar ultraviolet radiation dissociates molecular oxygen into
two oxygen atoms. The subsequent reaction of single oxygen atoms with molecular
oxygen can produce ozone by the reaction
O + O 2 + M ® O3 + M

4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 99

where M indicates other components involved in this reaction.

The excess oxygen atom is removed by the reaction
O + O3 ® O 2 + O 2

Ozone is unstable compared with molecular oxygen. At an altitude of 30 km, one
ozone molecule exists per 3 × 104 oxygen molecules. This is a very low density
compared with the equilibrium number. In the ozone layer, ozone is produced by
solar ultraviolet radiation, whereas nitrous oxide dissociates it. Nitrous oxide is gen-
erated by microorganic activity. The steady state condition with regard to ozone
concentration is a balance between ozone production and decomposition.
In recent years, the ozone concentration has decreased due to anthropogenic
influences. Freon (chlorofluorocarbons) produced by humans decomposes ozone.
Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by chlorofluorocarbons, which then generate chlo-
rine atoms. Chlorine atoms react with ozone to decompose it to ClO and O2 as
follows.
Cl + O3 ® ClO + O2

ClO decomposes to Cl and O by reacting with O as
ClO + O ® Cl + O2

Cl reacts with methane and finally becomes HCl, which is removed by rain. It
takes several years for chlorofluorocarbons from ground surface to reach the ozone
layer. Therefore, it is certain that would take at least several years to decrease the
chlorofluorocarbon concentration in the ozone layer after halting their emission.
Freon is stable and accumulates in the atmosphere. It goes to the troposphere and
then rises to the stratosphere where it is decomposed by solar ultraviolet radiation.
In addition to freon, nitric oxide decomposes ozone by reacting with ozone to
produce nitrogen dioxide and molecular oxygen:

NO + O3 ® NO2 + O2

Nitric oxide was contained in the exhaust gas of the supersonic transport.

4.4.3 Acid Rain

Rainwater acidification mechanism:

The term acid rain is used to describe rain having a low pH and sometimes to denote
fine acid precipitates.
Rainwater dissolves atmospheric CO2. The pH of CO2-bearing rainwater becomes
slight acidic (pH = 5.65). This acidification of rainwater by natural processes is not
called acid rain. According to an investigation of acid precipitates from the USA,
acid rain is defined as rainwater with a pH lower than 5.0.
100 4  Nature–Human Interaction

10

9 Others
Copper smelter
8 Lignite
7
Oil
SO2 (107 ton)

3
Coal
2

0
1860 '70 '80 '90 1900 '10 '20 '30 '40 '50 '65 '75 '85

Fig. 4.14  SO2 emission with time (Environmental Agency Earth Environment Work Shop 1990)

The main artificial compounds causing acidification include sulfur oxide and
nitrogen oxide. Recently, the anthropogenic emissions of these compounds have
been increasing very rapidly (Fig.  4.14). Sulfur oxide gases are dominantly SO2
generated by the oxidation of sulfur in coal and oil during burning.
Sulfuric acid is formed by the following two types of reactions.

SO2 + O3 ® SO3 + O2 , SO3 + H 2 O ® H 2 SO 4 (sulfuric acid ) ® (H 2 SO 4 )n (aerosol )

SO + 1 / 2O2 ® SO3 , SO3 + H 2 O ® H 2 SO 4 (sulfuric acid ) ® (H 2 SO 4 )n (aerosol )
2
Methods to reduce the emission of sulfur dioxide gas and sulfuric acid are (1)
The burning of fossil fuels containing smaller amounts of sulfur, and (2) removal of
SO2 from combustion gases.
Nitrous oxide is produced by the oxidation of nitrogen in high temperature air
used for combustion. It also comes from exhaust gas from cars and NOx compounds
come from fertilizer in soils.
Damage by Acid Rain:
Lakes, ponds, rivers, forests, agricultural crops, excavations, buildings, and soils are
all damaged by acid rain. For example, surface waters like lakes, ponds, and rivers
are acidified by acid rain, resulting in fish losses. The reaction of acid rain with soil
promotes the dissolution of Al out of the soil. H+, SO42−, and base metals (Zn, Cd,
etc.) in soil water all increase due to acid rain reactions.
The reaction of acid water with soil dissolves cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+,
which are essential for the growth of crops. They leave the soil and enter the soil
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 101

water. Crops may suffer a lack of phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and
molybdenum as a result.
The damage done by acid rain is widely recognized in Europe, the USA, and
Canada but not in Japan, although acid rain is widespread in Japan. The reasons for
very little damage by acid rain in Japan are (1) the climate in Japan is characterized
by large amounts of rainfall and high humidity, (2) the pH of rainwater penetrating
underground increases very rapidly as it reacts with the soil and volcanic ash, tuff
and other rocks that react quickly with aqueous solutions to buffer the pH, (3) rain-
water penetrates easily underground because of Japan’s thick soils, and (4) acid
mists with pH levels lower than acid rain’s are not common.
There are various sources of riverwater and lakewater; ground water, rainwater,
seepage water, and hot springs. The proportion of these source waters in rivers and
lakes depends on geology, geography, and climate. In Japan, the dominant rocks are
young volcanic rocks. They are highly permeable due to fissures, fractures, faults,
and their high porosity. Intense weathering of these rocks, Japan’s relatively warm
climate and high biological activity combine to produce thick soils. The soils are
highly porous, resulting in efficient penetration of rainwater underground. The pen-
etrating rainwater’s pH and chemical composition change, and it becomes ground
water. Shallow ground water migrates from higher elevations to lower ones and then
seeps from the surface to become riverwater. Thus, the proportion of ground water
in riverwater is relatively high in Japanese riverwater. That means the pH of Japanese
riverwater is not low, being buffered by water–rock interactions underground.
In contrast, in continental regions (the United States, Canada, and Europe) the
dominant rocks are granitic and metamorphic. They react much less with water.
Thus the pH and chemical composition of the water in continental regions change
much less than in regions where the rocks and soils are of volcanic origin such as
Japan. The permeability and porosity of these rocks are low that rainwater does not
tend to penetrate deep underground. Rainwater penetrates through very shallow
parts such as regoliths, weathered rocks, and thin soils and flow within them. On the
ground surface, acid substances such as H2SO4 and aerosols accumulate. Therefore,
if rain falls onto the surface, the rainwater becomes more acidic. The main sources
of riverwater in continental regions are acid rainwater and acidic shallow surface
water. The proportion of deep ground water with higher pH is generally small.
However, in continental limestone regions the pH of rainwater, riverwater, and
lakewater is high because of the rapid dissolution of carbonates
(CaCO3 + H+ → Ca2+ + HCO3−) in the limestone.

4.4.4 Soil Problems

Soil problems include (1) surface soil loss, (2) accumulation of salts on the surface
of the soil, (3) release of elements from soils, and (4) soil contamination.
Surface soil loss is enhanced by anthropogenic activities such as deforestation,
mining, agriculture, and acid rain. Accumulation of salts on the surface of soils is
102 4  Nature–Human Interaction

related to desertification. The main causes of this are thought to be over-pasturage,

irrigation, deforestation associated with irrigation, construction of dams, enlarge-
ment of urban areas, etc. Climate change may also cause this problem. Desertification
intensifies the evaporation of lakewater and the precipitation of salts onto dry lake
bottoms. These salts are dispersed by the wind to the surroundings and precipitate
onto the ground surface. Agricultural crops do not tend to grow in saline and alka-
line soils. Common salts that accumulate near the surface of the soil are CaCO3,
Na2CO3, NaCl, KCl, and CaSO4×2H2O.
If carbonates dissolve into water, the following reaction occurs.

CaCO3 + H + ® Ca 2 + + HCO3 - + CO2

This reaction results in a lower concentration of H+, or higher pH.

Fertilizers, insecticides and toxic base metals from waste contaminate soils. Part
of these soil contaminants is released but the rest remains in the soil. Various
­substances such as toxic organic matters and base metals can adsorb onto soil very
readily.
Soils contain a mixture of organic matter, and primary and secondary minerals
like clay minerals, which all have different adsorption capacities. The combination
of materials makes it hard to remove contaminants from the soils. For example, iron
(oxy) hydroxides (FeOOH, Fe(OH)3) in soil tend to adsorb base metal ions. Most
agricultural chemicals tend to undergo hydration, combining with water molecules,
and adsorb onto organic matter. Thus, these chemicals accumulate in organic mat-
ter-rich soils. The mechanism by which chemicals adsorb onto organic matter is
complex, but it is certain that organic matter plays an important role in adsorption.
Oxidation-reduction conditions are also an important factor controlling the
behavior of chemicals and base metals in soils. Oxidation-reduction conditions
depend on the amount and kinds of organic matter present and the rock type. In
reducing environments base metals are fixed as sulfides, while in oxidizing environ-
ments iron (oxy) hydroxides form and base metals are adsorbed onto them. Base
metals are contained in industrial waste, agricultural chemicals, waste, and drainage
from mines. Cd, Cu, and As in agricultural chemicals and wastewaters are identified
as toxic elements and their safe levels are determined by environmental law.
Reducing ground water is formed by reaction with anthropogenic organic matter.
Such ground water dissolves iron and manganese from the rocks and releases arse-
nic adsorbed onto the iron hydroxides. High pH levels also cause arsenic to be
released from iron (oxy) hydroxides.
Mercury contamination is the most serious problem among the base metal con-
taminations. The toxicity of mercury depends on the chemical compound contain-
ing it. Liquid mercury is nonpoisonous, but its vapor is deadly. Organometallic
mercury is also poisonous. Methyl mercury (CH3Hg+) and dimethyl mercury
((CH3)2Hg) in fish is very poisonous and causes severe mercury poisoning.
Drainage from paper mills and industries producing sodium hydroxide contains
mercury, which is transported by rivers and accumulates in lake bottoms and in
ocean bottom sediments.
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 103

The mercury in sediments changes to methyl mercury, which can dissolve in

riverwater, lakewater and seawater. The mercury accumulates in fish and other ­living
marine matter. If the mercury is fixed as mercury sulfide like cinnabar or HgS in a
reducing environment where it does not dissolve, it is not decomposed by bacterial
activity and thus is not poisonous.
The transportation of base metals by riverwater and ground water is the main
cause for the base metal contamination of soils and sediments. Aerosol fall also
accounts for part of the high concentration of base metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn) on
the ground surface.
Plants concentrate the base metals and rainfall and subsequent surface water
flow removes and disperses them. Transportation and enrichment of the base metal
elements occur near the soil surface.
Dioxin and other toxic organic substances are accumulated in living marine
­living matter near the coast.

4.4.5 Water Pollution

Surface waters are polluted by various wastes. Polluted wastewaters from various
sources such as industries and mines enter rivers. Riverwater polluted by toxic base
metals, organic substances, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other pollutants enters the
ground water, lakes, and oceans. Damage like eutrophication and red tides in lakes
and coastal oceans are caused by nitrogen and phosphorus pollution. Ground water
is contaminated by toxic base metals like Cr6+ and toxic organic matter such as tet-
rachloroethylene, dioxine, and trichloroethylene from industrial sources.
Ocean contamination is caused by inputs of contaminated riverwater, oil from
tankers, dissolution of toxic compounds such as ship paints containing organotin
compounds, and disposal of various wastes. Anthropogenic toxic substances accu-
mulate in the closed oceans, resulting in their enrichment in living marine matters
and damage to human health.

4.4.6 Waste Problems

Humans take various natural resources from natural systems, use them, and emit
various wastes back to nature. Humans have been developing technologies to
explore for natural resources like ore deposits, learning about the genesis of natural
resources like ores and oil, and depleting those natural resources.
In contrast to source problems, the sink, or waste, problems have not been well
researched. The important point in sink problems is how to reduce the amount of waste.
For example, considerable effort has been put forth recently to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, particularly since the Kyoto Protocol in 2005. However, it is impossible to
consume and recycle all resources in the system of human society. Therefore, we need
to consider how to dispose of waste to the natural environment system.
104 4  Nature–Human Interaction

4.4.6.1 Treatment and Disposal of Industrial and General Wastes

Industrial wastes, such as waste oil, cinders, waste plastic, and paper, and general
wastes including garbage and bulky refuse differ by specific wastes.
Industrial waste problems are the effects of surface and underground disposal.
Wastes disposed underground dissolve into the ground water. The contaminated
ground water migrates and pollutes soils and living matter over a long time. We
need to develop technologies that prevent the dispersion of wastes from their
­disposal sites.
We face the problems of gathering, transporting, treating and disposing of ­general
wastes. Disposal site selection, illegal disposal, migration of toxics from landfills,
and cross-border movement of toxic wastes are all problematic.

4.4.6.2 Disposal of Nuclear Waste

We also face the problem of how to dispose high-level nuclear waste derived from
nuclear power plants. If we put these nuclear wastes in shallow underground sites or
in surface environments, radionuclides can migrate and influence humans and eco-
systems for a long time (103–106 years). Therefore, we need to dispose of them deep
underground (e.g. more than 300 m deep in Japan).
Wastes disposed underground interact with the surrounding environment. Over
the long-term, for example, ground water dissolves wastes and their radionuclides
can migrate long distances. We need to predict how far radionuclides will migrate
and how radioactive they will after some number of years. The radioactivity at the
surface should be less than set safety levels. It is important to study the migration
and retardation mechanism of radionuclides in geologic environment (ground water,
host rocks, soils). The long-term process of radionuclide migration is influenced by
various geologic events (e.g. earthquake, volcanic activity, faulting, uplift, erosion,
climate change, seawater level change). We estimate that it takes more than a thou-
sand years for radionuclides to migrate from a waste disposal site to the surface. It
is generally believed that long-term isolation of radionuclides from humans and the
biosphere is possible if waste is disposed in stable deep underground.

4.4.6.3 CO2 Disposal

The main cause of global warming is thought to be anthropogenic CO2 emission,

and so this must be reduced. Efficient CO2 utilization and energy transformation,
and utilization of alternative energy sources such as sunlight are useful in reducing
CO2 emissions. CO2 is fixed naturally via photosynthesis in terrestrial plants and
marine organisms and by dissolution into the ocean. Disposal of CO2 in deep sea-
water and underground CO2 sequestration in ground water aquifers, oil reservoirs
and underground coal mines are also useful methods of handling CO2. Zero emis-
sion of anthropogenic CO2 is impossible, and so some CO2 will always be emitted
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 105

to the natural environment. Therefore, scientific understanding of the behavior of

CO2 in earth’s environment is essential in solving the CO2 and global warming
problems. CO2 injected to deep (ca. 1,000 m) underground aquifer dissolves into
ground water (solubility trapping) becoming acid solution by
CO2 + H 2 O ® H 2 CO3 ® H + + HCO3 -

The acid CO2 bearing ground water dissolves Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe2+ by

2+
(
CaO (MgO, FeO )+ 2H ® Ca Mg , Fe + H 2 O 2+ 2+
)
where CaO (MgO, FeO) is CaO (MgO, FeO) component in minerals.
With the proceeding of these water–rock interaction, the concentrations of Ca2+,
Mg2+, Fe2+ and HCO3− increase, resulting to the formation of carbonates (CaCO3,
CaMg(CO3)2, FeCO3) (mineral trapping). The long-term variation of amounts of
carbon with time fixed by solubility trapping and mineral trapping can be calculated
by computer simulation (Shikazono et al. 2009). In addition to scientific and tech-
nological research, social procedures such as emission trading, carbon taxation, and
improvement of environmental laws must be undertaken.

4.4.7 Provisions for Earth’s Resources

and Environmental Problems

4.4.7.1 Technological Treatments

Energy Conservation and Efficient Energy Use

If we conserve energy and use it efficiently, the amount of fossil fuels we consume
could decrease.
Efficient energy use in industrial activities, improvements in electrical fittings,
increases in gas mileage, social system improvements, cogeneration, and the use of
new energy sources can contribute to energy conservation and reduce CO2 emissions.
Much heat is lost in the process of using energy, and so we should seek ways to
efficiently use waste heat. Gas emitted from thermal power generation plants is very
hot, and it escapes into the atmosphere. Systems that use waste heat are called cogen-
eration systems. Relatively low-temperature waste heat from incinerators, sewage
disposal, and air conditioners has potential for use in cogeneration applications.

Recycling

Recycling of waste decreases waste emission and contributes to preserving resources.

However, we cannot recycle every kind of waste. Some metals such as Al and rare
metals are already recycled to a considerable extent. However, it is difficult to separate
106 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Resources Design • Development • Disposal

Consumption
( Import
Mining ) Production

Material
Circulation
Separation •
Collection
(Recycling)

Circulation in
natural ecosystem
Biodegradation Reduction
Compost Neutralization
Chemical destruction Harmful materials
Utilization

Soil Reduction •

(Accumulation in natural ecosystem) Disposal

Fig. 4.15  Earth’s surface environment and humanity combined system (modified after
Takasugi 1993)

and recover metals from alloys in waste streams. The recycling of other wastes
(domestic, industrial, and nuclear wastes, and toxic gases) is very difficult. Domestic
waste contains various substances and is difficult to separate. Accordingly, large
amounts of such waste are burned. Technologies to remove toxic gasses have been
developed to prevent contamination. For example, SO2 gas can be removed as
­calcium sulfate. CO2 sequestration technologies such as underground storage can be
used to reduce CO2 gas emission to the atmosphere.
We developed industry by using large amounts of natural resources, which
brought increased environmental loads. To overcome resources and environmental
problems, soft energy passing as proposed by E.B. Robins (1976) instead of the
previous hard energy passing should be used. This aims at improving energy use
efficiency of and construction of societies based on natural energy usage.
Recently, it was proposed that the earth’s surface environment and humanity
should be thought of as a combined system, as shown in Fig. 4.15. In such a system,
a large proportion of waste is recycled and the waste emitted to the natural system
is reused. For example, we can use soils for agriculture produced by transforming
wastes through bacterial activity.
There are wastes that are difficult to recycle and reuse. For example, nuclear
waste and CO2 originating from nonrenewable energy resources cannot be recycled,
reclaimed or reused. Therefore, waste from nonrenewable resources flows only one
way and does not circulate. Therefore, we need to investigate the behavior of waste,
including their mobility and the chemical reactions they undergo in natural systems.
Then we may be able to change the natural system using technology and construct
4.4  Earth’s Environmental Problems 107

a human society system that can coexist, or be in harmony, with the natural system.
Technology is very important for this aim, but political, environmental and socio-
logical treatments are also necessary.

4.4.7.2 Political and Economic Treatments

Recently, various economic treatments have been applied to environmental and

waste problems. For instance, implementations of surcharge systems, grants, new
market systems and the foundation of deposit/refund systems and ecobusinesses
may ease environmental and waste problems in different settings.
There has been much discussion about international agreement concerning the
reduction of contaminants. Examples include the drafting of international treaties
for acid rain (1985 Helsinki Protocol) and freon gas (1985 Vienna Convention and
1987 Montreal Protocol, etc.).
In addition to CO2, freon, SO2, and nitrous oxide, maximum emissions and con-
centration levels of various contaminants need to be determined in the future.
Among the various gases, the reduction of CO2 emissions is the most difficult prob-
lem. Although the Kyoto Protocol was drafted in 1997, CO2 emissions from Japan
and other advanced countries have continued to increase.
It is essential to understand that political, economic, and sociological problems
should be open to the natural system. The object of early economic disciplines was
restricted to market systems. However, since a warning by B. Fuller in 1969 when
he described the “Earth Spaceship” concept, economics has changed. For example,
A.V. Kneese et al. (1994) applied a material balance approach that considers eco-
nomics as open to natural systems including the ecosystem. Their approach was
based on the idea that the human economic system consists of (1) energy exchange,
(2) material processing, (3) consumption of energy and materials, and (4) process-
ing and disposal of wastes. Material and energy are exchanged among these four
processes. It is clear by this approach that economic activity is significantly con-
strained by earth systems including ecosystems (Ueda et al. 1991). This environ-
mental economics focused on humanity, not taking the role of earth’s systems,
including humanity, as constraints on human activities. In other words the objects
of that type of environmental economics were limited to the human society system
and part of earth’s surface environment, limited to the atmosphere, water, soils, and
living things. Earth’s system consists not only of these subsystems but also of the
geosphere, including the crust, mantle, and core. It is important to understand how
the deep and shallow earth environments interact in order to think about earth’s
resources and waste disposal problems, which are important subjects in environ-
mental economics (Fig. 4.16).

4.4.7.3 Earth Environment and Resource Ethics

We need to consider on what temporal and spatial scales we are responsible for
­dealing with environmental and resource problems. To answer this question
108 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Fig. 4.16  Interaction

Humans
between humans, surface
environment and deep Resources
Mining
geologic environment
Waste

Resources
Exploration
Surface environment

Deep geologic
environment

we  should understand earth environment ethics, which include the following
principles:
1 . Not only humans but also nature has a right to survive.
2. Today’s generation should not restrict future generations’ possibility of
surviving.
3. Preservation of earth’s ecosystem precedes the other purposes.
This system of ethics has several problems. “Nature” is not clearly defined. “Nature”
in this code of ethics seems not to include the solid earth. However, the earth system
consists of the solid earth as well as the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the hydro-
sphere. Principle 2 concerns the environment, which we should preserve for the future.
However, people today should also preserve natural resource reserves. Depletion of
natural resources has great bearing on the possibility that people will be able to survive
in the future. We need to have ethics that deal with resources as well as the environ-
ment. We will call such a system “earth environment and resource ethics”. Earth envi-
ronment and resource ethics is based on equality between different generations. There
is also the idea that members of the same generation should be equal as well.
There is also the problem of uneven distribution of resources. If the reserves of
particular metals and fossil fuel resources are concentrated in a few countries, are those
resources owned only by these countries? A few advanced countries use most of the
natural resources consumed by the entire world. We do not have international agree-
ments about equality in the use of natural resources or about dealing with environmen-
tal problems between different generations, different countries, or different areas.

4.5 Chapter Summary

1. The main nature–human interactions are natural disasters, environmental prob-

lems, and natural resource problems.
2. Natural disasters are classified into disasters caused by external forces (the atmo-
sphere, oceans, rivers, etc.) and those caused by internal forces (volcanism,
earthquakes, etc.)
References 109

3. Resource problems include depletion of resources and environmental problems

associated with the exploitation of natural resources.
4. Natural resources are classified into minerals, water, soils, fossil fuels, nuclear
energy, sun energy, biomass energy, etc.
5. Natural resources are generally divided into renewable (solar energy, biomass,
water, etc.) and nonrenewable resources (metallic and non-metallic minerals,
uranium, and fossil fuels). However, in recent years, some renewable resources
such as ground water are becoming nonrenewable.
6. Earth’s environmental problems are characterized by long-term, global features.
These include global warming, atmospheric ozone depletion, the destruction of
tropical forests, extinction of living things, and desertification.
7. Currently, we are facing problems concerning various wastes, including indus-
trial emissions, CO2, and nuclear waste.
8. We have to consider the various aspects of environmental and waste problems,
including those of technology, economics, politics, and ethics.
9. Earth’s environment and resource ethics is a basis for constructing a sustainable
human society and ecosystem.

References

Carson R (1962) Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin, Boston

Elder JW (1966) Heat and mass transfer in the earth: hydrothermal systems. Bulletin (Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand), No. 169
Environmental Agency Earth Environment Work Shop (1990) Politics and economics of Earth
environment - New globalism and Japan. Diamondosya (in Japanese)
Farman JC, Gardeiner BG, Shankin JD (1985) Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal
seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction. Nature 315:207
Fuller B (1969) Operating manual for spaceship Earth. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale
Hansen J, Fung I, Uasis A, Rind D, Lebedeff S, Ruecly R, Russell G (1988) Global climate changes
as forecast by the Goddard Institute of Space studies three-dimensional model. J Geophys Res
93:9341
Haymon RM, Kastner MC (1981) Hot spring deposits on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N: prelimi-
nary description of mineralogy and genesis. Earth Planet Sci Lett 53:363–381
Holland HD, Petersen U (1995) Living dangerously. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Kanamori H (1978) Quantification of earthquakes. Nature 271:411–414
Keeling CD, Whorf TP (2003) Trends: a compendium of data on global change. Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge
Marini L (2007) Geological sequestration of carbon dioxide. Elsevier, New York
Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Renders J (1992) Beyond the limits. Green Publication Company,
Post Mills
Nishimura M (1991) Environmental chemistry. Shokabo, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Nishiyama T (1993) Resources economics. Chuokoron-shinsha, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Robbins E (1979) Soft energy path, Jijitsushinsya, (in Japanese) (Murota,Y and Tsuchiya,
H trans)
Shikazono N (1988) Chemistry of Kuroko. Shokabo, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Shikazono N, Harada H, Kashiwagi H, Ikeda N (2009) Dissolution of basaltic rocks and its appli-
cation to underground sequestration of CO2; estimate of mineral trapping by dissolution-­
precipitation simulation. J Petrol Mineral Econ Geol 38(5):149–160 (in Japanese)
110 4  Nature–Human Interaction

Siever R, Grotzinger J, Jorden TH (2003) Understanding Earth. W. H. Freeman and Company,

New York
Skinner BJ (1976) Earth resources, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Skinner BJ, Porter SC (1987) Physical geology. Wiley, New York
Stolarski RS (1988) Changes in ozone over the Antarctic. In: Rowland FS, Isaksen ISA (eds) The
changing atmosphere. Wiley, New York, pp 105–119
Takasugi S (1993) Challenge to environmental problem. NHK Books, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Ueda K, Ochiai H, Kitabatake Y, Teranishi T (1991) Environmental economics. Yuhikaku, Tokyo,
p 258 (in Japanese)
Yoshimatsu S, Ogawa Y (1986) A worder rare metal and rare Earth. Kodansya, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Chapter 5
The Universe and Solar System

In the previous chapters, earth’s subsystems, including humans, were considered. It

is well known that the entire earth and its subsystems have changed between the
earth’s birth and the present. This change (evolution) is caused by the internal and
external effects of interactions among earth’s subsystems and by energy and materi-
als input from external systems, meaning the solar system and universe. The early
earth system in particular was influenced considerably by the universe. In order to
consider the origin of the earth and planets in the solar system, the formative pro-
cesses at work in the universe should be understood.

Keywords  Asteroids • Earth-type planets • Evolution of stars • Giant planets

• Planet • Protosolar system • Universe

5.1 Origin and Evolution of the Universe

5.1.1 Big Bang Universe

It is generally accepted that our universe is expanding and that it started as a big
bang universe. The big bang universe is an initial universe with a comparably small
space in a very high density/high temperature state where no galaxies or stars
existed. It is thought that the universe expanded very rapidly from this primitive
state, with the generation of elements, the earth, sun, stars, and galaxies following.
In 1922, Alexander Friedman solved Einstein’s gravitational field equation, lead-
ing to the conclusion that the universe is always expanding or shrinking. This model
contrasts with Einstein’s static universe model. At present, Friedman’s model is more
widely accepted than Einstein’s model from evidence of universal expansion, veri-
fied by Hubble (1929). He discovered the red shift in the spectral lines of the galaxy.
The redshirt becomes more pronounced as distance increases. This indicates that the
galaxies are retreating from the earth and the universe is expanding. If the rate of
retreat was constant, the universe occupied a comparatively small space at 160 Ga.

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 111

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_5, © Springer 2012
112 5  The Universe and Solar System

In 1946, George Gamow proposed the big bang universe theory in which the
primary state of the universe was highly dense, hot, and localized at one point. It
then suddenly expanded in the big bang at about 160 Ga. Penzias and Wilson (1965)
found that our universe is filled with microwave radiation. This finding is strong
evidence supporting the big bang universe theory.
Although a steady state universe theory has been proposed, the big bang theory
is more widely accepted. According to the abg theory of Gamow and others, all the
elements were formed in the big bang. However, later theoretical calculations indi-
cated that only hydrogen and helium were formed then, not the other heavier ele-
ments. The H/He ratio at that time was calculated to be 3% by weight, equal to that
of the universe today.
Friedman showed the relation between time and temperature during the several
minutes after the big bang to be 1010√t K. Thus, temperature after 1 min was 1010 K.
Starting from the big bang, substances were synthesized and by 10−4 s after the big
bang, the four fundamental forces—the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces,
and gravity—had formed. Rapid expansion (inflation) occurred between 10−3.5 and
10−3.3 s after the big bang according to the inflation universe model, and the universe
expanded by 1051 times.

5.1.2 Evolution of Stars

In light stars nuclear fusion reactions are occurring. Hydrogen changes to helium
and then to carbon and oxygen (Sect. 4.3.5). In the cores of heavy stars, Mg, Si, Fe
and elements with nuclei lighter than Fe are formed. The explosive burning of
supernovae leads to the formation of large amounts of neutrons, which react with Fe
in the central part of star to heavier elements (i.e. U).
Heavier elements such as Ag, Au, or Pb are formed in a variety of reactions. In
all of these, elements and energies are consumed, leading to the creation of large
stars. Some die as supernovae explosions. Others, however, that formed in the ini-
tial stages of galaxy formation have kept growing until now. Such stars have small
masses and long life times. In general, the life time of heavy stars is short compared
with the age of galaxies.

5.1.2.1 H–R Diagram

The Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram indicates the relationship between stellar

luminosity as compared to our sun and the effective radiating temperature of the star
(Fig. 5.1). It can be used to categorize different types of stars. Of all stars, 90% fall in
the band running from the upper left to the lower right region in the diagram. This band
is referred to as the main sequence. It consists of “normal stars”. The sun occupies a
spot near the middle of the main sequence. The sun is expected to evolve off the main
5.2  Formation of the Protosolar System 113

Fig. 5.1  Hertzspring–Russell Surface temperature (Kelvins)

(H–R) diagram showing 50,000 2,500
different classes of stars
−5
(Rollinson 2007). The arrows Large Supernova
show a typical birth to death luminous
hot
cycle of a small star (lower
part of diagram) and of a
large star with a mass 25 Large Supergiants
times that of the sun (upper 0 star 100

Absolute visual magnitude

part of diagram) Red

Luminosity (solar units)

giants

M
ain
5 seq Sun
ue
nc Protostar
e

Birt h
10 Death 0.01
White
dwarfs
Small
Data from the faint
Hipparcos satellite cool
15
−0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Visual magnitude

sequence and become a red giant (shown at the upper right in the diagram) and
eventually a white dwarf (at the lower left). Red giants are cooler, but more lumi-
nous than stars on the main trend. The stars distributed on the left side of the main
sequence region are hot, small, and very dark. These are called white dwarfs.

5.2 Formation of the Protosolar System

At the final evolutionary stage of stars, giant and supergiant stars explode. This
explosion is accompanied by a brightening to more than one hundred million times
its previous luminosity. The phenomenon is called a supernova. In the explosion,
gravitational collapse occurs rapidly in the star’s core, sometimes resulting in the
formation of a neutron star. If the gravitational force of the star is very strong, light
cannot escape from inside it. This is called a black hole.
The explosion of a supernova near the protosolar system galaxy is thought to
have caused the mixing of the exploded substances with interplanetary dust particles
concentrated in the protosolar system galaxy and triggered the formation of the
solar system. This is based on evidence like the existence of large amounts of 26Mg
in the Allende meteorite discovered in Mexico.
 114 5  The Universe and Solar System

1.0 Co,Ni
Ga Ti
Mg REE,
Ta, Nb,
Na Si Fe U, Pu, Th
K Ge

CaTiO3
Proportion of condensed element

Rb
T1 S Cu Re

Ca2Al2SiO7
Mg Si

CaMgSi2O6

Al2O3
Oxidation of Fe (Mg, Fe) SiO3
0.1 Bi Fe Os
Pb

MgSiO3
Hydrous silicates

ZrO2
Mg2SiO 4
Ag
Ti

Alkali feldspar
Zr
Si Al

CaAl2Si2O8
Ca
Fe3O4

FeS

Ca2MgSi2O7 MgAl2O4
0.01

In
Mg

0.001
200 400 600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400 1 600 1 800 2 000
Temperature (K)

Fig. 5.2  Equilibrium condensation model (Grossman and Larimer 1974). Condensation of ele-
ments from cooling solar nebula

Large amounts of chemical analytical data on meteorites have been accumulated.

The current theory on the genesis of the protosolar system was proposed based on
these data. For example, Urey (1952) proposed a chemical equilibrium model,
which was followed by proposals of several other chemical models. These models
are subdivided into reduction and condensation models. Reduction models note that
various meteorites were formed by oxidation–reduction reactions such as “FeO
(iron oxide) → Fe (iron) + 1/2O2 (oxygen), where “FeO” is the FeO component in
minerals. If this reaction proceeds from the left hand side to the right, FeO is con-
verted to Fe and O2. If coalescing particles contain “FeO” aggregate, a stony mete-
orite forms. Oxidizing and reducing substances are necessary for the reaction above
to proceed, but there are no such substances in the universe. It is thought that a sig-
nificant change in temperature may also cause the reaction discussed above. An
uneven temperature distribution in the protosolar system might have caused the
diversity of meteorites we observe. The primordial galaxy could have collapsed
suddenly. It entered the Hayashi phase which is a very brilliant stage, 103 times as
bright as the sun. Tauri stars are in this stage, and so it is referred to as the T-Tauri
stage. In such high temperature conditions, FeO changes to Fe and O2 without the
presence of reducing substances. After this stage, the protosun and protogalaxy
shrank in size and brightness, and the temperature of the protosun increased. It took
less than a hundred million years from the rapid collapse to go through the Hayashi
phase and began the sun’s hydrogen nuclear fusion reaction.
Equilibrium condensation models detail the sequence in which elements con-
densed into solid phases as the hot protogalaxy cooled (Fig. 5.2). Os, Zr, Re, Ti, Al,
5.2  Formation of the Protosolar System 115

REE (rare earth elements), and Fe condense at high temperatures. Pyroxene, olivine,
and feldspar precipitate at intermediate temperatures. Sulfides, Pb, Bi, Tl, iron oxide
(Fe3O4), hydrous silicates, and carbonates precipitate at low temperatures. The cal-
culation of the equilibrium condensation process and the mineral compositions of
meteorites indicate that iron meteorites and carbonaceous chondrites formed at high
and low temperatures, respectively. The conditions under which various types of
meteorites formed are estimated based on mineralogical and geochemical data from
meteorites and calculations on condensation. Not only chemical reactions such as
condensation and oxidation–reduction reactions, but physical processes like the
dynamics of fine particles, collisions and accumulation are important in meteorite
formation and in the production of a diversity of meteorites.
It is widely accepted that the sun, planets in the solar system and meteorites
formed from a rotating, flattened disk of gas and dust. It is thought that various fine
particles accumulated after condensing from their gaseous state. Various gases
formed due to changes in temperature and oxidation–reduction conditions.
There are two main theories on the formation of the planets;
1. After the formation of fine particles, planets, and meteorites formed. This is the
low temperature gas and dust theory.
2. Planetesimals about 10  km in diameter with masses of up to about 1015  kg
accreted, forming planets. This is called the planetesimals theory.
It is now thought from computer simulations that the planetesimals theory is
more plausible than the low temperature gas and dust theory.
Figure 5.3 is a schematic representation of the process from the cooling of the
protosolar system to the formation of the solar system. The protosun grew due to the
precipitation of gaseous components. The luminosity of the protosun increased by
converting the kinetic energy of precipitating gaseous components, and the tem-
perature and absolute magnitude moved to the upper left region on the H–R diagram.
After that, the temperature of the protosun decreased as the precipitation of gaseous
components decreased, leading to a change in the position toward the lower right
region of the H–R diagram. The time required for this process was about a hundred
thousands years. When the gaseous clouds disappeared, the sun entered the T-Tauri
stage. A T-Tauri star is defined as one that does not belong to the main sequence of
normal stars and red giants, and is brighter and cooler than the sun.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Dr. Chushiro Hayashi and his coworkers indicated that
the sun, belonging to the main sequence, was formed by the collapse of a T-Tauri
star (Hayashi et  al. 1979). With this gravitational collapse and the subsequent
increases in the T-Tauri star’s density and core temperature, deuterium nuclei
were formed by the collision of hydrogen nuclei. The density increased further
and the temperature increased to more than one million degrees Celsius, and the
hydrogen nuclear fusion reaction began. The shrinking ended when nuclear fusion
and gravitational forces became balanced, after which the size does not change.
Then, when the hydrogen in the core is consumed, leaving only helium, no nuclear
fusion will occur, resulting in a collapse, accompanied by the generation of heat,
raising the temperature. Nuclear fusion reactions will occur again and the sun
116 5  The Universe and Solar System

Fig. 5.3  Schematic Mineral particle

representation of the process Condensation
from the cooling of of mineral Sun
protosolar system to the particles by
formation of solar system cooling of
(Matsui 1990) protosolar nebula
Gaseous nebula

Gaseous nebula

Precipitation
of mineral particles

Planetesimal
Formation of
planetesimals
by gravity
instability of
particle zone
Formation of
planets by
collision of Growth Growth
planetesimals without gas in gas

Present
solar system
Earth-type Giant gas planets
planets

will expand, resulting in a red giant. When the sun is 12.3 billion years old
(7.7 billion years older than now), it will become a white dwarf, signaling the end
of the sun’s life.

5.3 Planets in the Solar System

5.3.1 Comparative Planetology

Recent expedition to some of our solar system’s planets has provided us with large
amounts of information on the planets and the earth’s moon. This information is
useful in constraining our understanding of the origin and evolution of the earth.
Comparative planetology is important for the following reasons: (1) Continuous
changes in the earth’s surface environment have been caused by weathering and
erosion by the atmosphere and water. However, records of ancient times are pre-
served in the other earth-type planets because almost no liquid water flows there and
there is little free oxygen in the atmosphere. (2) Plate tectonics is actively operating
5.3  Planets in the Solar System 117

in the earth but not in the other planets and the moon. Plates subduct to the interior
of the earth, and so no truly ancient records of the earth’s surface have been
preserved.

5.3.2 The Earth’s Moon

The important characteristic features of the earth’s moon are as follows:

1. The moon has a crust about 100 km thick. Feldspar is the major constituent of its
crust, which is about 4.5 Ga old.
2. It is thought from the many craters on the surface of the earth’s moon that bolide
bombardment occurred around 0.5–1.0 hundred million years after the crust
formed. This suggests that the heavy bombardment occurred in the earth’s initial
stage. Craters formed during that period on the earth might have eroded and weath-
ered due to the effects of surface water containing oxygen and the atmosphere.
3. No atmosphere or liquid water are present on the lunar surface, and no tectonic
or volcanic activities are observed on the moon.
4. The earth’s moon is characterized by a layered structure somewhat like that of
the earth. The upper mantle of the moon is composed of olivine and pyroxene,
similar to earth’s mantle. The presence of a core is not certain. If one exists, it is
less than 400 km in radius.
5. The lunar “ocean” occupies 17% of its total surface area. This ocean is composed
of basalt that is 3.2–3.9 Ga old.
The following hypotheses have been proposed to explain the genesis of the moon
(Fig. 5.4): (1) the giant impact model, (2) the fission (parent earth and child moon)
model, (3) the co-accretion model, in which the earth and moon are brothers, and
(4) the capture model. Among these hypotheses, (1) is the most plausible (Stevenson
1987). The other hypotheses are either physically implausible or would produce a
lunar composition different from analytical data available about lunar rocks. It is
thought that the origin of the moon is an oblique impact between the proto-earth
(probably molten) and a Mars-sized planetesimal about 15% the mass of the earth.
The debris from the impact reassembled in orbit around the earth to form the moon.
Subsequently, a magma ocean 100 km thick formed on the moon. Plagioclase crys-
tallized in the magma ocean, ascended, and formed a global surface layer of
anorthosite. Tungsten isotope data on lunar rocks indicate that the moon formed
about 30 Ma after the formation of the solar system (Schoenberg et al. 2002).

5.3.3 The Earth-Type Planets

The earth-type planets include Mercury, Venus, and Mars. Their bulk density is high
compared with the other planets in solar system, indicating they are mainly com-
posed of solid materials.
118 5  The Universe and Solar System

Fig. 5.4  Hypotheses for 1 Martian-sized

bolide Earth 2
origin of the moon (Broecker
1988)
Collision
Dust circle

Moon

Splitting
3
Earth 4
Dust
particles Moon
Simultaneous
accumulation

Moon Earth
Capture

5.3.3.1 Mercury

Mercury’s atmosphere contains very small amounts of Ar, Ne, and He. These
components are supplied by the solar wind. Many impact craters are observed on its
surface. The age of these craters ranges within 3–4 Ga, indicating no tectonic activ-
ity in Mercury since its formation. The atmospheric temperature varies widely in a
range from −200°C to +500°C. Mercury’s bulk density is high at 5.44 g/cm3, indi-
cating the presence of a core composed of Fe and Ni. The core is estimated to be
1,600 km in radius.
Like earth’s moon, no tectonic activity has occurred on Mercury due to its small
size. It is thought that the high density is due Mercury’s relatively large core. The
core is thought to be so large for the planet’s size because of the loss of mantle com-
posed of silicates. A bolide in the size range of the Moon to Mars may have caused
the loss of Mercury’s mantle.

5.3.3.2 Venus

The surface of Venus is covered by a thick, CO2 rich (97%) atmosphere containing
argon. A sulfuric acid cloud layer is present 50 km above the surface. Due to CO2’s
greenhouse effect, the surface temperature is high, about 730 K. Venus’s surface
shows topographic features caused by volcanic activity. The topography has fea-
tures similar to folded mountains, ridges, and rifts, suggesting that plate tectonic
motions took place during the past. However, there are also ring depression struc-
tures several hundreds of kilometers in diameter, suggesting that plume tectonics
were dominant rather than plate tectonics. The ages of rocks on the surface are
5.3  Planets in the Solar System 119

estimated to be about 4.5 Ga from the density and distribution of craters. The size
and composition of Venus is similar to the earth. Thus, comparisons between Venus
and the earth constrain the genesis of the earth. No liquid water is present on
Venus and the high partial pressure of CO2 in Venus’s atmosphere (PCO2) is different
from the earth. The high partial pressure of CO2 is thought to be because atmo-
spheric CO2 has not been removed since Venus has no oceans where CO2 could have
reacted to form carbonates. We infer that the PCO2 of the protoearth’s atmosphere
was similar to that of Venus. The layer structure of Venus’s interior is thought to
be similar to the earth but this is not clear.

5.3.3.3 Mars

The Martian atmosphere consists mainly of CO2 (95%) and small amounts of N2,
Ar, O2, and water. Many craters are observed on the surface, particularly in the
southern hemisphere, and volcanic topography is common, particularly in the north-
ern hemisphere. The composition of the surface soil is SiO2 44.7%, Al2O3 5.7%,
Fe2O3 18.2%, MgO 8.3%, CaO 5.6%, K2O <0.3%, TiO2 0.9%, SO3 7.7%, and
Cl 0.7%.
This composition is similar to basalt. However, in addition to basaltic material,
salts such as sulfates and chlorides may exist. Mars has a mantle and core. These are
richer in iron and denser than their counterparts on earth.
A huge shield volcano named Mount Olympus, which is 600 km in diameter and
25  km high, and canyons characterize the surface topography. No such volcano
exists on the earth’s surface. This is probably due to the plate motion on the earth
causing continuous changes of volcanic eruption sites. Valley Marines, the largest
canyon on the surface of Mars, is 4,000 km long. It is thought to have been formed
by the effects of liquid water flow. The origin of liquid water on Mars is controver-
sial, but it seems likely that ice near the surface melted due to meteorite impact and/
or volcanic eruption.
The Viking Mars expedition in 1976 found topographies caused by river flooding
and flow in the highlands of the Southern Hemisphere. This indicates that a warm
climate existed in the past. “Opportunity”, NASA’s Mars Pathfinder rover, found
evidence of the presence of large amounts of liquid water on the surface of Mars. It
found iron oxide (hematite) and sulfate (jarosite), which form only in the presence
of liquid water. Rocks with sedimentary structures were also discovered. Therefore,
we are certain that large amounts of liquid water existed on the surface of Mars.
However, the origin of that water is uncertain. Seawater and lakewater are possible
sources. Jarosite is formed by the reaction of sulfuric acid solutions of volcanic
origin with rocks in lake environments on the earth. Thus, a lakewater environment
seems likely at the site the jarosite precipitated on the Martian surface. Generally,
such an environment, warm with liquid water present, is necessary for the origin of
life, and so evidence of the presence of liquid water on the Martian surface in the
past suggests that life may have existed on Mars.
120 5  The Universe and Solar System

5.3.4 The Giant Planets

The Giant planets consist mainly of gases and solids. The gas compositions of
Jupiter and Saturn are similar to that of the sun. Their atmospheres are mainly com-
posed of hydrogen and helium. The average cloud temperatures of Jupiter and
Saturn are −150°C and −180°C, respectively. Saturn’s interior consists of rock con-
taining SiO2, MgO, Fe, Ni, etc. with a mass 10–15 times that of the earth, an ice
core, and a metallic hydrogen mantle. Jupiter and Saturn have heat sources in their
interiors and radiate considerable amounts of energy. There is an active volcano on
one of Jupiter’s satellites, Io. The surface of Europa, another of Jupiter’s satellites,
is covered by thick ice. Liquid water is thought to be present underground on
Europa. Igneous activity likely melted the ice underground. There is conjecture that
life may be present in Europa’s ocean (Naganuma 2004). Volcanic activity and the
presence of liquid water and life may also be possible in the “ice giants”, Ganymede
and Callisto, two more of Jupiter’s satellites.
Uranus and Neptune are giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. They are 80% icy
water and methane by mass. The main component in the atmosphere of Titan,
Saturn’s largest moon, is N2 with minor amounts of Ar, H2, CO, CO2, H2O, and
hydrocarbons (C2H6, C2H2, etc.). Triton is the largest satellite in the solar system and
is larger than Pluto. Triton’s surface temperature is about −220°C, which is the cold-
est in the solar system. Triton’s surface is dominated by frozen ices of several types,
probably methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.
Pluto has a solid surface, which is different from the giant planets. Its atmo-
spheric pressure is very low. The atmosphere is probably composed of methane
evaporated from the surface ice, CO, and nitrogen. Recently, icy methane was dis-
covered. Its surface temperature is −230°C, and its bulk density is 2.03  g/cm3.
Organic matter, including methane, exists on the surface. The interior is composed
of ice and rocks. Pluto is a large bolide in the Kuiper Belt. Recently, it was excluded
from the list of planets in the solar system, mainly because of its small size com-
pared with the other solar planets.

5.3.5 Asteroids, Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), and Comets

Asteroids are distributed between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. There are more
than 14,000 asteroids whose orbits have been observed. Asteroids are very dark,
with an average magnitude dimmer than 6.8. Most asteroids are distributed between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, but some cross inside earth’s orbit. Impact craters
caused by asteroids have been discovered on the earth’s surface, such as the crater
left by the asteroid impact in Siberia in 1908. It is likely that an asteroid impact
caused the Mass Extinction, when dinosaurs became extinct at the Cretaceous/
Tertiary boundary (see Sect. 6.2.8). The asteroids that arrive on the earth and Mars
are rocks containing iron. They are aggregates of small fragments of planetesimals
from the primordial solar system, rather porous and not very dense. Asteroids that
5.3  Planets in the Solar System 121

impact Jupiter are composed of dark or reddish substances, which are remnants
from before the birth of the planets.
Since the first discovery of the Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) in 1992, the number
of identified KBOs has increased to over a thousand, and more than 700 KBOs over
100 km in diameter are believed to exist. Pluto and its moon Charon are large bodies
in the Kuiper Belt.
Comets and asteroids are surviving planetesimals from the solar nebula,
preserved building blocks of the planets. Comets are considered to be relic materials
from the outer regions of the solar nebula. They are composed of materials similar
to interplanetary gas and dust particles (C2, CN, CH, OH, NH2, CO+, CO2+,
N2+, etc.).

5.3.6 Characteristic Differences Between

the Earth and Other Planets

The main characteristics that differ between the earth and the other planets are sum-
marized as follows.
1. The earth’s atmosphere is characterized by high concentrations of N2 and O2, and
a low concentration of CO2. The atmospheres of the other planets are character-
ized by the presence of CO2, He, and H2.
2. There is liquid water on earth, but not on the other planets, although it was pres-
ent on Mars in the past. Solid water (ice) is abundant in the other planets, particu-
larly the giant planets. The earth is the only planet in the universe that is known
to habitable for life.
3. The frequency distribution of earth’s topographic height is bimodal, but on
Venus, Mars, and earth’s moon, it is unimodal (Fig. 5.5). The earth’s bimodal
distribution is due to the crust being divided into continental (mostly granitic)
and oceanic (mostly basaltic) types.
4. Giant volcanoes like Mount Olympus on Mars exist on the other terrestrial
planets.
5. Plate tectonics operates on the earth. Features 3 and 4 relate to plate tectonics on
the earth. No evidence of plate tectonics is found on the other planets.
6. Plume tectonics was dominant on Mars and Venus, indicating volcanism on these
planets was caused by plume tectonics.
7. At present no liquid water exists on any planet other than the earth. The condi-
tions for the presence of liquid water on the planets largely depend on temperature,
which is mainly governed by the distance from the sun and planet size, which
controls the gravity. On earth, these conditions were the most favorable for the
presence of liquid water of all the planets. It is thought that the presence of liquid
water on the earth throughout its history has been determined by its thermal his-
tory and its evolution after its birth as a planet.
Oceans are present on earth. Protoearth’s atmospheric CO2 pressure was proba-
bly very high. After the formation of the oceans, the atmospheric CO2 dissolved into
122 5  The Universe and Solar System

Earth Moon Mercury Venus

5

Altitude (km)
0

−5

0 20 0 20 0 20 0 20
Area (%)

Fig. 5.5  Distribution of elevation of earth-type planet (Masursky et al. 1980)

the ocean water. Weathering of silicate rocks by interaction with CO2-containing

aqueous solutions (the oceans and terrestrial water) leads to high concentrations of
Ca2+, Mg2+ and HCO3− in the oceans. Carbonates precipitated from these aqueous
solutions. Due to this precipitation, atmospheric CO2 was reduced significantly,
decreasing the PCO2. In contrast to the earth, Venus’s atmospheric CO2, which is very
concentrated at about 100 atm, did not decrease because Venus had no ocean. Life
could have originated in the earth’s ocean, but is unlikely to have originated on the
other planets because of the lack of oceans, except perhaps on Mars.
If magma is generated under hydrous conditions, the magma becomes more fel-
sic (granitic) compared with the source rocks. Hydrous conditions deep in the inte-
rior of the earth are caused by water carried by subducting slabs containing alteration
minerals. Therefore, it could be said water and plate tectonics caused the character
of the earth.
There is considerable mass transfer in the earth’s surface environment because of
the water cycle. Ore deposits formed by these processes are used as mineral
resources. Fossil fuels such as coal and oil are not formed without water and organ-
isms. Most nonrenewable resources form in relation to the water cycle. Mass cycling
is occurring in the interior of the earth through plate motion, plume motion and
mantle convection. Therefore, it can be said that entire earth is very dynamical.

5.4 Chapter Summary

1. Our universe began from the big bang and elements, stars and galaxies formed
irreversibly and then evolved.
2. In the rotating disk of the protosolar nebula, fine grains condensed, aggregated,
and grew, leading to the formation of planetesimals. The planetesimals collided
and accumulated, forming planets, including the earth in our solar system.
References 123

3. The planets in the solar system include the earth-type planets Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars and the Giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
4. There are planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs)
like Pluto in the solar system.

References

Broecker WS (1988) How to build a habitable Earth. Kodansya, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Grossman L, Larimer JW (1974) Early chemical history of the solar system. Rev Geophys Space
Phys 12:71–101
Hayashi C, Nakazawa K, Mizuno H (1979) Earth’s melting due to the blanketing effect of the
primordial dense atmosphere. Earth Planet Sci Lett 43:22–28
Hubble EA (1929) A relation between distance and radial velocity among extragalactic nebulae.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 15:168–173
Masursky H, Eliason E, Forol PG, Mcgill GE, Pettengill GH, Schaber GG, Schabert G (1980)
Pioneer Venus radar results: geology from images and altimetry. J Geophys Res
85:8232–8260
Matsui T (1990) The newest Earth science. Kodansya, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Naganuma T (2004) Europe, life star. NHK Books, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Penzias AA, Wilson RW (1965) A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080Mc/s.
Astrophys J 142:419–421
Rollinson H (2007) Early earth system. Brackwell
Schoenberg R, Kamber BS, Collerson KD, Eugster O (2002) New W-isotope evidence for rapid
terrestrial accretion and very early, core formation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 66:3151–3160
Stevenson DJ (1987) Origin of the moon—the collision hypothesis. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci
15:271–315
Urey HC (1952) The planets. Yale University Press, New Haven
Chapter 6
Evolution of the Earth System

The origin and evolution of the earth system have been deciphered by various
methodologies including (1) geochronology, (2) comparative planetology, (3) com-
puter simulation, (4) isotope geochemistry, and (5) geology of past geologic events.
Based on these methods, the following important topics concerning the ­origin and
evolution of the earth system have been debated and elucidated: (1) What is the
origin of earth? (2) Was primordial earth cold (the cold origin theory), or hot (the
fireball origin theory)? (3) Was earth formed by heterogeneous accretion or homo-
geneous accretion? (4) When was the layered structure of the earth formed? (5)
Were the atmosphere and oceans formed by rapid initial degassing or continuous
degassing from the interior of the earth? (6) Were the primordial atmosphere and
oceans reducing or oxidizing? (7) How did the atmosphere and oceans evolve?
These subjects will be discussed below.

Keywords  Climate change • Evolution of earth system • Geochronology • Mass

extinction • Origin of life • Origin of the earth system

6.1 Geochronology

Earth’s system has evolved from its initial stages to the present time. To understand
the evolution of the earth system it is essential to know when various geologic
events occurred and geologic materials formed throughout earth’s history. Age
determinations of constituents of the earth are possible based on geochronology.
There are two types of methods for determining these ages: (1) relative age dating
and (2) radiometric (absolute) age dating.

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 125

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_6, © Springer 2012
126 6  Evolution of the Earth System

Upper g Young f2 f1 x d
d x
c
f x
e c x
d
c a
a b x x b
b
Lower Old a x x a
a f1

No.1 No.2 No.3

a>b>c>d>e>f>g a>f 1>f 2 a>b>c>d

Fig. 6.1  Three laws estimating relative geologic ages (Hamada 1986). x > y means x is older than y

6.1.1 Relative Age Dating

Relative age dating can be made from (1) the stratigraphic record, (2) fossils as
timepieces, and (3) the relationship between geologic bodies such as unconformi-
ties and cross-cutting relationships (Fig. 6.1).
We can interpret the relative ages of geologic events from sedimentary records
based on the principle of superposition. It states that each layer of sedimentary rock
is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it if the layers have
not suffered tectonic disturbance.
Fossils, which are the remains of extinct life forms, can be used to date the rela-
tive ages of sedimentary rocks if the occurrence of certain fossils is limited to
­particular layers and formations of sedimentary rocks.
An unconformity is the boundary along which two existing formations contact
each other. It is a surface between two layers that were not laid down in an unbroken
fashion. Unconformities are created by uplift and erosion, followed by subsidence
and another records of sedimentation (Siever et al. 2003).
If magma intrudes into sedimentary rocks and solidifies, the solidified magma
(intrusive rocks) cut the sedimentary rocks. This cross-cutting relationship indicates
that the magma intrusion occurred later than the sedimentation. Fault planes in
­geologic bodies also exhibit cross-cutting relationships. They indicate that faulting
occurred later than the formation of the geologic bodies.
Using these three methods, paleontologists and sedimentologists investigated
outcrops all over the world in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and devised the
entire geologic time scale (Fig. 6.2).

6.1.2 Radiometric (Absolute) Age Dating

Radioactive atoms decay with time as expressed by the following equation:

dN / dt = lN
6.1  Geochronology 127

Fig. 6.2  The geologic time [Periods] [Epochs]

scale (Stanley 1999). The Holocene
numbers on the right Pleistocene
1.8
represent the ages of the Pliocene

CENOZOIC
NEOGENE 5
boundaries between periods
24

ERA
and epochs in millions of
years. The Holocene Epoch PALEOGENE Miocene
(the past 10,000 years or so)
65
is also known as the Recent
24

CRETACEOUS Oligocene

MESOZOIC ERA
34
144

JURASSIC Eocene

206
PHANEROZOIC EON

TRIASSIC 55

251 Paleocene

PERMIAN 65

300
PENNSYLVANIAN
CARBON- 320
IFEROUS MISSISSIPIAN

354
PALEOZOIC ERA

DEVONIAN

409
SILURIAN
439

ORDOVICIAN

510
CAMBRIAN
543
"PRECAMBRIAN"

million years

PROTEROZOIC EON 2.5

ARCHEAN EON billion years

4.6
billion years
128 6  Evolution of the Earth System

Fig. 6.3  The exponential

decay of a radioactive 1

Proportion of atoms left

element, showing several
half-lives; each would be
about approximately 1.5
billion years in the case of
40
 K (Press and Sieber 1994) 12

14
18
1
16
1 2 3 4 5
Elapsed time since crystallization, in half-lives

Table 6.1  Radiometric age t 1/2 (Year)

measurement method (Ojima 40
 K → 40Ar 1.25 × 109
1990). t1/2: half-life period
(year)
87
Rb → 87Sr 4.88 × 1010
147
Sm → 143Nd 1.06 × 1011
176
Lu → 176Hf 3.6 × 1010
187
Re → 187Os 4.56 × 1010

where N is number of nuclei, t is time, and l is a decay constant.

A parent is an atom that decays and its daughter is an atom made from part of the
parent. If the numbers of the parents and daughters are denoted P and D, respec-
tively, and t is the time from the present to the past, P at time t is given by

P = Po exp(lt)

where Po is P at present. D at t is given by

P - Po = Po (exp(lt - 1))

and thus,

t = 1 / l ln(1 + D/Po )

Therefore, if we know D and Po, we can determine t (Fig. 6.3) and so know the
radiometric (absolute) age of rock or mineral samples. Decay constants and half-
lives (the time required for one-half of the original number of radioactive atoms to
decay) are different for different radioactive elements as described by the radioac-
tive decay series (Table  6.1). For example, the residence time of 40 K → 40Ar is
1.25 × 109 years and can be applied to relatively young geologic ages. We have sev-
eral useful methods for determining the radiometric ages of geologic events, and
can do precise absolute dating by combining these methods.
We can apply radiometric dating methods not only to ancient geologic events but
also to recent geologic ones. For example, we can estimate the sedimentation rate of
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 129

recent shallow sediments and the growth rate of manganese nodules on the seafloor
using 222Ra, 23Th, 231Po, 210Pb, 234U, and 10Be. Radiocarbon (carbon 14) dating has
been used to date materials back to 50,000 years ago. It is used in archeology and
for reconstructing the paleoclimate and deciphering ocean circulation patterns.

6.2 Origin and Evolution of the Earth System

6.2.1 Formation of Early Earth (About 4.6–3.0 Billion

Years Ago)

Generally, the geologic time scale is divided into four major time units: eons, eras,
periods, and epochs. For example, there are three eons, the largest division of his-
tory: the Archean eon, 4 billion years ago to 2.5 billion years ago; the Proterozoic
eon, 2.5 billion years to 543 million years ago; and the Phanerozoic eon, the past
543 million years. Division of the geologic time scale is usually based on paleontol-
ogy and sedimentology. However, here we have divided it into three parts, mainly
based on geochronological data to aid in understanding the earth’s history: 4.6–3.0
billion years ago, 3.0–2.0 billion years ago, and 2.0 billion years ago–the present.

6.2.1.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Accretions

It is generally accepted that the earth was formed 4.6–4.5 billion years ago from the
evidence that the ages of most chondrite meteorites in the solar system, based on the
isochron diagram showing lead isotope ratios, are 4.6–4.5 billion years old.
Two models to explain the mechanism of the formation of the earth have been
proposed, the homogeneous accretion model and the heterogeneous accretion
model. The homogeneous accretion model says that homogeneous bodies accreted
to form the protoearth, while the heterogeneous accretion model says that heteroge-
neous bodies accreted. The evidence supporting the heterogeneous accretion model
are as follows:
1 . This model can explain the bulk and isotopic compositions of the earth.
2. The energy required for separating metallic iron and silicates is small if the
metallic iron and silicates formed the protoearth at different stages.
3. It is difficult for metallic iron to accumulate in the core by homogeneous accre-
tion. Iron has to be molten and the mantle consisting of silicates must also be
molten or soft for the iron to be able to sink to the core of the earth.
The evidence supporting the homogeneous accretion model is as follows.
1. Most minor elements’ partitionings between the core and mantle are in equilib-
rium. This indicates the separation of core and mantle at happened late in the
formation of the earth.
130 6  Evolution of the Earth System

2. Accretion of planetesimals with the compositions of various meteorites can

explain the composition of the earth.
Despite a great deal of investigation, it is still uncertain which model is better for
explaining the formation of the protoearth.

6.2.1.2 Earth’s Source Materials

Several models explaining the bulk composition of the earth have been proposed.
Ringwood (1979) proposed the C1 chondrite model for the origin of earth. C1 chon-
drites contain the highest amounts of volatile elements among the carbonaceous
chondrites (C 3.5%, H2O 20%, S 6%) and have elemental compositions similar to
the relative abundance of elements in the atmosphere of the sun (Fig. 2.7). This
model shows the reduction of iron oxide to metallic iron like
FeO + H 2 ® Fe + H 2 O

FeO ® Fe + 1 / 2O2

For this reaction to proceed, large amounts of O2 are generated and H2 or other
reducing materials are required. C1 chondrites are considered to be the most
undifferentiated primordial substance, and their REE (rare earth element) pattern
is quite different from that of the earth. The earth’s atmospheric xenon isotopic
composition and krypton isotopic composition are also different from those of
carbonaceous chondrites. The earth’s chondrite-normalized REE pattern is simi-
lar to that of volatile-poor iron meteorites, indicating that the earth was built from
volatile-poor meteorites. Earth’s minor element contents cannot be explained
only by the contents of carbonaceous chondrites. For example, mixing carbona-
ceous chondrites (formed at low temperatures with oxidizing material) with
enstatite chondrites (formed at high temperatures with reducing material) can
­reasonably explain the Zn, In, Ce, and C contents of mantle of the earth. Therefore,
the most plausible source material for the earth is planetesimals consisting of
various meteorites including iron meteorites, carbonaceous chondrites, and ensta-
tite chondrites.

6.2.1.3 Formation of the Atmosphere

We now consider how the earth’s atmosphere was formed. The theory that the
earth’s atmosphere today originated from its primary atmosphere was denied by
Brown (1949), who found that the REE abundances in earth’s atmosphere today are
different from solar nebula REE abundances. Therefore, it is clear that degassing
from the earth’s interior after the earth’s formation is the major source of the early
earth’s atmosphere. In his 1951 paper titled “Geologic history of sea water—an
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 131

attempt to state the problem—”, Rubey proposed a “continuous degassing model”

in which the volatile components have degassed gradually and continuously from
earth’s interior throughout geologic history. This model was widely accepted
because it was consistent with the cold origin theory widely accepted at that time. It
is based on the following geologic evidence: (1) There are fewer carbonate rocks of
the older ages. (2) Magnesite (MgCO3) is not found in any of the geologic ages. (3)
The composition of excess volatile matter is similar to the gas composition in pres-
ent-day volcanoes. The excess volatile matter is equal to the amount of volatiles in
the atmosphere, oceans, and sediments minus the amount of volatiles produced by
the weathering of rocks.
The rapid degassing model, which posits that degassing occurred during the sev-
eral billion years after the formation of the earth, is more plausible based on the
following evidence:
1. The 40Ar/36Ar ratios of the present-day atmosphere and upper mantle are 295.5
and 20,000, respectively. Such a high value in the upper mantle can be explained
by rapid initial degassing of 36Ar, which is a stable Ar isotope. Thus, its concen-
tration does not change over time. In contrast, the concentration of 40Ar in the
mantle increases over time because it is a product of the decay of 40K, which is
contained in the mantle but not in the atmosphere.
2. Xenon isotope data also indicates initial rapid degassing.
3. Computer calculations indicate that if the protoearth was formed by the accretion
of planetesimals, a “magma ocean” could have been formed, accompanied by the
degassing of CO2 and other gases and the formation of a protoatmosphere.
4. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope studies on the surface water existing on earth’s
surface now clearly show that the water cycle is prevailing on and near the
earth’s surface. This data, and the fact that no juvenile water is found in the
earth today, suggest no continuous degassing of juvenile water from the
earth’s interior throughout geologic history. This supports the idea of rapid
degassing during the initial stage of the earth’s formation. However, helium
isotope data indicate that helium is degassing from the earth’s interior (man-
tle) even at the present time. Therefore, not all volatiles degassed during the
initial stage, and some, like helium, have been degassing since the initial
stage to the present.
5. Evaporites form by the evaporation of seawater, leading to increased salinity
and the precipitation of salts. The sequence of minerals in evaporite reflects the
seawater chemistry at the time of evaporite formation. Holland (1972) ­published
the paper, “Geologic history of seawater—an attempt to solve the problem,”
and he found systematic sequences of minerals in the evaporite from various
­geologic ages. These sequences are systematic and consistent in evaporites
with different ages. He reasoned that seawater chemistry with regard to the
constituents of evaporates, which include alkali elements, alkali earth elements,
etc. has been constant, which disagrees with the continuous degassing model
by Rubey (1951).
132 6  Evolution of the Earth System

6.2.1.4 Variation of the Compositions of Seawater and the Atmosphere

What was the composition of the proto-atmosphere when it was formed by degas-
sing from the interior? It has been proposed that the partial pressure of CO2 ( PCO2)
was very high and no free oxygen gas was present in the earth’s initial stages. The
reasons PCO2 was thought to be high are as follows:
1. Sunlight is generated by nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium. As this reaction
proceeded, temperature and pressure increased gradually, suggesting that the
surface temperature of the early earth was lower than it is today. However, vari-
ous lines of evidence suggest the surface temperature at the earth’s formation
was higher than it is today. This apparent discrepancy is called the “faint young
sun paradox”. The most likely solution is that a significantly high concentration
of greenhouse gas caused the high temperature on the earth’s surface. For exam-
ple, if PCO2 at that time was very high (around 100 atm), the temperature should
have been high enough to melt the ice sheets.
2. Studies on the oxygen isotopic compositions of chert and carbonates of Archean
age indicate that the temperature of the Archean ocean was high, probably caused
by the greenhouse effect of atmospheric CO2.
However, recent investigations of the chemical properties of the proto-atmo-
sphere suggest that the main greenhouse gas was methane rather than CO2 (Shikazono
1997). Shikazono (1997) indicated the rapid removal of atmospheric CO2 due to the
atmosphere–ocean–oceanic crust interaction soon after the formation of the oceans
was caused by the following reactions:

Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - ® CaCO3 + CO2

CO2 + H 2 O ® HCO3 - + H +

Ca2+ in the above reaction is derived from the oceanic crust via a seawater–oceanic
crust interaction. Because of this reaction, the atmospheric CO2 concentration
decreased to a level similar to the present-day level over a short period. Such a low
CO2 cannot explain the “faint young sun paradox”. A different possible greenhouse
gas to consider instead of CO2 is methane. Methane could be generated by metha-
nogenic bacteria or methanogenic reactions like

CO2 + 4H 2 ® CH 4 + 2H 2 O

and also by inorganic reactions like

FeO + CO2 + 3 / 4H 2 ® 1 / 2Fe 2 O3 + CH 4 + 3 / 2H 2 O

Recent geophysical and geochemical studies on earth-type planets in the solar
system and on the earth’s moon indicate the presence of a magma ocean on the
protoearth.
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 133

Table 6.2  Comparison of calculated fugacity ratios in gases at fO = 10 -12 and 10 -8 with observed
2
fugacity ratios in same present-day volcanic gases (Holland 1984)
fO = 10 -12.0 ; fH O = 5atm fO = 10 -8.0 ; fH O = 5atm Volcanic gases
2 2 2 2
Fugacity from Surtsey,
ratio T = 1,400 K T = 1,500 K T = 1,400 K T = 1,500 K Hawaii, and Erta’Ale
fH / fH O
2 2
10−0.3 10+0.3 10−2.3 10−1.7 10−2.1–10−1.3
fCO / fCO 1.0 10+0.7
10 −2.0
10 −1.3
10−1.5–10−1.3
2

fCH / fCO
4
10−3.5
2
10−2.5 10−11.5 10−10.5 No CH4 observed
fH S / fSO
2 2
10+3.4 10+4.7 10−2.6 10−1.3 No H2S observed
fNH / fN1/2
3 2
10−3.6 10−2.8 10−6.6 10−5.8

Chemical equilibrium between the magma and gas was attained in a short period
after the formation of the earth. If metallic iron (Fe) and iron oxide (FeO) were in
equilibrium with respect to the reaction
3Fe + 3 / 2O2 = 3FeO

we can estimate the oxygen fugacity (fO2), given temperature and total pressure.
Considering equilibrium for the reaction between olivine, quartz, magnetite, and
gaseous species, fO2 can be estimated from the equilibrium equation for the
reaction.
3 / 2Fe 2 SiO 4 + 1 / 4O2 = Fe 3 O 4 + 3 / 2SiO 2

We can estimate fSO2 / fH2 O ,fCO2 / fCO , and fCH4 / fCO2 from the equilibria between
minerals (iron oxides, silicates, and sulfides) and gaseous species. The equilibrium
calculations indicate that O2f and which gaseous species dominate depend largely on
the mineral species present. For example, the dominant species of sulfur gas (H2S or
SO2) is different for different minerals such as metallic iron, magnetite, and olivine.
We assume that the composition of gas in equilibrium with olivine and magnetite is
the same as the proto-atmospheric gas composition. In this case, in general, PSO2
exceeds PH2 S (Table  6.2). If the temperature of such a gas decreases, SO2 may
change to H2S in the reaction below.
SO2 + H 2 ® H 2 S + O2

How much of the SO2 changes to H2S depends on the degree of the reaction
between iron minerals and gaseous species (SO2, O2, and H2), the supply rate of H2
from the earth’s interior and the release rate of H2 from the atmosphere. In general,
fSO2 is higher than fH2 S in volcanic gas in equilibrium with basaltic magma today
(Table 6.2). However, this depends on the kind of basaltic magma. The fO2 of gas in
equilibrium with metallic iron is low, and fSO2 is less than fH2 S . It is likely that the
volcanic gas was in equilibrium with metallic iron, which settled to the bottom of
the magma ocean during that time.
It is thought that the earth’s temperature decreased over time due to a decrease in
heat generated by the collision of planetesimals with the protoearth, a decrease in the
134 6  Evolution of the Earth System

heat supply from the interior, and decrease in the concentration of the greenhouse
gases CO2 and CH4 in the atmosphere.
When the surface temperature had decreased considerably, gases condensed and
the oceans was formed. It seems likely that reduced sulfur species, H2S, and CO2
and CH4 were dominant among the dissolved sulfur and carbon species.
The atmospheric composition at that time can be estimated based on the equilib-
rium calculations and the excess volatiles composition published by Rubey (1951).
The pH of the condensed excess volatiles is 0.3, implying strongly acidic condi-
tions. Such strong acid solutions interacted with basalt, and rapid neutralization
occurred by the reaction.
silicate + H + ® cation + clay mineral

This reaction is very rapid. Thus, it is likely that the pH of the primordial ocean
was nearly neutral, and the alkaline and alkaline earth element concentrations were
not much different from those of the present day (Shikazono 1997).
When was the primordial ocean formed? The age of the metamorphic rocks in
Isua, Greenland is 3.8 Ga. This metamorphic rock is one of the oldest rocks on the
earth. The rocks from which the metamorphic rocks in Isua were formed were
marine sedimentary rocks. Therefore, we are able to estimate the geochemical prop-
erties of the oceans and atmosphere after 3.8 Ga, based on the features of sedimen-
tary rocks. In contrast, we have not found rocks from before this age, and so we
cannot estimate the properties of the atmosphere and oceans earlier than that.
Recently, zircon dated at 4.2–3.9  Ga was discovered in metamorphic rocks in
Australia and Canada. However, it is impossible to estimate the environmental
­conditions at that time from only the zircon data.
The water–rock interaction thought to control ocean chemistry is related to
­magmatic intrusion at midoceanic ridges and ocean floor spreading. Riverine input
to oceans is controlled by the continental area and distribution of continents, which
are also related to tectonics. It is generally thought that there were no large conti-
nents when the primordial ocean was in existence. Therefore, it is likely that the
oceanic basalt–seawater interaction was more important for controlling ocean
chemistry than was riverine input.
The ocean at that time was warm, indicated by oxygen isotopic studies on chert.
It is also thought that the temperature of the earth’s interior was higher than it is
today. One item of evidence supporting the warm earth is the presence of komachi-
ite (basaltic rocks distinguished by the presence of higher magnesian ultramafic
lavas) of that age, which suggests a higher geothermal gradient than today.
The tectonics at that time were considerably different from today. The geother-
mal gradient was higher, caused by the higher heat supply from the earth’s interior.
The lithosphere was thinner and the oceanic crust was thicker (about 25 km) than
today. In such conditions, there were more frequent collisions of continents but
subduction did not occur.
External systems also exerted considerable influence on the earth system. There
was an impact crater stage at 4–3 Ga experienced by the earth’s moon. Thus, it is
thought that the earth also experienced an impact crater stage as the same time.
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 135

Fig. 6.4  Variations in a

geochemical features of 0.3
Sedimentary rocks
sedimentary rocks with time
(Veizer 1976). (a) K2O/Na2O
0.2

K2O/Na2O
of basement and sedimentary
rocks. (b) 87Sr/86Sr.
(c) Europium anomaly 0.1

Basement rocks

b 0.71

87Sr/86Sr
Mantle

0.70

c 2.0

Eu/Eu*
1.0
0.5
4 3 2 1 0
Ga

If planetesimals and meteorites impacted the earth frequently, large continents

might have broken up into microcontinents. The continents were also separated by
mantle plume intrusions.
The next question is what was the earth’s interior like? It is known that paleo-
magnetism was very high at 3.5  Ga. Also, metamorphic rocks transformed from
marine sediments from 3.8 Ga have been discovered in Greenland. These lines of
evidence indicate that mantle was separate from the core and that the layered struc-
ture of the earth (core, mantle, crust, oceans, and atmosphere) had been established
earlier than that.

6.2.2 From 3.0 to 2.0 Billion Years Ago

Various geochemical features of earth’s surface environment that existed during this
period have changed. For example, chemical compositions such as the K2O/Na2O
ratio and the Eu anomaly, and isotopic compositions such as the 87Sr/88Sr ratio and
the d34S of sedimentary and igneous rocks has changed greatly (Fig. 6.4). The K2O/
Na2O ratio and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio both increased. The data suggest rapid growth of
continents and the separation of the continental crust from the mantle. Continental
crust is granitic in composition, containing large amounts of alkaline elements such
136 6  Evolution of the Earth System

as Rb and K. Rb enrichment in continental crust caused the increase in 87Sr and the
87
Sr/86Sr ratio by the decay of 87Rb to 87Sr. A negative Eu anomaly is found in sedi-
mentary rocks (chert) and igneous rocks of this period. We think the Eu negative
anomaly comes from enrichment of Eu in feldspar. Eu2+ can be substituted for Ca2+
in feldspar because of their similar ionic radii and charges. Magma from which
feldspar fractionated has a negative Eu anomaly, while igneous rocks enriched in
feldspar have positive Eu anomalies.
There are wide variations of d34S of sulfides like pyrite (FeS2) in sedimentary
rocks. This variation was caused by sulfate reducing bacteria. The sulfur and carbon
contents of shale at the end of this period are positively correlated. This is due to the
following reaction, which was induced by sulfate-reducing bacteria.

SO 4 2 - + 2H + + CH 4 ® CO2 + H 2 S + 2H 2 O

The other factors controlling the sulfur isotopic composition of seawater are the
supply of sulfate ion from continents to the oceans and seawater cycling at midoce-
anic ridges. The d34S of sulfate ions produced by the oxidation of sulfide in conti-
nental rocks is similar to that of sulfide and is relatively low. Inputs of riverwater
with low d34S decrease the d34S of seawater. However, reduction of sulfate ions to
hydrogen sulfide by bacteria in sea bottom sediments causes sulfate ions to have
high d34S values due to the removal of H2S with low d34S.
The distinct geochemical characteristic of this period is the occurrence of banded
iron formations (BIF). Iron minerals in BIF are considered to have formed by the
oxidation of Fe2+ as shown by the following equation.

Fe 2 + + H + + 1 / 4O2 ® Fe 3+ + 1 / 2H 2 O

Fe3+ precipitates as Fe (OH)3 or FeO(OH)2. For the above reaction to proceed,
sufficient O2 should be present in the seawater. The most likely mechanism of
increasing O2 is photosynthesis by microorganisms. O2 liberated by photosynthesis
was consumed by the oxidation of Fe2+ in the early stages. After the formation of
BIFs, the O2 concentration of the atmosphere and oceans increased gradually. O2
migrates in upward in the atmosphere. Ozone was formed by

O 2 + O ® O3

Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, leading to favorable conditions for the evo-
lution of life.
Sources of Fe2+ in the oceans have been discussed. One of the likely sources
delivering Fe2+ to the oceans is the interstitial water in seawater sediments contain-
ing high concentrations of Fe2+ (Holland 1973). There is a debate whether the mech-
anism whereby Fe2+ is oxidized is abiotic or biotic.
K-rich granitic rocks and polymetallic sulfide–sulfate ore deposits appeared
between 3.0 and 2.5  Ga. In contrast, Archean granitic rocks are Na-rich. These
changes relate to the beginning of plate subduction and associated igneous activity,
the formation of island arcs and the growth of continents. Several continental growth
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 137

Fig. 6.5  Crustal growth 100

curves based on transport-
90
balance modeling (Nagler
and Kramers 1998), U–Pb 80 Nagler and
zircon ages from juvenile Kramers (1998)
crust (Condie 2000) and 70

% of crust formed
Nb/U ratios for the depleted 60
mantle (Collerson Collerson and
and Kamber 1999; 50 Kamber (1999)
Rollinson 2007)
40
Condie (2000)
30
20
B
10 A
0
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0
Time (Ga)

rate models have been proposed (Fig.  6.5). We now think rapid growth of the
­continents from 3.0 to 2.5 Ga. seems plausible. The Nd/Sm isotopic ratio suggests
step-wise continental growth rather than continuous, gradual growth. According to
these processes, continental crust, oceanic crust, and mantle separated distinctly.
With the growing of continents, riverine input to the oceans increased. The con-
tinental rocks were weathered by surface water, and alkaline and alkaline elements
were released from the rocks by the reaction
silicate + H+ → cation + clay mineral
The weathering rate is influenced by the CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere
and the surface water. High temperatures lead to higher weathering rates. We have
concluded that riverwater supplied large amounts of Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg, and HCO3− to
the oceans, and HCO3−, Ca, and Mg became fixed as carbonates there.
Marine biota plays an important role in the formation of carbonates as limestone
in the oceans today. Thus, it is thought that older carbonates were also formed by
marine biota with carbonate shells.
The last important environmental change is the increase in atmospheric O2 caused
by photosynthetic activity of organisms. Paleosols, redbeds, and mass-­independent
sulfur isotopic data indicate that atmospheric O2 rose to appreciable levels about 2.3
billion years ago. The appearance of glaciers at 2.8 Ga also characterizes the surface
environment of this period. This may relate to the decrease in atmospheric CO2
concentration. It is also possible that the changes in continental area and distribution
influenced climate change, leading to glaciation. In addition, planetesimals and
meteorite impacts and igneous activities influenced the climate. The earth’s interior
changed considerably in this period. The growth of the inner core intensified the
earth’s magnetic field.
138 6  Evolution of the Earth System

te
Bischofi vite
Syl
SO4 Sylvite
Mg

Halite Halite Halite

Gypsum
Gypsum
Gypsum
Lst, and Dolomite

Fig. 6.6  Comparative precipitation profiles from I, the experimental evaporation of seawater, II,
Zechstein evaporites; and III, the average of numerous other marine salt deposits (Borchert and
Muir 1964; Holland 1984)

6.2.3 2.0 Billion Years Ago to Present

Numerous geological and geochemical data on this period, particularly the

Phanerozoic age, are available.
The removal of O2 by the formation of BIFs decreased after about 2.0 Ga, and the
atmospheric O2 concentration gradually increased from that time. This increase is
estimated from the occurrence of red beds, sedimentary rocks with high Fe3+/Fe2+,
around 1.6 Ga. Atmospheric CO2 and the concentration of CO2 in seawater decreased
because of silicate weathering on the continents and carbonate precipitation in sea-
water. Most carbonate rocks which were formed related to biological activity in
seawater appeared after about 1.9 Ga.
The concentrations of alkali ions, alkaline earth ions, SO42−, Cl−, and base metal
elements in seawater have not varied significantly since that time. This idea is sup-
ported by evidence that the stratigraphic sequence of minerals in evaporites of this
period is nearly the same then as now (Fig.  6.6). The ratio of Ca–Mg carbonate
(dolomite) to Ca carbonate (calcite, aragonite) varies with age. This ratio is related
to the ocean floor spreading rate. Increases in ocean floor spreading rate lead to
increases in the seawater-hydrothermal solution cycling rate, causing the removal of
Mg from cycling seawater, In contrast to the major element concentrations, ­isotopic
compositions including the 87Sr/86Sr ratio, d34S, d13C, and d18O and global cycles of
relative changes of sea level during Phanerozoic time have varied ­significantly
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 139

Fig. 6.7  First and second order global cycles of relative changes of sea level during Phanerozoic
time (Vail et al. 1977; Holland 1984)

(Figs. 6.7 and 6.8). It is notable that the isotopic compositions covaried with each
other. The low 87Sr/86Sr of seawater of this period is thought to be due to a high
ocean floor spreading rate. When the spreading rate increased, the seawater–­
midoceanic ridge basalt interaction proceeded, resulting in decreased 87Sr/86Sr ratios
in seawater. In general, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of oceanic basalt is lower than that of sea-
water. This is due to the input of Sr derived from older continental by riverwater into
the oceans. The d34S of hydrothermal seawater solutions originating at midoceanic
ridges is low due to the contribution of sulfide sulfur in basalt. Therefore, hydrother-
mal solution inputs cause decreased d34S in seawater. If the above argument is
­correct, d34S and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater covary.
It is known that sea levels declined in this period, leading to enlargement of conti-
nental areas. In this situation, sulfate ions derived from continental sulfur with low
d34S are transported by riverwater to the oceans, leading to decreased seawater d34S.
However, sulfate reduction by bacteria in seawater leads to increased seawater d34S. If
this process was intense, it becomes difficult to explain the covariation of the 87Sr/86Sr
ratio and the d34S of seawater based on different supply rates from the continents.
Berner and Canfield (1989) obtained atmospheric O2 levels from 5.7 hundred
million years ago to the present using a mathematical calculation model. According
to this calculation, atmospheric O2 levels in the Carboniferous-Permian era (2.5–3.0
hundred million years ago) were high. The age of this oxygen catastrophe corre-
sponds to high d13C and low d34S in seawater. Berner and Canfield (1989) thought
that the sedimentation rate, or organic carbon and sulfide sulfur burial rate, is a more
important factor in controlling the atmospheric O2 level than weathering and basalt–
seawater interaction. However, Holland (1984) explained high the d13C at that time
by the influence of volcanic gas. In fact, in this age, huge basaltic eruptions caused
by hot spots related to mantle plume activity occurred.
 1ST-ORDER CYCLES 2ND-ORDER CYCLES (SUPERCYCLES)
140

RELATIVE CHANGES OF SEA LEVEL RELATIVE CHANGES OF SEA LEVEL NOTA-

RISING FALLING PERIODS EPOCHS RISING FALLING TIONS
1.0 .5 0 1.0 .5 0
0 PLIO-PLEIST 0 Td 0
MIOCENE
Tc
TERTIARY OLIGOCENE
EOCENE Tb
PALEOCENE Ta

L Kb
100 PRESENT CRETACEOUS 100
1 E Ka
SEA LEVEL
L
JURASSIC M J
E
200 L 200
TR
TRIASSIC M PRESENT
E ?
SEA LEVEL
L P
PERMIAN
E
L
300 M FP 300
PENNSYLVANIAN
E
L
MISSISSIPPIAN E
L
M D-M
DEVONIAN
E
400 L
400
GEOLOGIC TIME IN MILLIONS OF YEARS

2
SILURIAN M
E
L O-S

GEOLOGIC TIME IN MILLIONS OF YEARS

ORDOVICIAN M
E
500 L
500
M
CAMBRIAN
C-O
E

PRECAMBRIAN

Fig. 6.8  Variation of the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater during the Phanerozoic Eon (Burke et al. 1982; Holland 1984)
6  Evolution of the Earth System
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 141

Fig. 6.9  Plots of worldwide 25

mean annual atmospheric
surface temperature versus Paleobotanical
time, based on BLAG model,
compared with temperatures
estimated from
paleobotanical study and d18O
of planktonic carbonate
20
(35°N) (Berner et al. 1983)

Temperature (°C)

15
Planktonic carbonate (35°N)

Corrected Southam and Hay

fSR model
Linear decrease fSR model

10
100 80 60 40 20 0
Time (million years, BP)

Berner and Canfield’s model cannot explain the variation of the 87Sr/86Sr ratio.
Therefore, it seems more likely that volcanic gas input and seawater cycling control
the 87Sr/86Sr ratio and other isotopic compositions of oceans. The BLAG model
(Berner et al. 1983) clearly indicated the relationship between plate tectonics and
atmospheric CO2 variation with time (Chap. 3). This model quantitatively inter-
preted the influence of continental area and the ocean floor spreading rate on atmo-
spheric CO2 and showed that the calculated temporal CO2 variation is similar to
results from paleobotany and oxygen isotopic compositions of planktonic shell
­carbonate (Fig. 6.9). This clearly indicates that tectonics, including the ocean floor
spreading rate and continental area, which is also controlled by plate tectonics, is a
very important factor controlling atmospheric CO2 concentration and climate
change. The BLAG model (Berner et al. 1983) estimated high atmospheric concen-
trations in the Cretaceous (65 million–100 million years ago) several times higher
than the present level. This model simulates the global carbon cycle based on the
reactions between carbonates, silicates, and CO2 (e.g. CaSiO3 + CO2 = SiO2 + CaCO3).
This implies that the CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and oceans are governed
by these reactions. After the BLAG model was proposed, Berner (1994) proposed
more convenient simplified models like the GEOCARB model and estimated
Phanerozoic PCO2 and PO2 .
142 6  Evolution of the Earth System

6.2.4 Origin of Life

There is evidence that the first life appeared at least by 3.8 Ga. Recently, fine grains
of organic carbon were discovered in apatite (Ca5(PO4)3 (OH,F)) in the sedimentary
rocks from Isua, Greenland, and Akilia Island, (Canada), both from 3.85 Ga is very
low (−50‰ to −20‰) (Mojzsis et al. 1996; Holland 1997). This suggests the pres-
ence of life before 3.85 Ga.
Stromalites and microorganism fossils were found in Warrawoona group rocks
(3.45 Ga) in western Australia. There has been a debate whether these stromalites
are remnants of organism. It was thought that the microfossil filaments were evi-
dence of the existence of life at that time (Schopf 1994). However, it is also very
possible that the bacteria-like structures are abiotic in origin.
The d13C of organic carbon and carbonate carbon from sedimentary rocks from
Isua, Greenland (3.8 Ga) are low (−25‰) and high (0‰ to −3‰), respectively. This
wide carbon isotopic fractionation suggests the activity of microorganism. However,
fractionation by metamorphism is also possible, and thus it is not certain evidence
for the presence of life at that time.
Various hypotheses on the location where life first began have been proposed.
Among them, the widely accepted one is that life originated in the oceanic environ-
ment, particularly near hydrothermal solution vents at midoceanic ridges.
Hydrothermal solutions issuing from midoceanic ridges contain CO2 and CH4 and
have reducing characteristics. In such an environment, energy supplied from the
earth’s interior would be large enough to drive the inorganic reactions that promote
chemical evolution and could lead to the generation of life.
Experiments have shown that cell-like microglobules and peptides were synthe-
sized from hydrothermal solutions under high temperature and pressure (Yanagawa
1989). The other evidence supporting the “hydrothermal solution hypothesis” is the
discovery of polyphosphoric acid from volcanic gas today. This polyphosphoric
acid would have been an essential substance for synthesizing DNA (deoxyribonu-
cleic acid) for the organisms before 4  Ga in the pre-biotic evolutionary stage.
Hydrothermal solution issuing from midoceanic ridges contains considerable
amounts of base metal elements (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, etc.). These elements in the solu-
tion and sulfides play roles as catalysts, promoting organic reactions. The “pyrite
hypothesis” was proposed based on the idea that CO2 is reduced to form various
types of organic matter on the surface of pyrite crystals (Wachtershauer 1988). It
was experimentally determined that the reaction of iron sulfide (FeS) changing to
pyrite (FeS2) generates H2 by

FeS + H 2 S ® FeS2 + H 2

Thus, it may be possible that such H2 reduces CO2 to organic matter.
The universal tree of life derived by sequencing ribosomal RNA (Fig.  6.10)
(Kump et al. 1999) shows that organisms can be divided into Bacteria, Archaea, and
Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are composed entirely of single-celled organisms,
while Eukarya includes higher plants and animals including humans. It is interesting
to note that the point at which Archaea and Eukarya split from the Bacteria is
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 143

BACTERIA
ARCHAEA
Haloferax E.coli Riftia sym.
Chromatium mitochondria
Methanospirillum
Methanosarcina Agrobacteriu m
Sulfolobus Chlorobium
Methanobacterium Cytophaga
Pyrodictiu m
Thermoproteus Methanococcus Epulopiscium
Thermofilu m Bacillus
Marine Thermococcus chloroplast
group I
Methanopyrus Synechococcus
Thermu s
Thermomicrobium
Thermotoga
Aquife x
EM17

10% change

EUCARYA

macroscopic
multicellular
Tritrichomonas Ze a organisms

Homo
Coprinus
Giardia Paramecium
Hexamita
Porphyr a

Vairimorpha Dictyostelium

Physarum
Naegleria
Entamoeba
Encephalitozoon Englena
Trypanosoma

Fig. 6.10  The Universal Tree of Life devived by ribosomal RNA (Kump et al. 1999)

thought to lie close to the common ancestor of all life. In Fig.  6.10, the shaded
branches near this point represent hyperthermophilic bacteria that live at tempera-
tures above 80°C and are found at seafloor vent systems and terrestrial geothermal
systems such as Yellowstone, USA. This may suggest that life originated at seafloor
vent systems. It may be also likely that life originated in some cool surface environ-
ment and then proceeded to colonize most of the earth. Or, it is possible that a giant
impactor hit the earth and destroyed all of the surface-dwelling organisms, but
organisms from the vent systems could have begun the process of recolonizing
(Kump et al. 1999).
144 6  Evolution of the Earth System

It is generally thought that the seawater–oceanic crust interaction was more

intense at that time than it is at present. Low temperature seawater–oceanic crust
interaction occurs on the flanks of midoceanic ridges now. Due to this low tempera-
ture interaction, H2 is generated, associated with pyrite formation and alteration of
other minerals. An example of this kind of reaction is
2“FeO” + H 2 O ® “Fe 2 O3” + H 2

Catalystic reactions can occur, resulting in the synthesis of organic matter on the
surface of clay minerals.
Shock (1990) carried out calculations on the formation of organic matter by the
interaction between basalt and hydrothermal solutions of seawater origin containing
CO2 and N2 gas under hydrothermal conditions. He found that CO2 and N2 change
to various metastable organic matters and methane and ammonia at low tempera-
tures. The similarity of the kinds of organic matter in the rocks of the Greenstone
belt in Barberton, South Africa to organic matter of modern organisms suggests the
presence of organisms around vents emitting hydrothermal solutions about 3.2 Ga
(De Ronde and Ebbesen 1996). Microfossils from 3.5 Ga found in Australia were
thought to be cyanobacteria, but it seems more likely that these are the fossils of a
species of chemical synthetic bacteria, hyperthermophilic bacteria that live at tem-
peratures higher than 80°C (Isozaki and Yamagishi 1998)
As mentioned above, several lines of evidence, including synthetic experiments
on organic matter, the discovery of hydrothermal solutions on the seafloor, simula-
tions, and molecular biology, indicate that the first life appeared near hydrothermal
vents at midoceanic ridge and flank.
It may also be possible that life originated in environments other than hydrother-
mal vents and low temperature seepage from the seafloor. Tidelands may also be
suitable for the origin of life. The moon and earth were closer together at that time
than today. Thus, it is likely that the movement of waves was more intense than today,
supplying more energy for promoting the synthetic reaction of organic matter.
Recent analyses of organic matter in meteorites indicate the presence of various
kinds of organic matter including amino acids and DNA. Organics such as ­aldehydes
were detected from analyses of infrared waves and microwaves from dark nebula.
Organic matter consisting of PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) with
C:O = 1:1 was found in Halley’s Comet and its dust. Therefore, it is possible that
extraterrestrial organic matter that originated in comets, particularly from the impact
bombardment stage, could be the source of organic matter in life.

6.2.5 Extraterrestrial Life

In November 2000, a specific bacteria different from any of earth’s bacteria was
found in the atmosphere at an altitude of 16,000 m. Some scientists think this bacteria
came from a comet. Thus it may be possible that life was extraterrestrial in origin.
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 145

The discovery of small carbonate grains similar in form to bacteria in a Martian

meteorite underscored the possibility that extraterrestrial life may exist. However,
recently inorganic origin of the carbonate is more accepted. MgSO4, Na2SO4, and
H2SO4 hydrate have been reported to exist on Ganymede. McCord et  al. (1998)
inferred that they formed through the interaction of sulfur and water and the evapo-
ration of seawater rich in salts at the surface. It is thought that seawater exists below
the ice crust. Seawater is not present on Titan, but N2 is a major atmospheric gas.
This is similar to the earth’s atmosphere. It is said that methane exists in the atmo-
sphere, there is an ethane ocean, and various kinds of organic matter may form on
Titan’s surface due to chemical reactions caused by meteorite impact, cosmic ray
irradiation and thunder. It may be likely that life is present in Titan’s seawater
below the 1 km thick surface ice (Naganuma 2004). Traces of hydrothermal activity
have been found on the Martian surface. There are many volcanoes that were active
in recent times and calderas associated with them. Water ice is known to exist
underground. Therefore, if magma intrudes into the ice, the ice melts, generating a
hydrothermal solution. It may be possible that life originated under such condition.
The d34S of sulfide in Martian meteorites (ACH84001, Nakhla) falls in a wide range
from −6.1‰ to +8.0‰. Hydrothermal activity is thought to be the cause of this
variation (Greenwood et al. 2000). Various lines of evidence show the existence of
liquid water in the form of seawater, riverwater, and lakewater on the past Martian
surface. The evidence includes features of the relief on the Martian surface, sedi-
ments formed in aquatic environments, the occurrence of hematite and jarosite, and
the high water content of pyroxene in Martian rocks (Head et al. 1999). It is certain
that magmatic activity has occurred. Therefore, if an ancient ocean existed, it may
be likely that seawater cycling occurred and hydrothermal solutions issued from the
seafloor. Life may have originated in such an environment, similar to the possibility
on earth.

6.2.6 The Biosphere Deep Underground

Deep sea life living near hydrothermal vents takes chemical energy from hydro-
thermal solutions. This is different from photosynthetic biota. These biota (therno-
phite) are found near hydrothermal vents and seepage sites in subduction zones.
Recently, similar life was found underground and the term “underground ­biosphere”
was coined. This finding may suggest the existence of biota underground in France
(L’Haridon et al. 1995). In 1996, a microorganism was found from an oil reservoir
4.2 km deep with a temperature of 110°C in Alaska (Stetter et al. 1993). The deep-
est that microorganisms have been found is 5.2 km where granitic rocks (Sweden)
exist (Szevtzyk et al. 1994). There are reports of sulfate reducing bacteria in marine
sediments 80  m below the sea floor under 900  m of water in the Sea of Japan.
These are Desulvovibrio that can survive up to 65°C and 275  atm of pressure
(Naganuma 2004).
146 6  Evolution of the Earth System

6.2.7 The Evolution of Life

Carbon isotopic data on organic matter in sedimentary rocks from the Isua district,
Greenland, are low, suggesting their organic carbon is of biogenic origin. Iron
deposits and sulfide deposits are distributed in the metamorphic rocks of sedimen-
tary origin from that area. Thus, it seems possible that life originated in the hydro-
thermal system associated with these ore deposits.
The oldest reported fossil is the 3.1-billion-year-old Figtree chert from South
Africa. However, this was claimed to be a fossil extant at that time. It is bacteria-like
in form and is named eobacterium. Stromalites have been discovered in rocks from
Rhodesia, South Africa dated to 3.0  Ga. In these ages, O2 was consumed by the
oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+, and thus no free O2 was present in the oceans or atmo-
sphere. After 2.3 Ga, atmospheric O2 increased due to the increase in cyanobacteria,
decreased oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+, and a change in the proportion of reducing vol-
canic gases produced or to the way in which O2 was utilized in oxidizing crystal
rocks (Catling and Claire 2005; Rollinson 2007).
At the end of the Precambrian, the protozoa-like radiolaria and foraminifer
appeared in the oceans. They were preserved as fossils that are different from previ-
ous biota. We can decipher the evolution of biota from these ages more clearly than
from earlier ones.
We think that earth’s entire surface environment then cooled and was covered by
ice (the “snow ball earth”). The snow ball earth hypothesis was proposed based on
evidence that: (1) BIFs are associated with glacier sediments, and (2) the d13C of
carbonate rocks is −5‰, similar to mantle values, and does not show biological
activity. The main cause for the cooling is uncertain, but it is thought to be a decrease
in the rate of degassing of CO2 from the earth’s interior. By this cooling, the entire
ocean was covered by ice, leading to the extinction of photosynthetic bacteria and
other organisms since no sunlight passed through the surface. However, mass
extinction did not occur. This may be due to global warming after this event. This
warming could have been caused by increased degassing and methane generated by
the melting of gas hydrates.
In the Paleozoic age (5.64–3.22 billion years ago), the diversity of species
increased considerably. Various animals developed from the end of Proteozoic to
the Cambrian, related to the ending of the glacial period at the late Proterozoic.
Large amounts of nutrients dissolved into the seawater as the ice melted.
Photosynthetic biota used nutrients in the seawater, and large amounts of O2 were
generated, leading to a rapid evolution of biota in the Cambrian. For example,
Trilobites, a Paleozoic index fossil, appeared in the Cambrian and lived until the
end of the Paleozoic. In the Silurian, plants appeared. In the Carboniferous-Permian,
reptiles appeared and then developed in the Mesozoic. In the Mesozoic, ammonites
lived in the oceans. Mammalians appeared in the Cenozoic and developed and
evolved into the higher animals.
The evolution of life described above is shown in Fig. 6.11. As shown in this
figure, the diversity of biota has increased over a very long time, and sometimes
decreased by mass extinctions.
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 147

Fig. 6.11  Evolution of life (Shikazono 1995)

6.2.8 Mass Extinction

A thin clay layer enriched in iridium (Ir) and osmium (Os) was discovered at the
Cretaceous/Tertiary (C/T or K/T) boundary (65 Ma) in sediments at Gubbio, Italy
(Alvarez et al. 1980). This enrichment was later found in various localities in Italy,
Denmark, New Zealand, and in New Mexico, USA. Ir and Os are very rare on the
earth’s surface. In contrast, meteorites contain high amounts of these elements. This
anomalous enrichment at the K/T boundary was interpreted as being caused by the
impact of a meteorite with a diameter of about 10  km moving 10  km/s. A giant
explosion occurred with this impact, accompanied by the dispersion of fine solid
particles and gases into the atmosphere, and a drop in temperature. After that, how-
ever, the temperature increased due to the greenhouse effect of water vapor. In the
atmosphere, NOx compounds formed and dissolved into rain, resulting in acid rain.
Such rapid climate change and acid rain caused mass extinctions. For example, the
Age of Dinosaurs ended. Benthic reef communities were also extinguished. Other
lines of evidence supporting the “meteorite impact hypothesis” include (1) shocked
quartz grains occur characteristically in the K/T boundary layer. This texture is
thought to have formed in a sudden high pressure event, (2) other siderophile ele-
ments that are rich in meteorites are found in the boundary layer, (3) the Os isotopic
composition of the layer is similar to meteoritic values, (4) high 87Sr/86Sr values in
sediments at this boundary are explained by contamination of terrestrial materials
by the bolide impacting the earth, and (5) recently, one of the largest known craters
(the Chicxulub crater), with a diameter of at least 200 km which formed at the age
of boundary, was discovered in the area of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. However,
148 6  Evolution of the Earth System

50

30
% extinction

20

10

0 L C S A C N N X P T U C O Y H H C OX C UX U XX O M XM O

P R J K T

250 200 150 100 50 0

Geologic Time (million years)

Fig. 6.12  The fossil record of extinction rate, shown as the percentage of existing genera that went
extinct in a particular interval of geologic time. The vertical line indicates the 26 year periodicity
of extinction (Sepkoski 1994)

another hypothesis that can explain the Ir enrichment has been proposed. Huge
basaltic eruptions occurred on the Deccan Plateau of India at the time of the K/T
boundary. This was one of earth’s largest episodes of volcanic activity. Ir is detected
in present-day volcanic gas such as on Kilauea in Hawaii. Therefore, it may be pos-
sible that the Ir enrichment was caused by the involvement of volcanic gas from the
Deccan eruption. This hypothesis can also explain Os isotopic composition and
minor elements contents.
Several other mass extinction events have occurred throughout the earth’s history
(Fig.  6.12). The largest one was at the Permian/Triassic (P/T) boundary. Almost
50% of marine organisms (ammonites, nautilus, etc.) went extinct during that event.
The cause for this mass extinction is uncertain, although considerable research has
been carried out. The possible causes are a decline of the sea level and decrease in
the salinity of seawater by formation of evaporites and climate change. These are
related to the formation of the Pangaea supercontinent as the continents collided.
The formation of the supercontinent may have influenced climate change. As
described before, at this boundary age, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio, d34S, and d13C of seawater
changed significantly. There is no clear direct evidence of meteorite impact at this
boundary. Rapid eruption of the Siberians and the huge Traps flood basalt occurred
at the P/T boundary (Renne and Basu 1991). It is possible that these eruptions
caused the mass extinction (Kamo et al. 2003).
Raup and Sepkoski (1982) showed that eight major mass extinctions have
occurred during the last 268 million years at intervals of about 26 million years
(Fig. 6.13). Several hypotheses have been put forth to explain this periodicity in the
fossil data of extinction rates. For example, scientists insisting on a bolide impact
 149

Fig. 6.13  Climate change interred from various climate proxies over the Cenozoic. (a) Oxygen
isotope records (Zachos et al. 2003). (b) Terrestrial temperature estimated from the leaf-margin
analysis (LMA) (solid line: Wolfe 1995) and the Coexistence Approach (CA) (shaded area:
Mosbrugger et al. 2005). (c) Atmospheric carbon dioxide estimated from phytoplankton (shaded
area with a frame: Pagani et al. 2005b), soil carbonate (broken bars: Ekart et al. 1999), Stomatal
index (solid bars: Retallack 2001; Royer et al. 2001), boron isotope (shaded area without a frame:
Demicco et al. 2003), and numerical modeling (solid curve: Kashiwagi et al. 2008). (d) Strontium
isotope records (Veizer et al. 1999)
150 6  Evolution of the Earth System

Fig. 6.14  PCO estimates 1.2

2

from Oligocene to late

Miocene (modified after

Atmospheric CO2 Level (PAL)

1
Pagani et al. 1999)
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
25 20 15 10 5
Time (my)

hypothesis think that the sun has a dark star moving around it with a periodicity
of  26 million years and that star draws the comets to positions where their orbits
impact the earth.

6.2.9 Climate Change in the Tertiary and Quaternary

It is generally thought that it was comparatively warm in the early Tertiary but that
the temperature has declined since the middle Miocene (Fig. 6.13). The causes for
the cooling are thought to be (1) atmospheric CO2 removal by the weathering of the
Himalayan and Tibetan regions associated with their uplift as the Australian plate
collides with the Indian continent and (2) decreasing atmospheric CO2 levels with
the decreasing intensity of volcanic and hydrothermal activity.
Kashiwagi and Shikazono (2003) modeled the Cenozoic global CO2 cycle includ-
ing CO2 flux due to hydrothermal and volcanic activity in the Miocene age at a
subduction zone (back arc basin and island arc) (Fig. 6.13). Their model results indi-
cate that (1) the contribution of silicate weathering in the HTP(Himalayan and
Tibetan Plateau) region is small; (2) the warming from late Oligocene to early
Miocene might be due to the CO2 from the back arc basin; (3) the cooling event in
the middle Miocene (15  Ma) is caused by a large amount of the organic carbon
burial; (4) their calculations agree with previous results based on d13C and dB of
foraminifer shell carbonates (Pagani et al. 1999; Pearson and Palmer 2000) (Figs. 6.14
and 6.15). This indicates that cooling occurred in the northern hemisphere, but the
entire earth’s surface temperature did not decline during the Miocene.
The Quaternary is characterized by repeated glacial–interglacial cycles causing
wide environmental changes. Climate change and sea level variation are estimated
from deep-sea sediment data. We can know the exact ages from microfossils like
foraminifera and radiolaria in sediments, paleomagnetic data, radiogenic ages and
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 151

a
Neogene Palaeogene
P. Pli Miocene Oligocene Eocene Pal.
late middle early late middle early
5.000
Atmosphere pCO2 (p.p.m.)

4.000

3.000

2.000

1.000
No data

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (Myr ago)

b P. Pliocene
late
Miocene
middle early
O.
500
Atmosphere pCO2 (p.p.m.)

400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age (Myr ago)

Fig. 6.15  Atmospheric CO2 data for the past 60 m.y. (a) The entire record and (b) an enlargement
of the past 25 m.y. (modified after Pearson and Palmer 2000)

sedimentation rates. The isotopic composition of oxygen in seawater can be esti-

mated from that of foraminiferal carbonate shells (Fig. 6.16). High d18O values in
seawater means the enlargement of continental ice areas that occurs in cold cli-
mates. The assemblage of radiolaria is useful in determining surface seawater tem-
peratures. Oxygen isotopic studies indicate that eight glacial–interglacial cycles
have occurred during the last 7 × 105 years (Fig.  6.16). From the changes in the
orbital parameters eccentricity, tilt and precession, we can calculate the sunlight
152 6  Evolution of the Earth System

δ18O (‰)

−1

0
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(105yrs B.P.)

Fig. 6.16  Variation of seawater d18O since 7 × 105 years ago (Sugimura et al. 1988). 1–20: Interglacial–
glacial stage number. Odd and even number is glacial and interglacial stage, respectively

radiation incident on the earth’s surface during the past. The calculated results agree
with the d18O of foraminiferal carbonates.
Variation of atmospheric CO2 concentration in the past can be estimated from ice
core data. Ice core analyses covering the last 15 thousand years detail climate
changes during that period. Other factors influencing interglacial cycles are ocean
circulation, the area covered by ice sheets and albedo. These factors are not inde-
pendent but are interrelated.
Shorter cyclical variations also occur in the earth’s surface environment. Sunspots
wax and wane in 11- and 22-year cycles. Their maximum number varies in a 50-year
cycle. Scientists discovered that the sun’s cycles are recorded in climate data like
regional floods and temperatures. The sun’s activity influences short-term climate
changes in the earth’s surface environment. As noted above, various short-term and
long-term, externally and internally controlled environmental changes occur in the
earth system.
External forces are related to the spatial relationship between the earth and sun,
sun activity, and the spatial relationship between the sun and the galaxy’s spiral
arms. External forces come from plate motion, mantle convection and mantle
plumes approaching the earth’s surface environment. For example, mantle plume
activity has been taking place in a 200-million-year cycle for large activity and a
30-million-year cycle for smaller plumes. These activities accelerate mantle con-
vection and ocean floor spreading and cause climate change and the extinction of
biota. The cause of this periodicity is uncertain. However, the interaction between
the core and lower mantle seems to be a likely cause. The hypothesis that meteorite
impacts cause mantle plume activity periodicity also seems likely. If this hypothesis
is correct, we cannot understand short- or long-term changes in the earth’s surface
environment without taking into account both external and internal influences.

6.2.10 Anthropogenic Influence on the Earth’s

Changing Environment

Anthropogenic influence on the earth’s environment before 8,000 years ago, when

agriculture began, was negligible. However, after the start of agriculture global
warming began. Previously it was thought that greenhouse gases emitted by human
6.2  Origin and Evolution of the Earth System 153

40
38 0
5
36
10
34 15

TEMPERATURE (°C)
20
32
25
30 1
30
35
28 40
45
26 3 50
2 55
24 60
65
70
22 75
3 80
20 90
4 2
18 100

16
14
12
10
8
0 1 2 3 4
TIME IN GA

Fig. 6.17  Compilation of d18O variation of cherts with time (Knauth and Lowe 1978; modified
after Holland 1984). Curve  connects the largest dvalues for cherts at any given time. This is the
current best estimate of the oxygen isotopic composition of cherts formed in marine or near-marine
environments. Curve  represents the initial estimate of this secular change by Perry (1967).
Curve  is the estimate by Perry et al. (1978). Curve  connects the lowest d values reported for
cherts at any given time

activity had influenced global warming only during the last 200 years (Sect. 6.2.9).
However, Ruddiman (2003) analyzed variations of CO2 concentration obtained
from ice cores from Vostok in the Antarctic, and recognized that the atmospheric
CO2 concentration during the last 8,000 years deviated from the natural background
trend. In the late stone age, 8,000  years ago, deforestation for the cultivation of
wheat, barley, and peas started in Europe. The atmospheric methane concentration
increased suddenly. This may be due to the beginning of rice cropping 5,000 years
ago in southern China.

6.2.11 Prediction of Earth’s Environment in the Future

Can we predict the earth’s environment in the future based on estimated variations
of its environment in the past and knowledge of the earth’s environment today? First
let us consider climate change. As shown in Fig. 6.17, the temperature of seawater
154 6  Evolution of the Earth System

is thought to have been decreasing during the last 3 billion years (Fig. 6.17). If this
curve is correct, the temperature decreased by about 60°C during this period, an
average drop of about 1°C/50 million years. The temperature change during the last
65 million years is well investigated. It shows a decreasing trend with an average
drop of 1°C/4 million years, very small compared with the recent anthropogenic
influence which is 3 ± 1.5°C in the last 100 years. Short-term (104–105 years) peri-
odicity like the Milankovitch cycle of glaciation has a temperature variation of
about 3–6°C/105 years. This variation is smaller than that during the last 100 years,
as affected by human activity. Therefore, in order to predict short-term climate
change in the future, it is essential to evaluate the anthropogenic influence on cli-
mate change. In general, anthropogenic fluxes of CO2 and other greenhouse gases
exceed natural fluxes. Thus, we need to take into account anthropogenic fluxes if we
intend to predict temporal variations in the earth’s surface environment in the near
future (100–1,000 years). For long-term predictions over 1,000 years, the influence
of natural fluxes may be more important.
Long-term (more than 104 years) climate and environmental changes are pre-
dicted by extrapolating past changes and using simulations. Graedel and Crutzen
(1993) divided the far future into the Neo-Cenozoic, Neo-Mesozoic, Neo-Paleozoic,
and Neo-Precambrian and predicted the climate in each age by extrapolation. For
example, they predicted the Neo-Cenozoic climate based on the Milankovitch
cycle. In their prediction, the temperature decreases for 6 × 104  years and then
increases. The climate in the Neo-Mesozoic to Neo-Paleozoic time period
(6.5 × 106–6 × 107  years from now) will be governed by continental drift and the
distribution of the continents. At 1.5 billion years, most of the continents are dis-
tributed near the equator, resulting in a smaller area covered by ice in polar regions
but an increase in the absorption of the sun’s radiant heat. Due to the decrease in
albedo, the average surface temperature increases. The sun luminosity increases to
1.3–1.6 times the present in the Neo-Precambrian. Due to this effect, the rate of
continental weathering increases and the atmospheric CO2 concentration decreases,
resulting in the extinction of plants. Even if atmospheric CO2 decreases, the sur-
face temperature may reach 100°C due to the sun’s increasing luminosity after 1.3
billion years. According to Caldeira and Kasting’s simulation (Caldeira and Kasting
1992), photosynthetic plants disappear after 10 billion years, organisms except
bacteria are extinct after 1.3 billion years and no organism can survive after 1.5–2.5
billion years.
Studies on the environmental changes coming in the future have just started. In
order to perform future predictions, it is essential to understand the various temporal
scales and periodicities of the earth’s environment and the mechanisms of those
periodicities. The earth’s surface reservoir is influenced not only by the other reser-
voirs on the surface, but also by invasion of matter and heat from earth’s interior and
from extraterrestrial bodies that sometime cause mass extinction. We have to recog-
nize that the earth’s surface system is open to its interior system and to the universal
system regarding energy and matter in order to understand these systems.
6.3  Chapter Summary 155

6.3 Chapter Summary

1. The earth formed 4.6–4.5 billion years ago by the accumulation of planetesimals.
2. The primary atmosphere formed by the evaporation of volatiles in planetesi-
mals and the involvement of primordial gas in the protosolar system. The
­primary atmosphere captured by protoearth was released during its T-Tauri
stage. After that, a secondary atmosphere formed through degassing from the
earth’s interior.
3. Degassing occurred very rapidly in the early stage of the formation of the earth
and did not occur continuously and gradually through Earth’s history.
4. There is considerable debate whether the early-middle (until about 2.2 billion
years ago) surface of the earth, in particular the atmosphere and oceans, was
reducing or oxidizing. However, it is certain from much geochemical data that
free oxygen was not present.
5. The planets in the solar system except the earth that were covered by CO2 or
liquid water are Mars and Venus. Comparisons of the earth with these planets
(comparative planetology) can provide constraints on the origin and evolution
of the earth.
6. The oldest rocks that are widely distributed on the earth is 3.8 Ga. Thus, we can
discuss the evolution of the atmosphere, oceans, crust, and mantle during the
last 3.8 Ga based on geological data such as ore deposits, sedimentary rocks,
igneous rocks, and metamorphic rocks and geochemical data like the chemical
compositions of major and minor elements, and isotopic compositions.
Comparative planetology and computer simulations can constrain the environ-
mental conditions before 3.8 Ga.
7. It is estimated that the earth’s environment, in particular the oceans, atmosphere,
and crust changed significantly during the period from 3.0 to 2.0 billion years
ago. These changes were caused both by internal influences including plate
tectonics, plume tectonics, and inner core-outer core interactions and an exter-
nal one, the termination of planetesimal impacts.
8. Variations in the chemical compositions and isotopic compositions (87Sr/86Sr,
d34S, d18O, d13C, etc.) of seawater were determined by the cycling of seawater
and hydrothermal solutions at midoceanic ridges, sedimentation and precipita-
tion to the seafloor, transport of sediments by riverwater and glaciers and bio-
logical activity.
9. It was warm during the Archean eon. From the late Cretaceous to the present,
the surface temperature has been decreasing as a general trend. Quaternary cli-
mate change is well investigated and a good correlation between atmospheric
CO2 concentration and surface temperature has been found. The Milankovitch
cycle characterizes Quaternary environmental changes.
10. Various changes in earth’s surface environment (atmospheric temperature, CO2,
isotopic composition, chemical composition, extinction of biota, igneous activ-
ity, distribution of continents, and tectonics) are interrelated. There are internal
156 6  Evolution of the Earth System

factors (mantle plume activity and plate tectonics) and external factors (the
­spatial relationships between the solar system and galaxy, meteorites, and plan-
etesimal impacts) causing these variations.
11. The earth’s surface environmental system is open to the earth’s interior system
and the universe system with respect to energy and matter.
12. Anthropogenic and natural influences are necessary to evaluate short-term and
long-term predictions of earth’s environment in the future. Particularly, elucida-
tion of various short-term and long-term periodicities and mechanisms causing
environmental variations are necessary.

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Chapter 7
A Modern View on Nature and Humans

As described in previous chapters, large amounts of information on spatial and

temporal variations in the earth system are available. Therefore, people today can
view nature on a global scale. They have information about the earth and can envi-
sion it as a system. People’s images of the earth system vary by individual person,
region, and country. It has been pointed out below that there are various views of the
earth system, of humans and the relationship between the two. Here we would like
to clarify the difference between the view in this book and others previously pro-
posed. Modern views of the earth system and humans could be divided into human-
oriented views (anthropocentrism) and nature-oriented ones (naturecentrism).
Recently, a view unifying these two views has been proposed.

Keywords  Anthropocentrism • Earth and planetary system sciences • Earth’s

environmental co-oriented society • Gaia • Naturecentrism

7.1 Anthropocentrism

Anthropocentrism considers the following points:

1. Humans have taken natural resources and used them to develop industry since
the industrial revolution. Industry and economics developed significantly through
this use of resources, but a large amount of waste was abandoned, considered
outside the system of human society, resulting in earth’s environmental
pollution.
2. There is a view that considers resource and environmental problems as a whole.
This is an extension of point 1. At present, various countries intend to develop
new societies that can grow sustainably based on new scientific and information
technologies.
3. It is difficult to solve the waste and environmental problems based only on points
1 and 2, and so the concepts of recycling (circulation) and the zero emission-type

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 159

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8_7, © Springer 2012
160 7  A Modern View on Nature and Humans

society have been proposed recently. These are based on the concepts of
circulation and symbiosis in natural systems, and recycling in human society.
The zero emission concept was proposed at the World Environmental Conference
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 sponsored by the United Nations. It is defined
as “no emission to the hydrosphere and atmosphere and transformation of all
waste to source materials”.
Views 1, 2, and 3 regard nature and the earth as useful materials and energy
available for human to use.

7.2 Naturecentrism

Naturecentrism encompasses the following four points:

1. There is a view that the earth consists of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
and geosphere, but not humans. This is based on material and analytical sciences
and reductionism. Previous earth and planetary sciences have been based on this
view. Earth science is divided into geology, geophysics, geochemistry, geogra-
phy, and oceanography, among others, each having been developed
independently.
2. Recently, solid earth science was unified by the combination of plate tectonics
and plume tectonics. Plate tectonics and plume tectonics are a dynamic view of
the solid earth, while previous solid earth sciences were static views. Plate tec-
tonics and plume tectonics consider the dynamics of plate motion. Geological
and geophysical phenomena are caused by plate tectonics, but its principles do
not include considerations of mass transfer mechanisms, nature–human interac-
tions, or fluid earth-solid earth interactions.
3. Gaia (the mother earth goddess) hypothesis proposed by James Lovelock and
Lynn Margulis regards earth as an ecosystem (Lovelock 1979, 1991). This
hypothesis proposes that the earth can be viewed as a living organism that acts to
manipulate the chemical and physical environment for the benefit and mainte-
nance of life on earth. According to this view, humans are a part of the ecosystem
and considering issues between humans and the earth is not necessary. This is a
nature-, not human-oriented view. Its hypothesis is that the physicochemical
environments of the earth, the atmosphere, and the oceans are controlled by the
biota. James Lovelock indicated that the atmospheric composition of the earth is
considerably different from that of Venus and Mars, and draws the conclusion
that the earth’s atmospheric composition is controlled by its biota. He thinks that
the earth has been a self-regulating system, as demonstrated by his Daisyworld
climate simulation, since the beginning of biological life. Atmospheric CO2
eventually decreased due to the precipitation of carbonates from the oceans.
Earth’s surface temperature had been high, insulated by the greenhouse effect
that atmospheric CO2 causes. Plates that had high temperatures because of the
greenhouse effect did not undergo subduction. However, the decrease in
7.3  A New View of Nature and Humans 161

atmospheric CO2 caused by biological activity resulted in the cooling of plates

and the beginning of plate motion. James Lovelock favors the idea that biological
activity influences the dynamics of the earth’s interior. In contrast, most earth
scientists infer that long-term atmospheric CO2 variation is governed by inor-
ganic carbonate-silicate reactions as simulated in the BLAG model by Berner
et al. (1983). It is certain that biological activity is important at least for short-
term atmospheric CO2 variations.
4. Previously earth system science considered the earth system as composed of
subsystems and tried to elucidate the interactions between those subsystems and
temporal variations of the earth system as a whole. The main object of previous
earth system science was earth’s surface system (the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and biosphere) but the solid bulk of the earth and the humans living on the sur-
face were not the main objects. Earth system science as presented here aims to
unify the dual concepts of anthropocentrism and naturecentrism, and others
paired matters such as material science and history, resources and the environ-
ment, humans and nature, the fluid earth and the solid earth, parts and the whole,
diversity and uniformity, accident and necessity, internal and external forces, and
so on.
In addition to the views mentioned above, there are various views of nature and
humans such as ecology, environmentalism, and geology. Traditional geology,
which focuses on geologic history and description of the earth’s materials and
phenomena (volcanism, hydrothermal activity, sedimentation, metamorphism, fold-
ing, faulting, mountain building, etc.), particularly rocks and minerals, was devel-
oped based on uniformitarianism. Recently, however, catastrophic events have come
to light. One example of this is the bolide impact hypothesis based on Ir enrichment
at the K/T boundary (Alvarez et al. 1980). Dynamic view of the earth embodied by
plate tectonics and the discovery of numerous craters on the moon and planets have
caused the revival of catastrophism.
Uniformitarinism and catastrophism as described above are views of the earth
that consider temporal but not spatial variations. A view of the earth and planets
integrating spatial and temporal variations should be developed.

7.3 A New View of Nature and Humans

7.3.1 Earth Environment Co-oriented Society

Figure 7.1 shows human society as a system open to the natural system with respect
to materials and energy. Materials and energy circulate in human society. They are
input to human society and output from it to the natural system. Previous investiga-
tions have studied various environments, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and bio-
sphere in detail, but studies of the geosphere from an environmental point of view
are lacking.
162 7  A Modern View on Nature and Humans

Atmosphere

Biosphere Hydrosphere

Humans

Geosphere

Fig. 7.1  Human society which is open to the natural system concerning material and energy

For example, we have plans to store and dispose of CO2 and high-level nuclear
waste deep underground. Therefore, humans must come to understand the geo-
sphere as well as the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere, as well as the
interactions between the geosphere and the other subsystems and learn to coexist
with these subsystems. We describe this improved human society as an “earth envi-
ronment co-oriented society”.

7.3.2 Earth and Planetary System Science

Humans take natural resources, use them and dispose of the wastes they generate.
The wastes emitted by humans influence the natural system. The natural system,
changed by those wastes, influences humans and the biosphere. This negative
feedback causes our environmental and resource problems. Materials and energy
flow in the human–nature system, and interactions between subsystems can be
investigated by earth system sciences. The earth system is open to the universe sys-
tem. Earth and planetary system science intends to understand the earth system, the
planetary system and the relationship between them.
As mentioned above, there are various views of the earth, planets, nature, and
humans. Therefore, we have to make our viewpoint clear. It is important to recog-
nize that humans are a part of the earth and planetary system, and further, of the
system of the entire universe. We need to quantitatively describe the complicated
hierarchy of the system, deduce its temporal and spatial variations, and analyze
the interactions in the nature–human system. Previous earth sciences focused on the
history of the earth but did not analyze the current earth, including the humans
References 163

living on it. We need to predict not only short-term but also long-term environmental
variations in the future, together with analyzing earth’s former and present-day
environments.
The important point in predicting the environmental conditions in the future is to
assess simulation results. We can assess short-term future environmental variations,
but unfortunately we cannot assess long-term ones.

7.4 Chapter Summary

1. We have various views on nature and humans. They are divided into human-
oriented (anthropocentrism) and nature-oriented (naturecentrism) views.
2. Humans are a part of the earth, as well as the planetary and universal systems.
3. The concept of an “earth environment co-oriented society” is proposed here.
4. Earth and planetary system science has the potential to unify the anthropocentric
and naturecentric views of the earth and planets.

References

Alvarez LW, Alvarez W, Asaro F, Michel HV (1980) Extra terrestrial cause for the cretaceous-
tertiary extinction. Science 208:1095–1108
Berner RA, Lasaga AC, Garrels RM (1983) The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its
effects on atmospheric carbon dioxide over to past 100 million years. Am J Sci 283:641–683
Lovelock JE (1979) Gaia: a new look at life on Earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 157 pp
Lovelock JE (1991) Healing Gaia: practical science of planetary medicine. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 192 pp
Afterword

As already mentioned, this book focuses on (1) the constituent materials of the earth
and planets (minerals, rocks, water, carbon dioxide, ore deposits, soils, atmosphere,
etc.); (2) interactions between subsystems (atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere,
biosphere, humans), particularly near the earth’s surface environment; (3) dynamics
of the earth system (plate tectonics, plume tectonics, global geochemical cycles
including the earth’s interior); (4) nature–human interaction (disasters, resources,
environmental problems); (5) origin and evolution of the earth and planetary ­system;
and finally, (6) the proposal that earth and planetary system science provides the
scientific basis for considering the relationship between nature and humans and
integrates previous disciplines of earth and planetary sciences (geology, geochemis-
try, geophysics, geography, etc.). It also proposes that earth and planetary system
science gives us the basis of the concept of “earth environmental co-oriented human
society,” which could be safe, stable, and sustainable in the long term.
Earth and planetary system science treats entire fields of traditional earth and plan-
etary sciences (e.g., geology, geochemistry, geophysics, geography, comparative
planetology). However, it is very difficult to integrate them. Some fields are not
described enough in this book. They include biological systems, planets and the
universe, the processes of very short temporal scale and small scale (e.g., nano,
atomic scale), predictions of the earth’s future environment, and chemical and
physical mechanisms of elemental and isotopic migration in the earth and plan-
etary system. Among those, the chemical and physical mechanisms of elemental
migration in the earth system are given in Chemistry of the Earth System:
Prediction of Environment and Resources (1997) and Environmental Geochemistry
of the Earth System (2010), which I wrote in Japanese. I am preparing the English
version of these books and am hopeful that they could be published in the near
future. I hope that earth and planetary system science including all of the fields
mentioned above can be systematically integrated and synthesized in the near
future.
Finally, for readers who want to study and understand more deeply earth and plan-
etary system science and each field of earth and planetary sciences, I would like
to recommend the following outstanding books.

N. Shikazono, Introduction to Earth and Planetary System Science, 165

DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54058-8, © Springer 2012
166 Afterword

Earth and Planetary System Science and the Global

Geochemical Cycle

Berner RA (2004) The phanerozoic carbon cycle. Oxford University Press

Chameides WC, Perdue EM (1997) Biogeochemical cycles. Oxford University
Press
Ehlers E, Kraft T (eds) (2006) Earth system science in the anthropocene. Springer
Ernst WG (ed) (2000) Earth systems. Cambridge University Press
Kump LR, Kasting JR, Crane RG (1999) The Earth system. Pearson-Prentice Hall
NASA (1986) Earth system science – overview – a Program for global change.
Earth System Sciences Committee, NASA Advisory Council, Washington, DC
Shikazono N (1992) Introduction to Earth system. University of Tokyo Press (in
Japanese)
Shikazono N (2009) Introduction to Earth and planetary system science. University
of Tokyo Press (in Japanese)
Rollinson H (2000) Early Earth system. Blackwell

Earth’s Environment and Resources

Craig JR, Vaughan DJ, Skinner BJ (1988) Resources of the Earth. Prentice Hall.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Golob R, Brus E (1993) The Almanac of renewable energy. Holt, New York
Holland HD, Petersen U (1995) Living dangerously. Princeton University Press
Marini L (2007) Geological Sequestration of carbon dioxide. Elsevier
Shikazono N (2003) Geochemical and tectonic evolution of arc-backarc hydrother-
mal systems: implication for the origin of Kuroko and epithermal vein-type
­mineralizations and the global geochemical cycle. Developments in Geochemistry
8, Elsevier
Skinner BJ (1976) Earth resources, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall.

Evolution of Earth

Bengston S (ed) (1994) Early life on Earth. Columbia University Press, New York
Cloud P (1988) Oasis in space: Earth history from the beginning. Norton,
New York
Frakes L A (1979) Climates throughout geologic time. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Holland HD (1984) The chemical evolution of the atmosphere and oceans Wiley-
Interscience, New York
Rollinson H (2007) Early Earth system. Blackwell
Windley BF (1975) The evolving continents, 3rd edn. Wiley
Geology 167

Hydrosphere

Berner EK, Berner RA (1978) The global water cycle: Geochemistry and environ-
ment. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Holland HD (1978) The chemistry of the atmosphere and oceans. Wiley
Millero FJ (1996) Chemical oceanography, 2nd edn. CRC

Biosphere and Soils

Birkeland PW (1999) Soils and geomorphology, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press,
New York
Bolt GH, Bluggenwent MG (eds) (1978) Soil chemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Jenny H (1980) The soil resource. Springer, New York
Lunine J (1999) Earth, evolution of a habitable world. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
Schlesinger WH (1991) Biogeochemistry. An analysis of global change
Schopf JW (ed) Major events in the history of life. Jones and Bartlett, Boston
Schopf JW, Klein C (1992) The proterozoic biosphere. Cambridge University Press
Vernadsky VI (1997) The biosphere. Copernicus Books, New York

Geochemistry and Environmental Geochemistry

Chapman NA, McKinley IG, Hill MD (1987) The geological disposal of nuclear
waste. Wiley, Chichester
Holland HD, Trekian KK (eds) (2004) Treatise on geochemistry. Elsevier
Mason B (1958) Principles of geochemistry, 2nd edn. Wiley
Shikazono N (1997) Chemistry of Earth system. University of Tokyo Press
(in Japanese)
Shikazono N (2010) Environmental geochemistry of Earth system. University of
Tokyo Press (in Japanese)

Geology

Holmes A (1978) Principles of physical geology, 3rd edn. Nelson

Siever R, Grotzinger J, Jordan TH (2003) Understanding Earth. Freeman,
New York
Skinner BJ, Porter SC (1987) Physical geology. Wiley
Tarbude EJ, Lutgens FK (1998) Earth: an introduction to physical geology, 6th edn.
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ
168 Afterword

Geophysics

Holmes A (1978) Principles of physical geology, 3rd edn. Nelson

Lillie RL (1998) Whole Earth geophysics. Prentice Hall

Plate Tectonics and Plume Tectonics

Condie KC (1989) Plate tectonics and crustal evolution. Pergamon

Condie KC (2001) Mantle plumes and their record in Earth history. Cambridge
University Press
McElhinny MW (1973) Paleomagnetism and plate tectonics. Cambridge University
Press
Uyeda S (1978 ) New view of the Earth. Freeman

Atmosphere, Climate Change

Frakes LA (1979) Climates throughout geologic time. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Graedel TE, Crutzen P J (1993) Atmospheric change: an earth system perspective.
Freeman, New York
Robison PJ, Henderson-Sellers A (1999) Contemporary climatology, 2nd edn.
Longman, Harlow
Rowland FS, Isaksen ISA (eds.) (1988) The changing atmosphere. Wiley
Ruddiman WF (2001) Earth’s climate: past and future. Freeman, New York

Planetary Sciences

Urey HC (1952) The planets. Yale University Press

Ringwood AE (1979) Origin of the Earth and Moon. Springer, New York

Environmental Science

Carson R (1962) Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin

Fuller B (1969) Operating manual for spaceship Earth. Southern Illinois University
Press, Carbondale
Gore A (1992) Earth in balance: ecology and the human spirit. Houghton Mifflin,
Boston
Lovelock JE (1979) Gaia. A new look at life on Earth. Oxford University Press
Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Renders J (1992) Beyond the limits. Green
Index

A Atmosphere, 2, 5, 8, 9, 11–14, 16, 18, 24, 29,

Absolute age dating, 125–129 36, 38–40, 44–47, 50–53, 55, 56, 73,
Abundance of elements, 24–28, 130 87, 90, 95–97, 99, 105–108, 116–121,
Accretion, 68, 71, 125, 129–131 125, 130–137, 141, 144–147, 155,
Accretional prisms, 71 160–162
A chondrite, 28 Au. See Gold (Au)
Acidification, 82, 99–100 Augite, 31
Acid rains, 16, 17, 75, 82, 94, 99–101,
107, 147
Aeolites, 28 B
Aerosols, 13, 59, 96, 100, 101, 103 Back arc, 43, 59, 68, 69, 84–86, 150
Ag. See Silver (Ag) Back arc deposits, 84
Agriculture, 38, 40, 81, 88, 89, 95, Bacteria, 86, 132, 136, 139, 142–146, 154
101, 106, 152 Bacterial activity, 38, 90, 103, 106
Al. See Aluminum (Al) Banded iron formation (BIF), 86, 136, 138, 146
Albedo, 97, 152, 154 Barite, 84
Albite, 33, 34 Basalt, 2, 20, 32–34, 44, 59, 64, 69, 71, 78,
Allende meteorites, 113 117, 119, 121, 133, 134, 139, 144, 148
abg theory, 112 Base metal, 57, 59, 79, 82, 84–86, 90, 100,
Aluminum (Al), 15, 22–24, 26, 28, 102, 103, 138, 142
30, 38, 40, 58, 80, 82, 83, 88, Bauxite, 38, 88
100, 105, 114 BIF. See Banded iron formation (BIF)
Ammonia, 120, 144 Big bang universe, 111–112
Ammonites, 146, 148 Biogeochemical cycle, 8, 55
Amphiboles, 30, 33, 34 Biomass, 13, 38, 79, 81
Andes, 64, 65 Biomass energy, 91, 109
Andesite, 2, 32–34, 69, 78 Biomineralization, 38
Anhydrite, 36, 84 Biosphere, 8, 11, 18, 36, 38–40, 46, 47, 50, 51,
Anorthite, 31, 33, 34 104, 108, 145, 160–162
Antarctica, 95, 98 Biotite, 32
Anthropocentrism, 159–161, 163 Black hole, 113
Ar. See Argon (Ar) Black smoker, 84
40
Ar/36Ar, 131 BLAG model, 50, 141, 161
Archaea, 142 Body waves, 19, 40
Argon (Ar), 7, 13, 23, 26, 58, 95, Bolide impact, 7, 44, 147, 161, 168
118–120, 131 Bowen’s reaction series, 31, 34
Asteroids, 111, 121–123 Box model, 48–59, 73
Asthenosphere, 22–23, 40, 64 Brucite, 45

169
170 Index

C Climate change, 73, 79, 94, 97, 102, 104, 125,

CaCO3. See Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 137, 141, 147–152, 154, 155
Cadmium (Cd), 7, 22, 24, 27, 58, 94, 100, Climate proxies, 149
102, 103 Closed system, 3, 4
Ca-feldspar, 32–34, 46 C–N–O reaction. See Carbon–nitrogen–oxygen
CAI, 28 reaction (C–N–O reaction)
Calcite, 15, 17, 35, 36, 46, 138 CO2. See Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Calcium, 38, 101 Coal, 47, 60, 79, 89–90, 100, 104, 122
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 15, 17, 18, Cobalt crust, 86, 87
32, 36, 46, 47, 50, 54, 101, 102, 105, CO2 disposal, 104–105
132, 141 Cogeneration system, 105
Calcium silicate (CaSiO3), 46, 47, 54, 141 Cold origin theory, 125, 131
Callisto, 120 Collision, 115, 133, 134
Cambrian, 146 Comets, 120–121, 123, 144, 150
Carbon, 28, 43, 45–59, 90, 93, 105, 112, 129, Comparative planetology, 116–117, 125,
134, 136, 139, 141, 142, 146, 150 155, 165
Carbonaceous chondrite, 28, 115, 130 Concentration factor, 82, 83
Carbonate, 32, 46, 53, 59, 84, 86, 131, 137, Condensation model, 114
138, 141, 145, 146, 149, 151 Conglomerate, 36, 40
Carbonatite, 84 Contact metamorphism, 36
Carbon condensation depth (CCD), 59 Continent, 65, 69, 71, 80, 81, 87, 150
Carbon cycle, 43, 45–59, 141 Continental crust, 2, 20–22, 30, 40, 64,
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 96, 120, 149 135–137
Carboniferous, 139, 146 Continental drift, 60, 61, 154
Carbon–nitrogen–oxygen reaction (C–N–O Continuous degassing model, 131
reaction), 93 Convergence, 64, 66
CaSiO3. See Calcium silicate (CaSiO3) Convergent boundary, 65–68
Catastrophism, 2, 7, 161 Copper (Cu), 7, 22, 24, 26, 58, 59, 69, 83–87,
CCD. See Carbon condensation depth (CCD) 94, 102, 103, 142
Cd. See Cadmium (Cd) Coral, 15, 38
Cellulose, 89 Coral reef, 36, 68
Cenozoic, 146, 149, 150 Core, 1, 2, 7, 11, 21–23, 44, 51, 72, 93, 107,
CFCl3. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCl3) 113, 115, 117–120, 129, 135, 152
CH4. See Methane (CH4) Cosmic abundance of elements, 24–28
Chalcopyrite, 84 Cr. See Chromium (Cr)
Chemical equilibrium model, 114 Cretaceous, 7, 71, 141, 155
Chemical evolution, 142 Cretaceous/Tertiary (C/T, K/T)
Chemical reactions, 5, 35, 37, 106, 115, 145 boundary, 120, 147
Chemical weathering, 32, 37, 46, 87 Crust, 2, 7, 11, 19–24, 29, 30, 34, 35, 40, 43,
Chert, 36, 68, 71, 132, 134, 136, 146, 153 45, 51, 52, 54, 59, 63, 64, 71, 82, 86,
Chicxulub crater, 147 87, 107, 117, 121, 132, 134–137, 144,
Chilean-type subduction, 69, 77 145, 155
Chimney, 84 C/T, K/T boundary. See Cretaceous/Tertiary
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCl3), 13, 96, 99 (C/T, K/T) boundary
Chondrite, 23–25, 28, 29, 40, 115, 129, 130 Cu. See Copper (Cu)
Chondrule, 23, 28, 29 Cycle, 8, 44–46, 48, 52, 55, 57, 77, 97, 113,
Chromium (Cr), 22–24, 26, 58, 80, 84, 103 122, 131, 138, 139, 150, 152
Circum pacific region, 79
Classification of earth’s water, 18
Clay minerals, 36, 37, 40, 59, 87, 88, 102, D
134, 137, 144 Dacite, 2, 32, 34, 78
Cl chondrites, 24 Dating, 7, 125–129
Climate, 36, 38, 60, 76, 77, 101, 119, 137, Decay constant, 128
149, 152, 154, 160 Deforestation, 81, 95, 101, 102, 153
Index 171

d13C, 138, 139, 142, 146, 148, 150, 155 Environmental economics, 107
d18O, 138, 141, 151–153, 155 Environmental problem, 5, 6, 8, 75, 76, 81–82,
d34S, 135, 136, 138, 139, 145, 148, 155 94, 105–109, 159
Density, 19, 22, 71, 91, 99, 111, 115, 117–120 Eocene, 127, 140, 151
Desertification, 77, 82, 94, 102, 109 Eon, 129, 140, 155
Devonian, 127, 140 Equilibrium condensation model, 114
Diagenesis, 36, 40 Equilibrium constant, 55
Diatom, 36, 38, 59 Erosion, 37, 71, 77, 82, 104, 116, 126
Dinosaur, 120, 147 Ethics, 53, 107–109
Dioxin, 103 Eu anomaly, 135, 136
Disasters, 1 Eukarya, 142
Disposal, 81, 103–105, 107 Eular pole, 64
Dissolution, 13, 15, 17, 36, 37, 44, 46, 55, 96, Eurasian plate, 65, 67, 77
100, 101, 103, 104 Europa, 120
Divergent, 64 Eutrophication, 103
DNA, 142, 144 Evaporation, 13, 36, 44, 59, 97, 102, 131, 138,
Dolomite, 17, 46, 138 145, 155
Evaporite, 36, 45, 59, 131, 138, 148
Evolution, 1, 7–9, 111–113, 116, 121,
E 125–156
Earth and planetary science, 160 Evolution of life, 136, 146–147
Earth environmental ethics, 107–108 Evolution of stars, 111–113
Earthquake, 7, 19, 68, 69, 73, 75–79, 104, 108 Exogenic energy, 76
Earthquake tomography, 71 External energy, 37, 77, 86, 89–91
Earth’s environment, 2, 5–6, 8, 11, 36, 38–40, Extinctions, 94, 109, 146, 148, 152, 154, 155
43–45, 73, 75, 93, 100, 105–109, 116, Extraterrestrial life, 144–145
122, 135, 146, 152–156, 161–163
Earth’s environmental co-oriented society, 9,
159, 161–163 F
Earth’s environmental problem, 75, 76, Faint young sun paradox, 132
94–108 Faulting, 63, 73, 77, 104, 126, 161
Earth’s moon, 116–118, 121, 132, 134 Feldspar, 17, 24, 30, 32–35, 40, 46,
Earth spaceship, 107 115, 117, 136
Earth’s surface environment, 1, 2, 8, 11, 36, Fiji, 84
39, 40, 75, 107 Fireball earth theory, 125
Earth’s surface system, 154, 161 Floods, 76, 77, 148, 152
Earth summit, 94 Fluid earth, 11–18
Earth systems, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11–40, 43–46, 48, Fluxes, 36, 46, 48, 52, 56
51, 73, 107, 108, 111, 125–156, 159, Folding, 63, 73, 161
161, 162 Foraminifers, 15, 38, 146, 150–152
Earth-type planets, 1, 73, 111, 116–120, 122, Fossil fuel energy, 36, 80
123, 132 Fossil fuels, 2, 13, 17, 19, 47, 79–81, 89, 95,
East Pacific Rise, 84 100, 105, 108, 109, 122
Ecological system (ecosystem), 39, 79, 82, 89, Fossils, 6, 60, 126, 142, 146, 148
94, 99, 104, 107–109 Fractional crystallization, 34, 40
Economical concentration factor, 82, 83 Fractures, 37, 84, 91, 101
Electric energy, 91–93 Freon, 94, 96, 99, 107
Electron, 92 Fresh water, 39, 82, 89
El Nino, 77
Emperor sea mount, 64
Endogenic energy, 76 G
Energy resources, 75, 80, 89–94, 106 Gabbro, 64
Enstatite, 30 Gaia, 159, 160
Enstatite chondrite, 28, 130 Gaia hypothesis, 160
172 Index

Galena, 84 Holocene, 127

Ganymede, 120, 145 Homogeneous accretion, 125, 129
Garnet, 29–31, 40 Hot spot, 2, 64, 71, 139
Gas hydrates, 89, 90, 146 Hot spring, 16, 101
GEOCARB models, 50, 141 H–R diagram. See Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R)
Geochemical cycle, 73 diagram
Geochemistry, 6–8, 125, 160 H2S, Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
Geochronology, 125–129 H2SO4. See Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Geography, 8, 101, 160 Humans, 1–9, 13, 17, 36, 39, 50–54, 75–109,
Geology, 5–8, 16, 86, 101, 125, 160, 161 111, 142, 152, 154, 159–163
Geophysics, 6–8, 160 Human society, 75–77, 103, 107, 109,
Geosphere, 2, 5, 9, 11, 18–37, 40, 46, 47, 51, 159–162
54, 107, 160–162 Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 13, 79, 99
Geothermal energy, 91–92 Hydrogen (H2), 91, 112, 114, 115, 120, 131, 132
Geothermal systems, 43, 92, 143 Hydrogen energy, 91
Geothermal water, 43 Hydrologic cycle, 43–45, 89
Giant impact model, 117 Hydrosphere, 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 14–18, 40, 47, 54,
Giant planets, 111, 120, 121, 123 108, 160–162
Giant stars, 111, 113 Hydrothermal activity, 59, 145, 150, 161
Glacial-interglacial cycles, 150–152 Hydrothermal ore deposits, 32, 44, 79, 82,
Glaciers, 14, 18, 40, 60, 137, 146, 155 84–86
Global carbon cycle, 43, 47, 141 Hydrothermal solution, 2, 32, 43–45,
Global geochemical cycle, 43, 48–59 47, 59, 84, 85, 91, 92, 138, 139,
Global warming, 45, 71, 75, 82, 90, 91, 94–98, 142, 144, 145, 155
104, 105, 109, 146, 152, 153 Hydrothermal solution hypothesis, 142
Gold (Au), 22, 24, 27, 58, 82–86, 112 Hydrothermal system, 84, 91, 92, 146
Goldich’s weathering series, 31, 37 Hyperthermophilic bacteria, 143, 144
Granite, 20, 65
Greenhouse gases, 95–98, 118, 132, 134, 147,
152, 154 I
Greenland, 95, 134, 135, 142, 146 Ice giant, 120
Ground water, 11, 14, 16–18, 37, 40, 44, 46, Iceland, 62
81, 82, 88, 89, 101–105, 109 Ice sheet, 14, 18, 40, 97, 132, 152
Gypsum, 36, 56, 88 Igneous activity, 6, 32–35, 37, 44, 71, 73, 92,
120, 136, 155
Igneous rocks, 19, 21, 32–36, 40, 65, 135,
H 136, 155
H2. See Hydrogen (H2) Impact craters, 118, 120, 134
Hawaii, 2, 64, 78, 95, 133 Infrared radiation, 12, 95–97
Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain, 65, 66 Inflation, 112
Hayashi phase, 114 Inflation universe model, 111, 112
HCl. See Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Inner core, 21, 22, 40, 137, 155
He. See Helium (He) Internal energy, 86, 89, 91–94
Heat flow, 60, 75, 86 Intrusive rocks, 126
Heavy bombardment period, 44, 117 Ion-adsorption type REE deposits, 88
Helium (He), 13, 23, 26, 44, 93, 94, 112, 115, Iron (oxy) hydroxides, 102
118, 120, 121, 131, 132 Ionic radii, 32, 136
Hematite, 86, 119, 145 Iridium (Ir), 7, 22, 24, 27, 58, 147, 148, 161
Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram, 112–113 Iron (Fe), 7, 11, 16, 22–24, 26, 29, 32, 33, 38,
Heterogeneous accretion, 125, 129–130 40, 58, 82, 84–88, 105, 112, 114, 115,
Hierarchy, 2, 4, 162 118, 120, 130, 133, 136–138, 142, 146
High-level nuclear waste, 104, 162 Iron meteorites, 29, 115, 130
Himalaya, 64, 65, 150 Irrigation, 102
H2O. See Water (H2O) Island arc, 69, 85, 150
Index 173

J Magnetic anomaly, 60, 62, 63

Jadeite, 35 Magnetite, 34, 83, 86, 133
Japan, 8, 16, 19, 64, 67, 68, 71, 77–80, 85, 91, Mammalian, 146
92, 94, 95, 101, 104, 107, 145 Manganese nodule, 86, 87, 129
Japanese Islands, 16, 43, 67–69, 71, 77–79, 90 Mantle, 1, 2, 7, 11, 19–23, 29, 30, 34, 40, 43,
Japan trench, 64, 67, 68 45, 51, 60, 63, 64, 68, 71–73, 107,
Jarosite, 119, 145 117–120, 122, 129–131, 135, 137, 139,
Jupiter, 120, 121, 123 146, 152, 155, 156
Jurassic, 61, 71 Mantle convection, 44, 60, 62, 72, 73, 122, 152
Mantle wedge, 45
Mariana, 68, 77, 84
K Mariana trench, 64
Kaolinite, 17, 37 Mariana-type subduction, 69, 77
KCl, 32, 88, 102 Marine snow, 59
Kerogen, 90 Mars, 7, 29, 73, 117–123, 155, 160
K-feldspar, 32 Mass extinction, 7, 44, 120, 125,
Kilauea, 66, 148 146–150, 154
Komachiite, 134 Mass transfer, 2, 3, 5, 36, 48, 49, 54, 59, 91,
Krypton, 13, 26, 58, 130 92, 122, 160
Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), 120–121, 123 Mauna Loa, 78, 95, 96
Kuroko deposits, 69, 71, 84 Mercury, 73, 83, 94, 102, 103, 117, 118, 123
Kyoto Protocol, 95, 103, 107 Mesosphere, 2, 11, 12, 22, 23, 40
Mesozoic era, 146
Metallic mineral resources, 82
L Metallic ore deposits, 82–88
Lake, 14, 36, 60, 102, 119 Metamorphic rocks, 2, 7, 35–37, 40, 71, 134,
Lake Nyos, 79 135, 146, 155
Lakewater, 14, 18, 40, 82, 85, 88, 101–103, Metamorphism, 35–37, 40, 44, 47, 65, 73,
119, 145 142, 161
Landslide, 77, 78 Meteorite, 43, 44, 119, 137, 145, 148, 152
Laterite, 38, 88 Meteorite impact hypothesis, 147
Lawsonite, 45 Methane (CH4), 13, 90, 96, 97, 99, 120,
Lead (Pb), 15, 21, 57, 84, 85, 94, 103, 112, 132–134, 136, 142, 144–146, 153
115, 129 Microfossil, 142, 144, 150
Lead isotope, 129 Midoceanic ridge, 43, 45, 59, 71, 78, 84, 85,
Lignin, 89 134, 139, 142, 144, 155
Limestone, 15, 16, 32, 36, 68, 71, 101, 137 Mineral, 2, 5–7, 15–19, 21, 29–38, 40, 43, 45,
Limit to Growth, 94 46, 59, 79, 80, 82–90, 102, 105, 109,
Liquidus, 33, 34 114, 115, 122, 128, 131, 133, 134,
Lithosphere, 2, 8, 9, 18, 22–23, 40, 46, 136–138, 144, 161, 165
63, 64, 134 Mineralogy, 6, 19, 40
Low temperature gas and dust theory, 115 Mineral resources, 38, 75, 79, 80, 82–90, 122
Low velocity zone, 20, 22, 63 Mineral trapping, 105
Mining, 6, 38, 79, 81, 90, 94, 101
Miocene, 71, 85, 150
M Milankovitch cycle, 154, 155
Magma, 2, 11, 19, 31–36, 40, 43, 45, 60, 64, Missing sink, 96
65, 71, 78, 83, 84, 92, 122, 126, 133, Mohorovicic’s (Moho’s) discontinuity, 19, 20
136, 145 Montmorillonite, 17
Magma ocean, 117, 131–133 Moon, 4, 28, 29, 116–118, 120, 121, 123, 132,
Magmatic deposits, 84 134, 144, 161
Magnesite, 46, 131 Mount Olympus, 119, 121
Magnesium (Mg), 22–24, 26, 58, 59, 89, 101, Mudstone, 36, 71
112, 137, 138 Muscovite, 31
174 Index

N Organic matter, 14, 16, 28, 37, 38, 40, 46, 47,
N2. See Nitrogen (N2) 53, 82, 86, 88, 90, 91, 94, 102, 103,
NaCl, 13, 32, 36, 88, 102, 138 120, 142, 144–146
Na-feldspar, 32, 33, 35 Organisms, 15, 18, 38, 39, 53, 82, 90, 104,
Natural disaster, 75–79, 108 122, 137, 142–144, 146, 148, 154, 160
Natural gas, 47, 79, 89, 90 Origin of life, 119, 125, 142–144
Naturecentrism, 159–161, 163 Osmium (OS), 114, 147, 148
Nature–humans interaction, 2, 8, 75–109, 160 Outer core, 11, 21
Neogene, 127, 151 Over-pasturage, 81, 102
Neptune, 120, 123 Oxidation–reduction reactions, 38
Neptunism, 6 Oxygen (O2), 11, 13, 14, 29, 30, 38,
Neutrons, 92, 93, 112 47, 82, 86, 91, 98, 99, 112, 114,
Neutron stars, 113 116, 117, 119, 121, 130–134,
Nickel (Ni)–iron (Fe) alloy, 22, 23, 29 136–139, 141, 146, 149, 151,
Nitrogen (N2), 11, 13, 95, 119–121, 144, 145 153, 155
Nonmetallic mineral resources, 88 Oxygen catastrophy age, 139
Nonrenewable resources, 79–80, 89, 94, 106, Oxygen cycle, 47
109, 122 Oxygen fugacity (fO2), 133
Normal stars, 112, 115 Ozone (O3), 12, 13, 96, 98, 99, 109, 136
North American plate, 67, 77 Ozone hole, 94, 98
Nuclear fission energy, 92–93 Ozone layer, 44, 75, 94, 98–99
Nuclear fission reaction, 93
Nuclear fusion energy, 93–94
Nuclear powerplant, 93, 104 P
Nuclear reaction, 93 Pacific plate, 63, 69
Nuclear wastes, 104, 106, 109, 162 PAH. See Polycyclic aromatic
Nucleus, 92, 93 hydrocarbons (PAH)
Paleogene, 127
Paleomagnetism, 135
O Paleosols, 137
O2. See Oxygen (O2) Paleozoic era, 146
O3. See Ozone (O3) Pangaea, 60, 148
Obduction, 64 Pb. See Lead (Pb)
Ocean, 7, 8, 14, 16, 44–47, 52, 54, 57–61, 63, Pegmatite, 84
64, 86, 87, 91, 94, 102–104, 117, 120, Peridotite, 33, 64
122, 129, 132–134, 138, 139, 141, 145, Permeability, 17, 101
146, 152 Permian, 71
Ocean floor sediments, 60 Permian/Triassic (P/T) boundary, 148
Ocean floor spreading, 60–61 Perovskite, 21, 31
Oceanic crust, 2, 20, 22, 40, 45, 59, 64, 71, pH, 15–18, 37, 79, 88, 99, 101, 102, 134
132, 134, 137 Phanerozoic eon, 129, 140
Oil, 47, 79, 89, 90, 100, 103, 104, 122, 145 Phase diagram, 19, 33, 34
Oil shale, 89 Philippine Sea plate, 67, 68, 71, 77
Okinawa, 84 Phosphorus, 101, 103
Oligocene, 150 Photosynthesis, 16, 36, 46, 47, 96, 104, 136
Olivine, 19, 28–34, 40, 45, 115, 117, 133 Photosynthetic reaction, 38, 46, 53
Open system, 4 Placer, 86
Ophiolite, 64 Planetesimals, 44, 115–117, 120–122, 130,
Opportunity, 119 131, 133, 135, 137, 155, 156
Ordinary chondrite, 28 Planetesimals theory, 115
Ordovician, 127, 140 Plankton, 90
Ore deposits, 32, 44, 69, 79, 82–88, 103, 122, Plate boundary, 64–67, 78
136, 146, 155 Plate convergent boundary, 65–68
Index 175

Plates, 22, 35, 40, 43–45, 47, 61, 63, 64, 68, Rare earth elements (REE) pattern, 130
69, 73, 77, 78, 86, 117, 119, 122, 136, Rare elements, 82
152, 160, 161 Rate constants, 49–51, 55
Plate tectonics, 1, 7, 8, 23, 43, 60–71, 73, 116, Recorder model, 60
118, 121, 122, 141, 155, 156, Recycling, 80, 105–107, 159, 160
160, 161 Red giants, 113, 115, 116
Pleistocene, 127 Red shift, 111
Pliocene, 127, 151 Reduction models, 114
Plume tectonics, 1, 7, 8, 43, 71–73, 118, 121, REE pattern. See Rare earth elements (REE)
155, 160 pattern
Pluto, 120, 121, 123 Regional metamorphism, 35, 65
Plutonism, 6 Relative age, 126
Pollution, 38, 59, 75, 82, 94, 103, 159 Relative age dating, 125, 126
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 144 Renewable resources, 79, 109
Porosity, 17, 36, 101 Reservoirs, 2, 17, 45–47, 49–52, 54, 56, 81,
Porphyry copper-type deposits, 69 89, 90, 104, 145, 154
Positron, 93 Residence time, 15, 43, 49, 57–59, 128
P–P reaction. See Proton–proton (P–P) reaction Resources, 1, 8, 18, 19, 40, 75, 79–94, 103,
Precambrian, 146 105–109, 159, 161, 162
Precious metals, 84, 85 Resources problems, 80–81, 107–109, 162
Precipitation, 36, 54, 55, 84–86, 102, 115, Respiration, 46, 54
116, 122, 131, 138, 155, 160 Rhyolite, 2, 32–34
Primary waves (P-waves), 19, 40 Ridges, 43, 45, 59, 60, 62, 64, 71, 78, 84, 85,
Proterozoic eon, 129 118, 134, 136, 139, 142, 144, 155
Protoatmosphere, 131, 132 Rifts, 60, 118
Protogalaxy, 114 Rift valley, 60, 62
Proton–proton (P–P) reaction, 93, 94 Riverwater, 11, 14–16, 18, 40, 44, 57, 59, 76,
Protons, 92–94 79, 82, 85, 87, 88, 94, 101, 103, 136,
Protosolar system, 111, 113–116, 155 137, 139, 145, 155
Pu, 93 RNA, 142, 143
Pyrite hypothesis, 142 Rocks, 2, 5–7, 11, 14–20, 23, 29, 32–38, 40,
Pyroclastic flows, 77–79 43, 45, 46, 60, 77, 82, 84, 87–91, 97,
Pyroxene, 20, 21, 28–30, 32–34, 40, 101, 102, 104, 117–120, 122, 128,
115, 117, 145 131, 134, 136–138, 142, 144–146,
Pyrrhotite, 84 155, 161

Q S
Quartz, 21, 30–36, 40, 86, 113, 147 Salts, 13, 16, 36, 44, 60, 101, 102, 119, 131,
Quaternary, 69, 71, 150–152, 155 138, 145
Sand, 36, 40, 88, 104
Sandstone, 36, 71
R Saturn, 120, 123
Radioactive decay, 93, 128 Scavenging, 15
Radioactive elements, 7, 128 Seawater, 2, 11, 14–16, 18, 32, 36, 38–40,
Radioactivity, 7, 104 43–47, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57–59, 76, 77,
Radiocarbon dating, 129 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 97, 103, 104, 119,
Radiolaria, 38, 59, 146, 150, 151 131–136, 138–141, 144–146, 148,
Radiometric (absolute) age, 128 151–153, 155
Radiometric (absolute) age dating, 125–129 Seawater cycling, 136, 141, 145
Radionuclides, 104 Seawater level, 104
Rapid degassing model, 131 Secondary waves (S-waves), 19, 21, 22, 40
Rare earth elements (REE), 84, 88, 115 Sedimentary deposits, 86
176 Index

Sedimentary rocks, 2, 23, 32, 36–37, 40, 86, Sulfide, 32, 83, 84, 90, 102, 103, 115, 133,
126, 134–136, 138, 142, 146, 155 136, 139, 142, 145, 146
Sedimentation, 36–37, 44, 48, 54, 57, 59, 77, Sulfur, 16, 55, 56, 88, 100, 101, 134, 136,
78, 90, 126, 128, 139, 151, 155, 161 139, 145
Sediments, 15, 16, 20, 36, 40, 45, 53, 56, 59, Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 13, 79, 100, 106, 107, 133
60, 64, 68, 86, 90, 102, 103, 129, 131, Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 100, 101, 118, 119, 145
135, 136, 145–147, 150, 155 Sulfur isotopic composition, 136
Seepage, 59, 101, 144, 145 Supercontinent, 60, 148
Seismic wave, 40 Supergiant stars, 113
Si. See Silicon (Si) Supernova, 112, 113
Silent Spring, 94 Surface waves, 19, 40
Silica (SiO2), 16, 21, 32–38, 59, 84, 86, 88,
119, 120
Silicates, 2, 15–18, 23, 28–32, 37, 38, 40, 46, T
83, 84, 115, 118, 122, 129, 133, 138, Terrestrial waters, 2, 14, 15, 18, 38–40,
141, 150 89, 122
Silicon (Si), 11, 15, 16, 22–24, 26, 29, Tertiary, 7, 71, 120, 147, 150–152
30, 91, 112 Tetrachloroethylene, 103
Silurian, 146 Tetrahedron, 29
Silt, 36, 40 Th, 22, 24, 27, 58, 93
Siltstone, 36 Thermophile, 145
Silver (Ag), 7, 22, 24, 27, 58, 84, 85, 112 Thermosphere, 2, 11–13
Snow ball ice, 146 Titan, 120, 145
Soft energy passing, 106 Transform faults, 64, 66
Soil, 11, 16, 18, 37–40, 55, 56, 82, 88, 89, 94, Transportation, 37, 85, 91, 103
100–104, 106, 107, 109, 119, 149 Trenches, 64, 65, 67, 68
Soil problems, 101–103 Triassic, 148
Soilwater, 14, 18, 100 Triton, 120
Solar energy, 36, 89, 91, 109 Troposphere, 2, 11, 99
Solar system, 1, 2, 7–9, 11, 24, 29, 73, T-Tauri stage, 114, 115, 155
111–123, 129, 132, 155, 156 T-Tauri star, 115
Solid earth, 1, 7, 11, 18–37, 40, 51, 52, 60–73,
108, 160, 161
Solid solutions, 32–34 U
Solidus, 33, 34 Ultramafic rocks, 2, 33, 45, 84
Solubility, 13, 14, 37 Ultraviolet radiation, 12, 13, 98, 99, 136
Solubility trapping, 105 Unconformity, 7, 19, 126
Sphalerite (ZnS), 32, 84 Underground CO2 sequestration, 81, 104, 106
Spring water, 16 Uniformitarianism, 2, 7, 161
Sr. See Strontium (Sr) Universal tree of life, 142, 143
87
Sr/86Sr, 135, 136, 138–141, 147, 148, 155 Universe, 36, 111–123, 156, 162
Stishovite, 21, 31 Uplift, 35, 67, 71, 77, 104, 126, 150
Stratosphere, 11, 12, 79, 94, 99 Upper mantle, 22, 30, 40, 63, 64, 117, 131
Stromalites, 142, 146 Uranus, 120, 123
Strontium (Sr), 21, 22, 24, 26, 139
Strontium isotope, 128, 135, 136, 138–141,
147–149, 155 V
Subduction, 35, 43–45, 64, 67–71, 73, 77, 134, Venus, 7, 73, 117–119, 121–123, 155, 160
136, 160 Very long base line interferrometry (VLBI),
Subduction zones, 35, 43, 59, 65, 67–69, 79, 64, 67
85, 145, 150 Vine–Mathews hypothesis, 60
Subsystems, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 38–40, 43, 44, 46, Volatile elements, 23, 130
48, 51, 75, 107, 111, 161, 162 Volcanic activity, 16, 71, 104, 117, 118, 120,
Sulfates, 13, 15, 32, 90, 119, 136, 139, 145 148, 150
Index 177

Volcanic disasters, 77–79 Water–rock interactions, 5, 16, 101, 105, 134

Volcanic eruptions, 7, 76, 78, 79, 119 Weathering ore deposit, 44, 82, 87–88
Volcanic gases, 16, 44, 45, 47, 59, 78, 79, 92, Weathering series, 31, 37
133, 139, 141, 142, 146, 148 White dwarf, 113, 116
Volcanic rocks, 2, 18, 68, 101 White smokers, 84
Volcanisms, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73, 78, 79, 108,
121, 161
Volcanoes, 56, 66, 69, 78, 79, 95, 119–121, X
131, 145 Xenoliths, 18, 19, 21

W Y
Wadati–Benioff zones, 68, 70 Yellowstone, 143
Wairakei geothermal system, 92
Waste, 16, 75, 102–107, 109, 159, 160, 162
Waste problems, 75, 103–105, 107, 109 Z
Water (H2O), 2, 5, 11, 14, 16–18, 28, 34–40, Zero emission, 104, 159, 160
44, 45, 55, 59, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 82, Zinc (Zn), 7, 22, 24, 26, 59, 84–86, 94, 100,
84, 88–93, 97, 100–103, 107, 109, 116, 103, 130, 142
117, 119–122, 131, 134, 136, 137, 145, Zircon, 134, 137
147, 155 Zn. See Zinc (Zn)
Water pollution, 103 ZnS. See Sphalerite (ZnS)