port.

Functional diagrams can be considered the underlying foundation of a de-

sign. Later phases of the design process are based on these diagrams.
Functional diagrams are used to study various factors that deal with the func-
tion and general layout of the design. At this time, less thought is given to specific
appearance or aesthetics, which is done later in the design process.
Designers can communicate with other designers and clients concerning the
•overall functional organization of the site with the graphic language of functional di-
agrams. This graphic language allows for quick expression of ideas. It is common for
designers to initially formulate a number of mental images or preconceived ideas
about a design. While some of these ideas might be specific, others are more general
and need to be quickly transferred to paper to allow the designer to study them. The
sooner these ideas are drawn on paper, the easier it is to evaluate them. The graphic

Functional Diagrams vocabulary of functional diagrams is an invaluable tool for this much needed quick
expression. And because functional diagrams are freehand and general in their
graphic style, they can be revised or altered rather easily. This encourages creativity
by studying alternatives as one searches for an appropriate design solution.

IMPORTANCE OF FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS

Functional diagrams are crucial to the design process because they can (1) estab-
lish a sound functional basis for the design solution, (2) encourage the designer to
remain general about the appearance of the design, (3) encourage the designer to
explore alternatives, and (4) provide opportunities for the designer to go beyond
preconceived ideas.

Establishing a Sound Functional Basis

INTRODUCTION A functional diagram that has been carefully thought out will provide a proper
basis for the remaining design phases. The importance of this phase cannot be over-
After gaining an understanding of both the clients and the site, the designer pos- stressed. Decisions made about a design at this early stage are apt to be carried
sesses two general sets of information. The first set stems from meeting the clients throughout the remainder of the design process. Thus, it is critical that decisions
and is a written list of elements and spaces required to satisfy the clients' needs and made during this step be sound ones. If they are not, they will be continually revealed
expectations. The second set of information is the site inventory and analysis that in later phases of the design project. Keep in mind that the appearance of a design as
is recorded with written notes and graphic symbols on a copy of the base map. The reflected in form, materials, and material patterns cannot overcome functional defi-
written portions of these two sets of information are combined in the final step of ciencies. A design must first and foremost have a solid functional foundation.
the research and preparation phase to establish the design program.
With the research and preparation phase completed, the landscape designer j Staying General
is ready to start designing. To do this, an effective method is needed for combining
the written design program information with the specific conditions of the site. This One of the most common faults of inexperienced designers is the inclination
is done with functional diagrams. This chapter discusses what functional diagrams to begin a design project by drawing forms and design elements in the plan that
are, their purpose and significance in the design process, a method for preparing are too specific (Figure 8-1). Novice designers frequently make the design look
them, and design qualities that can be studied by using functional diagrams. "real" as quickly as possible. For example, the edges of terraces, decks, walls, and
planting beds are much too often given a highly defined form too quickly without
sufficient thought toward the functions. Similarly, materials and their patterns are
DEFINITION AND PURPOSE often drawn in too much detail without proper understanding of their location or
intended function. Too much detail too soon is apt to cause the designer to over-
Functional diagrams are freehand drawings that use bubbles and diagrammatic look underlying functional relationships.
symbols to graphically depict the program elements of a design as they relate to Another reason for studying a design in a general fashion before specifics are
each other and to the specific conditions of the site. While the site inventory and considered is the factor of time. Since changes are inevitable during the process of de-
analysis are prepared with the aid of a base map, functional diagrams are devel- sign, being too specific too soon will result in time-consuming changes made in later
oped using the site analysis and the base sheet. design phases. The more detailed a plan is, the more time it takes to redraw it when
The purpose of functional diagrams is to create a broad-brushed, conceptual changes need to be made. Certainly all phases of design involve changes. But in the
layout of the proposed design, based upon function. They provide the general or- initial phases, general functional organization can change rather quickly and effort-
ganizational structure for a design similar to what an outline does for a written re- lessly when drawn appropriately with the graphic language of functional diagrams.

182 Functional Diagrams 183

 FIGURE 8-2
The designer is able to visualize the size of a
/ * *r * **
space better when it is drawn at a given scale.
:--"mains; 9
* e *

100 SF/
» ,
* .> •.••
i ,
' *.' • ' -X

f-10

During functional diagrams, the designer locates all spaces and elements of
the design program for the first time by using free-hand diagrammatic symbols.

Yes! No! Each space and element listed in the design program should be located on the site
when the diagram is complete.
There are a number of design factors that can be dealt with during this phase
of design. They are
FIGURE 8-1
The spaces in a functional diagram should be drawn as freehand bubbles, not as exact forms. 1. Size
2. Location
3. Proportion
Studying Alternatives 4. Configuration
It is obvious that a designer will accumulate a substantial mental library o: 5. Internal Subdivision
ideas over time as design experience is gained. The more exposure one has to de- 6. Edges
signs, whether it be through photographs or actual experience, the more images one
7. Circulation
has to draw on for future reference. This mental file of ideas has tremendous value,
for it enables the designer to think of different options for any given project. These 8. Views
options (alternatives) are very important to the growth of designers. Growth occurs 9. Focal Points
when a designer tries new ideas. Studying alternatives during design phases will 10. Elevation Change
prove to be valuable for formulating new ideas. Functional diagrams encourage the
use of alternatives because of their quick and simple graphic character. Each of these factors is addressed individually in the following paragraphs, al-
though each should be considered in conjunction with the others in actual practice.

Going Beyond Preconceived Ideas

Size
A mental library of ideas available for future reference is developed by every
designer through experience and exposure. Owing to the wealth of this stored vi- Before a functional diagram can be drawn, the designer should know the ap-
sual information, it is common to have preconceived ideas for a design. Sometimes proximate sizes of the spaces and elements to be included in the design. In some
these preconceived ideas are so strong that a solution can be imagined quite easily. situations, this information may already have been established in the design pro-
This insight can be exciting for a designer but it should be handled sensitively so gram. If size is unknown, the designer should consult references, which identify
it will contribute positively to a designer's growth. Too often preconceived ideas the size of typical functions on a residential site. Some information is illustrated in
are the only ones that are considered. We are not suggesting that these insights be Table 8-1. The sizes indicated are common standards; nevertheless, they may be
ignored, but keep in mind that the preconceived idea is only one idea and it is just adjusted as necessary to satisfy the particular needs of any given situation.
the first one. Although the first idea may be a good one, the designer will never After determining the necessary sizes, sketch each space and element of the
know if it is better than other ideas unless other ideas are explored. A designer design program on a blank sheet of paper. Each should be drawn as a freehand
should not accept the first idea without examining alternatives. Once this is done, bubble to approximately the correct size and proportion using the same scale as the
a better design solution usually emerges. base sheet. It is sometimes difficult to comprehend the size of scaled spaces when
they are described only with numbers. For example, the area "100 square feet" may
not mean much by itself. But when this area is graphically expressed as a freehand
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS bubble at a given scale, the designer is able to see more clearly how much space it
actually covers in the plan (Figure 8-2).
To begin preparing a functional diagram, the designer should have a copy of the Once the spaces and elements have been sketched at their approximate scaled
design program, site analysis, and base sheet. Each of these items will be used to sizes, the designer should have a better understanding of where certain uses
develop functional diagrams. The designer should also have a roll of tracing paper should be placed on the site. For example, the designer may need to look for espe-
and a supply of soft pencils. The use of drafting equipment (t-squares, triangles, cially open or generous areas of the site for spaces that are particularly large. Also,
templates, etc.) are not necessary since everything will be drawn freehand during the designer should have a notion of whether or not all spaces and elements of the
this step. design program will fit on the site. It may be found that certain spaces or elements

184 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 185

 TABLE 8-1 Functional Size Requirements Groups of lounge chairs
Two lounge chairs
1. Person standing alone: 5 sq ft -1-6
2. People standing in conversation: 8 sq ft/person
3. Sitting
a. Single aluminum lawn chair: 2' x 2'
b. Single wood deck chair with cushions: 2' - 6" x 2' - 6"
c. Groups of chairs: r-
Two chairs

Three lounge chairs

and coffee table 15'

Pour chairs
0

-.*
r
4. Eating
a. Two people
Chair by itself: 2' x 2'
Table by itself: 2' x 2'
Two chairs and Minimum area needed: 2' - 6" x 5'
couch Preferred area:

o
b. Four people
Chair by itself: 2' x 2'
Table by itself: 2' - 6" x 2' - 6"
Minimum area needed: 6' x 6'
Preferred area:
d. Bench: seat depth: 18"
seat length: 2' - 6" linear feet/person
9l
e. Bench arrangement for conversation
Intimate ( 1

c. Six people (picnic table)

Bench by itself: 1' x 5'
Group Table by itself: 2' - 6" x 5'
IO-! Minimum area needed: 5' x 6'
Preferred area:

£i
o r

f. Single aluminum lounge chair (for sitting or sun bathing): 2' x 6'

186 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 187

 d. Eight people (picnic area) and elements on the site. With the site analysis serving as a base, it is more likely the
Bench by itself: 1' x 5' designer will keep the site factors in mind while organizing the functional diagram.
Table by itself: 2' - 6" x 5'
Minimum area needed: 5' x 7' - 6" The site location of each of the required spaces and elements should be based
Preferred area: on functional relationships, available space, and existing site conditions.
Functional Relationships. Each space and element should be located on the
site so that it is compatible with the functions of adjacent spaces and elements. For
example, the designer might ask: Where could the living/entertaining space be
placed? Could it be located near the play area? Or could it be located near the out-
door eating space? If the outdoor living/entertaining space is placed here, what
might go on the west side of it? Questions should also be asked about the relation-
ship between indoor and outdoor. For instance, where could the outside eating
5. Cooking and food preparation space be placed in relation to the kitchen?
a. Grill by itself: 2' x 2'
b. Counter top: 2' x 4'
Of course, functions that work together or depend on each other should be
c. Overall area needed: 20 sq ft placed next to or near each other, while functions that are incompatible should be
A 4-6" separated. Some decisions about the functional relationship between spaces and el-
ements will be obvious while others need to be studied before decisions are made.
The designer should try alternative relationships among the spaces (Figure 8-3).
Quite frequently, new functional relationships are discovered through trial and er-
ror. The designer should not be afraid to make mistakes in this early phase of the
design process. In most design professions, it is common to put ideas on paper that
6. Recreation are not perfect or completely worked out during this conceptual phase. This is a bet-
a. Badminton (doubles): 17' x 39' (playing surface) ter approach than trying to work everything out in one's head before drawing it.
20' x 44' (overall area)
b. Croquet: 38' x 85' (playing surface)
50' x 95' (overall area) Available Space. The decision as to where to place the various spaces and
c. Frisbee, baseball, football throwing: 15' x 40' elements is also dependent on the availability of space. Each space and element
d. Horseshoes: stakes 40' apart must fit its selected location. Problems arise when a space is too large for a partic-
10' x 50' (overall area) ular area of the site. This situation may require a reorganization of the functional
e. Tennis (doubles): 36' x 78' (playing surface) diagram, a reduction of the size of the space or element, or the elimination of the
60' x 120' (overall area)
f . Volleyball: 30' x 60' (playing surface) space or element from the design.
45' x 80' (overall area)
g. Backyard basketball: 25' x 25' minimum Existing Site Conditions. Each space and element should be situated on the
h. Half-court basketball: 42' x 40' site so that it relates properly to the existing" site conditions and the site analysis.
i. Swimming For example, an outdoor living and entertaining space ideally should be located in
Average-sized pool: 18' x 36' (without deck)
need between 24 and 36 sq ft/swimmer
a place that has partial shade, views of attractive site features, with direct access to
Lap pool: 10' x 60' the inside of the house. The vegetable garden should be placed on well-drained
Spa/lacuzzi: 5' x 5'
j. Sand box: 4' x 4'
k. Swing set: 10' x 15'
7. Storage
a. Garbage can: 2' diameter
b. Two garbage cans: 2' x 6'
c. Cord of wood: 4' x 4' x 8'
Parking
a. Single car: 9' x 18'

just don't fit. If this happens, then there needs to be a change in the design program
after consulting with the clients.

Location
With a firm comprehension of the size needed for required spaces and ele-
ments, the designer is now ready to start actually drawing a functional diagram. The
designer should first place a clean sheet of tracing paper on top of the site analysis.
This should be done so that the observations and recommendations of the site analy- FIGURE 8-3
sis can be continually referred to during the first tries at placing the various spaces The designer should explore alternative functional relationships among the spaces.

188 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 189

 and fertile soil, in mostly full sunlight, and near a water source. And there are dif- FIGURE 8-5
ferent ideal site conditions for other spaces. To identify and understand these con- Length and width are approximately the same in
ditions more clearly, the designer may want to make a list of the ideal site a space with equal plan proportions.
conditions for each space and element that is to be located on the site.
After identifying the ideal site conditions required for each space or element,
the designer can proceed to locate the spaces and elements on the site where these
ideal conditions exist. This sounds simple in theory and often is in practice. How-
ever, there are times when some or all of the ideal conditions desired for a required
space or element do not exist on the site. For example, there may not be a place on
the site with partial shade, attractive views, and direct access for the outdoor liv-
ing and entertaining space. In this situation, the designer should attempt to place
the space or element where as many of the ideal conditions as possible are located
without jeopardizing the site or the ability of the space to function properly. Or, the
designer may propose to carefully modify the existing site so it will serve as a
proper setting for the space or element. For example, shade trees or attractive fea- FIGURE 8-6
tures could be added to the site if these conditions do not exist for the outdoor liv- A space with equal plan proportions may suggest
ing and entertaining space. an inward orientation conducive to conversation.

Proportion
Another factor that should be taken into account when drawing the func-
tional diagram is proportion. The proportion of an outdoor space is the relative re-
lationship between length and width. One common tendency in this step is to draw
most spaces as simple circular bubbles (Figure 8-4). This type of diagram makes
each outdoor space similar to a building where every room is a perfect square. Of
course, this would not be appropriate.

Each outdoor room needs special consideration based on the intended use of
that space. Proportions should vary as intended uses vary. Generally, spaces can
have equal plan proportions or unequal plan proportions.
Equal Plan Proportions. A space that has equal plan proportions is one in
which the length and width are about the same (Figure 8-5). Such a space lacks an
implication of direction and therefore is well suited for collection, stopping, or
gathering. A space of equal plan proportions can be inward oriented when proper
DtA6RAM FLOOR, PLAN enclosure exists (Figure 8-6). This type of space is often suitable for sitting and for
FIGURE 8-4 conversation among individuals in a group. The outside entry foyer where people
A diagram that has all the spaces drawn as circles is like a building in which all stop and gather before entering or after leaving the house is another space where
the rooms are square. equal plan proportions are appropriate (Figure 8-7).
190
Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams 191
FIGURE 8-7
The oiitside entry foyer may have equal plan
proportions to suggest stopping and gathering.

f
r

FIGURE 8-8 FIGURE 8-9

Length and width are not similar in a space with Spaces with unequal plan proportions are like hallways and suggest movement.
unequal plan proportions.

Unequal Plan Proportions. A space with unequal proportions (Figure

8-8) is one in which length is greater than width or vice versa. Outdoor rooms
with such proportions are like hallways in a building and suggest movement due
to their long, narrow quality (Figure 8-9). Long enclosed spaces are also appro-
priate for directing views in the landscape toward their ends or terminus points
(Figure 8-10). While spaces with unequal plan proportions are good for circula-
tion, they are not suited for gathering because such activity gets in the way of
movement through the space. And it is difficult to arrange furniture for conver-
sation in long narrow spaces; such an arrangement looks similar to a subway car
(the left side of Figure 8-11). It is easier for people to talk to each other when they
face each other (the right side of Figure 8-11). However, long spaces are good for
arrangement of furniture for looking out at other points in the landscape, such
as from a porch or veranda (Figure 8-12).

Configuration
Configuration is the general shape of a space. For example, the configuration
of a space may be simple, L-shaped, or complex. However, configuration does not I
refer to the specific form of a space, such as whether an area is round, square,
FIGURE 8-10
Spaces with unequal plan proportions tend to
direct attention to their ends when the sides are
r
curved, or angled. Configuration is similar to proportion in that it is concerned enclosed. PERSPECTfVE

192 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 193

 No! Yes!
FIGURE 8-11
The plan proportions of a space influence its ability to be used for gathering and conversation.

PLAM
FIGURE 8-12
Spaces with unequal plan proportions permit FIGURE 8-13
furniture to be arranged to direct views out- A space with a simple configuration has a strong sense of unity.
ward into the landscape.

Subepoce

FIGURE 8-14
A space with an "L-shaped" configuration tends to divide itself into two subspaces.

of Figure 8-15). The inside corner is a strategic place that can be seen easily from
with the outline of a space, although in more detail. Some basic plan configurations all locations within the "L" configuration and therefore is a potential place for a
are described and illustrated in the following paragraphs. focal point (right side of Figure 8-15). Examples of L-shaped spaces might in-
Simple Configuration. The generalized shape of a space can have a simple clude a major entertaining space with a small seating area to the side (left side of
configuration (Figure 8-13). A space with this configuration has a strong sense of Figure 8-16), or a wood deck with an eating area and an observation area adja-
unity because the entire area can be seen easily and completely at one time from cent to it (right side of Figure 8-16).
any location. A simple configuration is most suitable for gathering spaces like an Complex Configuration. A third possible configuration for outdoor space
eating area or an outdoor entry foyer. is composed of an edge that has many variations in its alignment (Figure 8-17).
These edge variations or "pushes and pulls" add variety to the space they sur-
"L-shaped" Configuration. As the name implies, a space with this con- round. Each "push" away from the space creates a small subspace and each "pull"
figuration bends around a corner (Figure 8-14) and establishes two smaller sub- provides some separation between the subspaces. When this is done with an out-
spaces in the legs of the "L" while still maintaining a sense of connection between door entertaining space, small pockets of space (the "pushes") for small intimate
them. A space with an "L" configuration can offer a sense of intrigue because groupings are created around the perimeter of the central space (Figure 8-18). An-
each subspace may not be entirely apparent as viewed from the other subspace. other example of a complex configuration is a wood deck designed to provide sev-
A feeling of mystery is created by what lies hidden around the corner (left side eral different and unique views into the surrounding landscape (Figure 8-19).

194 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 195

 FIGURE8-15
Characteristics of a space with an "L-shaped" configuration.

gubspqce • Subgpcce

FIGURE 8-18
A complex configuration can create several small spaces around the perimeter of the central space.

Internal Subdivision
Another important consideration of the functional diagram to address is the
FIGURE 8-16
internal organization of each space. This step gives the designer the opportunity to
Spaces with an "L-shaped" configuration may have one corner function as a subspace of the other larger area. understand more clearly how each space is to function within itself. One example
of this is provided in Figure 8-20. Here the internal organization of an outdoor liv-
FIGURE 8-17 ing and entertaining space was subdivided into more specific use areas. A conver-
A space with a complex configuration has sation space (space "A" on the diagram), quiet sitting space (space "B"), and a
"pushes" and "pulls" in its edge. sunning space (space "C") were all identified within the living and entertaining
space. The same consideration is given to the planting areas, which can be divided
into more specific plant types according to their size and type of foliage (Figure
8-21). However, no shrubs or other small-scale plant materials are shown or stud-
ied individually until the preliminary design phase is reached.

Edges
The outside edge around a space can be established in different ways. It may
be defined by a change of materials on the ground plane, slopes or changes in ele-
vation, plant materials, walls, fences, and/or buildings. In turn, spatial edges may
have a variety of characters based on the transparency of the edge. Thus, the line
drawn around a bubble in the functional diagram can be elaborated to suggest
transparency characteristics.

196 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 197

 TR;Terrtce U Uw-Shrubs
TV Tali shrubs ec; Ground
M'- Mediumaruhs F: Flayers
FIGURE 8-21
The planting areas on a functional diagram can be subdivided into more specific plant types.
FIGURE 8-19 , ,. . ,
A complex configuration can provide perimeter subspaces with views directed out into the surrounding landscape.

Solid
FIGURE 8-22
Graphic examples of transparency.

Transparency. Transparency is the degree of opaqueness of a spatial edge,

which influences how well a person can see. Three types of transparency are (1) solid,
(2) semitransparent, and (3) transparent (Figure 8-22).
1. Solid edges are those that cannot be seen through like a stone wall, a
wood fence, or a dense mass of evergreen trees. This type of edge would
be used where complete separation or privacy is desired.
2. Semi-transparent edges are those that can be partially seen through,
such as a wood lattice, a louvered fence, a panel of smoked plexiglass,
or a loosely foliated hedge. This type of edge provides a sense of spatial
FIGURE 8-20
A< conversation space enclosure while maintaining some degree of openness.
The spaces of a functional diagram can be subdivided into more £>; Quie^SittirgSpace 3. Transparent edges are completely open, providing an unobstructed
specific functions. C; Sunning Sp3oe view into a desired area from the space. This type of edge could be cre-
by g r by the lack of a vertical plane.

198 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 199

FIGURE 8-23 House
Entry and exit points as well as through circula-
tion should be shown on a functional diagram.

Circulation crculation Circula-Hon Circa lotion

cutB-Hnrajqh passes alorn cute across meanders
middle of sefe. space, ihrcugh space.
FIGURE 8-24
Alternative ways for circulation to move through a space.

'•J.

Circulation
Circulation, is concerned with the access points of spaces along with a general-
ized pattern of movement through the spaces. The points of entry and exit can be lo-
cated on the diagram by drawing simple arrows at the desired locations (Figure 8-23).
Here, the arrows indicate movement to and from the space. In addition to access, the
designer should also study and determine the most significant paths of movement
through those spaces where continuous circulation is planned. This can be designated
with simple dashed lines and arrows pointing in the direction of movement. This FIGURE 8-25 FIGURE 8-26
should be done on the basis of the function of that space and should address only the Graphic examples of primary circulation. Graphic examples of secondary circulation.
major routes of movement, not every possible path of movement.
In considering circulation, the designer should ask several questions. Should door or the connection from the inside living room through the exterior
the circulation occur through the middle of the space, around the outside edges of living and entertainment space into the lawn area.
the space, or in a direct line from the entry to the exit, or should it casually mean- 2. Secondary circulation. This type of circulation is of less importance and
der throughout the space? The designer should study alternatives for circulation occurs with lower frequency in comparison to primary circulation. A
and decide which is most compatible with the intended function of the space side route around the house or a casual garden path are examples of sec-
(Figure 8-24). ondary circulation. Figure 8-25 and Figure 8-26 show graphic examples
Not only is the location of the circulation examined, but its intensity and char- of primary and secondary circulation, respectively.
acter are also considered. As indicated before, the graphic symbols used to repre-
sent circulation are dashed lines and arrows. The specific type of arrow drawn can
suggest, among other qualities, the intensity and character of the circulation. Views
Intensity. The intensity of circulation is a factor of the frequency and im- Views are another factor that should he studied in a functional diagram.
portance of a circulation path. Two general types of circulation intensity are pri- What a person sees or doesn't see from a space or a particular point within a space
mary circulation and secondary circulation. is important to the overall organization and experience of a design. During the de-
velopment of a functional diagram, the designer concentrates on those views that
1. Primary circulation. This type of circulation is of major importance and are most significant to the major spaces of the design. The different types of views
occurs with moderate to high frequency. Examples of primary circula- studied are (1) panoramic views or vistas, (2) concentrated or focused views, and
tion include the front entry walk between the driveway and the front (3) blocked views.

200 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams

201
 T
o
FIGURE 8-27
Graphic examples of panoramic views. FIGURE 8-29
Graphic examples of blocked views.

FIGURE 8-30
Graphic examples of focal points.

FIGURE 8-28 light special points of the landscape. They should not be overused and scattered
Graphic examples of concentrated views. indiscriminately throughout an area as this will create a chaotic appearance re-
quiring the eye to look at too many different accents. A few graphic examples for
focal points are shown in Figure 8-30.

Panoramic View or Vista. This type of view takes in a wide area and often Elevation Changes
emphasizes a view in the landscape that is some distance from the viewer. It is an
Elevation changes should also be studied during the development of func-
encompassing view. A view to a distant mountain range, to the valley below, or out tional diagrams. It is during this stage that the designer should start thinking about
onto an adjoining golf course are a few examples. When these views extend off the
the third dimension of the ground plane. The designer might ask: "Should one
site to adjoining or distant points in the landscape, they are referred to as borrowed
have to go up from the lawn area to the outside entertaining space, or should the
landscapes. These are typically good views that a designer attempts to enframe or,
two spaces be at the same elevation? If there is to be a change, about how much
at the very least, leave unobstructed so they become part of the design's visual ex- should it be? One foot? Three feet?"
perience. Figure 8-27 shows graphic examples of a panoramic view.
One way elevational changes between spaces can be expressed in a diagram
Concentrated or Focused View. This type of view focuses on a particular is by means of spot grades (Figure 8-31). This method allows the designer to de-
point in the landscape, such as a piece of sculpture, a unique tree, or a bed of showy termine what space is higher than another and by approximately how much. An-
flowers. A concentrated view may be to a point either on or off the site. Figure 8-28 other way of indicating elevation change in the functional diagram is by lines that
shows how a concentrated view might be shown in a functional diagram. represent step locations along a circulation path (Figure 8-32).
As can be seen from the preceding paragraphs, there are a number of factors
Blocked View. This type of view is an undesirable view that needs to be of design organization that need to be thought about during the functional dia-
screened. High plant materials, walls, fences, and so on can all be used to block un- gram phase. It is not always easy to study all these factors together, but it is essen-
sightly views. Graphic examples for indicating blocked views are illustrated in tial to do so. It is necessary to examine each of these factors in association with the
Figure 8-29. others so the overall design can function in a logical, well-planned, and coordi-
nated manner. The more study given to the organization of a design at this time in
Focal Point the design process, the easier the design decisions become in subsequent phases.
Focal points, closely associated with views, are visual accents or elements
that are unique and stand out in contrast to their surroundings, such as a gnarled FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM SUMMARY
tree, a water feature, attractive spring flowers, a piece of sculpture, or a large tree.
It is important to plan the location of focal points in functional diagrams so they As stated earlier, the designer should study the different design factors when
can be coordinated with views. Focal points should be strategically placed to high- preparing a functional diagram. Each of these factors influences the others and

202 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 203

 ---steps
r. • - c\. • I
9 t 9
• • ' ***• I
&IO
+ ) ;f
sloped

FIGURE 8-31
Elevation changes between spaces can be expressed with spot grades.

r Steps

26.0 3O,0

FIGURE 8-33
Yes!
The entire site area should be covered with bubbles and other symbols in a completed func-
FIGURE 8-32 tional diagram.
Lines can be used within a circulation path to graphically indicate general step locations.

should be studied in concert with one another. When the functional diagram is
completed, the entire site area should be covered with bubbles and other graphic
symbols representing all the necessary spaces and elements of the design (Figure
8-33). There should be no blank areas or "holes" in the layout (Figure 8-34). When
this occurs, it indicates the designer has not made a decision about the use of this
area of the site, and it should be determined what will occur there.
Another suggestion for this step of the design process is to remember to use
alternatives. In fact, it is advisable to try two or three quickly developed alterna-
tives for the overall site organization. Alternatives encourage the designer to be
creative about organizing the site functions and to perhaps discover a better way
of solving a problem than was initially apparent. With a series of alternatives, the
designer is better able to pick the one alternative or combination of alternatives
that is best for further elaboration in the next step of design.

FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS FOR THE DUNCAN RESIDENCE

To better illustrate the thought process involved in the preparation of functional di-
agrams, let us return to the Duncan residence. Having completed all the steps of
the research and preparation phase, the designer is now ready to prepare a series
of functional diagrams for the Duncan residence.
Figure 8-35 shows the first attempt to organize all the major spaces and el-
ements for the Duncan residence in a functional diagram. The diagram shows a
widened entrance walk that extends some distance along the driveway to permit FIGURE 8-34
better recognition of the main entrance and easy access from the driveway. The There should be no blank areas or holes on a completed functional diagram.
sitting space is placed adjacent to, but separate from, the entrance walk so circu-
lation will not disturb or divide the space. Planting areas are woven in and

204 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 205

 around these spaces to help define them and to provide visual interest for a per-
son walking along the entrance walk. The existing Sugar Maple is integrated
P4-AY with this planting.
Secondary circulation has been provided around the east side of the house
for access between the driveway and the proposed work/storage space. The
work/storage space is located near the side door of the garage for convenience
and placement out of view from both the indoor and outdoor living spaces. The
west side of the house, by contrast, is left open except for a mass of trees for after-
noon shade.
In the backyard, the proposed raised terrace would function as an outdoor
eating space near the family room and sitting room. The grill is located to the
northeast of this space so smoke from the fire would be blown away from the space
(prevailing wind is from the southwest). The outdoor living and entertaining space
is placed farther from the house so it can take advantage of views into the rest of
the backyard. The eating space is made more private with the suggestion of a pri-
vacy fence on the east side of the space, and the living and entertaining space is
partially surrounded by plant materials for privacy.
The lawn area in the backyard has been left open and spacious to allow for
recreation and games. Some screening on the west, north, and east gives privacy
that is now lacking in the backyard. The play area in the northeast portion of the
site has been left where it presently exists so it will be very visible for supervision
from the house. The existing tree in the northeast corner is also retained and inte-
grated with additional plantings so it will not appear as an isolated element.
Figure 8-36 shows another alternative. In this concept, the sitting space in the
front has been integrated with the existing stoop, making one large space rather
than two isolated ones. The entrance walk has been separated from the driveway
by planting areas to cut down on the visual massiveness of the driveway's pave-
ment. In addition, a turn-around has been proposed to make it easier to back out of
the driveway. Planting occurs on both sides of the driveway near the street to soften
and subtly hide the driveway. In the backyard, the outside eating and living/en-
tertaining spaces are located so they function as outdoor extensions of the family
room by converting the existing window into a sliding glass door. The play area has
been moved so it will not be such an obvious element to look at. It is still located
where it can be seen from the outdoor living spaces. And a narrower screen has
been suggested along the northern property line so it will not take up as much area
of the backyard.
Each of these alternative functional diagrams explores a different way of or-
ganizing the required spaces and elements on the site. As in most typical situa-
tions, the Duncans and the designer found some of these more appealing than
others. After reviewing the two alternative diagrams, the Duncans decided they
liked a combination of ideas from the different diagrams. So, the designer took the
Duncans' preferences and produced one more functional diagram, Diagram "C"
(Figure 8-37).
The front yard of the Duncan residence in the functional diagram has been
given more study. The configuration of the entry foyer/sitting space, entrance
walk, and lawn area have been modified. The entry foyer/sitting space has now
EEMD RCAD been subdivided into more specific use areas and the location of the seating has
been suggested. The planting areas have also been subdivided to indicate the gen-
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM - A eral location of different types of plants (though no shrubs or ground cover have
been shown as individual plants). In addition, study has been given to the relative
ground elevation of the various spaces. This functional diagram indicates the en-
DUNCAN RESIDENCE DESIGN RESPONSE TWO L, _ J
LANDSCAPE DESIGNERS r H I'.IO
try foyer/sitting space is to be about one foot above the entrance walk. Views and
focal points are other factors that now appear on this functional diagram. The same
4140 WILLOW BEND EUGENE, OHIO 82047 BEDFORD CT.-EUGENE .OHIO 10S48
considerations are given to the backyard.
FIGURE 8-35
Functional Diagram "A" for the Duncan residence.
206 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 207
 "WILLCW E&4D
."Y/ILLCW EB4D RCAD
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM - B
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM - C

DUNCAN RESIDENCE DESIGN RESPONSE TWO L

LANDSCAPE DESIGNERS [_
NO X T
I'.ZO DUNCAN RESIDENCE DESIGN RESPONSE TWO ( ,_, J
LANDSCAPE DESIGNERS C_ _Z3
4140 WILLOW BEND EUGENE, OHIO 02047 BEDFORD CT.-EUGENE ,OH(O 10548
414O WILLOW BEND EUGENE. OHIO 62047 BEDFORD CT.-EUGENE .OHIO 10548
FIGURE 8-36
Functional Diagram 'B" for the Duncan residence. FIGURE 8-37
Functional Diagram "C" for the Duncan residence.
208 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams Functional Diagrams 209
 SUMMARY The entire functional diagram phase entails logical, thoughtful attention to all the
qualities of the site's functional organization. During this phase, the designer is
first and foremost a practical organizational planner. "What, when, where, and
why?" are the major questions that need to be answered in this step. Each of these
questions is addressed in a general manner without becoming overly concerned
writh specific details. The more thought put into functional diagrams, the easier the
following steps of the design process become.

Preliminary Design
and Design Principles

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8 discussed how functional diagrams are used to establish the overall func-
tional and spatial organization of a design during the first step of the design phase.
The organization of all these factors in a functional diagram furnishes the structure
and foundation for the next step of the design process: preliminary design.
Preliminary design starts with the functional diagram and ends with an il-
lustrative site plan, which may be supplemented with sections, elevations, and
perspectives depicting all the elements of the design in a semirealistic graphic
manner. To complete a preliminary design, the designer examines three interre-
lated factors. The first is careful consideration of the aesthetic organization and ap-
pearance of the design based on knowledge and application of three basic design
principles: order, unity, and rhythm. These principles help the designer create a vi-
sually pleasing design solution.
The second factor, called form composition, is the study of the exact location
of all two-dimensional edges and lines of the design. The designer accomplishes
this by converting the approximate outline of spaces developed earlier in the func-
tional diagrams to specific two-dimensional forms. This step begins to establish vi-
sual style or theme of the design.
The third factor examined in preliminary design is spatial composition. Spa-
tial composition is the design's third dimension of outdoor rooms that are based
on the foundation of the form composition. The designer uses grading (landform),
planting, walls/fences, steps, overhead structures, and so on, to complete the total
environment of the design during this step.
The objectives of this chapter are to (1) discuss the definition and purpose
of a preliminary design, (2) outline the process for developing a preliminary de-
sign, and (3) discuss the basic principles of design. The other important aspects

210 Chapter 8 Functional Diagrams 211

RESIDENTIAL
LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
DESIGN PROCESS FOR THE PRIVATE RESIDENCE

Norman K. Booth James E. Hiss