SSCE1793
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
CHAPTER 1
FIRST ORDER ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
LAST UPDATE: JANUARY 2019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
1.1 Basic Definitions and Terminologies 3
1.2 Types of First Order ODEs and
Methods of Solution
1.2.1 Separable Equation 8
1.2.2 Homogenous Equation 13
1.2.3 Exact Differential Equation 18
1.2.4 Linear First Order Differential
26
Equations
1.2.5 The Bernoulli Equation 32
1.3 Applications of First ODEs
1.3.1 Newton’s Law of Cooling 35
1.3.2 Natural Growth and Decay 39
1.3.3 Electric Circuits Model 43
1.3.4 Vertical Motion – Newton’s 46
Second Law of Motion
2
1.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES
➢ Differential equation
A differential equation is any equation which contains derivatives, either
ordinary derivatives or partial derivatives.
➢ Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)
❖ Contains one or more dependent variables
❖ with respect to one independent variable
Examples:
y is the dependent variable,
which depends on one
independent variable, x.
➢ Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
❖ involve one or more dependent variables
❖ and two or more independent variables
Examples:
u – dependent variable
x, y – independent variables
3
u – dependent variable
x, t – independent variables
u – dependent variable
x, y – independent variables
Can you determine which one is the DEPENDENT
VARIABLE and which one is the INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES from the following equations ???
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 Dependent Variable:
+ =0 => 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑤𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Independent Variable:
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑢
2
+ + = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 => 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Dependent Variable:
Independent Variable:
➢ Order of Differential Equation
❖ Determined by the highest derivative
4
➢ Degree of Differential Equation
❖ Exponent of the highest derivative
More examples:
𝑑𝑦 2
a) ( ) + 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 Order : Degree:
𝑑𝑥
𝜕2 𝑢
b) + 𝑢2 = cos 𝑡 Order : Degree:
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕𝑤 2
c) +( ) + 𝑤 = 𝑒𝑥 Order : Degree:
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥
4
𝜕3 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2
d) ( ) +( ) +𝑧 =0 Order : Degree:
𝜕𝑦 3 𝜕𝑦
➢ Linear Differential Equations
❖ Dependent variables and their derivatives are of degree 1
❖ Each coefficient of the derivatives depends only on the
independent variable
5
Examples:
Linear
Nonlinear – because
dy
the derivative is
dx
not of degree 1
Nonlinear – why?
Nonlinear – why?
➢ Nonlinear Differential Equations
❖ Other than linear differential equations
➢ Initial & Boundary Value
Initial conditions: will be given on specified given point
Boundary conditions: will be given on some points
6
Examples :
1) 𝑦(0) = 1 ; 𝑦 ′ (0) = 2 Initial condition
2) 𝑦(1) = 5 ; 𝑦(2) = 2 Boundary condition
➢ Initial Value Problems (IVP)
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Initial Conditions:
+ 2 + 𝑦 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦(0) = 0 ; 𝑦 ′ (0) = 1
➢ Boundary Value Problems (BVP)
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Boundary Conditions:
+ 2 + 𝑦 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦(0) = 1 ; 𝑦(1) = 2
7
1.2 FIRST ORDER ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS (ODE)
Types of first order ODE
- Separable equation
- Homogenous equation
- Exact equation
- Linear equation
- Bernoulli Equation
1.2.1 SEPARABLE EQUATION
How to identify?
𝑑𝑦
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢(𝑥 )𝑣(𝑦)
Hence this become a SEPARABLE EQUATION if it can be written
as
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑢(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑣(𝑦)
Method of Solution: integrate both sides of equation
1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑣(𝑦)
8
Before we proceed with the complete examples, let’s try to rewrite the
following functions into separable form:
9
Example 1:
Solve the initial value problem
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 cos 𝑥
= , 𝑦(0) = 1
𝑑𝑥 1 + 2𝑦 2
Solution:
i) Separate the functions
ii) Integrate both sides
iii) Use the initial condition given, 𝑦(0) = 1
iv) Final answer ln 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = sin 𝑥 + 1
Note: Some DE may not appear separable initially but
through appropriate substitutions, the DE can be
separable.
10
Example 2:
𝑑𝑦
Show that the differential equation = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 can be reduced to a separable
𝑑𝑥
equation by using substitution 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦. Then obtain the solution for the original
differential equation.
Solutions:
i) Differentiate both sides of the substitution wrt 𝑥
ii) Substitute into the DE
iii) Write into separable form
iv) Integrate the separable equation
11
Questions from past year Test 1:
Solve the following differential equation.
1 𝑑𝑦
=𝑒 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
12
1.2.2 HOMOGENOUS EQUATION
How to identify?
𝑑𝑦
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = , 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is homogenous if
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
for every real value of 𝜆
Method of Solutions:
i) Determine whether the equation homogenous or not
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
ii) Use substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 and =𝑣+𝑥 in the original DE
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
iii) Separate the variable 𝑥 and 𝑣
Separable
iv) Integrate both sides
equation
v) Use initial condition (if given) to find the constant value method
13
Example 1:
Determine whether the DE is homogenous or not
a) 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦)
b) 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
Solutions:
a) 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) =
b) 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = = + √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
14
Example 2:
Solve the homogenous equation
(𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solutions:
Note: 15
Non-homogenous can be reduced to a homogenous equation by
using the right substitution.
Example 3:
Find the solution for this non-homogenous equation
𝑑𝑦 𝑦−2 (1)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5
by using the following substitutions
𝑥 = 𝑋 + 3, 𝑦 =𝑌+2 (2),(3)
Solutions:
16
Questions from past year Test 1
17
1.2.3 EXACT EQUATION
How to identify?
𝑀(𝑥,𝑦)
Suppose 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = − ,
𝑁(𝑥,𝑦)
Therefore the first order DE is given by
𝑑𝑦 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
=> ⏟
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + ⏟
𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Condition for an exact equation.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Method of Solution (Method 1):
i) Write the DE in the form
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
And test for the exactness
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
ii) If the DE is exact, then
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 (1), (2)
𝑀= , 𝑁=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
To find 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), integrate (1) wrt 𝑥 to get
(3)
From (1) : 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜙(𝑦)
18
iii) To determine 𝜙(𝑦), differentiate (3) wrt 𝑦 to get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕
= [∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥] + 𝜙 ′ (𝑦) = 𝑁
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
iv) Integrate 𝜙 ′ (𝑦) to get 𝜙(𝑦)
v) Replace 𝜙(𝑦) into (3). If there is any initial conditions given,
substitute the condition into the solution.
vi) Write down the solution in the form
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴, where A is a constant
Method of Solution (Method 2):
i) Write the DE in the form
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
And test for the exactness
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
ii) If the DE is exact, then
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 (1), (2)
𝑀= , 𝑁=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
iii) To find 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) from 𝑀, integrate (1) wrt 𝑥 to get
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜙1 (𝑦) (3)
iv) To find 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) from 𝑁, integrate (2) wrt 𝑦 to get
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜙2 (𝑥) (4)
v) Compare (3) and (4) to get value for 𝜙1 (𝑦) and 𝜙2 (𝑥).
vii) Replace 𝜙1 (𝑦) into (3) OR 𝜙2 (𝑥) into (4).
viii) If there are any initial conditions given, substitute the conditions
into the solution.
ix) Write down the solution in the form
19
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐴, where A is a constant
Example 1:
Solve (2𝑥𝑦 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution (Method 1):
20
21
Exercise :
Try to solve Example 1 by using Method 2
Note:
Some non-exact equation can be turned into exact
equation by multiplying it with an integrating factor.
22
Example 2:
Show that (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0 is not exact. Then, by
multiplying both sides with the integrating factor, 𝜇 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 , solve the
equation.
Solutions:
23
24
Questions from Past Year Test 1
25
1.2.4 LINEAR EQUATION
How to identify?
The general form of the first order linear DE is given by
𝑑𝑦
(𝟏) + 𝒑(𝒙) 𝑦 = 𝒒(𝒙) (1)
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑝(𝑥 ) and 𝑞(𝑥 ) are functions in x NOTE:
Must be + here!!
Method of Solution :
i) Determine the value of 𝑝(𝑥 ) dan 𝑞 (𝑥 ) such that the
𝑑𝑦
coefficient of is 1.
𝑑𝑥
ii) Calculate the integrating factor, 𝜇(𝑥 )
𝜇(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
iii) Write the equation in the form of
𝑑
[𝜇(𝑥 )𝑦] = 𝜇(𝑥 )𝑞(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝜇(𝑥 )𝑦 = ∫ 𝜇 (𝑥 ) 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
iv) The general solution is given by
1
𝑦= ∫ 𝜇(𝑥 ) 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜇 (𝑥 )
26
Example 1:
Solve this first order DE
𝑑𝑦 1+𝑥 𝑒𝑥
+( )𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
i) Determine 𝒑(𝒙) and 𝒒(𝒙)
ii) Find integrating factor, 𝝁(𝒙) = 𝒆∫ 𝒑(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
iii) Write down the equation
27
iv) Final answer
𝑒𝑥 𝐶
𝑦= + 𝑥
2𝑥 𝑥𝑒
Note:
Non-linear DE can be converted into linear DE by using
the right substitution.
Example 2:
Using 𝑧 = 𝑦 2 , convert the following non-linear DE into linear DE.
𝑑𝑦
𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 2 = 1; 𝑦(1) = 1
𝑑𝑥
Solve the linear equation.
Solutions:
𝒅𝒚
i) Differentiate 𝒛 = 𝒚𝟐 to get and replace into the non-linear
𝒅𝒙
equation.
28
ii) Change the equation into the general form of linear equation
& determine 𝒑(𝒙) and 𝒒(𝒙)
iii) Find the integrating factor, 𝝁(𝒙) = 𝒆∫ 𝒑(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
29
iv) Find 𝒚
v) Use the initial condition given, 𝒚(𝟏) = 𝟏.
30
Questions from Past Year Test 1
31
1.2.5 BERNOULLI EQUATION
How to identify?
The general form of the Bernoulli equation is given by
𝑑𝑦 (1)
+ 𝑏(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑐(𝑥) 𝑦 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
where 𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑛 ≠ 1
To reduce the equation to a linear equation, use substitution
𝑧 = 𝑦1−𝑛 (2)
Method of Solution :
i) Divide ( 1 ) with 𝑦 𝑛
𝑑𝑦 (3)
𝑦 −𝑛 + 𝑏(𝑥) 𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝑐(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
ii) Differentiate ( 2 ) wrt 𝑥 ( to get )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
= (1 − 𝑛)𝑦 −𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 (4)
= 𝑦 −𝑛
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
iii) Replace ( 4 ) into ( 3 )
1 𝑑𝑧
+ 𝑏(𝑥) 𝑧 = 𝑐(𝑥)
(1 − 𝑛) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧
(1 − 𝑛)𝑏(𝑥) 𝑧 = ⏟
+⏟ (1 − 𝑛)𝑐(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥)
iv) Solve using the linear equation solution
• Find integrating factor, 𝜇(𝑥) = 𝑒∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑
• Solve (𝜇(𝑥) 𝑧) = 𝜇(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
32
Example 1:
Solve
𝑑𝑦 1
+ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦4
𝑑𝑥 3
Solutions:
33
Questions from Past Year Final
34
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER ODE
1.3.1 The Newton’s Law of Cooling
The Newton’s Law of Cooling is given by the following equation
𝒅𝑻
= −𝒌(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
𝒅𝒕
where Do you know
𝒌 is a constant of proportionality what type of
𝑻𝒔 is the constant temperature of the surrounding DE is this?
medium
The general solution is given by:
35
Example 1:
According to Newton’s Law of cooling, the rate of change of the
temperature 𝑇 satisfies
𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑇𝑠 is the ambient temperature, 𝑘 is a constant and 𝑡 is time in
minutes. When object is placed in room with temperature 10°C, it was
found that the temperature of the object drops from 90°C to 30°C in 30
minutes. Then determine the temperature of an object after 20 minutes.
Solution:
i) Determine all the information given.
Room temperature =
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑇0 =
When 𝑡 = 30, 𝑇30 =
Question: Temperature after 20 minutes, 𝑡 = 20, 𝑇 = ?
ii) Find the solution for 𝑇(𝑡)
36
iii) Use the conditions given to find 𝐴 and 𝑘
iv) 𝑡 = 20, 𝑇 = ?
37
Exercise:
1. A pitcher of buttermilk initially at 25⁰C is to be cooled by setting it
on the front porch, where the temperature is 𝟎℃. Suppose that the
temperature of the buttermilk has dropped to 𝟏𝟓℃ after 20 minutes.
When will it be at 𝟓 ℃ ?
2. Just before midday the body of an apparent homicide victim is
found in a room that is kept at a constant temperature of 70⁰F. At
12 noon, the temperature of the body is 80⁰F and at 1pm it is 75⁰F.
Assume that the temperature of the body at the time of death was
98.6⁰F and that it has cooled in accord with Newton’s Law. What
was the time of death?
3. (Past Final)
4. (Past final)
38
1.3.2 Natural Growth and Decay
The differential equation
𝒅𝒙 Do you know
= 𝒌𝒙 what type of
𝒅𝒕 DE is this?
where
𝒌 is a constant
𝒙 is the size of population / number of dollars / amount of radioactive
The problems can be seen in the applications of:
1. Population Growth
2. Compound Interest
3. Radioactive Decay
4. Drug Elimination
5. Chemical reaction
Example 1:
A certain city had a population of 25000 in 1960 and a population of 30000
in 1970. Assume that its population will continue to grow exponentially
at a constant rate. What populations can its city planners expect in the
year 2000?
Solution:
1) Extract the information
39
2) Solve the DE
3) Use the initial & boundary conditions
40
Questions from Past Year Final
41
42
1.3.3 Electric Circuits - RC
Given that the DE for an RL-circuit is
𝒅𝑰
𝑳 + 𝑹𝑰 = 𝑬(𝒕) Do you know
𝒅𝒕
what type of
where
DE is this?
𝑬(𝒕) is the voltage source
𝑳 is the inductance
𝑹 is the resistance
CASE 1 : 𝑬(𝒕) = 𝑬𝟎 (constant)
𝑑𝐼 (1)
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 = 𝐸0
𝑑𝑡
i) Write in the linear equation form
𝑑𝐼 𝑅 𝐸0
+ 𝐼=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 𝐸0
Hence, 𝑝(𝑡) = , 𝑞 (𝑡) =
𝐿 𝐿
ii) Find the integrating factor, 𝝁(𝒕)
𝑅
∫( 𝐿 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝜇 (𝑡) = 𝑒
𝑅𝑡⁄
=𝑒 𝐿
iii) Write down the equation as follows
𝑑 𝑅𝑡⁄ 𝑅𝑡 𝐸0
(𝑒 𝐿 𝐼) = (𝑒 ⁄𝐿 ) ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
43
iv) Integrate the equation to find 𝑰
𝑅𝑡⁄ 𝑅𝑡⁄ 𝐸0
(𝑒 𝐿 𝐼) = ∫ (𝑒 𝐿) ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
1 𝑅𝑡⁄ 𝐸0 𝐿 𝐸0 −𝑅𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑅𝑡⁄ [(𝑒 𝐿) ( ) ( ) + 𝐶] = + 𝐶𝑒 ⁄𝐿
𝑒 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅 𝑅
CASE 2 : 𝑬(𝒕) = 𝑬𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒘𝒕 or 𝑬(𝒕) = 𝑬𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒘𝒕
Consider 𝐸 (𝑡) = 𝐸0 sin 𝑤𝑡, the DE can be written as
𝑑𝐼
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 = 𝐸0 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡
i) Write into the linear equation form and determine 𝒑(𝒕) and
𝒒(𝒕)
𝑑𝐼 𝑅 𝐸0
+ 𝐼= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 𝐸0
Hence, 𝑝(𝑡) = , 𝑞 (𝑡) = sin 𝑤𝑡
𝐿 𝐿
ii) Find integrating factor, 𝝁(𝒕)
𝑅
∫( 𝐿 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝜇 (𝑡) = 𝑒
𝑅𝑡
= 𝑒 ⁄𝐿
iii) Write down the equation with the integrating factor
𝑑 𝑅𝑡⁄ 𝑅𝑡 𝐸0
(𝑒 𝐿 𝐼) = (𝑒 ⁄𝐿 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
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iv) Integrate the equation to find 𝑰
1 𝐸0 𝑅𝑡
𝐼=( 𝑅𝑡 )( ) ∫ (𝑒 ⁄𝐿 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝑒 ⁄𝐿 𝐿
Use tabular method, or integration by parts to solve
𝑅𝑡⁄
∫ (𝑒 𝐿) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡. Then, substitute the results in (1) to
obtain a complete solution to I.
Example 1:
Two 9-volt batteries are connected to a series in which the inductance is
0.25 Henry and the resistance is 8 ohms. Determine the current, I(t) if the
initial current is zero. Then, determine I when 𝑡 → ∞ (steady state).
Example 2:
Consider the circuit given in the figure with R=4, L=2, and V=cos 3t. Find
the current, I(t) .
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Vertical Motion – Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The Newton’s Second Law of Motion is given by
𝒅𝑽
𝒎 =𝑭
𝒅𝒕
Where
𝑭 is the external force
𝒎 is the mass of the body
𝒗 is the velocity of the body with the same direction with 𝑭
𝒕 is the time
Image from http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys311.old/lectures/freebody/freebody.html
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Example 1:
A parachutist falling towards earth with velocity v. His acceleration is given
by
dv
= 32 − 2v .
dt
Assume that the parachutist starts from rest (i.e at t = 0, v(0) = 0 ). Find the
velocity v = v(t) and the distance, x = x(t) that the parachutist has fallen
after t seconds.
Solution for v(t):
Solution for x(t):
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Example 2:
A particle moves vertically under the force of gravity, g against air
resistance 𝑘𝑣 2 , where 𝑘 is a constant. The movement of the particle is
govern by the differential equation
𝑑𝑣
= 𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 2 .
𝑑𝑡
If the particle starts off from rest, show that the velocity of that particle at
any time t is given by:
𝜆(𝑒 2𝜆𝑘𝑡 − 1)
𝑣=
(𝑒 2𝜆𝑘𝑡 + 1)
𝑔
such that 𝜆 = √ . Then, find the velocity as the time approaches infinity.
𝑘
Solutions:
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