KINEMATIC DESIGN AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

OF

PLANAR MECHANISMS

P. E. NIKRAVESH

and

M. A. POURSINA

Copyright 2019
 Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Organization of The Document 1-2
1.2 Using the Document 1-2

2 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS 2-1

2.1 Reference Frame 2-1
2.2 Degrees-of-Freedom 2-1
2.2.1 Joints and Degrees-of-Freedom 2-2
2.2.2 Mobility Formula 2-2
2.3 Planar Mechanisms 2-4
2.4 Four-bar Mechanisms—Grashof Condition 2-4
2.4.1 Inversions of a Grashof Four-bar 2-4
2.4.2 Inversions of A Non-Grashof Four-bar 2-6
2.5 Inversions of A Slider-crank 2-7
2.6 Toggle Position 2-8

3 VECTORS 3-1
3.1 Vectors 3-1
3.1.1 Rotated Vector 3-1
3.1.2 Position Vectors 3-2
3.1.3 Index of A Vector 3-2
3.1.4 Coordinates of A Point on A Link 3-2
3.2 Linear Velocity and Acceleration 3-2
3.2.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration 3-3
3.3 Vector Loop 3-3
3.4 Mechanisms with Multiple Kinematic Loops 3-4

4 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS 4-1

4.1 Design 1: Rocker Output (Two Positions - Function Generation) 4-1
4.1.1 Time Ratio 4-2
4.2 Design 2: Two Positions Crank-Rocker Quick Return 4-2
4.3 Design 3: Rocker Output (Two Positions – Motion Generation) 4-4
4.4 Design 4: Coupler Output (Two Positions – Motion Generation) 4-4
4.5 Design 5: Coupler Output (Three Positions – Motion Generation) 4-5
4.6 Design 6: Coupler Output (Two or Three Positions of the Coupler Extension) 4-6
4.7 Dyad 4-6
4.8 Design 7: Dyad for Rocker-Rocker Motion 4-7
4.9 Slider cranks 4-8
4.9.1 Slider-Crank (standard) 4-8
4.9.2 Design 8: Slider-crank 4-8
4.9.3 Slider-Crank (biased or offset) 4-9
4.9.4 Design 9: Slider-Crank (biased or offset) 4-9

5 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR KINEMATICS 5-1

5.1 System of Linear Algebraic Equations 5-1
5.1.1 A System of Two Equations in Two Unknowns 5-1
5.1.2 A System of n Equations in n Unknowns 5-1
5.2 System of Nonlinear Algebraic Equations 5-2
5.3 Newton-Raphson Method 5-3
5.3.1 One Equation with One Unknown 5-3
5.3.2 Two Equations in Two Unknowns 5-4
5.4 MATLAB function fsolve 5-5
6 ANALYTICAL KINEMATICS 6-1
6.1 Analytical Position, velocity, and acceleration Analysis 6-1
6.2 Kinematics Analysis of A Slider-crank (inversion 1) 6-1
6.2.1 Observations 6-3
6.3 Kinematic Analysis of Slider-crank (inversion 2) 6-4
6.4 Kinematic Analysis of Slider-crank (inversion 3) 6-5
6.5 Kinematic Analysis of a Four-bar 6-6
6.5.1 Secondary Computations in Kinematic Analysis 6-7
6.5.2 MATLAB Programs 6-9
6.6 Kinematic Analysis of Mechanisms with Multiple Kinematic Loops 6-9
6.6.1 Six-bar Mechanism 6-9
6.7 Coinciding Points in a Sliding Joint 6-10

7 GRAPHICAL POSITION ANALYSIS 7-1

7.1 Four-bar Mechanisms 7-1
7.2 Slider-crank (inversion 1) 7-3
7.3 Slider-crank (inversion 2) 7-4
7.4 Slider-crank (inversion 3) 7-4

8 GRAPHICAL VELOCITY ANALYSIS 8-1

8.1 What is An Instant Center? 8-1
8.1.1 Instant Center Between a Link and the Ground 8-1
8.1.2 Two Links Connected by A Sliding Joint 8-3
8.1.3 Number of Instant Centers 8-3
8.1.4 Kennedy’s Rule 8-3
8.2 Determining Unknown Velocities 8-4
8.2.1 Angular Velocity Ratio 8-6
8.3 Four-bar Mechanism 8-7
8.4 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 1) 8-10
8.5 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 2) 8-12
8.6 A Six-bar Mechanism 8-13
8.7 Strategy 8-18

9 GRAPHICAL VELOCITY ANALYSIS 9-1

9.1 Position and Velocity Vectors in Mechanisms 9-1
9.2 Velocities of Two Points on a Link 9-2
9.2.1 Two Points on a Link 9-2
9.2.2 Two Points and a Sliding Joint 9-4
9.3 Velocity Polygon 9-5
9.3.1 Four-bar Mechanism 9-5
9.3.2 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 1) 9-7
9.3.3 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 2) 9-8
9.3.4 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 3) 9-10
9.3.5 Offset Slider-crank Mechanism 9-11
9.4 Similarity concept 9-13

10 GRAPHICAL ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 10-1

10.1 Acceleration Vectors in Mechanisms 10-1
10.2 Accelerations of Two Points On A Link 10-3
10.2.1 Two Points on a Link 10-3
10.2.2 Two Points and a Sliding Joint 10-4
10.3 Acceleration Polygon 10-5
10.3.1 Four-bar Mechanism 10-5
10.3.2 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 1) 10-8
 10.3.3 Slider-cranks Mechanism (inversion 2) 10-9
10.3.4 Slider-crank Mechanism (inversion 3) 10-12
10.4 Similarity Concept 10-13

11 FUNDAMENTALS OF FORCE ANALYSIS 11-1

11.1 Scalar and Vector Products 11-1
11.1.1 Scalar (dot) product 11-1
11.1.2 Vector (cross) product 11-1
11.2 force, moment and torque 11-3
11.3 Common Forces and Torques 11-4
11.3.1 Applied Forces and Torques 11-4
11.3.2 Reaction Forces Torques 11-6

12 STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS 12-1

12.1 Static Equilibrium Equations 12-1
12.2 Static Equilibrium Analysis of Mechanisms 12-4
12.2.1 Free-Body Diagram Method 12-4
12.3 Coulomb Friction 12-7
12.4 Power Formula Method 12-9
12.5 Mechanical Advantage and Transmission Angle 12-10

13 DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS 13-1

13.1 Dynamic Equilibrium Equations 13-1
13.1.1 D’Alembert’s Principle 13-1
13.1.2 Revised Rotational Equation 13-1
13.2 Dynamic Equilibrium Analysis of Mechanisms 13-2
13.2.1 Free-Body Diagram Method 13-2
13.3 Coulomb Friction 13-3
13.4 Power Formula Method 13-4
13.5 Shaking Force and Shaking Torque/Moment 13-5
13.6 A MATLAB Program 13-6
13.7 Input Power Requirement (Motor) 13-7
13.8 Flywheel 13-9

14 BALANCING 14-1
14.1 static and dynamic unbalance 14-1
14.2 Single-Plane (Static) Balancing 14-2
14.3 Two-Plane (Dynamic) Balancing 14-4

REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION
This document is prepared for a course on kinematic design and dynamic analysis of mechanisms and
machines. The document discusses mostly graphical and analytical procedures for design and analysis—it
does not provide detailed description of any mechanisms or their use. For such detailed description the
reader should refer to any of the numerous available textbooks on this subject. The following are a few
recommended textbooks:

• Norton, R.L., Design of Machinery, 5th ed., 2012, McGraw-Hill. (Or any of the older
editions.)

• Uicker, J.J., Pennock, G.R., Shigley, J.E., Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, 5th ed., 2017,
Oxford University Press.

• Cleghorn W. L. and Dechev N., Mechanics of Machines, 2nd ed., 2015, Oxford University
Press.

• Waldron, K.J., KInzel, D.L., Kinematics, Dynamics, and Design of Machinery, 1999, John
Wiley & Sons.

The traditional graphical methods that are discussed in this document are intended to be performed by
pencil-and-paper, using drawing tools such as ruler, compass, right-angle, etc. Direct measurement from
the drawn figures should be used to solve for unknowns in a problem.

Most of the analytical procedures can also be performed by pencil-and-paper, however the use of a
program such as MATLAB (or other packages such as Maple, Python, or Mathematica) is highly
recommended. In this document we have used MATLAB to solve some of the analytical exercises.

MATALB is a programming tool that is widely used for numerical modeling, analysis, and visualization
of various problems in science and engineering. In this course, analytical kinematics and dynamics can be
performed by hand calculation for very simple systems. However, as it will be seen in this document,
even a simple mechanism can become an analytical challenge without the use of a computer program.
Therefore, setting up a problem in MATLAB can significantly improve the efficiency of an analysis. In
this document some analytical problems are accompanied by corresponding MATLAB codes. For
instance, MATLAB programs fourbar.m, fourbar_force.m, and fourbar_anim.m are provided for
kinematic analysis, static and dynamic force analysis, and visualization of a four-bar mechanism. As
such, students are highly encouraged to form and solve analytical problems in MATALB.

A commercial software named Working Model (WM) can be used to construct and analyze the dynamics of
a variety of planar systems. The software is easy to use due to its front-end graphical user interface; i.e., no
programming is involved in constructing and analyzing a model that describes a mechanism. The student
version of the software could be purchased (good for six months) from its website at:

www.design-simulation.com/wm2d/

The use of Working Model is not a requirement for this course. This information is only provided as a
recommendation.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 1-1

 INTRODUCTION

1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE DOCUMENT

This document is arranged in chapters that can be categorized into three parts:

• Chapter 2 provides a discussion on fundamental terminologies of kinematics of mechanism. A

review of vector algebra is provided in Chapter 3. Graphical procedures for kinematic synthesis
(or design) of mechanisms, mainly four-bars, are described in Chapter 4. Finally a review of
numerical methods for solving linear and nonlinear algebraic equations can be found in Chapter
5.

• Chapter 6 describes analytical procedures for kinematic analysis of mechanisms. A MATLAB

program for analyzing the kinematics of four-bar mechanisms is presented in this chapter.
Chapters 7-10 describe classical graphical methods for position, velocity, and acceleration
analyses of mechanisms.

• Chapters 11-13 describe fundamentals of force analysis, and analytical and graphical methods
for static and dynamic force analyses of mechanisms. Finally Chapter 14 discusses the force and
moment balancing of rotating components to eliminate undesirable shaking.

1.2 THIS COURSE

This document has been prepared for the on-campus and the on-line course AME 352, Dynamics of
Machines. Each topic of this document starts with the explanation of a technical concept including the
corresponding mathematics and formulations (if any). Simple numerical examples are provided with most of
the topics to assist students in learning how to apply a described concept and formulation to design or
analyze a mechanism.

The on-line version of the course is accompanied by a series of lectures, as narrated Power-Point video
presentations. The video lectures follow the order of presentations in this document. The lectures can be
accessed via the course website on D2L.

Each video lecture covers one or more sections of this document. Each lecture must be viewed in
conjunction with these notes. Lectures must be viewed and studied before attending a class session. (Please
refer to the course calendar on the course website.) Following each set of lectures for a session, a Quiz must
be taken and completed before attending the class or viewing the lectures for the following session.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 1-2

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

2 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS
One of the main objectives in the design of mechanisms is to ensure that the stresses in individual links
do not exceed certain threshold. Stress analysis requires the knowledge of forces (applied and reaction)
that act on each link. Determining the reaction forces requires complete understanding of the kinematics
and dynamics (kinetic) of the system. A kinematic analysis requires determining the position, velocity,
and acceleration of all the links in a system, which is performed based on the geometry of the system, not
the physics laws of motion. Where in a kinetic analysis, we study motion and its relationship to forces
and torques using physics laws of motion. In this chapter, some of the fundamental concepts and
terminologies of kinematics, particularly those for mechanisms, are reviewed.

2.1 REFERENCE FRAME

y
We will use a Cartesian x-y reference frame in our analyses whenever needed.
Unless it is stated otherwise, we have the x-axis horizontally with the positive
direction to the right. Therefore, the y-axis will be vertical, with the positive
x
direction up.

2.2 DEGREES-OF-FREEDOM

One of the most important concepts in the analysis and design of a mechanical system is its mobility (M)
or its degrees of freedom (DoF). A mechanical system’s DoF is equal to the number of independent
entities needed to uniquely define its position in space at any given time.
As shown in the following figures, a free particle (point) on a plane has 2 DoFs.
y y

x x
Moving in the x direction Moving in the y direction

The displacement of a particle to reach from point A to point B is not dependent on the order of its
displacement along the x and y axes. For instance, the particle can first move in the x direction, then in the
y direction. Alternatively, the particle can first move in the y direction, then in the x direction.
A A
C
y y

B D B
x x
A free body (link) on a plane has 3 DoFs. As shown in the following figures, any general motion
(displacement) of a free planar link can be decomposed into three independent motions:

y y y

x x x
Moving in the x-direction Moving in the y-direction Rotating about the z-axis
Since in planar motion each free body has 3 degrees of freedoms, two free planar bodies have
2 × 3 = 6 DoFs, and in general, n free planar links have n × 3 = 3n DoFs.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-1

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

2.2.1 Joints and Degrees-of-Freedom

A kinematic joint (pair) connects two bodies (links), where one of the bodies could be the ground. As
shown in the following figures, a joint eliminates one or more DoFs between the two bodies depending
on its type.

A pin joint eliminates 2 A sliding joint eliminates 2 A pin-in-slot joint eliminates 1 DoF.
DoFs. DoFs.

The joints that eliminate 2 DoFs are called full joints, while those that eliminate 1 DoF are called half
joints.

Examples:

A single pendulum A double

is composed of 1 pendulum consists
moving body pinned of 2 moving bodies
to the ground. The and 2 pin joints.
system has 1 DoF. The system has 2
DoFs.

A triple pendulum A four-bar mechanism

consists of 3 moving consists of 3 moving
bodies and 3 pin bodies and 4 pin joints (2
joints—it has 3 of the bodies are pinned
DoFs. to the ground). The
mechanism has 1 DoF.

Note: In this and other chapters, a pin joint (hinge) is shown by a filled (dark) circle when it connects a
link to the ground.

2.2.2 Mobility Formula

The mobility formula can help us determine the number of DoFs for most planar systems:
M = 3 × Bmoving − 2 × J full − J half (2.1)
where,
M is the mobility or the number of DoF;
Bmoving is the number of moving bodies;
J full is the number of full joints; and
J half is the number of half joints.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-2

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

The number of DoFs of a system essentially indicates the number of motors needed to independently
work to generate motion for the system.

Example 2.1
Triple pendulum contains 3 moving bodies, 3 full Slider-crank contains 3 moving bodies, 4 full
joints, and no half joints. joints, and no half joints.

M = 3 × 3 − 2 × 3 − 0 = 3 DoFs M = 3 × 3 − 2 × (3 + 1) − 0 = 1 DoF
Six-bar mechanism contains 5 moving bodies, 7 This system contains 4 links and 6 pin
full joints, and no half joints joints.

M = 3 × 5 − 2 × (5 + 2) − 0 = 1 DoF M = 3 × 4 − 2 × 6 − 0 = 0 DoF
Zero DoF means a structure (none of the links
can move).

For some mechanisms the mobility formula fails to provide the correct number of DoF. For example,
for the five-bar mechanism shown, there are 4 moving links and 6 pin joints, where the two side links are
parallel and the other two links are parallel to the ground link. The mobility formula yields
M = 3 × 4 − 2 × 6 − 0 = 0 DoF
However, it should be clear from the illustration
that the system has 1 DoF—this system is not a
structure.
The reason for the failure of the mobility
formula in this case is the redundancy due the fact
that the parallel links are equal in length and remain
parallel.

Note: If a pin joint is connecting 3 links, the number of pin

joints must be counted as 2. In general, if a pin joint
connects n links, we must count that as n − 1 pin joints in
the mobility formula.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-3

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

2.3 PLANAR MECHANISMS

A planar mechanism is a mechanical system that contains more than one moving link, more than one
joint, and the links move in parallel planes. Slightly different definitions for a mechanism may be found in
literature. In this course, we accept the following criteria as a definition for a mechanism:
• A mechanism has only one degree of freedom. This definition enforces a condition that the links and the
joints in a mechanism to form one or more closed kinematic chains (loops). (The definition of kinematic
chains will be given in the upcoming chapters). By this definition a pendulum is not a mechanism.
• A mechanism may contain only pin and sliding joints (this also include the combine pin-in-slot joint).
By this definition, systems containing cam-followers or gears are not mechanisms.

In this course, link 2 is mainly considered as the link which is pivoted to the ground and also connected
to the motor. Essentially, this link generates the input motion/power to the mechanism.

In the followings, we provide terminologies mainly used in this course for mechanisms:
• Ground: Any link or links that are fixed (nonmoving) with respect to the reference frame. Note that the
reference frame may in fact itself be in motion (car, airplane, train, …). In this course, ground is
considered as Link 1.
• Coupler (connecting rod): A link that has complex motion, and is not pivoted to the ground.
• Crank: A link that makes a complete revolution, and is pivoted to ground.
• Rocker: A link that has oscillatory (back and forth) rotation, and is pivoted to the ground.
• Kinematic inversion (inversion): Kinematic inversion is created by grounding a different link to generate
a different mechanism, resulting in generating a new “function” or “task”. For a mechanism with n links
(including the ground), we can fix any of the n links to the ground; therefore, the mechanism has n
inversions.

2.4 FOUR-BAR MECHANISMS—GRASHOF CONDITION

Four-bars are the most commonly used mechanisms. As shown in the figure, this mechanism contains
four links including the ground. The effective link lengths L1 , L2 , L3 , and L4 represent the distances
between the center points of the connecting hinges, which distinguish them from the lengths of the links.
In most applications of four-bar mechanisms, a rotary motor is used about the axis of one of the pin
joints to rotate one of the links continuously. Therefore, it is crucial to know which of the links can make
a full 360
rotation. Grashof condition is a simple test to determine that at least one of the links can be
rotated with a rotary input (motor).
Measure the length of the four links:
S : denotes the length of the shortest link; L3
L : denotes the length of the longest link;
P and Q : denote the lengths of the other two links.
The four-bar is Grashof if L2 L4
S + L≤ P+Q
In a Grashof four-bar at least one of the links can go through a
L1
complete rotation; i.e., 360o . The four-bar is non-Grashof if
S + L> P+Q
This means that none of the links can rotate completely.

2.4.1 Inversions of a Grashof Four-bar

A four-bar mechanism has four inversions depending on which of the links is fixed to the ground.
Although the link lengths do not change between inversions, the motion of the four-bars to an observer
standing on the ground (attached to the fixed link) appears to be very different.
The following figures are constructed by the program WorkingModel (WM). An anchor is used to fix
one of the bodies to the ground. A motor should be distinguished from a simple pin joint.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-4

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

Inversion 1: Crank-Rocker mechanism

In this inversion, the shortest link is the crank
and driver, while the frame being either adjacent
links.

Inversion 2: Crank-Rocker mechanism

This inversion is similar to inversion 1. The
two inversions are not distinct from each other.

Inversion 3: Double crank mechanism (drag link)

In this inversion, the shortest link is the frame.
The two links connected to the frame exhibit crank
motion.

Inversion 4: Double rocker mechanism

In this inversion, the link opposite the shortest
link is the frame. For this inversion, a full rotation
of the coupler link (shortest link) is possible.
Therefore, one can mount the motor between the
coupler and any other adjacent links to the
coupler.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-5

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

2.4.2 Inversions of A Non-Grashof Four-bar

A non-Grashof four-bar also has four inversions.

Note that none of the links can go through a
complete rotation.

Inversion 1:

Inversion 2:

Inversion 3:

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-6

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

Inversion 4:

2.5 INVERSIONS OF A SLIDER-CRANK

A slider-crank is a four-bar where one of the pin joints is replaced by a sliding joint. This mechanism
also has four inversions.

Inversion 1: This inversion is used in standard reciprocating combustion engines.

Link 1: engine block
Link 2: crank (output)
Link 3: connecting rod
Link 4: piston (input)
It should be noted that if we switch between the input and output links, the mechanism could be used as
a compressor.

2 3

4
1

Inversion 2: This inversion was mainly used in

early radial aircraft engines. In this mechanism, the
slider block has a complex motion.
Link 1: rotating engine house (output)
Link 2: ground frame (attached to aircraft)
Link 3: connecting rod
Link 4: piston (input)

2
3
4
1

Inversion 3: This inversion was mainly used to drive the wheels in early steam locomotives.
Link 1: piston (input)
Link 2: drive wheel (output)
Link 3: frame
Link 4: piston housing

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-7

 KINEMATIC FUNDAMENTALS

1 4

Inversion 4: This inversion is mainly used in well pumps.

Link 1: pump station (output) 2
Link 2: pump handle (input)
Link 3: coupling link
Link 4: fixed pump body

2.6 TOGGLE POSITION

When two links of a mechanism become

collinear (forming a straight line), the links are
said to be in toggle. We consider a four-bar (3)
mechanism as an example.
(4)

(2)
(1)

Links (2) and (3) are in toggle (two cases):

(3)
(3)

(2)
(2)

Links (2) and (1) are in toggle (two cases):

(2) (1) (2) (1)

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 2-8

 VECTORS

3 VECTORS
Vector algebra forms the mathematical foundation for kinematics and dynamics. Geometry of motion is at
the heart of both the kinematics and dynamics of mechanical systems. Vector analysis is the time-honored
tool for describing geometry. A vector can be described either geometrically or algebraically.

3.1 VECTORS

Geometric presentation
Vectors are denoted by bold-face characters such as R,
V, etc. The magnitude of a vector, such as R, is denoted as:
| R | , R , or R
The angle of a vector is denoted as θ which is measured
positively counter-clockwise (CCW) with respect to a well-
defined axis. It is common to consider the positive x-axis as
the reference axis.
In kinematics and dynamics, a vector may represent
position, velocity, acceleration, force, or moment/torque.

Algebraic presentation
A vector can be projected onto the x- and y-axes of a
Cartesian frame in order to form its analytical representation.
⎧ Rx ⎫ ⎧ R cos θ ⎫ ⎧cos θ ⎫
R= ⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬= R⎨ ⎬
⎩ Ry ⎭ ⎩ R sin θ ⎭ ⎩ sin θ ⎭
This representation remains valid regardless of whether the
angle is in the first, second, third, or fourth quadrant, as long
as the angle is measured CCW with respect to the positive x-
axis.

Note: In handwritten exercises, since we cannot
write in boldface, we should denote a vector with an over-
score arrow or an under-score line, for example R or R.

3.1.1 Rotated Vector

If a vector such as R is rotated 90
CCW, it will be denoted

as R (called R-breve or R-rotated). The rotated vector will
have the same magnitude as R but its x-y components will be
different:

⎧ R cos(θ + π2 ) ⎫ ⎧−R sin θ ⎫ ⎧− sin θ ⎫ ⎧−Ry ⎫

R=⎨ π ⎬
=⎨ ⎬= R⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬
⎩ R sin(θ + 2 ) ⎭ ⎩ R cos θ ⎭ ⎩ cos θ ⎭ ⎩ Rx ⎭

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 3-1

 VECTORS

3.1.2 Position Vectors

In general, a position vector describes the position of one point with

respect to another point. Either of these points could be moving or
stationary. When a point moves, the orientation and/or the magnitude
of its position vector change as well. For instance, in the figure
shown, R BA connects two points that are defined on two separate
moving links; Furthermore, R CO connects point O on the ground
(stationary) to point C on a moving link.

Note: A point depicted as a small black circle in a figure is assumed stationary (defined on the ground).

3.1.3 Index of A Vector

In kinematic analysis of mechanisms, it is helpful to assign indices to

position vectors. Most commonly, an index refers to the end points of
the vector. The first letter in an index indicates the head of the vector
(the arrow) and the second letter refers to the tail of the vector. For
example, vector R BC reads position of B relative to C, and R CO reads
position of C relative to O.
In some problems, for notational simplification, the index may
carry a single number. For example, vector R 3 in the diagram is the
same as vector R BC .

B
3.1.4 Coordinates of A Point on A Link
C
Position vector can be used to describe the coordinates of a point with
respect to the origin of a Cartesian reference frame. For example,
R CO describes the coordinates of point C with respect to the origin O. R CO
When the reference point is the origin, for notational simplification, it O
may be dropped from the index; e.g., we may say R C instead of R CO .

3.2 LINEAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

The time derivative of a position vector represents the velocity of Q

the point the position vector represents. For example: B
d A R BA
R =R
≡ V (velocity of B relative to A)
dt BA BA BA
R CQ
d
≡ V (velocity of C relative to O)
R =R C
dt CO CO CO

Such a velocity is also called linear velocity.

R CO
O

Note: Linear velocity is defined for a point (not for a link or a vector).

When the reference (the tail) point of a position vector is stationary, that point’s index could be dropped
from the index of the velocity vector. For example:
d
R = VCO = VC
dt CO
P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 3-2
 VECTORS

If we consider another stationary point such as Q, we get

d
R = VCQ = VC
dt CQ
This means that the velocity of a point with respect to the ground is independent of the defined reference
point on the ground. This vector represents the velocity of C relative to the ground or the absolute velocity of
C.
The second time derivative of a position vector, or the time derivative of a velocity vector, denotes the
acceleration of the point the position vector represents. For example, acceleration of B relative to A is
denoted as
d2

≡ d V = V
≡A
R BA = R BA
dt 2
dt BA BA BA

The absolute acceleration of C (acceleration of C with respect to the ground) is denoted as

d2

≡ d V = V

≡A
R CO = R CO
dt 2
dt C C C

Note: Linear acceleration is defined for a point (not for a link or a vector).

3.2.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration

The time rate of change in the orientation of a vector, or a link, is defined as

the angular velocity of that vector or link. In planar systems, the angular
velocity is the time rate of rotation about the z-axis and it is denoted as

d
θ = θ
≡ ω
dt
We consider a counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation as positive and a clockwise (CW) rotation as negative.

Note: Angular velocity is defined for a vector or a link, not for a point.

Vectors that are defined on the same body experience the same B
angular velocity. For example, R BA , R BC , and R CA have the same
angular velocity (and angular acceleration) since they are defined R BA
between the points of the same body. R BC

A C
R CA
The time rate of change of the angular velocity of a vector, or a link, is defined as the angular
acceleration of that vector or link. In planar systems, the angular acceleration is a vector along the z-axis,
and it is denoted as
d2 d
2
θ = θ

≡ ω = ω
≡ α
dt dt
We consider a counterclockwise (CCW) rotation as positive and a clockwise (CW) rotation as negative.

3.3 VECTOR LOOP

The position vectors that are defined for kinematic analysis of a mechanism should form one or more
kinematic loops (also called closed chains). As an example, the vectors that are defined for the four-bar in
(a) form a loop. These vectors may be directed differently to form a loop as shown in (b).
In the four-bar shown in Figure (a), the directions of the vectors are formed in a way that we can
immediately write the vector loop as
R AO2 + R BA = R O4O2 + R BO4

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 3-3

 VECTORS

We can also move all the terms to the left-hand side and rewrite the equation as

R AO2 + R BA − RO4O2 − R BO4 = 0

(a) (b)
In Figure (b), the directions of the vectors are defined such that we may not be able to directly form a
vector loop equation. In order to construct the loop equation, we need to follow the following rule:

If we navigate in a loop from vector to vector, the vector that is navigated from tail-to-head is
considered positive and the vector that is navigated from head-to-tail is considered negative. For
example, for the four-bar in (a), if we navigate through the loop in the following fashion
O2 → A → B → O4 → O2 , vectors R AO2 and R BA are navigated positively and R BO4 and R O4O2 are
navigated negatively.

Therefore, the vectors in Figure (b) form the vector-loop equation

R AO2 − R AB + R O4 B − R O4O2 = 0

Obviously, there are many other possible scenarios. Any of these vector loop equations can be used for
kinematic analysis of the mechanism.

3.4 MECHANISMS WITH MULTIPLE KINEMATIC LOOPS

A mechanism may contain more than one kinematic loop. For these systems, we first identify the loops of
the mechanism. Then we define the position vectors corresponding with the links of the system. This is
followed by constructing the vector loop equations. It should be noted that since some loop equations can be
constructed by adding or subtracting other loop equations to or from each other, these equations may
become dependent (redundant). Therefore, to investigate the kinematics of the system, we do not use all
loop equations. We use as many loop equations as the number of independent ones.

Example: Six-bar mechanism (a four-bar and a slider-crank)

This mechanism contains two independent loops: O2 ABO2 and O6CAO2O6 . Therefore, two independent
vector loop equations can be constructed as:
R AO2 + R BA = R BO2 (3.1)
RCO6 + R AC = RO2O6 + R AO2 (3.2)

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 3-4

 VECTORS

We can also visualize a third loop as O6CABO2O6 . However, this is a redundant loop—its vector loop
equation can be obtained from subtracting equation (3.2) from equation (3.1):
RCO6 + R AC + R BA = RO2O6 + R BO2
If we combine the two ground vectors, R BO2 and R O2O6 , into one vector we get:
RCO6 + R AC + R BA = R BO6 (3.3)
We only need two of these three equations.

Note: In examples containing a sliding joint, the vector that

connects the two links must be defined parallel to the axis of
the sliding joint. This is a rule that we must follow, otherwise
we can make a simple problem too difficult to solve. For
example, for this slider-crank, we should not define a vector
directly from O4 to A. Instead, we should define two vectors,
R BO4 which is parallel to the sliding axis and R AB
perpendicular to the sliding axis.

Note: If the ground vector is not parallel to the x-axis, we

may decompose it into two vectors—one parallel and one
perpendicular to the x-axis. For example, R O4O2 may be
replaced by RO1O2 + RO4O1 .

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 3-5

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

4 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS
Linkages (mechanisms) are designed for particular motion characteristics. For instance, a mechanism may
be designed for function generation in which there is a correlation between its output and input links. A
mechanism may be designed for path generation. In such designs, it is desired for a point on the mechanism
to follow a defined path. Finally, a mechanism may be designed for motion generation in which it is desired
for a line to follow a prescribed sequence of positions. In this chapter, we present several graphical
techniques to design four-bar mechanisms and slider-cranks for such purposes.
Since most mechanisms require an electric motor to provide the necessary power to operate, we must
make sure that the input link of the designed system is capable of rotating 360
. This means that if the
designed system is a single four-bar, the Grashof condition must be satisfied.

4.1 DESIGN 1: ROCKER OUTPUT (TWO POSITIONS - FUNCTION GENERATION)

Design a crank-rocker four-bar (Grashof) where the input

link rotates completely, and the output link (the follower) θ4
rocks back and forth with a prescribed angle. The design
requires equal time forward and back for the rocker B
assuming a constant speed motor turning the crank. As
shown in the diagram, link 2 is the crank and link 4 is the
rocker with a prescribed angle θ 4 . A
Since there are no other requirements, there are
infinite numbers of designs that would fulfill the stated O4
requirements. The design process is summarized in the O2
following steps.

1. Select a length L4 for the rocker (follower). B2

Place the pin joint O4 at a convenient location on
B1
the ground. Construct the rocker at its limit
θ 4 L4
positions, based on the given angle θ 4 . This
L4
process gives us the position of the pin joint B at
its two limit positions, B1 and B2 . O4
2L2
2. Draw an axis through B1
B2 . B2

3. Place the pin joint O2 at a convenient location on B1

this axis (infinite choices). This establishes the 2L2
ground link and the length L1 = O2O4 .

O4
4. Measure the distance B1 B2 . This is twice the
O2
length of the crank, L2 .

5. Draw a circle with its center at O2 and the radius B2

L2 .
B1

A2

A1 O4
6. Position the pin joint A at two positions, A1 and O2
A2 , at the intersections of the axis and the circle.
P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-1
 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

This establishes the length of the coupler B

L3 = A1 B1 = A2 B2 .

7. Test for Grashof’s condition. If non-Grashof, A

repeat the process from step 3 by locating O2 at
a different location on the axis. O4
O2

This figure shows the designed four-bar.

4.1.1 Time Ratio

In Design-1 it is required that the rocker to have equal time forward and back assuming a constant speed
motor as the input. We achieved this requirement by assuring the crank to rotate 180 o when the rocker
moved forward, and 180 o when the rocker moved backward. For such a mechanism, the time ratio is one-to-
one; i.e., TR = 1 :1 .
In another design, it may be required for the output link to move slow in one direction and fast in the
other direction; for example, the time ratio could be TR = 1 :1.5 (fast:slow). This is normally called a quick-
return mechanism. To design such a mechanism, we must assure that the crank circle is split into two
portions, α and β , such that α / β = TR . Since α + β = 360 o , we can determine the two angles:
T 1

α = R 360 o , β = 360 o (a) A2
1+ TR 1+ TR
The difference between any of these two angles from 180 o is

denoted as δ : A1
δ = 180 o − α = β − 180 o (b) O2

4.2 DESIGN 2: TWO POSITIONS CRANK-ROCKER QUICK RETURN

This is similar to Design 1, but here the time ratio is not one-to-one; e.g., TR = 1 :1.2 .
1. (Same as step 1 in Design 1) Select a length L4 B2
for the rocker (follower). Place the pin joint O4
at a convenient location. Construct the rocker at B1
its limit positions, knowing the angle θ 4 . This
process gives us the position of the pin joint B at
its two limit positions, B1 and B2 . O4

2. Compute α , β , and δ .

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-2

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

3. Draw two axes from B1 and B2 such that the B2

angle between them is δ . For this purpose, you
may draw an axis through B2 first (infinite B1
choices), and draw a line making an angle δ

with the first axis. Then from B1 draw an axis
parallel to the line. The intersection of the two O4
axes is O2 . This establishes the ground link and
the length L1 = O2O4 . O2

4. With its center at O2 , draw a circle arc from B2 B2

until it intersects the O2 B1 axis at B2′ . B2

B1

O4

O2

B2

5. Measure the distance between B1 and B2′ . This 2L2 B2
is twice the length of the crank, L2 .

B1
6. Draw a circle with radius L2 , centered at O2 .


7. Position the pin joint A at two positions, A1 and O4
A2 , at the intersections of the two axes and the A2
circle. This establishes the length of the coupler O2
L3 = A1 B1 = A2 B2 .
A1

8. Test for Grashof’s condition. If non-Grashof, B

repeat the process from step 3 by drawing the
axis through B2 in a different orientation.

Note that:
O2 B2 = L3 + L2 , O2 B1 = L3 − L2 A O4
Therefore,
O B − O2 B1 O B + O2 B1
L2 = 2 2 , L3 = 2 2 O2
2 2

9. This is the designed four-bar.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-3

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

Note: This method is adequate for time ratios up to 1 :1.5 . For larger time ratios we need to design a six-bar
or a more complex mechanism.

4.3 DESIGN 3: ROCKER OUTPUT (TWO POSITIONS – MOTION GENERATION)

This problem requires designing a crank-rocker four-bar, D1

D2
where an extension to the rocker link should find two
limiting positions, C1 D1 and C2 D2 , as shown.
C2
This design can easily be turned into Design 1 or
Design 2 depending on the required time-ratio.

C1

1. Draw the perpendicular bi-sector to C1C2 . D1

D2

2. Draw the perpendicular bi-sector to D1 D2 . C2

3. The intersection of the two perpendicular bi-

sectors is the location of the pin joint O4 .
C1

O4
4. Construct the rocker link at its two limits O4 C1 D1 D1
D2
and O4C2 D2 .
C2
5. Select a proper value for L4 and place the pin
joint B at its two limits B1 and B2 .
C1 B2
6. Continue with either Design-1 or Design-2
procedure. B1
θ 4 L4
L4

O4

4.4 DESIGN 4: COUPLER OUTPUT (TWO POSITIONS – MOTION GENERATION)

In some four-bar mechanisms, the output link could be

the coupler, not the follower. In this design problem, B1
two positions of the coupler links are provided. These
are not necessarily the limiting positions. We assume
that A1 and A2 are two positions of the pin joint A, and
A1 A2
B1 and B2 are two positions of the pin joint B; i.e., L3
is known. B2

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-4

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

1. Draw the perpendicular bi-sector to A1 A2 . B1

2. Place the pin joint O2 at a convenient location
on this line (infinite choices). This establishes
the length L2 = O2 A1 = O2 A2 . A1 A2
3. Draw the perpendicular bi-sector to B1 B2 . B2
4. Place the pin joint O4 at a convenient location
on this line (infinite choices). This establishes
the length L4 = O4 B1 = O4 B2 and L1 = O2O4 . O2 O4

B1
If it is required for the four-bar to be Grashof, we B
must check for that. If the designed mechanism is not
Grashof, we repeat steps 2 and 4 by placing O2 and O4 A
A1 A2
at different locations on their corresponding bi-sectors.
We repeat this process until we find a Grashof four-bar. B2

O2 O4
If (a) the problem statement did not require a Grashof four-bar, or (b) we cannot find a Grashof four-
bar, or (c) A1 B1 and A2 B2 should be the limiting positions of the coupler, we should do the followings:
(1) we must assure that the designed four-bar can move from position 1 to position 2 and back
continuously (without a need to disassemble/re-assemble the mechanism); and (2) we must design a dyad
to drive this four-bar (dyads are discussed later in this chapter).

4.5 DESIGN 5: COUPLER OUTPUT (THREE POSITIONS – MOTION GENERATION)

A variation of Design 4 could be that three B1

orientations of the coupler link are provided. A2 B2
A1

A3
B3
1. Draw the perpendicular bi-sectors to A1 A2 B1
and A2 A3 . The intersection of these two bi- A2 B2
sectors is the pin joint O2 . This establishes A1
the length L2 = O2 A1 = O2 A2 = O2 A3 .
A3
B3
2. Draw the perpendicular bi-sector to B1 B2
and B2 B3 . The intersection of these two bi-
O2
sectors is the pin joint O4 . This establishes
the lengths L4 = O4 B1 = O4 B2 = O4 B3 O4
and L1 = O2O4 .

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-5

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

B1
We observe that the design is unique. Most A2
likely, the design is non-Grashof. As long as the B2
A1 A
designed four-bar can move between the three
configurations continuously, we can add a dyad to
drive this four-bar. B
A3
B3

O2

O4

4.6 DESIGN 6: COUPLER OUTPUT (TWO OR THREE POSITIONS OF THE COUPLER

EXTENSION – MOTION GENERATION)

Another variation of Design-4 or Design-5 is E1 E2

F1
that two or three positions of an extension of the
coupler link are provided. We are given the
freedom to shape the coupler link as desired. E3 F2
Assume the extension is given at three EF
positions as shown.

F3
1. We can decide on the shape of the E1 E2
F1
coupler link and construct it at one of
the positions. This step establishes the
B1
location of the pin joints A and B at that E3 F2
configuration, and the length of the
coupler L3 = AB .
A1

F3
2. Construct the same shape for the E1 E2
F1
coupler at the other configurations. This
step establishes the location of the joints
B1
A and B at the other configurations. E3 F2

B2
3. The design can be continued as Design- A1
A2
4 or Design-5.
A3 F3
B3

4.7 DYAD

Most six-bar mechanisms are combinations of two four-bars or a four-bar and a slider-crank. Most often one
of the four-bars is the driving mechanism; i.e., it is a Grashof four-bar with a rotational motor (input). The
second mechanism, whether a four-bar or a slider-crank, contains the output link.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-6

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

D
B
(5)
(3)
(6)
A C
Original design
Dyad (4)
(2)
O4 O6
O2

As an example, consider the six-bar mechanism shown containing two four-bars in series. The original
four-bar O4 CDO6 was designed first to perform certain task. Link 6 (or link 5) is the output link. This four-
bar may or may not be Grashof. Regardless of that, the four-bar O2 ABO4 has been added to drive the
original four-bar. This second four-bar is called a dyad. The output link of the dyad becomes the input link
of the original mechanism.

4.8 DESIGN 7: DYAD FOR ROCKER-ROCKER MOTION

A four-bar has been designed in such a way that

its follower link can rock back and forth by an θ4 O6
angle of θ 6 . The input link of this four-bar (5)
negotiates in a range of θ 4 . Design a dyad to drive (4) (6)
this four-bar with a given time ratio ( TR could be
1 :1 or ≠ 1 :1 ). θ6
O4
1. Select an appropriate position for the pin
joint B on the input link of the original θ4 O6
four-bar. This point could be along the B1 C
(5)
axis of the link, could coincide with pin
B (6)
joint C, or the link could be made
triangular; i.e., C, B, and O4 form a B2
Dθ
6
triangle. O4

2. Construct link 4 in its two limiting B1

positions in order to determine the θ4
locations of B1 and B2 .
B2

O4
3. Follow the procedure of Design-1 or A1
Design-2, depending on the time ratio, to
complete the dyad. In this example, we
O2 A2
have assumed TR = 1 :1 .
B1
θ4
B2

O4
4. The resulting six-bar is depicted in the
figure.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-7

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

(2) A
O2 (3)
θ4 O6
C
(5)
(4) B (6)

Dθ
6
O4

4.9 SLIDER CRANKS

In a slider-crank, the input is either link 2 (crank) or link

4 (slider). If link 2 is the input link, we have a piston
(3)
pump, which is called a forward-driven system, such as (2)
pumps for compressed air or water. If link 4 is the input
link, we have a backward-driven system. A good example (4)
is the internal combustion engine.
The design process for slider cranks is much simpler (1)
than that of four-bars. In a standard non-offset slider-crank, the time ratio is always 1 :1 . The only design
parameter we need to decide is the ration L3 / L2 .

4.9.1 Slider-Crank (standard)

A slider-crank (or crank-slider) is a four-bar mechanism Top-dead-center

where one of the pin joints is replaced by a sliding joint. In
a standard slider-crank, the line connecting the pin joints A B
at O2 and B is parallel to the axis of the sliding joint. O2

A Connecting rod
Crank Bottom-dead-center
B A
Slider B
O2
O2
Stroke
In these figure, we also show Top-dead-center (TDC), Bottom-dead-center (BDC), and stroke. It should
be noted that stroke is equal to 2 × the crank length.

Note: If the crank rotates with a constant angular velocity, it takes the same amount of time for the slider to
move from the TDC to the BDC as it does going from the BDC to the TDC.

4.9.2 Design 8: Slider-crank (Standard)

Design a slider-crank to have a stroke of 0.12 m.

In order to design a slider-crank with the given properties, we follow these steps:
1. Choose the crank length to be L2 = 0.12 / 2 = 0.06 m.
2. Choose a reasonable value for the length of the connecting rod, L3 . Reasonable values for a connecting
rod should satisfy 1/ 5 ≤ L2 / L3 ≤ 1/ 3 . In this example, we choose L3 = 0.24 m.

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-8

 KINEMATIC SYNTHESIS

4.9.3 Slider-Crank (biased or offset)

In an offset (or biased) slider-crank, the line connecting the pin joints at O2 and B is not parallel to the axis
of the sliding joint. When the slider goes from the BDC ( B1 ) to the TDC ( B2 ), the crank rotates β = 180 + δ
degrees. When the slider goes from the TDC to the BDC, the crank rotates α = 180 − δ degrees. If the crank
rotates with a constant angular velocity, a time ratio is defined as TR = α / β . The offset slider-crank
performs as a quick-return mechanism.

 = 180 o

A1

A2
O2
a


B1 B2

= 180 o + 

4.9.4 Design 9: Slider-Crank (biased or offset)

Design a slider-crank to provide a time ratio of 1:1.25 for the slider motion.

1. Calculate α, β, and δ as
α
TR = , α + β = 360 , δ = 180 − α = 180 − β
β
In this example, α = 160o , β = 200o , and δ = 20o .
2. Choose reasonable values for the lengths of the crank, L2 , and coupler, L3 . In this example, we
choose L2 = 1.0 and L3 = 2.5 .
3. Construct the triangle B1O2 B2 . The line B1 B2 O2
represents the axis of the slider (or parallel to
the ground). The offset a is determined from the L 3 + L2
figure or it can be determined analytically. a
L 3
L2

B1 B2

P. Nikravesh, M. Poursina 4-9