University of Massachusetts Amherst

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Master's Capstone Projects Center for International Education

1999

A Proposal for a Community Development

Training Program for Afghan Women in Exile as
Agents of Change
Rahela Sakhi Kamyar

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A PROPOSAL FOR A COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TRAINING PRGOGRAM
FOR AFGHAN WOMEN IN EXILE AS AGENTS OF CHANGE

A MASTER PROJECT PRESENTED

by

RAHELASAKHIKAMYAR

Submitted to the Graduate School of the

University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment
Of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF EDUCATION

SEPTEMBER 1999

Center for International Education

 A PROPOSAL FOR A COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TRAINING PROGRAM

A Master Project Presented

by

RAHELASAKHIKAMYAR

Approved as to style and content by:

 DEDICATION

To my sister, Fatima, a source of inspiration,

my innocent patient nieces

and

all women of my war tom town of Kabul

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page number

DEDICATION l1l

ABSTRACT Vl

CHAPTERS

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. BACKGROUND, THE PEOPLE, SOCIO-CULTURAL 4

CHARACTERISTICS & POLITICAL CHANGE
IN AFGHANISTAN

A. The People 4
B. Socio-Cultural Characteristics in Afghanistan 5
C. Analysis of Cultural Dimensions 5
D. Socio-Political Change & Conflict 7

III. PROBLEM STATEMENT & PROGRAM JUSTIFICATION 10

IV. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13

A. Emergence of Women In Development 13

B. Women's Development & Gender Policies 19
In Afghanistan
C. 'Shura', Afghan Traditional Community Activities 22
D. The Concept of Empowerment 23
E. Vision of Empowerment, Western vis-a-vis 25
Traditional

V. NONFORMAL EDUCATION AS AN INTERVENTION 27

FOR EMPOWERMENT OF AFGHAN WOMEN

A. Over-All Program Goal 29

B. Short-Term Objectives 29
C. Long-Term Objectives 31
D. Strategy and Process 33
1. Needs Assessment 37
2. The Role of Facilitators 39
3. The Concepts of 'emic & 'etic' 39

IV
VI. PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION & DELIVERY 42

A. Training Activities 43
B. Project Description 44
C. Project Management 45

VII. EVALUATION, MONITORING AND REPORTING 48

A. Evaluation 48
B. Monitoring 50
C. Reporting 51

VIII. CONCLUDING COMMENTS 53

APPENDICES

A. DAILY TRAINING ACTIVITIES 55

B. MODULE 1: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT 58

C. MODULE2: FINANCIAL & SUPPLY MANAGEMENT 61

HAND-OUT NUMBERS 1-5 64

D. MODULE3: COMMUNICATION & GROUP WORKING 69

HAND OUT NUMBER 6 73

E. MODULE 4: BASIC WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN ISLAM 74

READING MATERIALS

F. MODULE 5: GENDER AWARENESS TRAINING 119

READING MATERIALS

G. BUILDING GENDER AWARENESS, HAND-OUT # 7 125

H. EVALUATION FORMS AND HAND-OUT 140

NUMBERS 8-10

REFERENCES 143

v
 A PROPOSAL FOR A COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TRAINING PROGRAM
FOR
AFGHAN WOMEN IN EXILE AS AGENTS OF CHANGE

ABSTRACT

It is illegal in today's Afghanistan if a strange male hears a woman's voice or the

sound of her footsteps. The man will be provoked and it is the fault of the woman and she

should be punished. This is an example of misinterpretation of Islam being enforced by

the Taliban in Afghanistan since 1996.

Afghan women suffer from disparity in terms of education, employment and

participation in their country's development process. Traditionally, women in

Afghanistan have had an important symbolic role as the core or heart of the society.

Women have been seen as the primary vehicle for passing Islam from one generation to

the next. Above all, women in Afghanistan symbolize honor. However, Islamic

extremists believe that educating women or allowing them to move freely in public

engulfs the nation in sexual anarchy, destroys the family and brings dishonor to the

society. These declarations have been proclaimed in the name of holy Islam and the rich

culture of the Afghans. Islam is an important part of Afghans' lives, as it defines their

roles and lays out the principles for leading one's life. However, due to the lack of

Islamic knowledge by self-declared Afghan religious leaders, there exists in Afghanistan

today a distorted version of the religion. Under the Islamic laws, a woman has the right

to education and to work outside her home.

vi
 The restrictions on women's status and movement in Afghanistan are due to the

country's political instability during the past two decades. With the advent of political

conflict and religious movement, women's development issues and gender policies have

been changing frequently within radical Islamic and liberal ideas since 1970s. The status

of women has been perceived to be a great socio-political problem. With the flight of

half of the Afghan population in exile, the issue of women is taken outside of the country.

Away from the culture of oppression, there must be ways and means to challenge

patriarchal ideology. I believe a process of social change including community

mobilization in favor of women's empowerment is needed to sustain their participation

and over-come resistance. Thus, to this participation, the Afghan women in exile must

shoulder the responsibility to take action and critically quest the silence of causes and

effects of oppression. As an Afghan woman, having been displaced for more than two

decades, and based on my field experience, I believe there is a need for strong movement

through community organization to promote Afghan women's active participation in the

restoration of the legitimate rights, which they enjoyed before.

I propose a program of nonformal education for community development for a

group of Afghan women in exile as agents of change. The program will be conducted in

the form of a pilot workshop with the assistance of an international organization, which is

committed to the Afghan Women's Organizations in Pakistan, the neighboring country of

Afghanistan.

The activities of the training program will be carried out according to short-term

and long-term objectives. This program will be offered as an alternative approach to the

Western paradigm of women's development. Formulation of this program will be based

vii
on Islamic knowledge, the Holy Quran and Hadith (the sayings of Prophet Mohammed)

that will foster and support indigenous knowledge.

I begin by looking at the socio-cultural background of Afghanistan. I describe the

frequent political changes and highlight the main problems interfering in the process of

social and economic development in the country. Then, I review traditional community

history and look at the process of women's development and gender policy in

Afghanistan. Against these perspectives, I try to explore an alternative solution for the

empowerment of Afghan women through nonformal education. I am seeking a suitable

approach and search for useful lessons in order to bring change and sustainability in the

condition of the lives of Afghan women. Because the main focus of this program is on

the empowerment of women, I discuss this topic in order that the reader can see different

visions of empowerment in the context of the West and a traditional society like

Afghanistan.

viii
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Change means different things for different people. In its broadest meanmg,

change is development. "Development means to bring to a more advanced or effective

state, to cause to grow or expand to bring into being or an activity, to come gradually into

existence or operation and to become evident or manifest." (The Random House

Dictionary, 1978.) Change for development in the context of this paper is the liberation

of human potential: to have basic needs met, to explore one's identity, and to be able to

choose, act and decide. Selener (1997, 23) defines development in a community as an

organizing process that prepares the oppressed to stand for their rights. This movement is

an effort to address immediate needs and institutionalize the community's activities as an

on-going process.

The main interacting elements in this process which affect the state of

development in a society are the composition and size of population, the social and

economic conditions, and the political environment. In fact, the strategies adopted and

the problems faced in the process vary from country to country. The key elements for

development are the formation of an organization for change, the linkage between the

organization and its inhabitants and their feelings. Therefore, organizations cannot

achieve effectiveness, unless its formation is based on shared values, individual and

communities' needs and feelings. Studying community within these dimensions brings

about the notions of power distribution, lines of communication, and styles of decision

making in the context of a specific society. The structure and function of a society is

determined not only by rationality, but by rationality that varies according to the cultural
environment through its influence on the distribution of power and through its influence

on the value of the dominant coalitions and through the formulation of rules and

regulations. Thus, the issues of change are complex and involve all levels of a society.

The problem at each level varies depending on the degree of disruption of normalcy in a

community and this varies from community to community in the course of a conflict. In

the process of change for development, people are affected, be it politically,

economically, or, in religious practice in a society. The rate of change and its impact call

for bringing balance in equality among communities, especially those disempowered in

the name of culture or religion.

Generally speaking, interpretation of change for equality is contingent upon many

factors. Type, and composition of population and socio-cultural characteristics of a

society have a great effect on the process of change. In Afghanistan, individuals, families

and communities tend to put great pressure on each other to conform to social norms and

traditional values. So, a negative reaction from these sources to the attempts to change the

status of women would be expected. Adequate knowledge about these factors by the

service providers, outsiders or insiders will serve as the basis for formulation of a training

program. The status of Afghan women is also affected by environmental factors. The

environment of immigration has created better opportunities and abilities for these

women. We can see significant shifts in the level of cultural and social norms, and a

general improvement in the status of women. These shifts also tend to alter individual,

family and community responses. Structural shifts in the social norms, economic pressure

and, change of environment have forced change in the status of Afghan women. To take

the environment of immigration as an opportunity, there is a need for organized

2
community mobilization for the empowerment of these women through nonformal

education. The intention of this Master project is to propose a community-training

program for a group of Afghan women as agents of change in exile. In addition to its

introduction, the paper is organized around six chapters. Chapter two gives a profile of

the background of Afghanistan, then highlights the great and continuing influences which

the socio-cultural characteristics and political conflicts have had on the process of change

for development. Chapter three defines specific problems that mitigate against the

development of the status of Afghan women and presents a brief justification of the

training program. Chapter four presents a review of literature on Women In

Development, highlights the emergence of Women In Development, examines gender

policies in Afghanistan, reviews traditional community activities in the country, and

discusses the concept of empowerment with the vision of empowerment in the contexts

of the West vis-a-vis a traditional society like Afghanistan. Keeping in mind, the socio-

political and cultural context, the chapter presents the over-all goal, and short-term, and

long-term objectives of the program. Chapter five shifts its focus on the role played by

nonformal education as an intervention for empowerment of Afghan women in exile. In

the light of these perspectives, the writer speaks about process and strategy, and proposes

a careful needs assessment of the program. Chapter five also examines the role of

facilitators and the issues of insider/outsider from an anthropological perspective.

Chapter six describes the process of implementation and delivery of the training program.

and suggests a training activities, with an overview of project description, and

management. Evaluation, monitoring and reporting of the training program are set out in

the chapter seven. Chapter eight presents the concluding comments

3
 CHAPTER II

BACKGROUND, THE PEOPLE SOCIO-CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS &

POLITICAL CHANGE IN AFGHANISTAN

The People

Afghans have had a rich cultural and historical background since the formation of

the country in the 1J1h century. Located on a crossroads between south, west, and central

Asia, the people of Afghanistan draw their heritage from all of these regions. The one

common factor is Islam, but Islam also has many different interpretations and it is a faith,

which divides as well as unites. The total population is estimated between 15 to 17

million people. There are about 30 languages in Afghanistan; the two official languages

used for teaching and administration are Persian and Pushto. Language and religion are

the main determinants of group identity. Pushtons are the inhabitants of the east and

south part of the country. They claim to be the founders of the Kingdom and have been

dominant since the formation of a Pushtun monarchy in the 17th century... Tajiks are the

next largest group of the population. They are mainly found in the northeast and the west

and in the capital, Kabul. They are not organized along tribal lines; they are mostly

Persian (Dari) speakers. The Uzbeks and Turkmen are the two largest Turkic groups in

Afghanistan. Along with the Pushtons and Tajiks, they live on the plains north of the

country. Another major groups are the Hazaras who live mainly in the central highlands.

Their origins are Mongol. They speak a dialect of Persian. Other smaller groups include

Nuristanis, Baluchi, Aimaqs, Arabs and, Kizilbash, and other Persian speakers. (Johnson,

1998, 5-7.)

4
 Socio-Cultural Characteristics in Afghanistan

Problems of social and economic development in Afghanistan are directly related

to its traditional social structure and political instability. Social groups in Afghanistan are

mixtures of old and new affiliations. Afghans are staunch Muslims, however, even

though they share the same religion and nationality, this heterogeneous population is

strongly divided along tribal, social class and ethnic lines. Although there are clearly

described trends toward the formation of economic and academic classes, such as

professional, skilled labor and, intelligentsia, these are individuals who find their personal

loyalties pulled in different directions because of the persistence of strong attachments to

family, clan or tribal affiliations. It should be mentioned that the stresses within the

Afghan society are not caused by a clash between oriental traditionalism and western

modernism, but they are basically the product of indigenous social forces which tend to

reinforce horizontal class divisions and gradually to de-emphasize vertical kinship and

ethnic affiliations. This trend may fracture tribal, clan and family loyalties in favor of

ties with horizontal economic or social groups. (Majotti, 1992, 7)

Analysis of Cultural Dimensions

From a symbolic anthropological viewpoint, culture is seen as "a system of group

meanings and values that needed to be interpreted, read or deciphered in order to be

understood (Uma, S & Corla, R 1985.) Thus, not only rationality, but also rationality

that varies according to the cultural environment determines the structure and function of

a community. I would like to see Hofstede' s, (1983) cultural dimensions and compare

this framework within the context of the Afghan society. Hofstede, (1983) looks at how

society and culture impact the interior culture of a community. He applies an ecological

5
correlation by four organizationally relevant dimensions of culture. Hofstede, (1983)

called these four dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-

femininity and individualism-collectivism. According to Hofstede, (1983 ), masculine

cultures emphasize monetary gains, performance, growth, bigness and fastness,

achievement and excellence in performance. Feminine cultures value quality of life,

social welfare, community formation, smallness and slowness.

In the current cultural context of the Afghan society cultural and power systems

are categorized as highly centralized. The flow of information is vertical rather than

horizontal; decisions are made at the top, mostly individually or within the peer group.

Responsibility rests at the top and is shared with the associated peer group; conflicts are

handled by consultation with the peer group or involvement of a trusted party. There is a

power group at the top hierarchical levels in organizations, where decisions are made and

implemented without much questioning by the people at the lower levels. This is a

centralized and rigid decision-making process. The flow of communication is weak, the

structure of organizations is not clear and control is strong, and asserted by force at the

top level. The dimension of uncertainty avoidance (UA) refers to how the cultural group

is stressed by an unknown future. The culture of Afghan extremists falls within the high

(UA) with low tolerance, ambiguity and a high level of stress. This situation puts all

Afghan society under an uncertain or unknown future. Along the

individualism/collectivism dimensions, Afghan culture can be placed under collectivism.

Members of certain tribes or political groups are loyal to their tribes and language groups.

These members share responsibility within their groups, and. the group protects them.

Some other issues intensify the problems for change in Afghanistan, one is that financial

6
assistance is often time bounded and pre-planned. Another issue is that most of the

rehabilitation projects present the result of their work by vague figures rather than by

showing quality or quantity achievement in the status of the project beneficiaries. The

third issue is the lack of responsible institutions to provide goods and services, which will

be responsive to local needs.

Socio-political Change and Conflicts

Afghanistan had a monarchical system from 1734 until 1973, when Mohammed

Dau' d, overthrew, his cousin, the King Mohammed Zahir Shah. Da'ud abolished the

Kingdom, declared a republic, and announced himself as the president of Afghanistan. In

1978, the Marxist Government overthrew the President. The country closed a long

chapter of its history and entered a completely new era. In 1979, the Soviet Union

invaded Afghanistan. The collapse of Soviet backed Government in 1992 brought a new

destabilizing force in the region, the Islamic extremists, Mujahideen. These forces began

fighting and restlessly competing for power among themselves and do so until today.

In November 1996, basic human rights and the rights of women deteriorated

when the most extremist Islamic group, backed by Pakistanis, the Taliban (religious

students) brought harsh consequences for the women and young girls in Afghanistan.

Immediately, after the 'Taliban' gained control, female schools and educational

institutions were closed. Female government employees, doctors, judges and engineers

were prevented from going to their offices or institutions. Under present orders from

Pakistan and the Taliban, a woman cannot venture outside the home, unless a male

accompanies her. The male must prove that he is the husband, brother, father, or uncle of

the woman. Because of the advent of rapid political changes within the country,

7
women's movements developed outside the country. As a result, Afghan women have

been subjected to severe restrictions, and the dress code was imposed on them.

During the past two decades, a peculiar mixture of war, culture, politics, and

religious conflicts have caused confusion and threatened the lives of Afghan people,

especially, the lives of women. The flight of millions of the country's population into

exile has damaged the whole infrastructure and normal social life in the country. The

collapse of the Soviet backed Government in Afghanistan did not put an end to the

atrocities of Afghans; instead, it unleashed a new destabilizing force in the country. The

political backdrop, since 1992 has created a situation whereby the country's destiny has

been dictated not by the masses, but by those at the top who have chosen to assert their

will on others through force. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, the

Afghan society was split into two extremes, Islamic religious extremists and the

communist-backed government in the central parts of Afghanistan. The socialist

government in Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, started to launch socialist reforms,

including women's liberation through education and provision of employment

opportunities. They started to pick-up words and verses from Holy Quran emphasizing

the concept of socialism. The educational system and social institutions were changed to

in ways, which were not acceptable to the values and cultural norms of the Afghan

people. The reaction to this change, was the excessive restriction on women in the

country and in Pakistan, by the extremists in the rank of anti-Communist movements.

Afghanistan became the final front of the cold war by formation of the

Mujahideen (holy warriors) groups along the border of the neighboring country, Pakistan.

The United States countered the Soviet move into Afghanistan by working against their

8
invasion of Afghanistan. In the end, Afghanistan suffered and became the victim of

competition between the two powers, the US and the former Soviet Union. After the

withdrawal of the Soviet forces in 1989, Afghanistan abandoned. The country was left in

ruins, and its people in misery. Afghanistan had regained its independence, but entered a

new decade, without a central government or functioning infrastructure. Since then,

ethnic differences have been emphasized and exploited by religious leaders. Along with

ethnic ties, language and regionalism play important roles in the daily conduct of the

Afghan population. These elements have affected negatively the formulation of internal

and external policies and the administration of the whole country. As a consequence,

Afghan women have become the victims of these conflicts in the name of religion and

culture. They lost their legitimate rights to vote and to run for political office, rights,

which the constitution of 1964 guaranteed to them. With the flight of more than half of

the Afghan population into exile, the norms for defending the honor of women became a

critical test and challenge for the Afghan male. To protect the family, the tribe and the

women, an Afghan man will sacrifice his wealth for his head, but his head for his honor.

Homes and herds he might lose, but not honor. Protecting their honor by protecting the

women gives stature to Afghan men (Majatti, 1992, 45.)

9
 CHAPTER III

PROBLEM STATEMENT AND TRAINING PROGRAM JUSTIFICATION

Traditionally, Afghan women have been seen as the primary vehicle for passing

Islam from one generation to the next. Above all, women in Afghanistan symbolize

honor. With the advent of rapid political changes in Afghanistan, women's development

issues and gender policies have been footballs bouncing between radical Islam and liberal

ideas during the last two decades. The status of women has been perceived to be a great

socio-political problem. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979-92 brought drastic

changes in the status of women in the country. The changes were rejected by traditional

opinions, and they enhanced the growth of religious movements in the country.

In the process of these changes, the movements of the Afghan women have

become more restricted in terms of clothing and their ability to exist in society outside the

home. Thus, Afghan women have found themselves caught up in the political

machinations of Afghan religious leaders, the war lords, the leaders of Pakistan, and

donors with Islamic fundamentalist convictions. They have become pawns of them all.

In the environment of emigration, there has been a range of responses amongst

Afghan women to the role of Afghan women within Afghan society and within Islamic

law. The Revolutionary Afghan Women's Association (RA WA) takes the middle ground

in advocating that women should play a full role in the political life of the country and

have the same access to education, training, and employment that men have, while

remaining within the Islamic fold. The organization expects women to conform to an

appropriately decorous form of dress but does not insist on the veil. The debate as to how

women should behave and participate in society has been going on for two decades and it

has perhaps been the cause of more controversy than any other issues. The life in exile

10
exposed Afghan women to other cultures. At the same time, the condition of life in exile

created a sense of security and confidence in them. Though women in exile have been

more constrained in their mobility than is the norm within the Afghan traditional society,

they have taken steps and initiatives to raise their voices for justice, equality and peace. I

believe that training of women possessing a sense of commitment and competence will

enable the refugee women as a group to meet the quantitative and qualitative educational

challenges when they go back home. Equipped with relevant skills and knowledge,

refugee women would be prepared to stand-up against gender inequity in education and

help bring partial change to the current situation. Some of the international training

programs for Afghan refugees are not designed to support women, and they undermine

indigenous structures and knowledge. On the contrary, some of the international

agencies seek to replace the local knowledge with modem and Western ones. Training

that includes a forceful fusion of indigenous cultures will enable women to change their

conceptions and the conception of a chaotic and confused society deprived of its identity,

and which is rapidly approaching its demise.

Islam is an important part of the essence of Afghan people, as it defines social

roles and lays out the principles for leading their lives. However, due to the lack of

progressive Islamic knowledge by the extremists themselves, there exists today in

Afghanistan a distorted version of the religion that tends to place men as superior to

women. This is one of the results of the male Islamic preachers who are not learned

scholars on the religion, and who preach their misinterpretations of Islam to promote the

dominance of men. Under the Islamic laws, a woman has the right to obtain an education

and to work outside her home. Lack of knowledge about the genuine teachings of the

11
religion is also due to the fact that it is not taught in local languages in schools. The

second reason is that people do not have access to books in their own languages on Islam,

as a result they depend on oral information from the local Imams (Islamic religion

preachers) who provide them with inaccurate knowledge on the religion, as they are not

certified scholars on the subject. The actual teachings of Islam promote the concept of

community; the equal participation of women and men. It insists on unity, self-help, and

brother/sisterhood and provides basic principles and ways of leading ones life. As Islam

dominates and defines the lives of people in Afghanistan, a better and renewed

understanding of Islam can lead to women's prosperity and empowerment and will

eradicate dependency on foreign sources with their political agendas.

I think nonformal education, as an intervention will create an increased awareness

among the Afghan women in exile. I am exploring and applying a durable and flexible

approach and useful lessons for bringing change and sustainability to the lives of Afghan

women. Indeed, what is needed are types of changes that are compatible with the Afghan

cultural and traditional norms. I think reviewing women's development in the context of

cultural, social values and political development in Afghanistan, will tell the reader how

these elements have affected women's status in the country. In addition, we will see how

vital these variables are in shaping the women's lives under specific norms and values.

12
 CHAPTER IV

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Emergence of Women In Development

This literature review on Women In Development (WID) provides a historical and

theoretical context for this study. This literature review includes two related topics; the

first one gives some basic understanding of the emergence of Women in Development

from a historical or theoretical basis. The other part gives the reader direct guidelines for

political, socio-cultural and economic issues and the effects of these elements on gender

policies and the process of women's development.

To understand the emergence of Women in Development, it is necessary to place

it within a historical context. The 1960s and 1970's were seen as times ofliberation

struggles and movements for political independence, which added to the United Nations

membership list. The United Nations first Economic Development Decade, 1960-70

ended with a call for a new development approach. In fact, this was a shift of policy from

economic development to focusing on social components. Throughout the 1970s, the aim

of development was modified to mean the development of people, not just things. Then,

the social development decade (1970-80) the New Directions Program shifted to human

resource development. Attention was directed to the basic human needs and

redistribution of development benefits within the nations. The Third Development

Decade (1980-90) calls for the redistribution of resources and power between the North

and the South. Worldwide social and economic structural changes have caused unequal

economic relations between nations (Maguire, 1984, 7.) The economic development

efforts did not improve the status of women. There was the need to integrate women as

13
active participants on an equal basis with men in the development process. The

depressing figures set forth below in Table 1, demonstrate the reality of the oppression of

women in the world.

Table 1: Indicators of Women as Participants and Recipients of Economic Development

World Population Labor force Hrs of work Illiterate World income Property

52% 33% 67% 60% 10% 1%

Source: (World Bank, 1980, ISIS, 1983)

From an economic point of view, women are major, often predominant

contributors, particularly in agriculture, to the basic productivity of their communities.

Yet, their economic contribution is not reflected in national statistics or in the planning

and implementation of development projects (Boserup, 1970.) Information on women

frequently comes from men. Women like men are social actors seeking power, security

and prestige and a sense of worth and value. Women can be actors for change, using

whatever strategies are available to them to cope with and alter their personal situations.

At the same time, change in the economic policy and development movements has had a

positive impact on women all over the world. The women around the world came

together to share a sense of common purpose for equal participation of women in the

development efforts of their countries, both as contributors and beneficiaries. Women

activists continue to expose and work against the structural and ideological mechanisms

of male domination over women. The origins and causes of female subordination were

different yet similar across cultures. Issues of time, race and, class were explored. These

movements gave birth to the WID initiatives. The WID movement urged the

development planners, leaders and practitioners to realize that the development plans and

14
projects of 1950s and 1960s failed to make a substantial and lasting impact on the living

standards of the poor majority. Gradually, awareness dawned that the key to

understanding and solving the contradictions between men and women's participation

was the overlooked economic role of women as producers (Newland, 1991,9.)

The growing realization of women's role in development coincided with the rise

of feminism in Europe and North America. Simone de Beauvoir was one of the

influential pioneers of feminism. Her masterpiece "The Second Sex " in 1949 sat forth a

view of the oppression of women everywhere, which helped women around the world to

recognize the common roots of their discriminated positions. Because of de Beauvoir

and other feminists such as Betty Friedan and Germaine Greers, the women's movement

in the West took a distinct feminist tum. The demand for women's rights required deeper

analysis of the psychological, social, sexual and cultural roots of discrimination. This

development had great resonance for women in the Third World. The search for

political solution for the failure of development and the growth of feminism based on

more systematic assessment of the roots of discrimination turned the WID movement into

a transnational movement (Moser, 1996, 72-79.)

In 1973, US law was amended to allocate a portion of the US Agency of

International Development (AID) funds for specific activities benefiting women. This

was called the Percy Amendment. Consequently a Women in Development Office was

established in the USAID. In 1975, the United Nations established the Institute for

Training and Research for the Advancement of Women (INSRA W) which became a

Fund for Women and Development (UNIFUM). In 1977, the World Bank created the

post of adviser for women as an effort to monitor the impact of the Bank's activities on

15
women's role in development. Resources were made available to fund projects that

addressed women's problems and eliminated the obstacles to the advancement of women.

In spite of all these movements, women remained marginalized within their

societies and institutions and were unable to redirect development policies. This had a

positive effect in that it encouraged the formation of coalition, strengthened the

transnational character of the movement and, put a brake on the cooperation of WID

activities dominated by male priorities which ignored the interests and needs of women.

Women's solidarity around the world was magnified by the diversity of political systems,

ideologies, economic levels and cultural background. (Maguire, 1984, 10.)

Designation by the United Nations of (1975) as International Year of the Women

(IYW) was an important symbolic event. It provided an umbrella of legitimacy for

women's rights issues. The event prompted many governments to revise part of their

legal codes, pass new legislation and establish new departments to attend to women's

issues. It revealed powerful statistical figures to uncover the facts that women constitute

half of the world's population. The demand from women's activists prompted the UN to

declare an International Decade for Women (1976-85) the key events of the decade were:

The Mexico City Conference in 1975, the Copenhagen Conference in 1980 and the

Nairobi Conference in 1985. The effects of the UN umbrella over the women's

movement resulted in a transnational coalition of women's groups, academics,

margenalized national and international civil servants, trade unionists, peasant

organizations, and urban cooperatives (Newland, 1991, 64.) The original WID approach

was in fact the equality approach. It was recognized that women are active participants in

the development process through their productive and reproductive roles providing

16
critical contribution to economic growth. During these events, the theme of equality was

identified and discussed. It was found that equality meant different things for women

from different continents. For the First World Women, the term meant development,

while the Second World Women saw development as peace and freedom, and the Third

World Women identified economic development that would increase women's status as

their main concern (Stephenson 1982.)

A further advancement to women's development was the empowerment approach.

Its purpose is to empower women through greater self-reliance. Women's subordination

involved men and also colonial and neo-colonial oppression. This approach seeks not

only women's empowerment but also looks at the causes, dynamics and structures of

women's oppression. It is popular with the Third World Women's NGOs and their

supporters. The origin of empowerment approach is derived from the emergence of

feminist writings and grassroots organizational experiences of The Third World Women.

Empowerment places emphasis on increasing women's status in relation to men and

seeks to empower women through the redistribution of power within as well as between

societies. (UNAPCWD, 1979) United Nations Asian and Pacific Center for Women and

Development. This recent advancement however is still not recognized or documented as

an approach.

The Development Alternative with Women for a New Era (DAWN) is another

formation of women groups set-up in Nairobi. Thus, another diverse array of women's

networks and alliances had grown up. The purpose has been to analyze women's

condition in the world and formulate a vision of an alternative future: a society that is free

from class, gender and race discrimination. In this ideal society, basic needs are basic

17
rights with no poverty. Men and women ertjoy the same opportunity to develop their full

potential and creativity. All this requires that women's role be redefined. Equality,

development and peace are linked together for transformation of the institutions that

subordinate women. They all can be achieved through the self-empowerment of women

(DAWN, 1985.) DAWN distinguishes between long-term and short-term strategies.

Long-term strategy includes new laws that break down the structure of inequality

between genders, classes, and races, and that promote national liberation from colonial

and neo-colonial domination. Short-term strategies are needed to provide ways in

responding to crises (Moser, 1996, 6.)

However, the challenging nature of empowerment leaves it unsupported by either

national governments or bilateral aid agencies and created a backlash in the Third World.

The requirement for the transformation of the structures of women's subordination could

be inimical to culture, religion or social values of certain societies. It is a very sensitive

issue; the national government, traditional religious leaders, and traditional women would

resent changes in the law, civil code, and property rights. Instead of justice, it may cause

more pain or regress for women and minorities with the notion of foreign imposed

ideologies. The current disastrous condition of Afghan women could be a witnessing

example of the impact of an immature and uncalculated change after the Soviet invasion

of the country in 1979. To understand women's issues for development in Afghanistan,

we will review its history and changes in the process of political change in the country.

18
 Women's Development and Gender Policies in Afghanistan

Women's issues in Afghanistan need to be looked at in the context of the

country's cultural, social values, and political development. Women's development

policies and the different forms that gender policies have taken within radical Islam and

liberal ideas will be looked at from the beginning of the twentieth Century.

"Women in Afghanistan are not just the biological reproducers of the nation, but
also its cultural reproducers, often being given the task of guardians of culture who are
responsible for transmitting it to the children and constructing the home in a specific
cultural style". (Nira Yuval-Davis, 1997)

Women in Afghanistan have had an important symbolic role as the core or heart

of the family, also of the society. Protection of women is bound up with the protection of

society. Also, the honor of society is dependent on the honor of the women. But, it

should be mentioned that, there are differences between women in Afghanistan based on

ethnicity, religion, and access to income and urban or rural settlements. Within the

Pushtun tribal code, if a woman has been violated or assaulted by a member of another

tribe, the tribe to which she belongs has the right to exact revenge. In the rural areas

women have been accorded the roles of wives and mothers with important economic

roles covering certain aspects of the agricultural routine, particularly planting and

weeding, animal husbandry and craft production. Men have covered other parts of the

agricultural process and have also played a role in childcare. In the urban areas and

center of Afghanistan, other traditions have dictated the mobility of women. Urban

women gravitated towards more Western styles. The women in the urban centers of

Afghanistan are seen as decadent and corrupt. By extension, foreign agencies or women

who work with them are seen as beyond the pale.

19
 Women's emancipation started in Afghanistan in the 1920s. King Amanullah's

reforms to change gender-related customs and to improve the position of women and

girls offended conservative opinions. The King attempted to modernize Afghanistan

through the education system. He banned child marriage, transferred the regulation of

family affairs from the clergy to the state, outlawed polygamy among civil servants, and

permitted women to discard the veil. In 1928 a hundred women, led by the queen,

appeared at a public function unveiled (My mother was one of these women). A growing

number of girls benefited from secondary and higher education. In 1929 the

conservatives with the help of 'Ulema' (Muslim scholars) resented the King's reforms.

After a short time, the King was overthrown. In the 1950s to 1970s, under King Nadir

Shah and his son King Mohammed Zahir Shah some further initiatives were taken to

improve the position of women. In 1957, female singers and actors were heard on the

national radio. Later, the government sent a group of women delegates to the United

Nations in New York. Gradually women were employed as hostesses and receptionists at

the national airline and were unveiled, and this in tum provoked a reaction from the

'Ulema, (Muslim scholars) who argued that the expansion of non-traditional education

was eroding the morals of the young and undermining traditional social values. They

drew ideological justification from the work of the same Pakistani Islamic theorists, who

insisted that women should be fully veiled when leaving the home, and that men and

women should be segregated. The King was helped by the global intellectual

movements of the 1960s, which challenged existing thinking and resulted in pressure

from some quarters for women to be accorded greater rights and freedoms. (Dupree,

1991, 28-30.)

20
 Historical evidence shows that informal education of upper class women can be

traced back as early as the eighteenth century in Afghanistan. King Amanullah

established the first formal primary school for girls in 1921. The relatively moderate

policies of King Nadir Shah in the early 1930s and the more advanced educational

programs introduced during the reign of King Zahir Shah (1950 -1973) led to substantial

expansion of educational opportunities for both men and women. The later period also

introduced co-education at both primary and university levels. (Marsden, 1998,92.)

However, according to Islamic law and the Afghan constitution of 1964,

assessment of women's status encompasses four areas: social status, political rights,

rights to education, and rights to employment and security. With regards to social status,

the social system in Afghanistan is patriarchal and fosters women's dependence on men.

Girls are under the protection of fathers or male guardians and after marriage, this

responsibility for protection is transferred to the husband. The mobility of women,

especially in the rural areas, is influenced by the traditional seclusion of women. In

recent years the rigidity of this system has been increased because of political conflicts.

With regards to political rights, women in Afghanistan are eligible to vote and run

for political office. The voting rights are seldom exercised by women because of the lack

of political awareness and submission to male instructions in connection with the choice

of political party.

As to the rights for education, due to the restriction on women's movements, the

level of literacy is much lower than that of men. Although the constitution and the

Islamic religion treat men and women equally, the educational level of women is lower

than that of men. In addition to that, the Afghan religious extremists in control deny all

21
women's rights. Early marriage and childcare are among the main issues affecting

women's education after primary or secondary grades.

Despite the guarantee in the constitution, women in Afghanistan have had very

little access to employment. If employment was provided, it was politically motivated

ignoring social and cultural norms. The proportion of females in the various occupational

categories, academic institutions, and even in the areas of the army, was at its highest

during the Russian occupation of Afghanistan. Before the 1970s, the status of women had

not been perceived to be a great socio-political problem.

'Shura', Afghan Traditional Community Activities

The Arabic word 'Shura' literally means unity or association. Community

activities have had a long history in this diverse society, but only for men. So, due to

male domination, community work and volunteer activities out of the family and home

were foreign and unknown to Afghan women. Therefore, community work was

associated only with the males in the villages. In the remote villages, collective

activities and group formation are the backbone of the village's community. A fiercely

independent bevy of men gather; they sit cross-legged in a circle, sharing fruits, or dry

fruits in the winters, and tea on carpets spread beneath ancient trees. A council of village

men, a 'Shura' in the local political vernacular is an ancient Afghan custom. 'Shura' is a

ruling body of elders that resolves disputes and governs daily life. These men meet once

a month or sometimes as often once a week. They meet to weigh the most pressing

matters of the day. These men debate, they advocate, they argue, sometimes for hours.

By the end of each session, they draw up a list of tasks they would like to see

accomplished, i.e. a new culvert needs to be built, a well dug, a road widened (Andrew,

22
1997, 12-13.) In spite of a need, there is no such community involvement for women.

No matter what happens to women in the village; these councils are for the concern of

men only. Islam defines the Afghans' roles and lays out the principles for leading their

lives. However, due to the lack of adequate knowledge about real Islamic principles, a

distorted version of Islamic religion exists in Afghanistan. This tends to place men as

superior to women. It should be mentioned that the actual teaching of Islam promotes

the concept of community 'Umah', the participation, encourages sharing in the process of

self -help activities insisting on the promotion of sister/brotherhood in a community.

The Concept of Empowerment

Empowerment in terms of its goals is a process aimed at transforming existing

social interrelationships, particularly as they affect the most oppressed women, those

disempowered on the basis of gender, sex or role. (Patel, 1986) Batliwala (1986, in

Patel) defines empowerment as control over material assets, intellectual resources and

ideology. Thus, empowerment can be understood to imply a process of gaining influence

in decision-making over the distribution of material resources, knowledge and the

ideology governing social relations. In this context, empowerment is a means and an

end, a process and the result of the process. The term of empowerment in this context

ranges from self-validation to working actively to change prevailing conditions.

Women's liberation empowers men, on both material and psychological levels: as

women are strengthened in terms of new skills and knowledge, new insights and

leadership, their struggle for material resources and knowledge also benefits men,

children, the family and the community. We acknowledge that the notion of

empowerment varies between the Western and the Third World societies. Therefore, the
term empowerment must have no meaning prior to its construction within the specific

cultural context. There must be investigation and appreciation of cultural values to the

fullest extent possible. We know that culture is the basis for knowing what

empowerment is for women in different situations. We also agree that inquiry into

indicators of empowerment requires more than the translation of the concept. It requires

facilitation of naming that gets at what Afghan women mean by power, its sources, its

nature and the ways women exercise it. In the real context of Afghan culture, women

enjoy power in certain aspects of social life. In the past history of Afghanistan, women

performed great tasks and contributed to the maintaining of the rich Afghan cultural

values and traditions. There are still areas, where women enjoy considerable power

within the family or in social life. However, social change for development led to

disempowerment of women in Afghanistan. Outside forces have weakened the tradition

as a source of women's power and men now make decisions, not only without women's

consensus, but they deny women's legitimate rights.

Politicization of the status of women in Afghanistan have caused confusion and

threatened the lives of Afghan women. These women have faced challenges of

unfamiliar cultures and the feeling of otherness, and have felt alienated. This feeling of

otherness forced Afghan women and men to leave their comfort of customary daily

routines and to run from the culture of oppression. Afghan men and women are still to

struggle against their own people, who have been influenced by outsiders with strong

religious convictions and have become fanatically reactionary to the notion of the

westernization of social values.

24
 As we know those who are in power politicize religion. Al Saadawi, an Egyptian

feminist (1986, 67.) views religion in general, and believes that all religions are more or

less the same. They all have a general human call for equality of people regardless of

color, race or sex. The concept of equality can be found in all of the religions. But, when

we come to the daily lives of men and women, rich and poor, one race and another, the

general sense of equality does not seem to be in evidence. Here we find oppression,

including oppression of women. So, we must not have illusion about religion, because

religion is used, and those in power abuse it. Present situation in Afghanistan can be an

example of the use of power for personal desires in the name of Islamic religion.

Vision of Empowerment, Western vis-a-vis Traditional

In the West empowerment refers, to visibility, being heard, making individual

decisions, promoting individual choice, assertiveness, strength in pushing for choices to

be accepted. Power is understood in terms of position, being 'on top' or 'getting on the

top', and enjoying the effects of leadership. Attaining power means one must exercise it

in the public. A code of rights exists objectively and women become empowered to know

their rights, exercise them, and insist on them. Empowerment is understood to be

something 'acquired' that women must struggle to achieve and construct for themselves

as individuals first, then within their families, and within the society (Kinsey, et. el, 1993)

Appreciating the Western concept of empowerment, we better identify ways in

which empowerment is socially constructed in the context of the Afghan culture. Then,

we also have to consider how empowerment is understood in the Afghan cultural context.

What is appropriated and what is objectionable about the concept as it is meant for

change? The sources of power in Afghan society are the individual, the elderly, the

25
family, the tribe, the clan and the community. Power is exercised within the family first

and then moves outside the family; it depends on the condition and social status of the

region. Power is very hierarchical within the families. It is exercised according to age,

seniority and gender, men before women. Families make up the community and women

in the community are protected by a supernatural source of power. This force protects

the weak (women and children) and enhances the personal power of the individual within

the family and the community. The community guarantees that women are not

mistreated. Men are obliged to consult with women before making decisions.

In the context of Afghan culture, women's power is not seen as the exercise of

domination but rather as the ability to get one's needs met or one's wishes fulfilled. This

includes satisfying the needs of and all the family members. Thus, in the Afghan context

empowerment has much less to do with power/domination and more to do with power/

well being. It should be mentioned that this pattern differs among different ethnic

groups, and the urban and rural contexts.

26
 CHAPTERV

NONFORMAL EDUCATION AS AN INTERVENTION FOR

EMPOWERMENT OF AFGHAN WOMEN

In the absence of a national education system for women and young girls in

Afghanistan, this program intends to address the desperate situation faced by the Afghan

women. The status of education inside Afghanistan is dire and the Taliban authorities are

banning women from going to school, teaching, or working outside their homes. The

continuing hostilities are fuelled by bored young women who are restricted to their

homes. The challenge for this program is to use immigration as an opportunity and

support oppressed women in acquiring academic skills and knowledge that will enable

them to become effective members of their communities in exile.

There is a need to promote women's participation in community activities.

Without such efforts these women will remain discriminated against and oppressed by

different forces. There must be ways and means to challenge patriarchal ideology in

order to empower refugee women to restore their legitimate rights. One of the alternative

solutions is to train a group of refugee women as agents of change. The proposed

program is to broaden women's awareness and stimulate their desire to serve as group

leaders or agents of change. The overarching goals and objectives summarized below are

to promote awareness of women about their oppression, their life condition, and their

rights under Islamic principles. Involving refugee women in community activities will

provide the opportunity for them to learn how to form community networks and to be

prepared to participate in civil society and the process of reconstruction of war devastated

Afghanistan.

27
 Nonformal education is an instrument that will enable communities to bring about

change, i.e. eradication of inequality and smoothing power relations between men and

women. Change in the status of women in the context of this paper is to improve

women's position by provision of opportunities for nonformal education (NFE.) This

opportunity will increase the women's bargaining power in the family decision-making

and paves the way for their participation in decision making at the national level.

Nonformal education is a non-school learning, where both the source and the learner have

conscious intent to promote learning (Evans, D., 1981, 28.) Nonformal education is a

non-authoritarian pedagogy, facilitators and participants work together with similar

status, and are linked through a pedagogical dialogue. Nonformal education is also

resists to links with the state and the bureaucratic organizations. Moreover, NFE is more

linked to the needs of communities and responds more easily to the demands of

communities with a flexible curricular. Finally, the result ofNFE is immediate, and has

proved to serve as a great instrument of mobilization and development of political

consciousness in diverse situation. The educational practice is based on collective and

individual previous experiences. The objective ofNFE programs is to arouse pride, a

sense of dignity, personal confidence, and self- reliance among the participants (Evans,

D. 1981, 8.). I believe that, nonformal education for community development would

create a sense of awareness among the Afghan women in exile about their situation.

28
 Over-All Program Goal

The proposed program seeks to empower Afghan refugee women through

community mobilization and community orgamzmg. The program's short-term and

long-term objectives are as follows:

Short-Term Objectives

The short-term objective is to hold a training workshop on Community

Development for a group of 15 Afghan women as agents of change in exile. Formulation

of the program will be based on Islamic knowledge, the Holy Quran and Hadith (the

sayings of Prophet Mohammed.) It will recover, foster and support basic Islamic and

cultural indigenous knowledge. The workshop is offered as an alternative approach to

the Western paradigm of women's development. The program will be conducted as a

pilot women's nonformal education program leading to community mobilization and

organization. The program is to be held in Peshawar or Islamabad of Pakistan for a

duration of three weeks. These two cites of Pakistan, which neighbor Afghanistan, are

flooded with foreign and humanitarian aid programs. Most of those programs tend to

undermine and dismantle vernacular knowledge. This program is offered as an

alternative to present women development schemes on the basis that it is an integral

component of the indigenous culture and also a code of life. Women will gain better

knowledge of religion, by reading and translating the Holy Quran rather than receiving

oral misinterpretations through the foreign-trained Islamic preachers with their political

convictions. The immediate objectives of the workshop include

• to study the situation of Afghan women and the feasibility of implementing

women's projects for community development in exile

29
 • to build rapport and trust among Afghan refugee communities, by conducting

informal meetings, dialogue and formulation of committees

• to identify problems and seek solution for the problems

• to conduct need assessments of Afghan refugee women

• to help women understand and redefine their roles in the community based on

Islam and Afghan culture

• to develop training materials based on Islam

• to set up objectives for program proposals, making plans for NGO projects for

larger women's community mobilization and organization

• to train a group of 15 women as agents of change, who will initiate

community sessions for community development

• to utilize the trained group to conduct an evaluation at the end of the program

• to enable the participants to gain knowledge about the Islamic code of life

through reading and translating from Arabic into local languages

• to provide assistance to the refugee community members in ways that can

meet their needs

It is hoped that the participants will gain a better understanding and perception of

their condition, discover their rights through real Islamic principles and will seek ways to

help and sustain the community in accordance to Afghan culture and religion.

Training sessions will include topics such as, women's rights m Islam,

respecting local traditions, principles of community development, effective

communication, gender awareness, and basic principles of management: financial,

resource and personnel management. These skills and knowledge will prepare the women

30
to learn about techniques of need assessment, participant selection, training program

facilitation, program monitoring, and evaluation techniques.

The facilitators will provide help and support in organizing the community m

setting up local committees to deal with their future needs. The aim of this pilot

workshop would be to extend the program to the national level.

Long-Term Objectives

The over-all purpose of this program is to empower Afghan refugee women

through community building and to train them as agents for change. From this specific

target goal, the program sub-goals or tentative objectives will be identified. The

activities will be carried out according to the planned objectives. It is hoped that the

Afghan women community movement can be a step in building a sense of awareness, an

awareness which could result in calls for the reopening of female schools, offices,

educational institutions, and other national agencies for all Afghans equally.

The intention of this program is to develop a form of action that is non-violent

without confrontation. The activities of the program will be carried out with consultation

and involvement of refugee groups in Pakistan. The program management will define

problems, present them to local refugee communities, invite their comments and

suggestion in formulation of program activities and decision making. The vision is that

the dreams and inspiration of this woman's group would grow through community

networking. The process would result in formation of women's community groups at the

national level and would be recognized by international organizations. The training

program is to develop an approach that leads to inclusion of grass roots Afghan refugee

women in participatory planning, implementation, and evaluation by themselves. These

31
women are to be able to maintain their standards of living, community safety nets, being

guardians of Afghan culture, and their identities, through clothing and Afghan social and

traditional values.

The long-term objective of this program is to establish an institution that will

sustain and support indigenous structures and knowledge systems. This institution may

serve as a vanguard to develop a sense of awareness in every Afghan woman, and serve

as an instrument for creating awareness in Afghan women about their lives and wake

them up to demonstrate the condition of their oppression. Nonformal education, using a

participatory form of action, would enable women to discover their rights through Islamic

principles. Community activity is a learning process. These women will learn from each

other during the training by sharing their personal stories and experiences. Direct

involvement of refugee women in community activities will provide the opportunity for

them to learn how to form community networks and to be prepared to participate in civil

society and the process of the reconstruction of Afghanistan. The training program

would provide an opportunity to make Afghan women visible and serve as a process of

encouraging them to work together and harness everyone's energy towards a common

purpose.

Another goal of the training program is to awaken up on everybody's capacity for

compassion and joy oflslamic unity, "Umah" brother/sisterhood. Since Islam is a

religion that defines the ways one leads his/her life, this training proposes to empower

Afghan women by improving and strengthening their Islamic knowledge system through

nonformal education and community activities.

32
 Strategy and Process

The program will support, strengthen, and improve the vernacular structure and

knowledge of refugee communities; it will not seek to change or replace them. The

process will not impose any activity or program content that is offensive to the traditions

of the Afghan community. Due to the concept of the veil, dress code or covering of the

head, it has been chosen to train women in seclusion. Change in this context does not

mean importing technology, or obtaining foreign aid, but to use humane support in

raising awareness, " waking up" on every level: personal, spiritual, cultural, and

economic. This program will be based on a holistic view of social change, which is

deeply inspired by true Islamic liberal teachings and Afghan culture.

In Islam, there is absolutely no difference between men and women as far as their

relationships to Allah are concerned. Both are promised the same reward for good

conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. The Holy Quran, in addressing the

believers says: "O you who believe! You are forbidden to inherit a woman against their

will. Nor should you treat them with harshness; live with them with kindness and equity.

(4:19, Holy Quran.) These aspects are emphasized by Prophet Mohammed (peace be

upon him). He said "Among my followers, the best of men are those who are best to

their wives, and the best of women are those who are best to their husbands. Among my

followers, again, the best of women are those who assist their men in their work, and love

them dearly for everything, save what is a transgression of Allah's laws", to men and

women set down a reward equivalent to the reward of a thousand martyrs (Islamic

Sharia.) 'Sharia' is Islamic law and is the third source ofreference for Muslims. Prophet

Mohammed, (p.b.o.h.) was full of praise for virtuous and chaste women. He said. "The

33
world and all things in the world are precious, but the most precious thing in the world is

a virtuous woman. 'Hadith' (sayings of Prophet Mohammed)

The Islamic version of extremism denies all these rights for women and

emphasizes the male ego and a sense of superiority over women. These

misinterpretations have been expressed through the concept of women as the weaker sex,

who need to be protected. Political change in Afghanistan brought the country's faith

and its population into the hands of warlords and Islamic extremists who have become

fanatically reactionary to the notion of westernization, especially in respect to the status

of women. Here, we can see the flexibility of Islamic religion, and how the ones who

enjoy power at the top can manipulate the concept of religion. In Islam, 'ljtihad'

(interpretation) regulates change, and it opens the door for flexibility and change within

an Islamic society. Now, the question comes, who changes religion? And how does it

change? Who is responsible for 'ljtihad'? Those who have the power change religion

according to their own interests, not according to the interests of the majority (Asghar, A.

1992, 35.) So, should I call this process change for development in Afghanistan? Is it

development or backwardness? I would like to call it backwardness, because Taliban

(religious students), claimed that "We are very proud to have taken Afghanistan back

1000 years to its real Islamic roots (UNICEF, 1996.) Since then, the Afghan women have

been stripped not only of their natural possessions, but also of their dignity and self-

esteem. Needles to say this led to the seclusion of women by use of force with a view to

protect them.

34
 The Afghan women must understand that Islam accords high respect to women.

All that the Holy Quran requires of women is that they should not display their sexual

charms, but dress in a dignified manner. (Asghar A., 1992, 5.)

According to Islamic liberal principles, a suitable ideological position may be

inferred, and theoretical questions can be raised and discussed, all in a tentative way.

Community education for conscientization is not only a matter of imparting knowledge,

but at a larger part; it is enabling women to discover the truth for themselves.

Methodology

is as important as the content. It involves the development or rediscovery of values by

the women and other community members themselves in the context of their daily lives

(Chambers, 1997, 133.)

The starting point in generating a grass-roots process is the stimulation of the

oppressed to get together to inquire why they are oppressed and deprived through social

investigation and analysis on their own. This will promote critical self-awareness of the

women and their environment. The participants will be encouraged to meet periodically

in the form of workshops in order to review their experiences, to undertake investigation

of their environment. Community building implies participation, and its principle is

based on action-reflection, and on sharing experiences, knowledge and value judgement.

Therefore, a proper selection of a durable approach is essential. In the selected approach,

the professional' s action and reflection is viewed and based on what they do and how

they learn. This approach uses dialogue and participation to enhance oppressed groups'

awareness and confidence, and empower their action.

35
 The concept of empowerment through action reflection owes much to the work of

Paulo Freire (Pedagogy of the Oppressed.) The essence of knowledge and learning has

been induced from practice and what has been found to work, not deduced from a priori

principle. This approach seeks to:

•:• empower women, the weak, and the vulnerable and to make power reversals real

•:• make sure that the behavior/attitude of the outsiders who facilitate are not dominant

•:• shift the existing norms from closed to open, from individual to group, from verbal to

visual, and from measuring to comparing (Chambers, 1997, 106.)

My view of empowering Afghan women is to struggle in a peaceful way without

confrontation. Struggle for what? Struggle for restoration of Afghan women's rights by

community mobilization at the group-level. The process needs the women to be

equipped with proper skills and knowledge for their participation in decision-making, and

policy formulation. In addition, the process has to allow them to review the extent of

how much sharing; tolerance, consideration, and responsibility are needed in the context

of the Afghan culture and belief system. Therefore, the process of empowerment is a

spiral involving change and consciousness, locating areas for change, planning strategies,

acting for change, and analyzing the outcome. It is a learning process that affects

everyone involved: the change agents, the experts, the collective and the community and

it cannot be a top-down relationship. All involved, training participants, facilitators,

refugee communities, project management team, outsiders, insiders must play a role in

shaping it.

Given an awareness that the term empowerment in the context of Afghan culture

is highly sensitive, the term must be constructed according to the Afghan refugee

36
women's perception of power and the power relation between males and females. Two

decades of war has totally devastated social, economic and intellectual life in

Afghanistan. Therefore, it is necessary not only to struggle for recovery of what has been

destroyed, but also to make-up for the growth that has been forgone during these years.

As agents of change, the Afghan women must act in a manner that other refugee

communities form a positive impression about them and they can easily reconcile

formation of this group in their traditional and socio-cultural values

The participants must be provided with the skills and abilities to advocate for their

visibility through designing training programs for women's groups on topics, which are

related to women's development. This training should not only be for women, but for all

disadvantaged/deprived Afghans. Afghan women must have a vision of a better future

and be able to articulate it. Achieving this goal will not be possible, unless the

participation of half of the population of Afghanistan, the women, is taken into account.

Before implementation of the program there will be a participatory needs

assessment done in the Afghan refugee community to find out what the needs are and

what the refugees seek for the fulfillment of their needs. Another purpose of the needs

assessment is to find out what the participants expect from the training program.

Ongoing and final evaluations will be included in the program to see how the renewed

Islamic knowledge has affected the participants' perceptions. The program will provide

support to the refugee community in meeting these needs.

Needs Assessment

Careful assessment of the causes of oppression/poverty of women will lead to

a highly decentralized, participatory, and self-reliant approach to reversing the decline

37
 Afghan women experienced during the refugee life. I believe a well designed

program and effective training will produce successful results under many adverse

conditions. At the initial stage, a careful study of the complexities of social values

and social conditions will be conducted to understand what is the Afghan women's

perception of change for development. The program's commitment is mainly to

alleviate oppression, through empowerment of women for social and economic

change. Conducting informal discussions at traditional gatherings will help to

identify the major concerns of the target group and to single out those with leadership

potential. The focus will be on examining gender issues as a primary field within

which power is articulated in the communities. This will help to build group action

and eventually, construction of a community center. Careful assessment will lead to

problem identification. To identify and select problems, these questions are to be

raised in the process:

Y What is the problem in terms of Afghan refugee women?

Y What are the current symptoms of the problems?

Y What is the existing situation compared to the previous and desired situation

of Afghan women

Y How have the effects of war been changing the life condition of Afghan

women?

From these perspectives, the main issues will be diagnosed and barriers to

resolution of the problems will be identified. After identifying problems and problem

solutions, by a pedagogic technique, the participants will get together to recount their

oppression and life experiences. Then, they will discuss the commonality of these

38
experiences to move towards appreciation of the structure of their environment and to do

collective decision-making and action.

The Role of Facilitators

Planning and implementation of community building and mobilization require

trained and efficient expertise from local people as well as from international agencies.

The outsiders' role as catalysts is to train a group ofrefugee women by formulating a

dynamic model in which the participants learn of the complexity and inter-relatedness of

the issues of various problems. Understanding the issues, the participants will be able to

meet and solve problems. The participants will learn about each other, about their

community, their concerns, and about themselves. These women should be able to draw

maps, and charts to locate the sources of violence against women in order to identify

problems and plan actions for solving them. All this can be possible if these women are

encouraged and trained efficiently by a group of experts who are aware of cultural and

social values of traditional societies like Afghanistan. The facilitators are to learn from

the 'insiders' perspectives on what is needed and what is feasible for bringing change in

the quality of oppressed women's lives. It is also clear that international assistance for

development cannot be expected to alleviate the immediate problem. However, if

programs under international assistance are carried out with compassion, full

commitment, and strong determination, it could be possible to contribute significantly to

a more sensible world in the long run.

The Concepts of 'emic' and 'etic, Insider & Outsider

In anthropology a distinction is made between 'emic' and 'etic' views ofreality.

The first refers to people's subjective perspective about what they are doing, saying or

39
believing, while the second attempts to reconstruct, from an outsider or objective

perspective, what is being done, said or believed. In other words, the concept of 'emic'is

to build local knowledge, the knowledge that can be learned by the outsider in order to

act like an insider. The concept proposes a set of description, which set norms and

standards for building views and shaping certain behaviors that are appropriate and

acceptable to the insider. The concept of "etic" refers to the theoretical or scientific

knowledge of the people. This concept describes a set of theoretical or scientific

principles that are examined and analyzed as a method of studying and determining the

essential knowledge. The scheme must be examined critically and subjected to analysis.

The "etic" account can be validated if it meets the standards of logic, comprehensiveness,

and independence from the observer's cultural values and personal views and is subjected

to scientific evaluation. Then, it can be cross culturally applicable (Headland,

et.el 1990, 35.)

Under the prevailing condition, change in the status of Afghan women may be a

long way off. Communities often resist change because change may threaten some of

their interests, and security. Change is often uncomfortable. The extremists have been

thinking of Islam as a political rather than a spiritual entity. Any talk of justice for

women infuriates them and they take it as an attack to Islam from enemies. Therefore,

under-taking programmes for bringing change in the status of women in the unstable

political system of Afghanistan may sound ideal. But, in the environment of immigration

it seems to be working with direct involvement of the Afghan refugee community. In the

process of change, the outsiders act only as facilitators. Refugee women need to chose

their own program and contribute actively in setting realizable goals. So, the outsiders'

40
task is to try to find a way to work in spite of rigid views. It is hoped that gradually the

status of women can be addressed.

As an Afghan woman and based on my own experience, I have learned that a civil

society and democratic institutions cannot be imported. Grassroots developmental

agents, dealing with people on daily issues, must be fully involved in the process of

change. Otherwise ideals will never become reality. Outsiders can act only as

facilitators, providing resources for grassroots efforts. Foreign ideas alone cannot define

the problems nor can they propose solutions. A solution to an internal conflict cannot be

achieved, unless the whole population is treated equally, give the chance to participate, to

dialogue and to make decision that brings positive change.

41
 CHAPTER VI

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION AND DELIVERY

An international agency or a NGO (Non-governmental Organization) will be

sought to sponsor the program. A budget proposal will be prepared and submitted to the

concerned authorities. The budget components will be broken down into different budget

lines with allocations for different program activities in connection with the planned

objectives. (see Table 2: Budget Proposal for Pilot Workshop, p. 47.) The long-term

objective of this proposal is to find the feasibility of replicating an organization, NGO

(Nongovernment Organization) for Afghan women in exile that will implement training

programs for the empowerment of women. The trained group of women could be agents

of change and stand up for the restoration of Afghan women's rights. The NGO will

conduct a pilot training workshop for Afghan women in exile in Pakistan, the country

neighboring to Afghanistan for a duration of three weeks. The pilot workshop is offered

as an alternative to present women's development schemes The workshop will attempt to

increase the participants' knowledge of women's rights in the Islamic religion, by reading

and understanding rather than by receiving oral misinterpretations of the extremists'

version of Islam. It is hoped that the pilot workshop would create a sense of awareness

among the Afghan women community in exile, who will gain a better understanding and

perception of their rights and conditions. These women also will seek ways to help and

sustain the community based on liberal Islamic principles and Afghan culture. The exact

time and date of the workshop will be arranged, and negotiated with the sponsoring

organization and community.

42
 Training Activities

Community organizing or mobilization is an educational process itself. Through

collective action, the participants teach themselves to make decisions, to plan their work,

and discover their capabilities and power within the tenet of Islam not through personal

desired interpretations. The oppressed possess the knowledge but this is to be

transformed into knowledge for liberation. The synthesis of knowledge produced by

participants and the knowledge contributed by the outsider may lead to a holistic

contextual and accurate interpretation of social reality (Selener, 1997, 29.) The activities

and formation of this program are independent from political parties, tribal connections,

and elite domination. The main activities of the training program will be carried out in the

form of a workshop that will consist of modules on different topics. Each module will

contain details of training activities, reading materials and handouts in connection to the

objectives (For details please see Appendices A-H). The participatory approach

constitutes the praxis of the facilitators and the local people. The two processes are

rooted in the respective traditions and accumulated wisdom of the two parties in these

interactions. The training program activities will follow the principles of action reflection

in its initial stage to the extent possible. In its activities, the workshop will be searching

for the positive, for successes, and for examples of what works for the well being of

refugee women. The Afghan refugee population should easily reconcile formation of this

group, in their traditional and socio-cultural values. This small group can become an

instrument of change to the advantage of oppressed women and the group itself. At the

end of the workshop, the participants will have:

43
>- Opened communication and dialogue within the refugee community in Pakistan

>- Created a sense of confidence on the part of Afghan refugee women to identify their

immediate needs and organize themselves to solve problems

>- Strengthened knowledge about the term 'empowerment' and change

>- Learned skills by doing, exchanging experiences, developing communication skills

and developing a sense of awareness

>- Reviewed and discussed basic principles of management

>- Strengthened and practiced administrative skills in daily office procedures

>- Read and discussed techniques for managing: human, financial and supply resources

>- Developed a spirit to do what is required/desired by refugees

>- Designed activities of basic services for the elimination of oppression

>- Provided participatory action reflection activities through appropriate techniques

>- Increased choices and opportunities for active participation

>- Been able to apply all their acquired knowledge, when undertaking training programs

for women's larger groups

>- Been able to take charge of future projects for women's participation in

developmental activities.

Project Description

The pilot workshop on Community Mobilization and Organization will provide

training for a group of 15 Afghan women as agents of change in exile. The workshop

will be conducted in one of the Afghan Women's Organizations in Peshawar, (RAWA)

Revolutionary Afghan Women's Association, or in Islamabad, (A WEC) Afghan

Women's Educational Center, for a duration of three weeks.

44
 The participants of the workshop will be selected either from above mentioned

Afghan Refugee Women Organizations or some of other Afghan women groups, where

there are women, who are active in women's movements. In addition to the 15

participants, a group of five competent women will be selected to serve as local

administrative support staff and co-facilitators.

Project Management

The project management team includes two international staff, one director, one

consultant, five local personnel, mentioned before, and a board. The consultant and the

director will arrive in Pakistan two weeks before the starting of the program. By the first

week, a board will be formed which will include a leader selected from the Afghan

refugee community and one representative from each of the Afghan woman's

organization in Pakistan. The five local personnel will consist of three refugee women,

as co-facilitators, and two women as administrative support personnel: one accountant

and one administrative assistant. The board members will outline the policy and

strategies of the workshop. The board members will then select the three co-facilitators

to help in conducting the training workshop and serve as the program coordinators.

Consulting with the two international staff members, the board members will also select a

competent accountant and one administrative assistant for the program.

The project management policy will be based on consultation and inviting

opinions of all parties involved in the process of implementation of the program. The

project management team will define problems; present them to local communities, invite

their comments and suggestions, and make decisions in formulation of program activities

and the implementation process. The project management team also defines and limits

45
policy within which participants share or assume decision-making power. The project

management team is responsible for the over-all management of the project.

The Board: The Board will be responsible for the general policies, conduct and design

of the activities of the project. There will be frequent democratic meetings between the

board members and the other project management team to incorporate changes in the

design of the program or policy in carrying out the activities.

Facilitators: There will be two international staff: one consultant and one project

director. These two persons are responsible for the smooth running of the project's daily

administrative tasks and training activities and for the logistics of the training group in

relation to the objectives of the program. The director and the administrative assistant

will be responsible for overseeing the financial administration of the program. They will

disburse the funds in an appropriate time, after the reconciliation of the expenses incurred

for planned training and other activities. The consultant will be responsible for designing

training programs, providing technical support for the general progress of the training,

advising on training material design, and for making any changes and revisions that are

necessary based upon on-going evaluation. S/he will also be responsible for preparing

and submitting activity, progress, initial, financial, and final reports. The training co-

facilitators will provide an essential link between the board and the management team as

they coordinate the supervision of the training program. The co-facilitators will also

be responsible for the training sessions. The accountant will be responsible for book-

keeping and for obtaining and keeping records of all purchases and expenses. She will

also be responsible for maintaining the imprest account ( p. 61, Basic Financial

Management, Financial Forms# 1-5) of the daily small cash expenditures.

46
 The topic and material of the training can be determined or suggested by

the outsiders, but the insider's role is to initiate a process. The outsiders will hand over

control and the insiders will determine the details of the agenda. Information is built up

cumulatively and mutually (Chambers, 1997, 107.)

No. of trainees: The training is being designed with 15 participants in mind. The
exact number of trainees will be decided on the project's site. The project budget
proposal is as follows:

Table 2: Budget Proposal for Pilot Workshop

Budget Line Purpose # of Days & # of People Amount in US $ Total

01 Salaries 1 month each, 2 4,000 each 8,000.00

international staff
002 Travel 2 international staff 2,000 each 4,000.00
003 Housing 2 international staff 1,000 each 2,000.00
004 Salaries 15 days, 5 support 400 each 2,000.00
personnel staff
005 Stipend 15 days, 15 trainees 200 each 3,000.00
006 Local Travel 1 month, all staff 2,000 2,000.00
007 Training mat For the whole period 2,000 2,000.00
008 Misc. Hospitality 1,000 1,00.00
009 Sundry exp. - 1,000 1,000.00
Total - -
25,000.00

47
 CHAPTER VII

EVALUATION, MONITORING AND REPORTING

Evaluation

My view of evaluation is to assess the achievement of or results of a designed

program and to check whether the program achievements are to the desired standard or

fall outside allowable limits of the designed training program. In this training program,

evaluation will focus on:

•:• Selection of standards to compare the actual performances of participants to the

expected ones

•!• Collection of information about program performances

•:• Comparison of the actual performance against a standard

•:• Identification of the cause of excessive deviation

•:• Taking corrective action, if excessive deviation occurs

The evaluation should find out how to reconcile the needs for short-term education

with the needs to create a long-term educational program; a type of training program that

can provide conditions for freeing women from oppression. This program should inform

women about gender issues, and encourage them to initiate a long-term awakening

process. Conducting self-evaluation, the participants can evaluate themselves, and

determine what they want in the training. To measure the level of achievement of this

program, periodic and a final participatory evaluation will be conducted. The procedures

will include oral and written feedback from participants after each activity. The periodic

evaluations would include asking analytic questions, and writing analytic memos

throughout the life of a program. Periodic evaluations make final analysis and evaluation

48
easier and less daunting. The training facilitators and program evaluators should

coordinate closely with the program coordinator and Board of Directors. They should

keep in mind the following points in the process of evaluation:

•!• Keep your questions in mind; remember what you are trying to learn about.

the refugees and stay connected to the community

•!• Modify your data gathering and information, based on what you are learning,

not by chance. Ask analytic questions as you go along

•!• Write all the time, note hunches, thoughts, and impressions; write analytic

memos

•!• Keep a journal and re-read it from time to time

•!• Share your ideas and thoughts with people, develop a critical friend or talk

with the participants and the refugee community

•!• Be creative, create images, draw pictures, use visual images, and draw

concept maps.

•!• Think about how you might characterize what you are learning; what is it

like? What images does it evoke? (G. B. Rossman & S.F. Rallis, 1998,4.)

At the end of the program, it will be useful to seek the opinion of the participants

about the effectiveness of the program. The purpose of the on-going evaluation is to

improve the program efficiency and to be reflective of the participants' needs.

Monitoring techniques will be used to measure both the qualitative and quantitative

progress of the program.

This evaluation will not be sufficient to assess if the training has effectively

improved the skills or attitudes of the participants. It is, therefore, necessary to have

49
some form of systematic follow-up programs of training, which address the issues of

women's participation in the development programs for reconstruction of Afghanistan.

Also, the participants should be encouraged by their communities or influential people to

appreciate the values of the training. The facilitators and program evaluators have to

check from time to time the effects of training on the participant's work performance and

compare the results after the training by conducting different forms of evaluation which

include a close monitoring system and regular submission of reports.

Monitoring

Monitoring of the over-all training program is also a part of the training plan.

Access to the training program, achievement, and the overall functionality of the training

program should be monitored using the following types of indicators:

•!• Availability of funds and facilities

•!• Ratio of participants to facilitators

•!• Willingness of participation

•!• Availability of training materials and facilities

•!• Number of trained and non-trained participants

•!• Level of performance during training (UNHCR, 1994.)

During the training program, there will be a daily evaluation of the training by the

facilitators, trainees and program coordinators. The opinions of the trainees will be

assessed by the training facilitators and program evaluators. Before the training sessions,

there will be a general discussion and review based on the opinions of the trainees. In

order to find out whether the trainees are making progress and gaining competency, there

will be close observation of the training sessions and the use of a checklist of the

50
achievement of the training objectives. The board members will also visit and evaluate

the training sessions by observing the progress, rapport, and the methodology of the

trainers.

Reporting

The main purpose of submitting reports is to state the status of work in progress and

confirm that the objectives of the program are being achieved. To achieve the planned

objectives of the program, work plans are prepared for different activities within a

specific duration of time. For example, what types of training activities are carried out

during a specific period of time? What types of equipment are bought during the training

period? What was the purpose of the purchase of the equipment? Those are some of the

reasons for submitting periodic, progress and other reports. These reports convey the

proper use of time and money, the money spent for what purpose of what activity?

Styles and types of reporting take different forms from one organization to

another. The reporting type depends on the policies and procedures followed by the

specific organization. Generally, financial and performance reports are to be submitted

during a specific period of time. The program coordinator and the consultant are

responsible to prepare and submit required reports. These reports will normally be sent

regularly to organizations, which have sponsored the project. The purpose of these

reports is to explain how the individual donations have been spent. The performance

report indicates the main activities carried out during the period. It highlights technical or

administrative issues faced, and makes detailed assessment of the implementation of the

objectives of the project. These reports also give information about the over-all impact of

51
a specific program, future activities to be carried out, and the follow-up programs to be

conducted for the special needs of a specific program.

The project consultant and coordinator are required to make sure the prepared

reports explain:

•!• The expenditures incurred and to reflect the transactions of the project on a cash or

cheque basis

•!• The disbursements incurred by budget line item during a specific period of the

project's life.

•!• Indicate the balance available in the budget as of a given date

To strengthen managerial/administrative capacity of the participants for

satisfactory specific technical and administrative performance, the pilot workshop

will train the participants on policies and procedures followed by the donor agency.

The program intends to introduce different modalities of basic financial and

administrative/management principles in order to stimulate and support the

participants in taking more active roles in the process of managing future projects.

52
 CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The development of a community is complex and involves all levels of a society.

The problem at each level varies depending on the degree of disruption of normalcy in a

society and this varies from community to community in the course of a conflict. How

best to convene and facilitate community groups is strongly linked to personal

commitment and sensitivity on the part of facilitators. I believe these are the main keys

for success. We acknowledge that community mobilization cannot compete with the

heavy weaponry of armed factions to prevent further conflict in Afghanistan. Within a

short span of time, the formation of women's communities can manage to repair much of

the uncountable damage and to restore a sense of commitment to the community by

setting-up appropriate interventions. This will help to prevent further oppression. In

many cases investment for development or promotion of women's empowerment can be

the difference between life and death in the context of a sensitive culture like that of

Afghanistan. One of the greatest obstacles to development and the meanest aftershocks

of the war in Afghanistan is the development of terrorism. Hundreds of innocent women

were abducted, and tortured. In addition, buildings were exploded in the name of holy

Islam and Afghan culture. Therefore, change may be a long way off, but to invest in

rebuilding is the best chance to invest in peace. 'Peace should be viewed as a product of

and not a precondition to bring change for development' (UNDP, 1997.) The rate of

change and its impact call for bringing a balance of equality within certain communities,

especially those disempowered in the name of culture or religion. Thus, the training

programs and the training providers should be effective in their choice of policies;

53
strategies and process of trust building among the local people. Appreciation of these

elements calls for efficient use of resources, effective trainers, good cross-cultural

communicators, and people experienced in human relations. Communities often resist

change because change may threaten some of their basic needs, security and sense of

belonging. Some communities may fear criticism, inability to cope, loss of authority, loss

of status, or the inability to learn new skills. Change is often uncomfortable. We can get

people to accept change if we recognize these obstacles and help train, and involve those

affected.

54
 APPENDIX A: DAILY TRAINING ACTIVITIES

Main activities of the training program will be carried out according to five
training modules. Each module contains details of training activities and exercises in
connection to the set-up objectives of the pilot workshop. Tentative activities of the
program is set forth below:

First day 09:00-09:45 Opening session

09:45-12:00 Official registration
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon and participants' acquaintance
01 :00-02:30 Discussing objectives of the workshop
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Primary assessment of participatory learning
approach
Second day 09:00-10:45 Introduction to Basic Principles of Management
10:45-11 :00 Coffee break
11:00-12:00 Continuation of the session
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Managerial functions
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Training and learning activities and exercises

Third day 09:00-10:30 Personnel Management

10:30-12:00 Field trip to some international organization
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Reports on field trip
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Group discussion and exercises

Fourth day 09:00-10:45 Introduction to Financial Management

10:45-11 :00 Coffee break
11:00-12:00 Budgetary Rules and Procedures
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Exercise on the use of budgetary forms
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Group discussion, homework assignments

Fifth day 09:00-10:45 Principles of Supply/Equipment Management

10:45: -11:00 Coffee break
11:00-12:00 Procurement Procedures, use & exercise of forms
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Equipment/Supply Classification
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Financial Reports, accounting preparation

55
Second week
First day 09:00-10:45 Importance of Communication, use of Internet
10:45-11 :00 Coffee break
11:00-12:00 Types of Communication, Advantages &
Disadvantages of verbal & written communication
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Group working, group members responsibilities
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Principles of Community Development

Second day 09:00-10:45 Basic Women's Rights in Islam and community

activities
10:45-11 :00 Coffee break
11 :00-12:00 Continuation of the session
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Afghan women's visibility and community
mobilization
02:30-03 :00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Sharing life experiences, stories and learning
activities

Third day 09:00-10:30 Discussion on Women in Development

10:30-12:00 Field trip to some Afghan Women's Organization
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Reports on field trip
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Group discussion and exercises

Fourth day 09:00-10:45 The Concept of Empowerment

10:45-11 :00 Coffee break
11 :00-12:00 Vision of Empowerment in Afghan Culture
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Cultural Sensitivity, case study
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Group discussion, homework assignments

Fifth day 09:00-10:45 Application of strategies and tools

10:45: -11 :00 Coffee break
11:00-12:00 Women & men power relationship in the context of
Afghan culture
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Promoting the concept of participation, Audio
visual and feedback
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Application of strategies &group discussion

56
Third week

First day 09:00-10:45 Introduction to Gender and Gender

Awareness
I 0:45-11 :00 Coffee Break
11:00-12:00 Role changes of Afghan women, home and
in exile
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Cultural and social biases
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03 :00-04:00 Gender issues identification

Second day 09:00-10:45 Continuation of the session

10:45-11 :00 Coffee break
11 :00-12:00 Application of strategies and tools
12:00-01 :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Gender and personal biases
02:30:03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Training activities and role playing

Third day 09:00-10:45 Group discussion on gender & problems

10:45 -11:00 Coffee break
11:00-'12:00 Training activities and audiovisual
12:00-01:00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Sharing groups discussion
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Evaluation and feedback of the session

Forth day 09:00-10:45 Arrangements for Informal meetings with

Afghan refugee groups
10:45:04:00 Field trips and contacting Afghan refugees

Fifth day 09:00-10:45 Discussion & sharing experience of informal

Meetings
10:45:11:00 Coffee break
11 :00-12:00 Case studies
12:00-0 I :00 Luncheon
01 :00-02:30 Group working and sharing of case studies
02:30-03:00 Coffee and 'Zuhur' praying break
03:00-04:00 Summary, feedback and evaluation

7:00-9:00 Cocktail and Dinner and closing ceremony

57
 APPENDIXB:

MODULE I: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Reading Materials

A. Objectives

At the end of the session, participants should be able to:

1. Define management and describe its main functions,

2. Identify the skills of an effective manager/administrator, basic principles of

management, and gain basic knowledge in different fields of management.

A. B. Definition of Management:
What is management?

There are many definitions for the term 'Management'. We do not think of

management as meaning the people in the upper stratum of an organization. Nor do we

use management in the sense of forcefully controlling a situation in this program context.

Management might be simply defined: " Management is getting thins done through other

people."

This definition is based on two principles

1. Commitment to achievement, manager sees that objectives are specified

and then these objectives are achieved. Getting things done means

engaging people in purposeful action,

2. The importance of the people, this means that people are the most

important resources for getting things done. This definition should not be

read to mean only that manager commands and the others execute.

In its broader meaning management is defined: " Management is the process of

using organizational resources to achieve organizational objectives through the function

58
of planning, decision making leading, organizing and controlling. (Andrew J. & Dubrain

R. 1986

In carrying out his duty of getting things done, the manager performs the

following functions:

Planning, implementing, and evaluation.

C. Types of Management

Managerial functions fall within three different fields of management. These

fields are Personnel Management, Financial Management, and Equipment/ Supply

Management. We will discuss each of the field of management and see the different

functions, procedures and tasks carried out in these different fields.

Personnel Management

Personnel management deals with the hiring and firing of staff members in

organization. The main function of this field is to see that all the staff members get their

benefits, like salary, leaves, holidays etc. Personnel management also keeps personal

records or files for all the staff members. For example, information about job

description, starting date, salary, benefits, promotions, vacation days taken and evaluation

of employees work performance. Personnel management is also to make sure that staff

members get the training they need to become more skilled employees.

D. Training Activities, experience hands on practice

The participants will review the process of recruitment from the starting point hiring

to final stage firing or retirement. To make participants understand the types of

communication used in the process of recruitment of different level of employees, the

59
facilitators will demonstrate and work out practically with the individual participant this

process. The participants will be requested to take out personal files of staff members in

Afghan Women's Educational Center (A WEC) and study carefully each file in terms of

information, following procedures and use of different correspondence to different

sources. The contents of these files will be compared with that of required listed

documents, which should be kept in the files. The main highlighted points will include:

Policies, rules and regulations followed by each step,

Purpose of job description,
Responsibilities and commitments of employees,
Contract procedures, duration of contract, extension of contracts and change of
terms and conditions.
Employee's benefits,
Leaves, sick leave, maternity leave, annual leave and vacation
Salary entitlement,
Keeping personal files
Starting date,
Duration of service
Date of salary raises
Level of education,
Evaluation,
Promotion,
Training
Salary raise
After reviewing these procedures, the participants will be requested to take out
personal files of staff members and study carefully each file in terms of information,
following procedures and use of different correspondence to different sources.

60
 APPENDIX C: MODULE 2: FINANCIAL & SUPPLY MANAGEMENT
A. Objectives:

At the end of the session, participants should be able to:

• Strengthen their financial and supply management/administrative capacities ,

• Prepare participants for satisfactory execution of specific technical and

administrative operations, and

• Stimulate participants in taking more active role in the school management.

B. Financial Management and Reading Materials:

The money the organization uses to achieve program goals is financial management.

Financial management controls the finance of an organization, and it is responsible for

planning how to spend the money within an specific time. This section keeps records of

how the money to be spent and when to submit financial reports, stating the purpose of

expenditures and reasons for expenditures. Financial management also controls the

money, which comes into the organization and prepares summaries of financial

transactions. Financial management often makes decision based on the information

obtained from expediters of the program. Based on this information, the organization

management prepares work plans stating specific time and targets. The time dimension

and targeted areas for carrying activities are in line with the set up objectives of the

program. The details of activities in terms of financial management include:

• Study the rules, regulations, and procedures to be followed-up in handling financial

activities,

• Source of receiving funds,

• Allocation of funds for different purposes,

61
• Establishing accounting system,

• Use of accounting standard forms, Request for Payment (Hand out# 1)

• Make summaries of expenditures,

• Keeping records of account, Request for Petty Cash (Hand out #2)

• Use of Standard Financial forms, Disbursement Voucher (Hand-out# 3)

• Imprest Account Balance Sheet (Hand-out# 4)

C. Equipment/supply Management

Supply management deals with the organization's goods including raw materials,

office space, office supplies, teaching materials etc. This part of management

controls and leads the proper use and distribution of such physical resources to

different offices or classes in an organization as computers, typewriters, text books,

stationery, office space, heating supplies, lighting supplies, and other supplies.

D. Practical Training Activities :

• Study procurement and purchasing procedures,

• Equipment classification,

• Expendable equipment,

• Non expendable equipment,

• Keep records of information about the equipment and supplies,

• Use of standard forms, prepare inventories, Equipment/Stock Registering Sheet

(Hand out # 5)

D. Reporting and its Purpose :

The main purpose of submitting reports is to state the status of work progress and

confirm that the objectives of the program are achieved. To achieve the set up objectives

62
of the program, work plans are prepared for different activities within a specific duration

of time. For example, how many training activities are carried out under the covering

period of three months? What types of equipment are bought during the period? What

was the purpose for purchase of the equipment? Those are some of the reasons for

submitting periodic, progress and other reports. These reports convey the proper use of

time and money, the money spent for what activity?

63
 HAND-OUT NUMBER 1: USE OF STANDARD FINANCIAL FORM FOR

FIELD ACTIVITY DISBURSEMENT

REQUEST FOR PAYMENT FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES

FR()M: ------------------

HEAD OF: ---------------

T():

Reference made to the Contract N(). ----------dated ----------on the activities-------------------

I am pleased to submit the attached completed work as per this time sheet:

- Ms/Mr ----------field work days--------X------=-------------

- Ms/Mr ----------field work days--------X------=-------------
- Ms/Mr ----------field work days--------X------=-------------
- Ms/Mr ----------field work days--------X------=-------------
- Ms/Mr ----------field work days--------X------=-------------

Total number of staff---------Total amount in local currency -----

Thanking you with regards.

Mr./Ms.

Designation

Approved by Date

64
 HAND OUT NUMBER 2: USE OF FINANCIAL STANDARD FORMS,

REQUEST FOR PETTY CASH

TO: Program Director

FROM: -----------------------

DESIGNATION

I am pleased to request for an amount of--------------------- for petty cash for the period of ---
------------------------ for necessary local expenses in ------------------ office

Present Balance is ---------------------------------------

Last Balance was -----------------------------------------

Cash amount from last period -----------------------------

Thanking you,

Signature

Date

65
 HANDOUT NUMBER 3: USE OF STANDARD FINANCIAL FORMS,
DISBURSEMENT VOUCHER

Voucher No.
/99

Payee: DEPT & TITLE:

S.N DESCRIPTION B.L UNIT TOTAL PRICE CHEQE/CAs
NUMBER

TOTAL:

APPRPVED BY : CERT IFIED BY RECEIVED B

DATE

66
 HANDOUT NUMBER 4: EQUIPMENT/STOCK REGISTERING SHEET
Register Specific Unit Name of Total
number ation price company price

Received By: Date: Designation:

67
 lmrstacc

HAND-OUT# 5: IMPREST ACCOUNT BALANCE SHEET

PERIOD:
PERIOD:
IMPREST ACC HOLDER:

EXCHAGNE RATE: CURRENCY: BUDGET LINE /HEAD

V.S.NO. DESCRIPTION RECEIPT PAID BY CHEQUE CASH PAYMENT

O'l
00

TOTALS
CASH BALANCE ON:
GRAND TOTAL
 APPENDIX D: MODULE 3: COMMUNICATION AND GROUP WORKING

A. Objectives

At the end of the session participants should be able to:

• Understand the importance of communication

• Recognize and define different types of communication

• Develop and improve their communication skills

• Describe the concept and basic principles of group working, and

• Recognize and define the various roles required in group working

• Develop a sense of office procedure organization

B. Reading Material and Importance of Communication

Communication is a vital tool of transmitting messages. By communication we

know people, understand what they can and cannot do. The importance of

communication is to see that: It is educational, the right information gets to the right

people at the right place, at the right time. Through communication we can exchange

ideas and information between individuals or group, we can co-operate, we can

consult, we can maintain relationship with different people, and we can solve

problems. Communication provides better understanding of an organization's role

and policies, quicker reaction to orders, accurate transmission of messages gives

improved results, develops better relationships between members of a community,

and results in higher moral and job satisfaction for all. (S.Kanani, J. Maneno)

69
D Definition of Communication:

Communication is the exchange of information, feelings and thoughts between

two or more people. Communication can also be defined: The transmission and reception

of messages or any means by which a thought may be transferred. Communication

provides better understanding of organization's role and policies. All forms of

communication have a communicator and a receiver (receivers). Effective

communication must be two ways-there must be feedback. In communication the

following five essential points should not be neglected: A message should be: Clear,

concise complete, convincing, and capable of being carried out. (S. Kanani, J. Maneno

& P. Shluter)

E. Types of Communication

Types of communication include written and verbal communication. Verbal

communication or spoken communication includes Face to face conversation,

telephone communication, communicating in a group, in a meeting or in a group

working. Written communication consists of writing reports, letters or other

correspondence, like fax, telegram, telex and e-mail. There are advantages and

disadvantages of both types of communication.

70
 E. Advantages and Disadvantages-advantages of Different Types of Communication:

Type of Communication Advantages Disadvantages

VerbaVSpoken
Communication 1. Immediate response 1. No confirmation in
1. Person to person 2. Two-way communication writing
conversation 2. No time to think so
2. Telephone conversation people
may change their mind
3. Telephone calls are
3. Save time expensive
4. Facts can be taken-up
3. Meetings and settings wrongly, if not written
5. Waste of time
sometimes

Written Communication
1. Letters 1. Confirmation in writing 1. Takes time for response
2. Memos 2. Thoughts are more 2. Cannot be discussed
3. Notices organized 3. One-way
4. Messages 3. Save time communication
4. Facts are taken correctly
5. Can communicate the
same information to many
people

G. Group Working:

Definition: The combined action of different individuals or a team of workers on

a specific activity is called group working. For example, the action of a hospital staff or a

school team is group working.

1. Benefits of Group work

a. Workers actively take part in the work,
b. Workers develop their communication skills,
c. Workers gain confidence in voicing their opinions, and
d. Previous experiences of workers can be utilized.

2. Factors Help Facilitate Group Working:

a. Mutual co-operation,
b. Appropriate communication takes place,
c. Sharing of ideas, and
d. Selection of a representative for the group.

71
 3. Factors Have Negative Affect on Group Working:

a. diversity of opinions,
b. Lack of communication,
c. Lack of independence of opinions,
d. Problems with decision-making,
e. Lack of mutual cooperation,
f. Lack of work distribution in the group, and
g. Lack of group leader.

4. Requirements of Group Working:

a. Clear objectives and criteria,

b. resources and materials,
c. Identification of group problems and reporting them beforehand,
d. Selection of a group leader for the group,
e. Coordination and organization of group work, and
f. Collecting the opinions of group members.

Duties of A Group Member in a Group

a. Awareness of the group work objectives,
b. Feeling ofresponsibility,
c. Listening to the other members ideas,
d. Producing rational opinions,
e. Acceptance of reasonable criticism, and
f. co-operation.

72
HANDOUT NUMBER 6: COMMUNICATION &GRROUP WORKING EXERCISE

Training activity on Communication and Group Working

The purpose is to help identify the progress that was made. You should answer

by putting a mark in the appropriate place and amplify (where necessary) by adding your

comments.

A. How free did you feel to participate and contribute in your own way?

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

(Not at all) (Somewhat) (Completely integrated)

comments:

B. Identify the helping factors, indicate how you can strengthen these factors.

C. Identify the hindering factors, indicate how you can remove these factors.

D. List main responsibilities of group members, which you consider most important.

E. Review these responsibilities in your group and agree as a group on the most
important responsibilities.

73
 APPENDIX E: MODULE 4, BASIC WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN ISLAM

Objective:

To create a sense of awareness about women's rights in real Islamic principles

and Afghan culture among the Afghan women's group in exile

To enable the participants to gain knowledge about the Islamic code of life t

through reading publications on liberal Islamic laws

To help Afghan women understand and redefine their roles in the community
based on Islam and Afghan culture

To prepare this group of women for training other Afghan women on the subject

Basic Rights of Women in Islam

Reading Materials

The Legal Status of Women in Islam

Islam and Women's Education

Women and Marriage in Islam

Women and Political Action

Ideal Wife in Islam
The True Quality of A Good Wife

74
1 The Legal Status of Women
in Isla1n
TllE STATUS OF WOMEN BEFORE ISLAM

It is a well-known fact that the e<1ndition of women in general before

Islam was dismal. The history of human ci,·iliqtion testifies that the
woman. who gives birth to man as mother. was humiliated. treated harshly
and reduced to the position of being 'a maid' rather th;in a dignified
woman. Women were held in bondage to their husbands. who could keer
1

them or divorce them ;it their will and rlcasure. 2 Women were viewed as
the embodiment of sin. misfortune. disgrace and shame. and they had no
rights or position in society whatsoever. Indeed. society was confused
about the very nature of women and even questioned whether God had
granted them ;i soul.' Hence. they were deprived of all opportunities to
develop their personalities ;ind their individualities. and m;ike full use of
their abilities to the benefit of their society. Women in those societies were
also denied all rights of inheritance and ownership. Rather, they were con-
sidered as objects of inheritance. A woman was classed not as a person hut
as a thing, divisible like property; she was mi object of scorn and con-
-.J
tempt.4 These inhuman practices were prev;ilent at the time in most Ul
ancient societies. 5
However. in the Arabian peninsula (the birthplace of Islam), the situ-
ation of women prior to Islam w;is markedly worse.h Women in this time
of ignorance before Islam (.lahiliyvo) were in subjugation either to their
kinsmen or their husbands. They were considered a chattel to he pos-
sessed. to he bought. to be sold or to he inherited. 7 Men had absolute dom-
ination over them. They were not individuals themselves, they either
belonged to their father or to their ht1sband. The widow(s) of a man were
very often inherited by his sons just like any other property. After inherit-
ing them from their father the sons could then easily marry them. 8 Women
had no independence or power over issues relating to their well-being and
they were excluded from any active role in the social and political affairs
of their :>ociety. It has been stated that 'at annual gatherings and fairs
women were made to dance naked and poets sat ;iround composing poems
on various parts of their body and movements' .' 1 In other words. they were
treated as sex objects with no respect at all for their dignity.
2 The Ri,i;hls of Women in ls/11111 '/hr /,r'gal S1nt11s nf Women in lslr1111 >
Women in pre-Islamic ;\rah times were also considered to he a heavy into consideration the preceding focts in conjunction with other factors such
burden on the family. The birth of the daui!hler was embarrassing for the as the absence of any conlr<KI or legal guardian. the exclusion of the wife
father. who considered it a disgrace ;md a maller of shallle. Therefore. the from her ln1shand' s inheritance. the easy methods of divorce. the lack of a
;\rahs of that time practised widely 'fcrnale infanticide': burying their period of seclusion after divorce ;md widowhood-· the iddo (wailing time)
fcrnale child alive. This custorn was cornrnon among the Arabs and it was the conclusion must he readied that there was no fixed institution of mar-
even viewed as a generous acl. 111 The Quran described the mentality of riage and that marriage ties were in no sense regarded as binding' _ix The
iµnorance underlying such a practice as such: 'When the birth of a girl is result was that a man was at liberty lo contract as many marriages as he
announced to one of them. his face grows d;1rk and he is filled with inward wished; al-Tabari mentions that men in Ambia before lsl;nn used to marry
gloom. Because of the bad news. he hides hirnsclf from men: should he four. five. six. or even ten women simultaneously and nobody could ever
kcqi her with disgrace or hury her under the dust? How ill they judge''. 11 stop them from marrying more than that''! 'Before Muhammad. the capacity
'When the sun is folded up; when the stars fall down and the mountains of the Arab's purse would appear to have provided the only limitation to the
arc blown away; when camels hi)! with their young arc left untended and number of his wives. and though there were established conventions about
the wild beasts arc brought together: when the seas arc hurning and men's the status of the women he married. there were neither conventions nor laws
souls arc reunited (with their bodies); when the infant girl. buried alive. is to dictate to him how many they should he'.m When Islam emerged. the
asked for what crime she was slain; when the records or men·s deeds arc issue of marriage was regulated. It encouraged men to have one wife, hut
laid open and heaven is stripped bare: when Hell hums fiercely and reluctantly allowed them lo have up to four wives under special circum-
Paradise is brought near: then each soul shall know what it has done'." stances.21 Men before Islam also used to force their women. especially their
One or the social reasons for such an altitude was that. in pre-Islamic slave girls. into prostitution (7ina)n
times, there were often inter-tribal blood feuds. which demanded male With regard to divorce, there was no forrnula for severing the marriaµe
rncmhcrs to defend their tribes. Hence men were in much greater demand relationship. The husband. in general. enjoyed ahsolute power over till'
than women. In addition, in the tribal conflict. the enemy always aimed at divorce issue 21 and this led to constant abuses. As there was no check on
.._]
capturing women and taking them as prisoners so that they could collect the powers of the husband to dissolve the marriage tie. Arab men used to (})
heavy ransoms. Failing to do so. they would keep them as slaves. In both divorce their women very often and for any reason.2-1 even if it was a trivial
cases women were considered a liability to their own tribes. For if they one such as. for example. speaking highly of their family or tribes.
paid ransom. they would lose money. if not. then the chastity of their However. the most obvious ones mentioned by the historians of the
women as well as their honour were at stake. 11 'The ;\rahs did not .lahilirra were: the man could not find the love he was expecting in his
welcome the birth of a baby girl. and this was so because of the nature of wife; the couple were unable to establish friendship and intimacy or a man
their society. Wars and invasions never ceased and taking revenge never thought that he was marrying a young and beautiful woman who turned
stopped. ;\II these things depended on the male. hut a woman was unable out to he otherwise. 2' The pagan Arabs also used to revoke the divorce ;rnd
to do any of these tasks. in addition to it. she was the desired loot for (the) resume the marital relationship. ;\ man. for example. would pronounce the
service (of the enemy) in the eyes of the enemy. or she was for his enter- formula 'I divorce ynu' 2" many times and then take his wife hack; he could
tainment' 11 For these reasons. the Arabs believed that their own daughters then divorce her again and yet could still take her hack. When women were
constituted a heavy burden on them and the easiest way to get rid of them divorced or widowed there was no fixed period 27 for idda. Some women
was to kill them immediately after they were horn.'" had to wait for a year before they would he ;ihle to re-marry. others con-
Moreover. men in the ./11hi/i1-_rn society enjoyed an absolute right over tracted marri;1ges immediately after the separation. 2x Divorced women had
women in matters related to marria)!e and divorce. He. the man. had unlim- no right to claim for rrn1inlenancc. men were exempted from any financial
ited rights of marriage and divorce. He could take as many wives as he responsibility ;ind endured rw le)!al punishment for their actions. 2'1 This
wished and could discard a wife at will. 11' The idea or a fixed institution of inhuman treatment had contributed to the degradation of womanhood
marriage was absent from the pre-Islamic era. There were only different insofar as the woman herself believed that she should not he more than a
kinds of sexual union 17 which were characterised hy the looseness of servile and .submissive creature. and had no right to expect any respect and
marriage bonds and the lack of any defined legal system: 'If one takes honour in the world. Such a deplorable situation illustrated that the rights
4 The Rights of Women in ls/11111 The Legal Stot11s n( Women in /s/0111 'i

and the liherties of women in those ancient societies were 11ot only tram- as worthy of human dignity as were men. Hoth men and women were
pled upon. hut were entirely denied them. henceforth to he regarded as equal in humanity. The Quran says 'Allah
It must he stressed that some scholars have argued that women in pre- created you from a single soul. and from the same soul created his mate'."
Jslamic /\rahia had some rights. citing the case of Khadi_ja. the Prophet's It also says '() mankind. we created you all from a male and female. and
first wife. who was a highly successful husiness-woman. Our response is made you into races and tribes. that you may know one another. Surely the
that Khadija was an exception. one amo11g a small elite of that society. and noblest among you in the sight of God is the most God fearing of you·. 14
we believe that her case docs not genuinely reflect the general condition of The prophet is reported to have said 'All people are equal. as equal as the
women in that society. which was one of suhjugalio11. This view is shared teeth of a comb. There is no claim of merit of an /\rah over a non-/\ rah. or
by B. Stowasser 10 who writes 'we hear of publicly visihle. independently of a white over a black person. or of a male over a female. Only God-
wealthy women who are active in their own right. The hest-known fearing people merit a preference with God .. "
example here is, of course, Khadija, Muhammad's first wife ... (hut) aside In relation to the absolute. woman is equal to man in all essential rights
from such rare figures of public visibility. involvement and independence and duties: God makes no distinction between man and woman. They arc
as Khadija. the 111ajority of pre-Islamic urban women appear lo have lived to he equally rewarded or punished for their dccds 31' The Quran says:
in a male-dominated society in which their status was low and their rights 'Their Lord answers them. saying: I will deny no man or woman among
were negligihle. Most women were subjugated to male domination, either you the reward of their labours. You arc the offspring of one another·. 17
that of a 111ale relative, or that of the husband. The men's rights over their 'For Muslim men and women. for helieving men and women: for devout
women were as their rights over any property. This seems to have been so men and women: for men and women who are patient: for men and
not only in marriages hy capture. where the captured woman was com- women who humble themselves: for men and women who give charity:
pletely under the authority of her captor, hut also in marriages hy purchase for men and women who fast: for men and women who guard their
or contract. Here. the suitor paid a sum of money (the mahr) to the chastity: for men and women who remember Allah much - for them all
guardian of the bride-to-he (and possibly another sum. the sadaq. to the has God prepared forgiveness and a great reward'.~R 'We shall reward the L-
steadfast according to their noblest deeds. Be they men or women. those r-
woman hersclf),-therchy purchasing her and making her his exclusive
property. The marriage contract, in other words, was a contract between that emhrace the faith and do what is right We will surely grant a happy
husband and guardian. with the bride the sales object. Furthermore. neither life: We shall reward them according to their noblest actions'. 19 And again
conventions nor laws seem to have existed to put a limit to the number of 'The true believers, both men and women. arc friends to each other. They
wives that a man could have simultaneously, so that the only restrictive enjoin what is just and forbid what is evil: they attend to their prayers and
considerations were economic ones. As to divorce in the Jahiliyra, it was pay the alms-tax and obey Allah and His Apostle. On these Allah will
a matter entirely up to the will of the husband who. having purchased his have mercy. He is Mighty, Wise. Allah has promised the men and women
wife, could discharge his total obligation to her by payment of any portion who believe in Him gardens watered by running streams, in which they
of the 111al1r that might remain due to her father or guardian. and he rid of shall abide forever. He has promised them goodly mansions in the gardens
her by pronouncement of the formula of dismiss<tl. This formula. pro- of Eden. And what is more. they shall have greater favour from Allah.
nounced three times, was effective instantly. Finally. there is some indica- °
That is the supreme triumph'. 4 Furthermore, S11mh 40 (the Forgiving one)
tion that women in pre-Islamic Arabia were not allowed the holding, or in verse 40:.~0 '()my people. the life of this world is nothing hut a (passing)
any case the uncontrolled disposal. of their possessions'. 11 comfort. but the life to come is an everlasting mansion. Those that do evil
shall he rewarded with like evil; hut those that have faith and do good
works, both men and women. shall enter the Gardens of Paradise and
WOMEN IN !SLAM receive blessings without numhcr·.-11 In terms of moral responsibility, hnth
men and women are equally accountable for their actions. For example,
With the advent of Islam. the position of women was radically redefined. the Quran decrees that the same punishment has to he applied on the thiev-
Firstly. it prohibited the practice of 'female infanticide' and restored the ing men as well as the thieving womcn. 42 Also. hnth the adulterer and the
birth rights of \Vornen.1 2 Hence Islam elevated them to the status of being adulteress have to suffer the same punishment.' 11 In fact. in a situation
 6 Jhr Rights of' Women in Islam The /,ego{ S1r1111s of Women in Islam 7
where the hushand accuses his wife of cmrnnitting adultery. her oath that they might participate effectively in the development of society, It
weighs more heavily than his accusation and hence Islamic law would also emphasised that \V!imen should he allowed to attain to the highest
work in her favour,' 1'1 ranks of progress materially. intellectually and spiritually.
To rehahilitate the status of women in society. Islam denounced the old It is within this context that Islam has granted women hroad social.
myth of Eve as temptress and source of evil. as the cause of original sin political and economic rights. education and training rights and work
and the fall of humankind,'l'i According to the <)uran the woman is not opportunity rights, To protect these rights from heing ahused hy men.
rcsponsihle for Adam's first mistake: hoth were equally wrong in disohey- Islam provided firm legal safeguards,'" In theory. therefore. a Muslim
ing God. Both asked for forgiveness and hoth were forgiven. Indeed in woman is entitled to the following,
one verse Adam was portrayed as solely responsihle for the whole
episode: 'But Satan made them slip from it and caused them to clq1art (I) 7hr RiRht of /n(/e1)('ndent 011'nl'l"~hi11. This involves the right to manage
from that in which they had heen. Go hence. We said, and he enemies to her own money and property independently, She is at liberty to huy. sell.
each other, The earth will for a while provide your dwelling-place and mortgage. lease. horrow or lend. and sign contracts and legal documents,
sustenance, Then Adam received commandments from his Lord. and his A !so. she can donate her money. act as a trustee and set up a business or
Lord relented towards him. lie is the Forgiving One. the Merciful'."'' 'To company," 'For men is a portion of what they earn. and for women is a
Adam He said: Dwell with your wife in Paradise. and eat from whatever portion of what they earn, Ask Allah for I !is grace, Allah has knowledge of
you please; hut never approach this tree or you shall hoth hecome trans- all things'," 4 This right cannot be altered whether she is single or married.
gressors, But the devil tempted them. so that he might reveal to them that When she is married, she enjoys a free hand over the dower while she is
which had heen hidden from them of their shame, He said: your Lord has married and after divorce 55 This independent economic position is hased
forbidden you to approach this tree only to prevent you from becoming on Quranic principles. especially the teaching of Zakat, which encourages
angels or immortals, Then he swore to them that he would give them women to own. invest, save and distrihute their earnings and savings
--i
friendly cnunscL Thus he cunningly seduced them, And when they had according to their discretion, It also acknowledges and enforces the right of OJ

eaten of the tree, their shame became visible to them. and they hoth women to participate in various economic activities:'"
covered themselves with the leaves of the garden, Their Lord called out to (2) The Ri[?ht to Marn· Whom She Likes. and to End a11 Unsuccrssfitf
them. saying: did I not forhid you to approach that tree. and did I not warn Marriage, Islam regards marriage as a meritorious institution and attaches
you that the devil was your sworn enemy'/ They replied: Lord we have great importance to its well-heing, Marriage in Islam is a union hetwcen
wronged ourselves. Pardon us and have mercy on us. or we shall surely he two consenting adults, Its aims are to perpetuate human Ii fe and achieve
among the lost. He said: Go hence. and may your descendants he enemies spiritual and emotional harmony. 57 The Quran says' 8 'And of His signs is
to each other, The earth will for a while provide your sustenance and that He created you from dust and heholcl: you hecame men and multiplied
dwelling-place, 47 There you shall live and there you shall die. and thence throughout the earth, And of His signs is that He gave you wives from
you shall he raised to life' , 4 ~ 'But Satan whispered to him, saying: shall I among yourselves. that you might live in tranquillity with them. and put
show you the Tree of Immorality and a kingdom which never decays'/, love and kindness in your hearts, Surely there are signs in this for thinking
Thus Adam disoheyed his Lord and went astray. Then his Lord had mercy people' .59 Also. the Prophet is reported to have said 'women are the twin
on him: lie relented towards him and rightly guided him',N halves of men' w Therefore. the consent of the two partners is essential to
Islam also changed the mentality of hoth men and women and created a start a happy and stahle family, Hence Islam is against the idea of forcing
new relationship between them based on respect and mutual understand- women to marry against their wishes, On the contrary, it encourages
ing: taking care of the woman and respecting her were also emphasiscd,' 0 women to choose their spouses, According to the Prophet. '/\ wid()W (or
The status of women was also raised in Islam hy granting her the legal divorcee) is not to he married hefore her consent is sought' and 'No virgin
right to enter into contracts. to run a husiness, and to possess property girl is tn marry without first consulting her. and her approval is her
independently from her hushand or any kinsmeri,' From the heginning.
1
keeping silent' 61 This freedom to choose her partner is guaranteed hy
Islam stressed that women. as half of the society. should he offered all the law which insists that the dowry has to he paid to the bride and not to
opportunities which could enahle them to develop their natural ahilities. so the parents. The Prophet ernphasised that although parents were to be
8 The RiRhts o{ Women in ls/11111 The /,eRal Status of' Women in /sl<1111 9

consulted and oheyed, the fact remained thal the woman's individuality and even ordered that slave girls should he educated. He lllade ii clear that
and independence had to he recognised and respected. llenee the marriage seeking knowledge was a matter of religious duty binding upon every
conlracl has to reflect the i111eres1s of lhe woman in lhe firsl instance and Muslim lllan and woman. llis teachings were widely sought hy both sexes
he designed to meet her specific needs. The woman has to express her and at the lime of his death it was reported that there were many women
desire and impose conditions if necessary to secure her position. 62 /\ scholars 69 So in Islam there can be no restriction of knowledge lo one sex
Muslim woman. therefore. c111nol he forced to enter inlo marriage wi1ho11t at the expense of the other. Today, however, family circumstances,
her agreement; indeed she has lhe right to revoke a marriage lo which she together with the traditions and customs of specific Muslim countries, may
did nol agree in the first place. The Prophet sci a precedent for Muslim work to the detriment of the girl, in terms of depriving her of education,
women when he invalidated marriages which were imposed 011 daughters for reasons which have nothing to do with lslalll. 711
hy their parents. Let us see the Prophet's response when he heard that a
girl was forced hy her father to marry against her will: lhn Ahhas reported (4) The RiRht to Keep lier Own !dcntitv. A woman in Islam has always
that a girl came to lhc Prophet complaining that her father had forced her been entitled, hy law, to keep her family name and not take her husband's
10 marry against her wishes. Upon hearing the story the Prophet granted name. Therefore, she is always known by her family's name as an indica-
her the choice between accepting the marriage or invalidating it. Also. tion of her individuality and her own identity. So, in Islam, lherc is no
Khaddam, Khansa's father forced her to marry a man she did not like; process of changing the names of women be they married, divorced or
soon afterwards she complai ncd to the Prophet. The Prophet respected her widowed.
will to mar!)' a man of her choice, so, he revoked the marriage and freed
(5) The RiRht to Sexual Plrnsure. In Islam lawful sex (that is, within the
Khansa from her 111arital ohligation 61
context of a marriage relationship) has always been held in high esteem
As a woman has the right to have a say on issues concerning her own
and regarded as an act of religious devotion for which rewards in the here-
marriage, equally she has the right to initiate divorce if the partnership
after arc acknowledged. It is meant to lead to a healthy way of human
proves to he unsuccessful. If the marriage contract states that she has the
reproduction, release tensions, meet natural and psychological needs and
right 10 divorce her husband, she could divorce him instantly; otherwise.
strengthen the marriage ties between spouses. llere arc some llacliths that
she would have to resort to the court to dissolve the marital relationship.
have heen attributed to the Prophet in this regard: 'When a husband and
Overall, the <)manic legislation concerning divorce allows time for
his wife look at each other lovingly, Clod will look at them with His merci-
rellcction and insists on kind trcaY»enl of the woman. For example, whilst
ful eye. When they hold hands their sins will fall away from between their -....]
in pre-Islamic times a woman could easily he repudiated and thrown out <.O
lingers. When they engage in coitus they will he surrounded hy prayerful
by her husband, under the Quranic legislation he is no longer allowed to
angels. For every sensation of their delight there is a counterpart of reward
do so. If divorce takes place, the husband has to pay her hack the deferred
for them in paradise as huge as a mountain. If the wife conceives, she will
dowry and a reasonable sum of money as maintcnanceM I le has lo supporl
have the rewards of a worshipper who is constantly engaged in prayers,
her throughout the idda period (three months and ten days) to determine
fasting and in the struggle in the way of Ciod. When she delivers a child,
whether she is pregnanl. If so he is legally obliged to support her until she
only Clod knows the magnitude of the rewards stored for the parents in
delivers and nurses the baby to a certain age. 1' 1
paradise'. 'Once a companion having heard the Prophet praising coitus
(l) 1he RiRht to Education. Both the Quran and the Sunnah advocate the with one's wife as a charitable act for which a Divine reward was to he
rights of women and men equally to seek knowledge. The <)uran com- awaited, retorted:"() you, the Messenger of (Jod. Would a person satisfy
mands all Muslims to exert effort in the pursuit of knowledge irrespective his lust and anticipate I )ivine reward for it' 1" The Prnphet said, "would he
of I heir sex. II constantly encourages Muslims lo read. think, contemplate be punished if he (or she) does so with lhe wrong partner"/ In lhc same
and learn from lhc signs of Allah in nature: '/\re the wise and the ignorant way, fulfillmcnl of sensual satisfaction in the legitimate way shall he
equal'' Trnly, none will take heed but men of underslanding'. 61' 'Allah will rewarded"'. 71 Contrary to the present situation in which talk ahoul legi1i-
raise to high ranks those that have faith ;ind knowledge among you. He is 111ale sex has di<appearcd from religious thinking and writing and has
cogni1a11t of all your actions'.'' 7 'Say: Lord, increase me in knowledge'. 6 ~ become a matter of shame and stigma which ought to he suppressed. early
The Prophet moreover encouraged education fur both males and females Muslim scholars were fascinated by the idea and were quite open about it.
 10 The Rights of Women in lslu111 The Legal Status of Women in /slu111 II
They wrote chapters on the subject in which they elaborated on issues were highly valued and respected and they exercised great influence in
such as the anatomy of sex, the religious merits of lawful sexual activities, shaping their own societies. Aisha and l1111111 Salama (the wives of the
the intimate Iheme of coitus, its initial roreplay and its proper conclusion. prophet) are clear cases in point. lJmm Salama was a shrewd political
They cautioned against an ahrnpt coitus and crude departure al the end or adviser lo the Prophet and very often acted as i111a111 for women. Aisha. on
the acl. Instead they advised an initial gentle approach and a slow comte- the other hand, played a dominant part in the political arena she lived in.
<HIS departure. Moreover, they emphasised the fact that the husband should
She lodged complaints, criticised the policies of the rulers and led opposi-
he considerate and gentle. never too rough and that he should prolong tion grnups. Together with llmm Salama she played a crucial role in com-
sufficiently for his wife lo attain climax. A wife is encouraged to lake the piling the traditions of the Prophet,1vhich are considered one of the main
initiative and not he content with the role of being sub111issiven In their sources or Islamic Jurisprudence. For a considerable time she acted as a
writings !hose early Muslim scholars were guided hy the following tradi- judge correcting and guiding the leaders of her time.
tions which have heen allrihuted lo the Prophet: 'II is a mde manner of a
man lo proceed lo have intercourse with his wife without .firs! playing with (8) The Right to Res11ect. Islam regards women to he equal lo men as
her'. 'Lei not any of you fall upon his wife in the manner a male animal human beings; hence it emphasises mutual understanding and respect
suddenly jumps uron his female partner. Let there he a messenger (lo go) between the two sexes. From the Islamic viewpoint, women as human
between thelll' (said the prophet). lie was then asked: What is the Messen- beings and as half of the society should be treated with care. tenderness
ger, '()you Messenger of (Jod?' lie said: 'kissing and endearing speech'. and affection. Indeed. the Prophet insisted on kind and gentle treatment of
'When one of you copulates with his wife, let him not rush away from wolllen and demonstrated this nol only through his altitude towards his
her, having allained his twn climax, until she is satisfied'. 'Wash your wives hut also in his teachings to his followers. I le constantly encouraged 0
clothes, brush your teeth. Tri Ill your hair. Keep always clean and tidy. A them lo be kind, civil and considerate when dealing with wo111en: 'The co
11atio11 before you neglected themselves, thereby driving their women into nHHe civil and kind a Muslim is to his woman whether wife, daughter or
adultery'. It is a vice in a lllan 'to assault his unprepared wife, seeking lo sister the more perfect in faith he is' he declared.x 11 In his farewell pilgrim-
satisfy his own lust and leaving her before she could achieve her own age he delivered a famous speech ( Khutha) on the Moun I of Mercy al
fulfilment' n Accordingly, if a woman feels that she is nol sexually Arafat in which he reminded his followers of their duty towards wolllen
satisfied or her husband is impotent she has the right lo seek divorce. and ordered thelll lo he kind and respectful to them. lie said Tear Allah
regarding women. Verily you have married thelll with the trust of Allah,
(6) lhl' Right to /11herita11cc. The <)urnn has allolled a share for the woman
and made their bodies lawful with the word of Allah. You have got
in the inheritance of her parents and kinsmen. lier share is guaranteed by (rights) over them. and they have got (rights) over you'.x 1
law and ii is completely hers. No one can have any claim on ii. The Qura11
says 'Men shall have a share in what their parents and kinsmen leave; and So, from the authentic Islamic perspective, a woman is an individual
women shall have a share in what their parents and kinsllle11 leave; whether ii worthy of dignity and respect, an independent human being, a social
he little or much, it is legally lheirs'n However, very often in reality the person, a legal person, a responsible agent, a free citizen, a servant of CJod,
culture of srecific Muslim rnuntries subject women lo social rressure lo and a talented person, endowed, like a male person, with heart, soul and
renounce their shares tn the i111mediate male 111emhers of the family. This intellect: and has a fundamental equal right Lo exercise her abilities in all
constitutes a gross violation of the ()uranic verses concerning inheritance. areas of human activities' .82
Within the context of family ties. the legal status of Muslim women can
( 7) "/he Right o/ Election and No111i11atio11 to f'olitirn/ Offices and
he considered al different stages:
1'11uici1>ati1111 in !'11hlic A.ffi1ir.1. Islam encourages women lo he active
politically and lo he involved in decision-111aki11g. In fact Islam is lhe only (I) As a l>a11ghtl'r: Before the advent of Islam. daughters were very dis-
religion which acknowledges a political role for women. 71 In early Islam favoured and considered ID he social and economic li;ibilities. Boys, on the
women were given every opporlu11i1y to express themselves, lo argue, 71 ' other hand were favoured and sought after (one may add Iha! even today in
and lo speak their mind in puhlic 17 They led ddegalions, 78 mediated and so111e Muslim countries boys are considered preferable lo girls). Islam
granted refuge and proteclion. 7 '1 Their judgements on political matters stopped such cruelties and insisted 011 equal treatment between the two
 12 The Rights of W11111c11 in lslll111 7/ie /,egal Status of Women in /s/a111 1.1
sexes. The Prophet asserted the right of a female child to he treated on an mother between the eyes is protected from the fire'. 'If 1 became aware of
equal footing with her brother. lie urged parents not to make any differ- my parents, or one of them, and I had begun the /sha prayer and recited
cnu.:s between the children and i.D he kind to them, particularly young girls. Surat al-Fatillllh: then. my mother called me: 0 Muhan11nad' I would have
l!ere are a few lliuliths in which he encuuraged Muslims to he gentle and answered her'. 'Verily Allah has forbidden rudeness lo mothers'. 8 ' 1
caring to their daughters: 'If a daughter is born to a man and he brings her
up affectionately, shows her no disrespect and treats her in the same (3) As a Sister: A Muslim is required to have a close relationship with
manner as he treats his sons, the Lord will reward him with paradise'. relatives, especially the immediate members of the family such as sisters,
'(iirls arc models of affection and sympathy and a blessing lo the family. If cousins, aunts, and so on. The Prophet instructed his followers to visit
;1 person has one daughter, Ciod will screen him from the fire of the hell them, he kind to them and to help them if they needed help. lie said 'lie
owing to his daughter; if he has two daughters, God will admit him to par- is not of me who severs or breaks the tics of kinship' 911 Within this
adise; if he has three daughters, God will exempt him from the obligations context. the sister occupies a special position. She is to he treated with
of charity and Jihad'. 'If a person has three daughters whom he provides for care, respect and due consideration. The Prophet did not have a sister hut
and brings up, Clod will surely reward him with paradise'. 'If a daughter is he did have female cousins and relatives whom he used to welcome prop-
horn lo a person and he bri1(, her up, gives her a good education and trains erly and treat tenderly and kindly. Once he stated, 'whoever is ... taking
her in the arts of life, I shall myself stand between him and hell fire' . 81 Nol charge of two sisters, and I reals them well and patiently, he and 1 shall be
content with moral exhortations which aimed at ensuring the equal rights of in paradise' .' 11
young girls, the prophet himself set an example for Muslims to follow. He (4) As a Wife': Clood trcatrnent of wives is strongly emphasised both in
treated his four daughters with parental love and compassion. 8·1 He played
the Quran and the Sunnah. The Quran describes the relationship between
with them, looked after them and carried them when they were young. the husband and wife as follows: 'they (your wives) are an apparel to you
When they were grown up and got married, he continued to care for their
and you are an apparel lo them· .92 The Prophet laid great stress upon
well- being. Fatima, the youngest, and the only one who survived her
good treatment of a wife. lie said 'The best of you are they who behave
father, was very close to him, and often he used to visit her, invite her with best to their wives'. 'A Muslim must not hate his wife, and if he he dis-
her family to a meal with him. and would take her warmly between his pleased with one had quality in her, let him be pleased with one that is
arms and offer her his seat. lie used to say that Fatima was 'A part of me; good' 91 Apart from these rccommendations,'i.i the Prophet set a good co
f-'
who wrongs her wrongs me and who pleases her pleases me'. 8 )
example as the model husband who treated his wives with loving com-
(2) As a Mother: Women as mothers enjoy great respect and affection. passion and due consideration. lie dealt with them on an equal footing,
The Quran advises Muslims to show love, gratitude and consideration for devoted a night to each in turn, helped them with the housework, mended
parents, particularly mothers. It says 'And. We enjoined man (to show his own clothes, shared with them the ups and downs of life, listened to
kindness) to his parents, for weakness after weakness his mother hears their opinions and gave them the chance to develop their own individual-
him and he is not weaned before he is two years of age. We said: Give ity, independence and talents. For example, Sauda developed her skill in
thanks to Mc and to your parents. To Mc shall all things return'. 86 'your fine leather work and earned a good income therefrom; Zaynah was very
Lord has enjoined you to worship none hut Him, and to show kindness to much active in charitable works to the extent that she was renowned as
your parents. If either or both of them attain old age with you, show them 'the mother of the poor' ;95 Umm Salama, bright and clever. acted as a
no sign of impatience, nor rebuke them: hut speak to them kind words. political adviser to the Prophet, while Aisha, the youngest and wittiest,
Treat them with humility and tenderness and say: Lord he merciful to was regarded as a judge, and was very often consulted nn religious affairs
them. They nursed me when I was an infant'. 87 The prophet taught his fol- in the absence of her husband. The Prophet's example was followed by
lowers how to look after their mothers and obey them. Disobeying parents, the early generations who were very much impressed by his attitude
especially mothers, is one of the greatest of all sins. The Prophet is toward his wives.%
reported to have said the following fludiths regarding mothcrs: 88 'Do not
In a nutshell, then, Islam 'came to grant woman her rightful place in the
leave your mother unless she gives you permission or death takes her,
society of man, raising her above the position of goods and chattels and
because that is the greatest (deed) for your reward'. 'Whoever ki.<;scd his
(acknmvlcdging her as) a respectful entity and a personality unto herself.
 14 The RiJ.?ht.1· of Women i11 Islam The /,egul S'tatus of Wo111e11 in Islam l.'i

She was considered an independent social and economic unit functioning In the contemporary Muslim world, everything has been taken out of its
in her own individual right, if she so desired. For the first time she was context. Women's rights are no exception. Women have in many cases
given the right to education, the right lo hold property in her own narne, been deprived even of the basic human rights advocated by Islam itself.
the right of inheritance. and above alL the right -to vole and pray·n Forced marriages. arbitrary divorces. female mutilations and other abuses
l lnder this hill of rights women. under the leadership of Muhammad. are sadly common in the Muslim world. as are restrictions on women's
enjoyed full freedom to develop their individuality and personality and to education and on their role in the labour force. In order to better their posi-
take part in shaping their own society. Moreover, women took advantage tion as dignified human beings we need to address these and other issues
of the liberty offered to them: they participated effectively in public life; in the light of the contemporary situation. I am not suggesting that we
took part in prayers at 1118!nosquc together with the men: acted as i111a111s should abandon the tradition -- only those aspects of cultural oppression
for women (and sometimes for both sexes in their household): joined their that go umler the name of tradition; nor am I arguing for an acceptance of
colleagues in military expeditions; granted protection in war and asylum to the rigid interpretation of the role of Muslim women as it has been defined
fugitives; devoted themselves lo the study of theology, the Quran and the in traditional societies. Rather, it is a question of appraising the reality of
traditions; travelled widely, and moved freely and mixed with men with their suffering in the light of the authentic principles of justice and fair-
self-respect and dignity. 98 ness, revealed in the Quran and practised in the early days of Islam by the
However. this situation did not last long: with the death of Muhammad Prophet and his Companions.
and the transformation of the early Islamic community into an empire,
women's rights steadily underwent erosion. Slowly but surely the rights
granted them and enjoyed during the time of Muhammad were taken
away. They were discouraged from participating in public affairs; pre-
vented from visiting the mosques; denied any opportunity to express their
opinions; barred from developing their intellectual abilities; restricted in
their movements and confined to their four walls at home. nrad11ally the
co
bright picture of the free, courageous, independent, self-respecting and N
respected Muslim woman was replaced with that of secluded, lazy, ignor-
ant and passive woman who had no role or impact on her own affairs let
alone on society as a whole. The situation became worse with the political
disintegration and the subsequent social demoralisation and the penetra-
tion of foreign ideas and customs. 99 This depressed situation has persisted
more or less until the present day in various shapes and forms throughout
the Muslirn world. It is. therefore, hardly untrue to state that women in
much of the Muslirn world have long been subjected to both cultural and
political oppression. While men have equally suffered from the latter,
women generally have had to pay a double price: culturally as well as
politically. It has long been argued that Islam liberated Muslim wbrnen by
granting them full rights as citizens. It is certainly true that Islamic pre-
cepts offer women a full and positive role in society as well as personal
rights, which should, in theory, leave little to he desired. The question
arises, however, as to whether the reality of Muslim women's lives reflects
the theory. To what extent have Muslim women been able to enjoy the
rights the Sharia (Islamic Law) grants them without being subjected to
strong countervailing social pressure?
 'J Islam and W11111r11 's Ed11catio11 17

Quran which enjoin people to learn and ohserve nature outnumber all those
\ 2 Islam and Women's 7
related to prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage put together. Indeed, the first verse
of the Quran was a command to the Prophet to read (/qm): 'Read' In the
Education* name of your Lord Who created, created man from clots of congealed blood.
Read! Your Lord is the Most Rountiful One, Who taught by the pen, taught
man what he did not know' .8 Herc the Prophet was told to learn, study and
understand in the name of God, who, hy His grace, has given man the ability
One of the most important rights granted to wo111en by Islam is the right to
to write with the pen, so that he could circulate knowledge broadly and pre-
education. To start to examine this issue, we should ask some questions.
serve his cultural heritage generation after gencration. 9 Other Quranic verses
What is the position of Islam in relation to education in general and
which advocate knowledge and learning are the following: 'Allah will raise
women's education in particular'' What are their opportunities in relation
to high ranks those that have faith and knowledge among you. He is cog-
to employment? Finally, what is the position of women in the contempo- 11
nizant of all your actions'. 111 'Are the wise and the ignorant equal'l'. 'Say:
rary period in the light of the authentic approach to these issues, as
expressed both in the philosophy and in the practices of early Islam'! Lord, increase me in knowledge' _12
In the llwlith literature, knowledge is highly appreci;ited and encouraged
also. The Prophet Muhammad always emphasised the importance of knowl-
ISLAM AND EDUCATION edge to his followers and encouraged them to seek it. Learned people are
regarded as the inheritors of the prophetic wisdom. In this connection. the
following lladiths can he quoted: 'The prophets leave knowledge as their
Knowledge and education are highly emphasised in Islam. Both are integral
inheritance. The learned ones inherit this great fortune'. 'Search for knowl-
parts of the Islamic religion. Islam encourages its followers to enlighten
edge though it he in China'. The Prophet also said 'I le who goes forth in
themselves with the knowledge of their religion as well as other branches of
search of knowledge, is in the way of Allah till he returns'. 11 To rise up at
(Y")

knowledge. It holds the person who seeks knowledge in high esteem and has OJ
dawn and learn a section of knowledge is helter than to pray one hundred
exalted his position. 1 In reality, the entire aim of the Divine revelation and
rak'at'. 'To be present in an assembly with a learned man is better than
the sending of prophets to humankind has heen stressed in the (Juran as the
praying one thousand rak' at'. 'To listen to the instructions of science and
communication of knowledge. The Book says: 'The Prophet recites unto
learning for one hour is more meritorious than attending the funerals of a
people God's revelation; causes them to grow and imparts to them knowl-
thousand martyrs'. 'One hour's meditation on the work of the Creator in a
edge, and wisdom' .2 The I )ivine desires every believer to be well educated in
devout spirit is better than seventy years of prayer'. The Prophet was asked:
religion, to possess wisdom and broad i11tellectual knowledge.' Hence the
'() Messenger of God, is it helter than the reading of the Quran?'. I le
purpose of raising a prophet in a nation is to teach and to impal1 knowledge. 14
replied: 'What benefit does the (Juran give except through knowledge' .
The Prophet said 'I have hee11 raised up as a teacher' .4 The Quran is full of
'There are only two persons that one is permitted to envy: the one to whom
verses which praise learned people, encourage original thinking and personal
God has given riches and who has the courage to spend his means for the
investigation and denounce unimaginative imitation. It also emphasises I.he
cause of truth; and the one to whom Ciod has given wisdom and who applies
importance of the study of nature and its laws. According to the (Juran, learn-
it for the benefit of 111ankind and shares it with his fellows' . 10
ing is an unending process and the entire universe is made subservient to
It was in accordance with this (luranic guidance and the prophetic
man, the agent of God, who has to abide by the truth and not hy narrow
instructions that the Muslims started, from the very beginning, to seek
notions of hereditary customs and beliefs.' 'We did not creale the heavens
knowledge. Studies were conducted in the Mosques. circles of discussion
and the ea1ih, and all between them merely in sport. We created them only
(1111/aqat) were set up: and teachers were simultaneously students learning
for just ends, hut most of mankind do not undersl;md' .1' The verses in the 1
from their superiors and, in their turn, teaching their own students. r'
' So111c of the 111alcrial in this chapter has been previously puhlishl'd in llaifaa A. Education was considered a matter of religious duty -- a manifestation of
Jawad, J"he l:"d11cali1111 of Wo111e11 in lsln111, Gulf Center for S1rategic Studies, the Muslim's sub111ission to the will of Allah and an act of piety which
London. 1991, reproduced by kind permission of the publisher. could lead to a deeper knowledge of the Creator -- the One. 17 Hence

16
 18 lhe Nights of \Vome11 in /s/11111 Islam 1111d Women '.1· f:'d11c11tio11 19

we find that all members of society participated in that process. Since bul also the entire personality of the student. The teacher in this system
education was free of charge, opporlunilil'.s were avail;1hle lo everybody, was the lransmittcr of knowledge as well as the trainer of souls. Even the
rich or poor alike. The Prophl'.I said 'Treal equally poor and rich studenls term 'teacher' in itself gained the meaning of trainer. It was embodied
who sil before you for the acquisition of knowledgc'. 18 (iifted sludents with ethical connotations which in the modern world have almost disap-
were helped and highly encouraged to continue their cducalion, so that peared from lhe process of teaching and the transmission of knowledge,
lhey would he able lo fullill their aspiralions. Mmeovcr, the seeking of especially at the higher levels of education. The Islamic educational
knowledge was not circu111scribt.:d by age limitations; the Prophd said ' system neither separated the training of the mind from that of the soul,
'Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave'. Therefore. we find lhat the nor regarded the transmission of knowledge or its possession to he legiti-
companions of the Prophet sought knowledge even when they were at an mate wilhout the possession of proper moral and spiritual principles.
11
advanced age. ' Also, there was considerable academic freedom: in the Indeed. the acquisition of knowledge without these principles was
classes. the studcnls were cntillcd to ask questions and to discuss themes regarded as very dangerous both to individuals and society. 2·1
with the teacher - indeed. their reputation depended heavily on their However, despite the fact that the Islamic educational system encom-
success in such sessions of debate and discussion. 20 passed the whole life of traditional Muslims, certain distinct phases can he
discerned. The first stage started at home where both parents acted as
teachers in matters such as religion, language, culture and social rnstoms.
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION This period was followed hy the Quranic schools (al-Kutta/J) correspond-
ing to elementary school. The aims of these schools were to enable the
Initially, the learning process of the Muslims started wilh the Prophet who child to read and write the Quran, and to master the language as well as
himself used to leach his companions the principles of Islam. When he learn other subjects such as proverbs, poetry and, later, arithmetic. These
migrated to Medina, he immediately started the process of eradicating illit- schools formed the preparatory stage for higher studies where the sludents "I'
eracy. His mosqnc also served as a centre for Muslim learning. He was so could then attend the Maclm.rnlt. The M111/ms11h 25 often incorporated lhe OJ

interested in this matter that, soon after the victory of Badr, he instructed J11111iah which can he said to correspond al one and the same time, to sec-
each of the Meccan captives, who were literate, to teach ten Muslims how ondary school as well as to college and university education. 26 The activ-
lo read and write as a condition for lheir rclease. 21 He also sent teachers ilies of these Madrasahs were divided into two parts. The religious or the
and missionaries to different parts of Arabia so that they could leach the transmilted sciences, and the intellectual sciences. The religious sciences
newly converted Muslims the principles of lslam. 22 lie also set up circles included the study of the Quran, the /lwlith, linguistics and theology and
of learned men to stt!dY and teach the Q11ran. Later. mosques were set up they dominated the educational activity of most M(/{lmsllh.1. The intellec-
in every locality and since then have remained as the essential location for tual sciences included the study of logic, mathematics, and the natural sci-
educational aclivitics among the Muslims. The Prophet's example as a ences, as well as philosophy. These divisions of the sciences were
teacher constituted a sacred precedent for his followers. Hence they con- rellectcd in the curriculum of the M(/{lmsahs and were taught alongside
sidered it their duly to set up mosques and schools in lhl'.ir domain. In the each other. These Mmlra.1l!hs enjoyed a high position in society and. in the
course of time. lhe simple pattern of the Prophet's school developed into a course of time, they developed into fully fledged educational institutions
comprehensive and coherent educational system, fully integrated into the performing an important role throughout the Muslim world. such as the
social and economic way of life. 21 This educational system was based on (.!aym1rn11 in Morocco and al-Az.har in Egypt. Later on. we find the devel-
moral and spiritual qualities. It recognised no separation between sacred opment of a university system with several campuses such as 11/-
and secular. Indeed it 'breathed in a universe of sacred presence'. Niw111i_1•w1h and al-l\Ju.111111siri.1·11h in Baghdad and 11!-Ntll'i\'\'llh in
Whatever was known contained a profoundly religious feature, not only Damascus. 27 In addition to the M11ilm.111hs where theoretical learning was
because the object of every type of knowledge is created hy ( iod, hut also conducled, there were a number of observatories and hospitals. Some or
because the intelligence by which man knows is in itself a Divine gift. them acted independently as institutions of scient.ilic learning and l'.xperi-
The education system therefore dealt with the whole being of lhe person mental ion, others were appended to the colleges. A 1-Mamun' s famous
whrnn ii sough! to educate. lls aim was not only the training of lhe mind Slt11111si_\'l'llh observatory was a most remarkable example.- It was followed
20 '/he Rights of \V11111e11 in Islam Islam a11d Wo111en 's /:'d11catio11 21

in many other cities. Moreover, these higher institutions continually ation placed on women's education. Women were allowed to learn all the
provided society with its intellectual elite, and socio-political thinkers. branches of science. She was free to choose any field of knowledge which
Me111her of this elite functioned not only as teachers in the intellectual interested her. Nonetheless, it is important to stress that, because Islam
sense, but also as models of moral behaviour. Finally, Islam. by means of recognised that women are in principle wives and mothers, they should
its educational system, successfully managed to preserve the ancient also place special emphasis on seeking knowledge in those branches·
16
nreck and Eastern learning and then transmitted it to the Latin West. which could help them in those particular spheres.
Hence its definition as the 'intermediate civilization'. 28 In accordance with the dictates of the Quran and the fladith encourag-
ing women to develop all aspects of their personality, it was believed that
111 educated Muslim woman should not only radiate her moral qualities in
EDUCATION OF WOMEN the environment of her home, but she should also have an active role in
the broad fields of social, economic and political development. The Quran,
Islam strongly encourages the education of women both in religious and in particu tar (9: 71- 72), commands men and women to perform their
social domains. Their education and cultural training were regarded as an prayers, pay their poor-tax and enjoin good and forbid evil in all forms:
integral dimension of social development. 29 There is no priority for men social, economic and political. This means that both have an equal duty to
over women in relation to the right lo education. Hoth are equally encour- accomplish these tasks. In order to do so, they must have equal access to
aged to acquire education, as already shown, 'from the cradle to the educational opportunities. For how can a woman uphold good social and
grave' 311 Indeed all the Quranic verses which relate to education and economic policies or disapprove them if she is intellectually not equipped
which advocate the acquisition of knowledge were directed to both men for the task'! 17 Following the injunctions of the Quran and the Sunnah con-
and women alike. In accordance with the all-embracing concept of Tau-hid cerning female education, early Muslim women seized this «ipportunity
·-Oneness-· when Islam elevated women physically by abolishing female and laboured to equip themselves in all branches of the knowledge of their
infanticide, it could not overlook the need for their mental and spiritual time. They attended classes with men, they participated in all cultural
Ul
elevation. 11 By contrast, Islam would view the neglect of these dimensions activities side by side with them and managed to win their encouragement OJ

as virtually tantamount to murdering their personality. The Quran says: and respect. 18 Early Islamic history is replete with examples of Muslim
'They are losers who besottedly have slain their children by keeping them women who showed a remarkable ability to compete with men and
in ignorance' . 12 Neither the Quran nor the sayings of the Prophet prohibit excelled the111 on many occasions. The following is a brief su111111ary of the
or prevent women from seeking know ledge and having an education. As role played by Muslim women in different domains.
already said, the Prophet was the forerunner in this regard, in declaring
that seeking knowledge is obligatory upon every Muslim man and woman.
By making such a statement, the Prophet opened all the avenues of knowl- EARLY ACTIVITIES OF MUSLIM WOMEN
edge for men and women alike. So, like her male counterpart, each woman
is under a moral and religious obligation to seek knowledge, develop her l?eligious S111t!ics. This was the favourite subject for women in early Islam,
intellect, broaden her outlook, cultivate her talents and then utilise her and a considerable number of Muslim women managed to become notable
potential to the benefit of her soul and of her society. The interest of the figures among traditionists and jurists. 39 On top of the list was Aisha, the
Prophet in female education was manifest in the fact that he himself used wife of the Prophet. She was a renowned scholar of her time. Her foresight
to teach the women along with the men; 11 he also instructed his followers and advice in the affairs of the Islamic community were regarded as highly
to educate not only their women hut their slave girls as welJ. 1·1 The follow- important by the early Islamic rulers. She was credited with thousands of tra-
ing !ladith puts it thus: a man who educates his slave girl, frees her and ditions received directly from the Prophet and is to the present day consid-
lhen marries her. this man will have a double reward. 15 The wives of the ered a great authority on lsla111ic Jurisprudence. Another famous name in this
Prophet, especially Aisha. not only taught women. they taught men also subject was Natisah, a descendant of Ali who was a prominent jurist and the-
and many of the Prophet's companions and followers learned the Quran, ologian. It is mentioned that Al-Shati'i, the founder of one of the schools of
Jladith and Islamic .iurisprudence from Aisha. Also, there was no limit- Fi<1h used to attend her lessons and public lectures. 411 Shuhda as well was a
 22 7he Rix hrs of Wo111e11 i11 ls/11111 lsla111 and Wo111c11 's Ed11catio11 23
renowned name in the subject of tradition, especially fladith, which is a were highly respected. They often took part in the process or choosing the
branch of Muslim science which was thought to he exclusively for 111en.·11 Caliph. 18 They also cnjoycd full freedom lo express their ideas and wcrl'.
/,iremturc. Muslim women pmved their ability lo master this subject and encouraged to participate in the social life of the co111111unity. l'uhlic lile
achieved a high reputation among their contemporaries. In the forefront was like a stage where both 111cn and women were actively involved. In
was al-Khansa. the greatest poetess of her day. Iler poetry has survived the early period of Islam women used to discuss and debate with the
into the present period. She was admired by the Prophet himself when he 'rophct 1'J and his companions and even protect their rights if they were
said that her poetry was uns111·passed.·1' In addition one could mention breached. It is said thal during the ti111e of the second Caliph Omar, a
<)atilah who composed a fa11Jous elegy on the death of her brothcr which, wo111an l'.xprcssed her disagreement with him publicly in mailers relating
again, was praiscd by thc Prophe1.·11 to the wolllen 's dowry and managed lo correct him-' 0 The ()uran encour-
ages women lo speak their minds and not lo be silent; nonetheless we sec
Medicine. The humanitarian duties were perfor11Jed hy wo11Jen in all the today some fundamentalists propagating the unfounded slogan that 'the
41
hallles fought in lslam It was a custom that Muslilll women accolllpa- voice of wolllan is A'1l'l·ah (private parts to be covered up) 11 and therefore
nied lhc troops, so that they could bandage the wounded, fetch the water, <irguing that it is in her best interest to keep quicl. For how can a wn111an
transport the casualties hack to Medina and instil courage in the men learn and grow intellectually if she is not allowed lo speak and co11111Hlll-
whose spirits werc llagging.·1) It is said that when the Muslilll troops were icale with others'/ I low can she widen her understanding of lhings arn11nd
preparing lo conquer Khaiher, Urnayyah hint Qays-al-(ihaffariyyah, with a her and speak forcefully and imprcssivdy if she is prevented from debat-
group of women, asked lo be allowed to accolllpany the army. The ing with others publicly?
Prophet granted them his pl'.rmission and they performed their duties well.
In addition, Muslim Wlllllcn attained a high status as medical scholars such 0
ro
as Zainab of the Bani Awd tribe who was a prnlllinent physician and ISLAM AND WORK OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN
an expert oculist. Ullllll al-Hasan hint al-Qadi Abi .!afar al-Tanjali was
a renownl'.d woman of broad knowledge in different subjects. and was At a time when Muslim countries could benefit greatly from women's
cspccially famous as a doclor.~ 6
contribution lo the development process, it becomes critically important lo
Militan• Sen•ice. Muslilll women proved to be good warriors and they evaluate the position of Islam in relation to the employment of women. To
fought side by side with men. They achieved a considerable dl'.gree of start with, we can say that Islam does not forbid wo111e11 to work and havl'.
success. and on occasion played very important military mies. In this a job outside the home so long as her external work does not interfere with
respect 111c111ion should he made of Nusaiba, lhe wife of Zaid llrn Asi111, her home obligations nor lower her dignity. 52 On the contrary, Islam
who took part in the famous ball le of 'Ohud'. In that ball le she fought vig- granted woman the right lo hold a job and to involve herself actively in
orously and in the critical lime when the Prophl'.t was left alone she fought trade and commerce . .She is entitled to work outside her homl'. and earn a
alongside him and wounded 11 persons with hcr sword. In the sa111e ballle, living. D111ing the early Islamic period women often helped men in their
Nusaiha hint Kah al-Mazinia headed the Prophet's army against the ene111y outdoor work and were allowed lo move about freely among men. 11 Asma.
forces and at a crucial n111mcn1 managed to mi111imise the losses of the the daughter of the first Caliph Abu-Bakr, used lo help her husband in his
Muslim army. Of her the Prophet remarked 'Wherever I looked I saw her field work. 51 The Prophet himself praised women who worked hard and
fighting before me'. Al-Yar11111k batik is another example in which well; he also encouraged women, including his wives and daughters, to
Muslim women participated effectively. They were equal with rnen in the engage themselves in gainful work. He used to say 'The mosl blessed
use of the sword. llind hint lltbah was remarkable in this regard as was earning is that which a person gains from his own labour'." Women in
hint al-llarith lhn Hisham. 17 early Islam even held formal posts of authority in the cnmn11mi1y such as
al-Shala' hint Abdullah who was appoinlcd by the second Caliph Omar as
In addition, Muslim wmnen also proved their ability lo play a constructive superintendent of markets in Medina many times. 56 Hence. women can
role in other activities of the cn111111unity. For example, they were involved work as teachers, doctors, lawyers; they can work as employers or senior
in the political issues of the ti111e and thl'.ir opinions in political affairs managers and they can work as Judges. It must be stressed that up until the
24 The Rights of' Women in hlam Is/0111 and Wo111e11 's l'.ducatio11 2)
present lime and in most Muslim countries with the exception of Tunisia writing, for thereby would accrue to them only an increase of deprav-
and Malaysia, the position of Judge is still regarded as a male domain. ity' .62 Thus their role in society centred mainly on preparing them to he
Therefore, women in these countries have traditionally been prevented good and obedient wives and rnothers. 61 Later, when modern education
from assuming this position. The ban has no legal foundation in either the became available, women were denied access to it and only schools for
scripture or the Sunnah. On the contrary, Aisha, the wife of the Prophet, boys were initially developed. Female education was constrained hy
was the forerunner in undertaki11g the position. She acted as a Judge inherited social customs. blucation for women came to he viewed as
dming the era of the first three Caliphs. Also, Abu llanifa, the founder of being of secondary importance to keeping the home and the family.r'~ · !\
one of the schools of law states that a woman might become a Judge and woman's mission is to he a good wife and a compassionate mother ... an
consider all matters except the ones that arc under the penal code. Jarir ai- ignorant rural woman is better for the nation than one thousand female
Tahari, the famous commentator on the Quran, gives women the right to Lawyers or attorney generals' .65 Female education was viewed as a
be appointed as Judge without any co11ditions. 57 However, despite the fact threat to the traditional customs and the way of life of these societies.
that the external work of the woman was allowed and respected, a house- Indeed, educated women were feared anti mistrusted as they could com-
wife, unahle to work due to domestic responsibilities, did 1101 feel that her municate potentially destructive or innovative ideas. Educated women
contribution was less honourable and less fruitful. 58 were considered to be obtrusive and assertive. They did not appeal to
men who expected them to serve them obediently. In addition, leaving
home to go to school was in contrast with the idea of women segrega-
TllE DECLINE IN STATUS OF MUSLIM WOMEN tion. The Islamic ideal of women's education and intellectual develop-
ment was thus distorted, confused and actively opposed. The result was
The high status granted to women by the Quranic reforms which prevailed a disaster. The illiteracy of Muslim women reached a peak and became a f-
during the early Islamic period did not last long. Firstly, certain prc- ro
widespread phenomenon in the world of lslarn. 66
lslamic customs reappeared, especially during the Ahbasid period; Consequently, women throughout the Muslim world became ignorant not
secondly. various social altitudes infiltrated Islamic culture from con- only of outside affairs, but alsu of their legal rights in terms of marriage.
quered peoples, and were assimilated as norms and then identified with divorce and inheritance. Very often due to their ignorance of these rights,
Islam. Hence the status of Muslim women started to deteriorate. This was they were cheated, deceived and misled. This rendered Muslim women
accelerated by catastrophic historical events such as the Mongol and unable to claim and defend the rights guaranteed them by lslam-" 7 This situa-
Turkish invasions and the ensuing decline of the Islamic civilisation. The tion continued up to recent times. until effor1s were made to improve female
ambience generated by these conditions served to undermine the position education in different parts of the Muslim world. However, despite these
of Muslim women who became less and less part of social life in efforts and the rapid progress which has been achieved in the past four to five
general. 59 They were neglected and treated as sex objects, assumed heavy decades, the opportunities for women's education in the Muslim world, espe-
veiling and were confined to their small circle of womenfolk with no cially in the Middle East, still lag far behind those for men. Nothing substan-
contact outside their homes; they were prevented from participating in the tial has been achieved. despite the fact that all Muslim countries have
public life of the community and excluded from public worship in the encouraged the spread of female education. stated that their aim is to try ;111d
mosque. But the worst deprivation of all was the denial of their right to raise the educational level of women, and proclaimed their intention to attain
receive education."° universal literacy. The accomplishment of these goals seems very far oil.
It was believed that basic awareness of the religious rites and memo- The gap between female and male literacy rates in several places is increas-
rising part of the Quran was sufficient for women. Therefore, while girls ing and the overall level of illiteracy is extremely high 68 The Islamic world.
were welcome to all religious instruction especially in the lower grades, especially the Arab world. is amongst the areas in the world which has the
they were prevented from having further knowledge and education 61 In highest rate of illiteracy amongst women, the lowest level of schooling for
fact the opposition to female education reached its peak when condem- girls and the smallest number of women in paid employment. In 1991, the
nation was voiced against teaching women the <HI of writing: 'He the illiteracy rate a111ong fc111ales in !\fghanistan was 8(1 per cent. in Pakistan
teacher must not instruct any woman or female slave in the arts of 78 per cent. in Egypt 6() per cent and in Iran 56 per cent. Although women's
26 The RiRht.1· of' Womrn in Islam Islam and Wm111'11 's Ed11catio11 27

literacy varies enormously from country to country and also from area to EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN SAUDI ARABIA SINCE 1960
area in any particular country, women in the Arab world arc still a small
lllinority among the student population. In every country the rate (if male lit- Female education was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 19(i0, when the
eracy is much higher than fclllale literacy. Even in those countries which former King Faisal took the decision lo set up schools for girls. Initially,
have initialed some reforms, there arc still considerable disparities between the attempt met with strong opposition from the extremists who demon-
male and female lileracy/'9 as well as major discrepancies between the type strated their disagreement by gathering at the gates of the schools, express-
of felllalc education offered and the socio-econolllic needs of the various ing their displeasure with the new schools and with those who registered
Arab countrics. 711 This has been caused by lllany factors such as: family atti- their daughters in them. National (iuards had to he called to restore order.
tudes toward female education which still prevail. especially in the rural The opposition continued, unabated, until the government made two
areas, where the lllajority of the Muslim population lives: 71 and the high essential concessions: first, the government pledged that female education
female drop out rate due lo the inequality between urban and rural educa- would he in line with Saudi customs, especially that of rigid segregation.
lion.72 Rut the rnosl important faclor so far has been the historical inlerprela- Secondly, it set up a special body called the 'General Presidency for Girls'
lion of the jurists. This has taken the shape of a clear deviation from genuine Education' to he responsible for girls' education. As a gesture of its com-
Islamic principles by its strong opposition lo female education. This factor mitment to preserve Saudi customs, the government placed this body
is still very strong in Muslim society, particularly Arab society, and ii under the control of the Saudi religious authorities who, since then, con-
influences government policy on education options and opportunities for tinue to supervise the education of girls in the Kingdom. 79
womenn Saudi Arabia presents a clear example where Islam has been used
to first deny and then discourage women's education.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE EDUCATION IN SAUDI 0)
0)
ARABIA
SAUDI ARABIA AND FEMALE EDUCATION
With this compromise, opposition to female education was finally m1t1-
In Saudi Arabia, a highly selective and narrow inlerprelalion of Islam have ga1ed and schools for girls were eventually established. The idea of
had a restrictive impact upon the lives of women. 74 Traditionally, religion schools for girls seems now to be accepted and the number of females
has been used as an excuse to justify the seclusion of women from the enrolled in the educational process is increasing every year. However,
educational process. The rigid influence of the conservative theologians has despite the fact that female education in Saudi Arabia is becoming
played a critical role in suffocating female education for several decades popular, and the statistics show that significant gains have been accom-
through maintaining that girls should he prevented from all slate primary plished, equal opportunity between men and women is still far from being
and secondary schools. 75 Hence the low proportion of educated women reached. This is even more the case in respect of female education in the
in Saudi Arabia: in 1970, girls constituted about 30 per cent of elementary rural areas, which is an elusive goal yet to be attained. 811 In fact the policy
students, 20 per cent of secondary students and only 8 per cent of students of female education in Saudi Arabia has been founded on limited bases,
in higher education. 76 In 1980. the literacy rate of male and felllale aimed more at discouraging: than promoting the learning process; this
( 15-year-olds) was 30 per cent to 2 per cent respectively. In 1985, the illiter- process neither satisfies the needs of Saudi women nor corresponds to the
acy rate among Saudi females was 5 7 per cent; in 1991 ii was 51 per cent n socio-economic rcquirt'ments of the country. In the elementary schools,
The extremists argued that education of women would create immoral- for example. girls mostly learn those courses which arc assumed to he
ity through c·orrnpting their thinking and diverting their attention away suitable for them in their traditional role in Samii society. These courses
Imm their essential role as good wives and mothers. They also voiced emphasise mainly the Arabic language. home economics, child caring and
their fear that the outcome of the conflict of values brought about hy such religious instruction. 81
an educational transformation would result in discontent and instability Although the elementary schools have been set up almost everywhere in
both in the home as well as in society. It was umler such pressure that the Kingdom, the proportion of female drop out after this primary level is
puhlic education for women in the Kingdom did not start until 1960. 78 still very high. and is a cause of great concern. As the level of education
28 7hc Rights of Wo111r11 i11 ls/0111 Islam a11d Wo111e11 's Ed11catio11 29

increases, the opportunity for girls to advance or progress hccomc fewer. criticised on this central issue. The reason for focusing briefly on Saudi
This is due to the fact that not all levels of knowledge and education avail- Arabia is that this country is regarded as 'traditional' and ostensibly closer
able are at the location where the girls happen to he living, and also to lsla111ic cultural nor111s than the other Musli111 countries. Therefore, I
because in Saudi society women arc not allowed to live alone in a residen- have felt it i111portan1 to highlight the great discrepancy between, on the
tial campus. Hence it is difficult for them to move close to the educational one hand, the genuine Islamic position vis-a-vis women's education, and,
institutions. Secondary schools, for instance, arc not available everywhere on the other, the policy expressed in Saudi Arabia.
in the country, neither are colleges. Vocational education too has been To briefly recapitulate: we have found that women in the early Islamic
extremely limited except for nursing schools and tailoring centres. As period were not only socially active, but were encouraged in all the main
regard university education, the situation is no heller. The universities in branches of learning and indeed rose lo positions of great eminence. In
Saudi Arabia are mainly for males, although some of them have branches stark contrast to this, we have seen that in Saudi Arabia the picture is
in their departments for females. In these branches there is stric.:I segrega- one of seclusion from society and exclusion from certain areas of learning
tion of the sexes in classes and all teachers arc female. Sometimes, due to and hence employment opportunities. These attitudes to women can he
the lack of suitable female teachers, the learning process is accomplished attributed much more directly to inherited socio-cultural norms -- assimi-
through the use of closed-circuit television. This enables male professors lated from non-Islamic cultures or re-emerging out of pre-Islamic prac-
to lecture and answer female quest inns, without coming into contact with tices, as has been argued here ·-· rather than to any Islamic principles on
them. 82 Moreover, females in Saudi universities are not allowed to pursue this question.
any subject they like, being formally deprived of certain kinds of educa- The position of Islam on women's education, as 011 so many other
tion. Up to 1974, the dominant areas were commerce, humanities and edu- issues, aims at a balance, a 'middle way' - (as Islam is so often called).
01
cation. In 1975, women for the first time were allowed to enter the faculty That is, recognising that women are in principle wives and mothers whilst co
of Medicine. This was followed by the admission to the faculty of not allowing this recognition to block avenues of self-development for
Dentistry in 1980. 81 Other subjects such as (icology, Law, Engineering women as individuals in their own right; and conversely, the dignity and
and Petroleum Studies arc available in Saudi Arabia only for males; value of being a wife and a mother should not be diminished by the
women are denied access to these fields. Three out of seven universities in concept of equality of educational opportunity. In Islam, the choice is not
the Kingdom do not accept women to these ficlds. 84 Women also find it an 'either-or' one; there is no necessary contradiction between affirming
difficult to have easy access to the university facilities such as the library. the sacred role of women in the home and respecting the right of women
llence the quality of girls' higher education is much lower than that to participate in social activities outside the home. So long as the educa-
for boys. Therefore, young Saudi women barely think of continuing their tion system is governed by the spirit of Islam throughout, there will be a
education beyond what is available, let alone considering education as a harmony between these two modes of social activity, permitting women to
means of entering a career. 85 express themselves in accordance with their natural dispositions, and to he
given the respect and honour which is so central to the real social message
of Islam.
CONCLUSION

ln dealing with wo111en's education from the Islamic perspective, it is

recognised that wider issues pertaining to a modern lsla1nic curriculum
have no! been addressed. The latter is, indeed, a crucial issue, but our
concern here has been one of the key questions of principle that should
surely guide current attempts to formulate an authentically Islamic educa-
tion system, na111ely the approach lo women's education in such a system.
The case of Saudi Arabia was selected not to allack this particular
system; there are a number of Musli111 countries which could have been
 Women and Marriage in Islam 31

rather, the institution of marriage ensures that this procreative function

3 Women and Marriage in will he both sanctified and orderly, not vulgar and chaotic. From the
specifically religious point of view, having children entails the following:
Islan1 the realisation of God's desire; 9 the fulfilment of the Prophet's call to
marry and increase his followers' number; gaining the fruit of a child's
prayer. Muslims believe that when parents die and leave a child (son or
Marriage is without doubt one of the most important institutions of l111111an daughter - the µender issue in this context does not make any difference),
society. As such, God has set rult.:s and regulations to ensure that the attain- his prayer would benelit the dead parenls. 111 However, if the child dies
ment of marriage is possible for t.:veryone. Tht.: ()until indicates that the real before his parents, he would make inlerccssion on his parents' behalf. 11
and natural way to gain peace and satisfaction in life is through a Fulfilling one's sexual desire is another important aspect of marriage.
husband--wife relationship, just as Adam and Eve did beforehand; it is only Marriage, from the Islamic viewpoint, helps control sexual passion and
through this arrangement that peace in married lift.: can really he ad1icvt.:d channel it in the right direction. Also. it functions as a shield against com-
and guaranteed. In human society, therefore, the main principle of matri- mitting adultery and fornication, both of which arc forbidden in lslam. 12
monial life is that the human race should live in pairs, 1 that is: a man and a Marriage, moreover, brings peace and tranquillity of spirit and implants
woman should marry each other and live together in happy union. 2 love and compassion between the married partners. These are great sup-
Islam assigns great importance to marriage. Indeed, it is highly recom- ports for one's worship of <iod. Intimacy between spouses is viewed as
mended on religious, moral and social grounds. 1 Marriage in Islam is catalyst for the development of their souls. In other words, the intimate
regarded as a strong bond and a total commitment to life, to society and to relationship that develops between a husband and wife is crucial for
being a respectable human. It is a promise that the married couple make to relieving the heart from its burdens and thus enables the mind to better
one another and to God. This undertaking on the part of the married part- focus on accomplishing the Divine requirements. Al-Cihazali beautifully 0
a>
ners would allow them to find mutual fulfilment and self-realisation, love explains this point in the following account: 'The third benefit of 111arriage
and peace, comfort and hope. This is because marriage in Islam is essen- is that the heart finds case through intimacy with women, because of
tially a righteous act and an act of complete devotion. As such, celibacy is sitting and joking with them. This ease then becomes the cause of an
discouraged not only for men, hut for women as wcll. 4 This is in consider- inneasc in desire for worship. For diligence in worship brings weariness,
ation of the fact that their needs arc equally legitimate and valid. Indeed, and the heart contracts. But ease acquired in this way brings back the
Islam views marriage as a natural course for women in the same way as it heart's strength. Ali said, 'Do not remove rest and case completely from
is for men, and probably even more so in view of the fact that marriage the hearts, lest they become hi ind'. It sometimes happened that the
guarantees women some form of economic security. It must be stressed Prophet was overcome by such tremendous unveilings that his bodily
here that this benefit for wo111c11 is in no way an indication that marriage in frame was not able to tolerate it. lie would take Aisha's hand and say,
Islam is sheer economic transaction. Indeed, the economic factor is the 'Talk with me, Aisha'. lie wanted to gain strength so that he could carry
least aspect of the whole enterprise; the emphasis has hcen always on the the burden of revelation. Once he came back to this world and gained full
religious qualities' of the spouscs.r' strength, the thirst for that work would overcome him, and he would say,
'Give us case, Bilal'. Then he would turn back to the ritual prayer.
Sometimes the Prophet would strengthen his mind with a sweet aroma.
That is why he said, 'Three things of this world of yours were made
TllE SI<iNIFICANCE OI; MARRIAGF IN ISLAM
lovable to me: women, perfume and the coolness of my eye las] was
placed in the ritual prayer'. lie put ritual prayer last because that is the
Islam views marriage to he of benefit lo both the individual as well as to
goal. For he said, 'The coolness of my eye is in the ritual prayer', while
society. 1 As such, the gains resulting from it outweigh any shortcomings. 8
sweet aromas and women are the case of the body. Thereby the body gains
From !he collective point of view the most significant benefit is of course
strength to busy itsell with prayer and to gain the coolness of the eye
procreation, but not just the physical perpetuation of the human race;
found therein'. 11

30
32 The High ts o( \Vo1111'11 in lslu111 Women and M11rriagc i11 ls/11111 .B

lsla111 also secs 111arriagc as an ins I rurncnt which LTL'.ales a comforlahle l'Ould cause hardship for both of thelll, nor too low which might give the
home for both spouses. The 111arilal link helps the parlners lo work illlpression that the bride is of no worth. The dowry - which is in its
logelhcr and co-operate amicably in the management ol the tkirnestic essence a gift frolll the groom to the bride - should he affordable and
affairs of !heir house; hence sufficient time could he spared to 111ect the lllanageahle so as to ensure satisfaction and happiness on both sides.
I )ivine um11nand111cnls. Therefore. the Prophet is reporletf lo have advised Fourth, the consent of the couple is crucial for the stability and durability
his followers lo choose the right spouses who would help the111 allain of the marriage. Both have to enter into the wedlock with free will and
Divine blessings. lie said 11 'Seek to have a graleful heart. a sweet tong11c without coercion. Compelling the couple (or even _just one of thelll) to
and a believing, righteous wile who would help you in your endeavour to contract an unsatisfactory union would he detrimental to the interest of
succeed on the Last Day'. 1 ' both sides and could lead to a disastrous end. Fifth, the prospective part-
Marriage, in addition, is .~cen as an opportunity to develop for oneself a ners have to he pious and of good moral conduct. 19 Both have to be kind,
good and sound character as a result of the added family responsibility sympathetic, considerate, patient and loving, caring to one another; this
which both spouses have lo endure during their married life. Hence, encourages peace and harmony in domestic life. Sixth, the two parties
success in carrying out family commitments (which are equally regarded have to declare, from the hl'ginning, their intentions to keep the lllarital
as divine duties) would ensure Divine reward. The Prophet said 'A man hond as permanent as humanly possible. This commitment requires that
will he rewarded for what he spends on his wife, even for put ling a 111orsel the marriage contract should he free of any hidden agenda such as casual
of food into her mouth'. Also, 'Whoever performs his prayers correctly, or temporary unions. Therefore, lsla111 is against all marriages that have
and spends on his children in spite of his modest means, and docs not been described as experimental, casual and tempnrary. 2" In a clear state-
speak ill against others, will be in paradise as close to me as these !two ment, the Prophet outrightly denounced those llll'n and wo111en who enjoy
fingers of mine I' . 16 Finally. marriage ensures social stability and a the frequent change of marital partners and warned against their unaccept- r-i
O"\
dignified form of living for both partners (the husband and the wife). prob- able behaviour. Having stated the importance Islam lays on the perma-
ably even more for women since it guarantees their rights both as wives as nency of marriage, it is essential to stress that in Islam there is no concept
well as mothers (of course alongside their rights as individuals). 17 of 'indissoluble' marriage. Although Islam endeavours to keep the marital
link stable and intact, this does not mean that the wedlock cannot he
brought to an end if there are compelling circumstances. Indeed, Islam
CONDITIONS OF MARRIAGE recognises that if the marriage is not working, it is in the interest of both
sides to terminate it on good terms. Hence, divorce in lsla111 is a legitimate
Since Islam takes marriage seriously, its concern has been always to act. all hough it is discouraged by the Prnphet. 21
ensure that the lllarriage bond stays relatively stahlc and durable. To Islam. as we know, encourages both lllen and women to marry. Just
achieve these goals, it has laid down certain rules and regulations to meet like a man, a Muslim Wolllan (virgin or non-virgin) has the freedolll to
these objectives. hrst, the couple have to be of proper marriageable age; 18 propose to a man of her liking, either orally or in writing (I wonder how
also, there should he no discrepancy between their ages. It lllUSt he stressed many Muslim wo111en these days would dare to initiate an oral proposal,
that the claim by some scholars that the groom has to be always senior in let alone put it in writing'). List.en to the following: 'llmamah hint Ahil-
age so as to ensure a healthy lllarriagc relationship has no religious grounus As was one lady companion of the Prophet who proposed for marriage
and in practical terllls does not make any sense. In fact, it contradicts the in writing. She sent a message to al-Mugheerah bin Maufal saying: "If
practil'e of the Prophet, two of whose wives (Khadi_ja and Sauda) happened you feel you stand in need of us then proceed forth ... I le then sought her
to he older than him; despite this, the record shows that they lived in peace hand i11 marriage frolll al-llassan, her cousin, who duly solemnised the
and harlllony. Second, there should be a degree of compatibility between marriage'. Also, a Muslim lady made an oral proposal to the Prophet
the two partners in terllls of social status, educational standards and phy- hilllsclf in till' following account: 'I present 1J1yself to you'. She then
sical attraction (again the claim hy some scholars that the bride has to he waited for quite some tillle while the Prophet kept looking at her. i\ man
more beautiful and more attractive than her groom is a fallacy). Third, the said to the Prophet: 'If you do not need her. please many me to her'. The
dowry of the bride should he of a reasonable level: neither too high, which Prophet asked him. 'Do you have anything to offer as dowry'!' (The man
34 The Ri,;hts of Wo111e11 in /slu111 Wo111e11 and Marria,;e in /sla111 J'i

did not have anything to offer except his loin cloth, which after all he with the conqueror of Egypt, Amr ilm al-As. She stayed with him until she
could not afford lo give away. However. after lengthy enquiries, he passed away. 27
offered to teach her the Quran). The Prophet then declan:d: 'I solemnise Atika hint Zaid is another good example. She was a woman of excep-
your marriage with her with whatever verses of the <)urnn you have as tional abilities who had managed to contract four marriages during her
dowry'. 22 lifetime. Her first husband was Abdullah ibn Abu Bakr, son of the first
The Muslilll woman, therefore, has the freedolll of marital choice: she is Caliph Abu Bakr. He died, leaving her a fortune on condition that she
at liberty to choose her prospel'live husband, look at him and get lo know would not re-marry. For a while she was content with the idea of living a
21
him without coercion on the part of the father or other relatives. If force celibate life, hut later she decided to go against his wish and not to spend
or pressure takes place, she has the right to appeal lo the court lo redress the rest of her life alone; hence her decision to accept lJ111ar ihn al-
the wrong. 2•1 Her consent is essential for the validity of the marriage con- Khattab, the second Caliph, as her second husband. When Umar was
tract. The Prophet is reported to have made the following statements: 'A assassinated in 642 she married her third husband, Zuhayr ibn al-Awwalll.
previously married wo111a11 shall not he lllarried till she gives her consent, After his death in 656, she took her fourth husband, Hussein ihn Ali, son
nor should a virgin be married till her consent is sought'. 'A previously of the fourth Caliph Ali; by this time she was around forty-five years old. 28
married woman is more a guardian for herself than her guardian, and a
virgin should be asked permission about herself, and her permission is her Contract and Conditions
silence'. 'A grown-up girl shall be asked permission about herself. If she
is silent, it is her permission; and if she declines, there shall he no compul- Marriage in Islam requires a contract between two equal partners. Hence,
sion on her'. 25 in Islamic terms. the woman is lo be a subject rather than an object in the
According lo Islam, a divorced or widowed woman has the right to re- marriage contract. The contract, in sum, is a legal wrilter; documc111
marry without any shallle or denunciation. In fact. the Quran allows the between two adults, which entails an offer by one partner and an accep-
betrothal of a divorced or widowed wolllan even during her period of tran- tance hy the other in the presence of two witnesses. The Qadi, or official,
N
sition (idda). 'It shall he no offence for you openly lo propose marriage usually solemnises the marriage in a mosque or court or any other loca- ()"1

indirectly lo such women or lo cherish thclll in your hearts. Allah knows tion. The consent of the prospective wife is crucial for the effectiveness of
Lhal you will re111emher them. Do not arrange lo meet thc111 111 secret and, if the marriage contract. Any force or hlacklllail on the part of the relatives
you do, speak to them honourably. But you shall not consurnmale the mar- would automatically render the contract invalidn The bride, moreover,
riage before the end of their waiting period. Know that Allah has knowl- has the exclusive right lo stipulate her own conditions in the contract.
edge of all your thoughts. Therefore take heed and hear in mind Iha! Allah These conditions include mainly (though not exclusively) such issues as
is forgiving and merciful'.' 6 Also, neither age nor previous marriage marriage terms (the right, for example, lo have a monogamous relationship
would impede a woman from contracting perfccl matches. Many arc the whilst she is still living with her husband) and divorce terms (the right, for
examples which can he cited from the early Muslim community during instance, to dissolve the marital bond al her own initiative if she deems it
which women were, very often, re-married after they were divorced or necessary). 111 In addition, dowries - one initial and another deferred in case
widowed, and this was done without stigma or discredit. of divorce - must he specified and written down and they should he of
Take, for instance, lJmm-Kulthum hint Aqha, an early convert from substance. The dowry (or Mohr. in Islamic terms) belongs to the wife; it is
Mecca. She emigrated to Medina in defiance of her family. who tried to her exclusive right and it should not he given away, neither to her family
force her lo relurn lo Mecca, hut to no av<1il. She stayed in Medina and nor lo her relatives. 11 The ()uran says 'Give women their dowry as a free
married her first husband, Zaid bin llarith. When Zaid was killed in one of gift; but if they choose to 111a~e over lo you a part of it. you may regard it
the battles she contral'led a second marriage with Zuhayr bin al-Awwam. as lawfully yrnrrs'. 12
/.uhayr was rough with her, so she decided to part with him. After the sep- When the marriage is consummated. the couple assume a new relation-
aration, she 111<111ied Abdel Rahman bin Awf. her third husband. and lime ship: that is. a hushand--wifc relationship. It is a kind of reciproL·al and
him two sons. lJpo11 Abdel Rah111a11's death. U111m K11lth11m once more intenlcpcndc111 relationship. The Q111a11 says 'And of llis signs is that lie
contracted herself into 111aniage. to her fourth and final husband, this time gave you wives from alllong yourselves, that you might live in tranquillity
16 The Rights o/ Women in /s/0111 Women and Marriage in /sla111 17
with them, and put love and kindness in your hearts. Surely there arc signs looking after the welfare of the family. They must share the ups and
in this for thinking people'. ii The verse implies that in a marriage bond the downs of married life, he prepared to make sacrifices, pay attention to
two partners are a comfort to each other. They should find and enjoy peace each other's point of view, consult each other and adopt joint decisions on
and tranquillity in each other'.~ company and he hound together not only important matters that affect the entire family.
by a sexual relationship hut also hy love, compassion and mercy. As such, These joint decisions have to he delivered or enforced by the husband
both have to demonstrate mutual care, affection. respect and he prepared since, in Islam, he is the head of the family. This is based on the following
to make sacrifices. Also. there should be no servility on the part of Quranic verses which give the husband the righl to be in char)!C of the
either side, for they arc two equal partners in a healthy, loving and caring family: 'Women shall with juslice have rights similar to those exercised
re lat ionshi p. 14 <1gainst them, allhough men have a degree above women. Allah is Mighty
The Quran eloquently illustrates this equal partnership in the following and Wise'.~ 1 'Men have authority over wo111en because Allah has made the
statement: 'They arc an apparel to you, as you are an apparel to them' .15 one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain
The verse explains that just as a gannent covers a person completely and thc111' ."12 These verses were and still arc a source of 111uch discussion and
provides him/her with warmth, protection and decency, in the same way a debate throughout the Muslim world, generating a host of different intcr-
husband and wife provide each other with the necessary warmth, comfort, pretalions. These interpretations range from liberal to moderate to conser-
intimacy and protection. 1" The realisation of these principles in actual life vative. Our view in this context is that the headship of the husband should
depends. mainly, on the way both partners react to each other. In this on no account be a license for dictatorship; it should entail no absolute
context, the Quran expects them to behave in the hest manner toward each freedom on the part of the person in charge; if the husband mis-uses or
other. The husband, on the one hand, is commanded to treat his wife gently abuses his status, the wife has the right to interfere to rectify the situation.
and with kindness, affection and consideration. The Prophet said 'The best After all. the whole issut: of being a chair-person is to ensure the smooth
of you is the best of you to his wife, and I am helter than any of you running of the family. Any neglect on the part of the husband to fulfill the
toward my wife'. n lie is lo deal with her with dignity and in <111 equitable task which is designated to him justifies his replacement by the more able (Y)
m<1rrner, not to hurt or injure her feelings. He is to show her that he loves person (the wife). 01
her, 18 appreciates her good qualities and he is to give her the impression However, nod-conscious pairs would always act responsibly because
that he needs her and depends on her to att<tin happiness in life. Also, he is they arc aware of their commitments to Clod <ts well as to each other. Also,
asked to ensure that his tasks as husband and father are fulfilled to the because they arc conscious of the fact that if they live up to their promises
utlllost. Besides, the husband has to meet his legal responsibility to and act rationally in their married life they would invoke God's pleasure.
provide full lllaintcnancc of the wife: a l<tsk which he has lo <1ccnmplish hence making their lives a perpetual joy and paradise. Rut, sadly, this kind
with good cheer and gladness. The wife, on the other hand, is similarly of paradise, envisaged by the Qurnn and prnctised briefly during the
required to rcciprocalc in kindness towards her husband, treat him with Prophet's time, has hardly ever been realised. In fact, the case has nearly
respect, admire his good qualities and express her love and affection to always been the reverse. Slowly but surely, attitudes towards women and
him. Also, she is called upon to ensure that her duties as wife and mother marriage changed. The Quranic principles which bestowed honour,
are perforllled to the best of her abilities. 19 dignity, kindness and respect on women were gradually eroded and went
To 111aintain a happy conjugal relationship, both partners lllllSt he loyal, into limbo. Customs, rather than Divine l<tws, shaped and continue to
honest, direct, <tnd trustworthy. They should he thoughtful, sympathetic sh<tpc the social fabric of society and govern people's attitudes towards
and sensitive towards each other's feelings; in p<trlirnlar, they must avoid women and marriage. The outcome has been a steady deterioration in the
raising each other's suspicions and jealousy and try to maintain their status of women as far as their marital rights are concerned. Take, for
inlC)!rity as husband and wif"c. united togclhcr in a matri111onial link. example, the right to initiate a marriage proposal. This has been com-
Concerning their sexual intimacy, both must he pleasin)! 111 and receptive. pletely abandoned: not even in her wildest dreams would a woman dare to
They should endeavour to attain and give maximum )!r<ttification. propose orally or in writing. The disappearance of this early practice has
rvloreover. in order to keep the marital link intact. stable and hcallhy, both been so total that most women, even educated ones, are not aware of its
partners have to demonstrate their willingness to share the burden of existence, let alone practise it. The right to exercise her choice in selecting
:rn The Rights of Wo111e11 i11 ls/11111 Jiii 19
a marriage partner has, in most cases, hcen forgotten. Most marriages that ' - hnanetal arrangements between them. the Council stresses: 'It is significant
currently take place in Muslim socictie.~ are arranged unions, during which that in spite of the wife remaining the sole owner of her wealth ... (she is
force and intimidation arc quite often employed to ohtain the girl's encouraged) to put her wealth at his disposal and pleasure'. What ahout
consent. Moreover. her freedom lo sign the marriage contract has hecn his money? 'She should not attempt to appoint her~elf as the controller of
considcrahly curtailed. The majority of Muslim marriages nowadays arc his finances. It is none of her business on whom her husband spends his
contracted through agents (guardians. especially on the part of the wealth'. What if the husband fails to perform his duties properly'' The
woman), very often a male member of the family (father, hrother, or Council emphasises: 'She must not adopt a legal stand and a technical atti-
uncle), who formalises and signs the contract on her hehalf. In doing so, tude. demanding fro111 her husband perfect and total fulfilment of her legal
her opportunity and right lo negotiate marriage and divorce terms arc rights ... The wife has to remember that despite her husband's failure to
deliberately denied. In most cases. a woman is subjected to considerahle fulfil his duties to her, she is under ... ohligation to obey her husband .. .,
pressure to avoid stipulating in her rnmriagc contract a divorce right or ohedience to the husband will ensure the everlasting happiness ...
any other rights which might he viewed as a constraint on the freedom of for her' .'11
the husband. If' she did so, the social pressure on her would he so tremen- The mutual responsihilities on hoth sides to demonstrate to each other
dous that in the end she would he obliged to give up, otherwise she would their loyalty, honesty and respect have become exclusively the wife's
he accused of endangering the whole enterprise. Divorce has become a domain and obligations. The husband has been deliberately left out of the
stigma and women are always regarded as heing culpable. The prospects equation. So whether he is honest and loyal or a cheat it does not matter.
for a non-virgin (divorcee or widow) getting re-married is dim. Indeed, in What matters most (and this is important to him and to the male-
many cases they arc forced to spend the rest of their lives cherishing the dominated society) is the faithfulness and loyalty of the wife. There is no
memories of their dead hushands and serving the male mcmhcrs of their question of reciprocity between them in this matter. I have not read a
own families. single book (ohviously those written by men) which considers faithfulness
Within the context of a husband--wife relationship. authoritarianism and obligatory upon both sides. The emphasis has always heen on the wife, as
"<;)'
dictatorship have replaced the ideal and equal partnership advocated hy the if she is a creature with no control over her sexuality. The reader might (})

Quran. The husband assumes the role of ruler, superior. controller. oppres- consider it disgraceful to have such a mentality at the end of the twentieth
sor and master, while the wife. on the other hand, is reduced to a-slave, a century, but sadly we still do. Listen again to what the Council has to say:
captive, a low, inferior and submissive creature. Listen to what the so- 'The outstanding virtue of a true Muslim wife is her total faithfulness to
called Council of Ulama (that is, people with knowledge ahout Islam) of her hushand. lier mind, her heart, her gaze and her body arc only for her
South Africa has lo say about the relationship hetwecn the two spouses: husband .... It does not behove the Muslim wife to cast her eyes on any
'She (the wife) should mould herself to wholeheartedly suh111it to his 111an other than her husband ... even a glance at another man is considered
whi111s and fancies. llis likes 111ust hecome her likes and his dislikes, her infidelity and an act of unfaithfulness ... entertaining thoughts of other
dislikes. She should step out of her way to comfort him and to console him men in the mind is infidelity in Islam; glancing at other men is infidelity,
in his worries and distress. I lcr wishes and desires arc suhservicnt to his speaking to other men is infidelity. Infidelity and unfaithfulness to the
wishes and orders After all (God) has created her for her husband's hushand are not conlined lo adultery'. In other words, she has to bury
comfort and peace'. The Counci I goes on to say 'The Shari ah has accorded herself alive. Hut what if the husband happens to be unfaithful? Well,
the husband the highest degree of authority over his wife. f ,ikewisc it will 'The woman of intelligence and understanding should face this delicate
transpire that the wife has to offer the higher degree of suhmission to her situation with great patience she should endeavour to win over his
husband ... with humility and patience she should tolerate his shortcomings heart with love and tender tones ... if the husband rebuffs her. she should
and even his injustice .. men are the rulers of wo111cn and they have a not give up hope. Leave the matter for a while and resume (the advice)
superior rank ... (as such) it is the husband's right aud role to dominate and respectfully, humbly and intelligently al another time when he is in a
dictate (and) it is the duty of the wife to submit and serve. The wife should better mood'. Whal ifhc marries a second wife'! '(She) should not behave
understand that she can never conquer her husband by confrontation and as if her world and life has ended_ .. she should face the situation with -
seeking to set herself up as his equal or superior' .. u Concerning the maturity and patience. She should suppress her urges and never vent her
 80 Thr' RiRhts o( Womr'n in /s/11111 "!"ht /)i.1solr11io11 o( Marriagr' in Islam RI
I
essential in this context. The hushand cannot force her hack. C\'Cn if he have continued to 111;ike use of it to their own advantage. We ;ire thcrc.'fmc
regrets divorcin1< her. She must first give her consent before the couple strongly in favour of hanninµ it outright. It is ;1 hi1.arre and odd pr;ictice:
can resume their matri111onial relations. In order for him to signal his most importantly. it is very degrnding to the dignity of Muslim women.
intention lo retain her. he may express this desire either explicitly or Also. it allows men to indulge their whims. completely unfettered. with no
1
1
i111plicitly. The former is the preferred one. and is usu:illy done hy pro- obligation to honour their family responsibilities.
1HH111cing the revocation of the repudiation. If. d111ing the waiting period.
i' one of the spouses dies, the other can still inherit the esl<tlc. If the husband
It is interesting to notice that the grc;1t jmist. lhn Taymiyyah. was a)!ainst
it. lie stated that the erratic use of such a practice (triple pronouncement
!· allows the waiting period to eiapsc without reclaiming his \vile. the repu-
on a single occasion) was invalid ;rnd had no impact on the st;1tutory posi-
diation hccomes irrevocable or absolute (/)(Ivon). The wife henceforth
tion of a marriage. 1lis aim \\·as to protect wrnm·n. as he thought that they
becomes free to contract a new marriage. he it with her former husband or
![., with someone else. 10
were victimised by such a ruling (limar's validation of Uid'ah divorce). It
is a shame that his position has hecn forgotten and disregarded in contem-
por;iry Muslim societies."'
(2) Talaq al-1/asmr. This is a less approved form of divorce. Here the
~. .I The dissolution of marri;1gc.' by the wife takes two forms: (I) Taloq 11/-
husband repudiates his wife three successive times over a period of three
111onths. once each month during the period of 111hr. ;\s with 11hso11 trrloq, Tr111fid, or delegated divnrce. In this form of divorce the hush;md, at the
the husband can revoke his divorce after the firq or second repudiation. time of marriage. agrees to delegate tn his wife the power of pronouncing
hut after the third repudiation the divorce becomes absolute (h11rm1). The the 1a/11q. thus allowin1< her to dissolve the marriage contract. It must he
only difference is that the wife rnnnot re-marry her former husband until stres,ed here that once the l111sba11d consents to give his wife the right to
she has first married someone else and then dissolved tlwt marria):!c. 11 The divorce him, he is no longer in a position lo reclaim it. Tall'fid divorce is
reason for adding this condition is to prevent a lwsty repudiation on the indeed a powerful weapon in the hands of the wife. since she can easily
part of the husband 32 use it if the conditions in the marriage contract are violated by the
husband. But I wonder how many Muslim women can afford to take
if:
LJ)
()>
(3) folaq af-llid'ah (innovative). This is the least approved method of adv;intage of it. considering the social mcn;tee and terror surrounding them
divmcc in the Muslim world b11t. unfortunately. it is the most widely used. in Muslim societies. 17 (2) Kint/a. ;tlso called rnnsom by some jurists. 'R
p 19
llcre. the wife initiates the divorce, hut the husband has to agree to free
It is highly condemned hy women mid civilised men and regarded as
~' sinful. Nonetheless, it is considered legally effective once it is pro- her in return for re-payment of pmt or ;111 of the dowry or 111alrr.'m A
nounced. This form of divorce 'is effected by three rcpudiatinns. which woman seeking k/111!0. however. may lose her right to maintenance during
may he prono11nced at any time (not merely in clean periods) and without the w;iiting period.~ 1 Women's right to klr11/11 was acknowledged ;rnd
definite intervals' 31 It is an irrevocable form of tofaq and the husband can respected during the early Islamic era: they were very often allowed to
only re-marry his ex-wife after she has contracted a new marriage with a exercise it without fear or intimidation. For a woman to request kl111fa she
second man and dissolved that m;irriage (after proper consumnrntion). H docs not have to quote any specific reason: the fact that she is unhappy
,.
:11

!Jid'ulr divorce lacks any Quranie support. Also, it was strongly denounced with her husband would he enough to grant her separation under klnt/11.
by the Prophet, who is reported to have reacted angrily when he heard that This point is clearly illustrated by the following incident that took place
somehody had divorced his wife by the triple pronouncement of 10/nq in a during the Prophet's lifetime: 'The wife of Tlrnhit hin Qais came to the
single sitting and s;iid 'How would you play with the book of Allah while Prophet and said."() Allah's Messenger' I do not blame Thahit for defects
I am ;1live and mnidst youT 1 ' lie then ordered the m;in to take hack his in his character or his religion. hut I. being a Muslim. dislike to behave in
wife. Nonetheless. this innovative divorce acquired legitimacy under the an un-lsbmic manner (if I remain with him)"'. On that Allah·s Messenger
reign of the second Caliph Umar. who decided to make it legal in an said (to her). "will you give hack the )!~mien which your husband has
attempt to prevent any careless 11se of the formula. However. his efforts in given you (as nr11frr)'I" She said. "yes". Thcn the Prophet said to Th:thit.
this context proved to no avail as his decree eventually produced counter- "() Tliahit I ;\ccepl yom g;mlcn. and divorce her once".' 12 Klr11/a is hardly
productive results. Since then it has remained lawful and legally effective ever practised these days. Indeed. the majority of Muslim women arc not
among Sunnis (the Shia do nnt recognise this type of divorce). and men aware of its existence. let ;1lone allowed to make use of it. And even if
J

i 82 The f?iRhfs o( Women in ls/11111

\
r
I
lhey know of it. al<is. who dare to seek khu/11 even if the husband looks
like a monsler or heast? II would certainly cause <Jod·s throne lo lre111hle. ~ Women and Political Action
I Divorce through mutual consenl is usually called /lfoham'ah. This form
of divorce centres around an ;igreernenl hetween sp(1uses lo release each
other fro111 the maril;il link'12 wilh no exchange or pay111enl on eilher side. From the Islalllic viewpoinl. human actions are all regarded as duties.
The final melhod of dissolving lhe 111arri<1ge conlract is lhr(lugh a _judi- which in turn can he divided into fim/'orn (individual duty) and find
cial process. at the instigalion of eilher lhe wife (1r hushand. This rnn he ki(arn (collective duty). Duties in general (whether fiml'ay11 or {<ml
ohlained in the case of (a) Lian and (h) annulmenl. 11 /,ion is a divorce hy ki(arn) are closely linked with human ability. that is. they arc obligatory
oalh and ii occurs when lhe husband accuses his wife of commitling ;idul- on people who are able lo fulfil lhcrn for 'Allah does not charge a soul
lcry wilhoul evidence. 40 The court. afler studying the cise ;ind heming par- with nwre than it c;in hear· . 1 It follows that political actions arc also
I' 16
ticular o;iths' from bolh spouses. would issue a decree allowing the viewed as duties and hence can be classified asfan/ 'arn (such as Ha/a or
~..
marriage lo he dissolved. This form of separation is irrevocable and the o;ith of allegiance and Sh11m or consultation) and fiml ki(u1·n (such as

!''.r'
I
parlners cannol re-marry each other again.'17 Annulment: lhe m111ulmenl
(or f(1skh) of the rn;irriage lakes place when the wife lrJtlges a complaint
againsl her husband on lhe basis of the following: i111potence. failure lo
Jihad. public offices and enjoining good and forbidding evil). The obliga-
tory nalure of any aclions (Waii/1). including the political ones. is based on
the concept of vicegercncy or human representation of C:od on earth

~·
2
fulfil the marilal ohligalions. mallreatment, insanily and ;my olhcr causes ( f\'hila(a). which includes both men and wolllen and entails person:il as
which might justify lhe annulment of the rnarri<ige. Afkr invesligMing lhe well as corporate responsibility to fulfil God's commands on earth. Both
complaint carefully. the judge would pass a court decree freeing the then, as equal partners. share the onus or duty of running the political l..O
woman from the marital hond. 4 R affairs of their society for they 'are friends (ml'/ira') to each olher .. .
1
°'
enjoin what is just and forbid what is evil'. And. as we know. all the
works of the Judiciary, Executive and Legislalive powers are there to
CONCLUSION enjoin good and forbid evil. The Muslim woman, therefore. like her coun-
terpart - the man - has a broad political responsibility and an important
Although lhe ()manic legislation on divorce aims at protecting women and role to play in public life. a role that was put at the service of the nascent
allowing I hem to free themselves from the marital bond if it becomes nec- Islamic community in Medina and for a while thcreafler in the early period
essary. in today's siluation, !here is a huge gap hclwecn lhe Divine princi- of Islam. For women. especially during the Prophet's time. were very
ples and lhe aclual practice. For example, most women arc hardly allowed active socially and politically. They were allowed and even encouraged to
lo exercise !heir right to divorce because of the lremendous social and participate in the process of building up the Medinan society and they
ft,,. \i
mental pressures lo which they arc subjected. To break lhesc harriers. lhcy
would need enormous courage. and few of them have lhis capacily.
proved to he up to lhe task.

,,;i11 Therefore, divorce has become an exclusive right of men. And lhis righl
has heen grossly abused. Indeed. in most cases. it ha.s been deliberately EARLY POLITICAL /\CTIVITIES OF MUSLIM WOMEN
used lo suppress, control ;ind humiliate women. And it must he slrcssed
that. despite some improvements in recent years in some countries, lhc Muslim women starlet! their political activities the moment they embraced
overall situation still remains far from perfect. Hence. urgent reform on l~lam. 4 They defended the new religion against fierce opposition from
divmce proceedings in general is sorely needed, and partirnlar atlcntion both their own families and society al large they endured abuse and iii
should he directed to the investigation of the molivcs for divorce on lhe treatment' and when pressure mounted against them they decided to leave
part of men. home. seeking refuge with their fellow Muslims ralher lhan abandon !heir
belief and faith. 6 ;\II lhese actions are regarded as political activities in
contemporary terms since they include a challenge to the old political

81
 84 '/'he Ri!{hls of' \Vo111c11 i11 ls1<1111 \Vo111e11 ond l'oliri<"al ;\c1io11 8'.'i

syslem, a prolesl againsl unjustified abuse and torture. and a rejection of the ruler is required to consult \Villi the ruled, while the U1nma is bound in
su.ppression and denial of freedom of belief and expression. Wilh lhe its turn lo offer counsel to the ruler.
establishment of the Islamic slate. the role of women in the political affairs Shura or nH11llal consultation is a tool hy which the nation can ;ichiel'e
of the new society gained nmmentu111. They became part of the nation and the objectives of the Sha1i11. Therefore. it is the responsibility of the nation
effective members of the co11111wnily, fully involved in public affairs. For to uphold ii. protect it and under m1 circumstances allow it to he alia11-
instance, right from the he11ir111ing, women. like men. 11ave support and do11ed. The exercise of Shma can take place al diffe1ent levels: hence the
allegiance lo the political system which was set up umlcr lhe leadership of commilrnenl to practise ii hy lhe individual members of the cnm11n1ni1v
Muhammad. This was done throu11h the so-called hm·l1. 7 varies according to the subject under cow;ultation on !he one h;111d, and 011
But what is lmy'a'! /3av'a in Islam is an important political institution individual ability. on the other. For exarnple, regarding legislative 1natters
by which the nation or the Urrnna granls or ensures legilimacy for the concerning Sht11i11, consultation is required with scholars or the Ulu11w:
political system. It includes a pledge by the nation to he loyal lo the regarding technical issues. consullation is mandatory with experts in these
system and its leader as long as !his leader upholds Islamic principles.x fields; foi· general issues concerning the whole nation. some fm111 ol con-
Hence ii is a covenant (mitlwq) entered into by three parlies: the leader sultation with every member of the corn1m1nity would he ideal. This could
(who is to be given the pledge or recognition; the nation or Umma take the shape or a referendum or general elections. Within this context.
(which is to give its allegiance and loyalty); 9 and the Sharia (which is to women can take part in consultation at various levels depending 011 the
he respected and upheld by both the leader as well as the nation). !?m·(1 subject matter and 011 individual c:1pahility. For instance. they can partici-
moreover, is divided into hav(1 'avniva. relaled lo the political commit- pate in consultation at the legislative level, experts' level, or at the general
menl (i/tiz.a111) to the system, and is compulsory on every Muslim man public level as ordinary members of the community.
and woman. and hay' a kavfi_rm relaled to particular duties and is obliga- Women were consulled al ;ill levels during the period of the Prophet's
tory on a particular group of men and women. During Muhamrnacl's rule and that ol his companions. They used to seek their advice (111111h-
leadership. allegiance and loyalty 111 were given to him by both men and 11·am) before most important decisions were made. For example. the

<.D women without any difference in content or responsibility. 11 For he took Prophet used to receive delegations of women presenting their cases lo
-..J a pledge from women, as from men, to support the stale and obey him in him. Among them was Asma hint Ya1.id al-Ansari. who was an oulspokcn
enjoining good and forbidding evil (har(1 'arni_va). Also, he received woman. She used to speak and argue 011 behalf of her fellow Muslim
/)(l_v'a kayfiyva from some prominent women; among them was Nusaiba women. aml the Prophet used to encourage her and expressed his adrnira-
hint Kah, who gave her word to participate in Jihad and indeed she did tion for her strong personality." llis wives. especially Umm Salama and
take part in many haltles alongside rnen. This illustrales her determina- Aisha. never hesitaled to ask searchin)! questions and speak their minds
tion to fulfil the hay'a despite the fact that it was har'r1 kayfiyrn; for this when they felt it necessary; and the Prophet admired this questioning alli--
kind of h11v'11 is mandatory on those men and women wilh special talents. tude. In fact. on one occasion. he had to rely 011 the advice (111ushwum) of
As she thought herself to be one of them. she decided to go ahead and one of his wives. Umm Salama. lo solve a problem that bewildered the
fulfil it. This indicates that women (like men) arc under an obligation Muslims at a crucial time of the Islamic history. lJmm Salama with her
1:. lo realise their individual capabilites to the full. and thus to take up wisdom, prudence and good judgement helped the Prophet lo solve the
the specific duties related to these capabilites. whether these duties be predicament. thus avoiding a situation that could have divided the crnnmu-
individual or collective. 12 nity and weakened Muhammad's mission. 16 Aisha. renowned for her wit
In addition to hay'a. women also participated in Sh11ra (mutual consulla- and intelligence. was trained hy the Prophet to question. discuss. arg11e
tion) which is one of the foundations of the Islamic political system. The and correct. to the extent that he recommended that the Muslims should
practice of Shura is obligatory on both the leader as well as the Umma. learn from her knowledge and wisdom. especially in religious matters:
The Quran says, 'Take counsel with them in the conduct of affairs: and take half of your religion from Aisha he said. By the time the Prophet
when you are resolved, put your trust in Allah '. 11 We also have the verse passed away she had already become a great scholar and attained the p()si-
which praises those 'who obey their Lord, attend to their prayers and tio11 of a religious judge. 17 She was accepted as a religious aufh()Jify
conduct their affairs by mutual consent' . 14 In these verses, it is clear that during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. Very often they used
j
i 86 lhe Rif!,hfs of Women in l.1/a111
\Vo111<'l1 and l'olitical !\c1io11 87
to consult her and seek her advice if they were laced with diffirnlt issues. The second case was thal of Aisha who genuinely believed that it w;1s
If they disagreed with her, the judgement she reco111me1Hlcd turned out to within her righl to oppose the fot1rlh caliph ;\Ii and light him for fail inµ to
he the correct one and then it was gladly accepted. Also, she gave a find the 1rn11dcrcrs of Uthmarr. She led an army which included prn111inent
verdict in favour of one compnnion against another and at a certain stage companions such as Talha and /.uhayr and fought a haltle that was to he
she criticised and corrected them. 18 Her eloquence and qualities were named the Battle of the ( 'amel, because of the camel she was riding.
described in these words: 'I have heard the speeches of the Klrnlafa, ;\bu Women's influc1Ke in public affairs reached its climax when their aclion
Bakr, Umar, Usman, and Ali. But the words which came frnrn the mouth lo protect or give imrnurrity frorn punishment wel'c sanctioned hy the
of Aisha had a quality and excellence which is not in the words of anyone Prophet. lie approved and accepted al I the lj11ra (protect ion) cases
19
else.' Hafsa, the daughter of the second caliph Urnar. and one of the licenced by women, lhis being a clear indication by the Prophet and the
wives of the Prophet, was also active in public affairs. Her insight and early corrnmmity. of the ability and capacity of women to judge wisely
guidance were very often sought hy the companions. For example, on one and act responsibly even in mailers of great concern to the stability and
occasion her father had to consult her hefore he could take a decision security of lhe Islamic stale. There arc many examples in which wornen
regarding the time limit for a husband to he away from his wife. (Also, ;1ccorded protection or asylum (/jam) and the l'rophel gladly supported
based on his consultation with other women, he either amended or can- !hem. It has been reported thal the Prophet never opposed or rc.1cc1cd arry
celled decisions, which he thought would nm contrary to the interests of /jam extended to enemies by women.
women.) Hafsa, moreover, expressed her concern about the political situ- II must he sl1csscd thal !he high level of political (as well as social) activ-
ation following the assassination of her father. While he was on his death ities performed hy women in early Islam could 1101 have hcen achieved
bed she urged her brother Abdullah to discuss the issue with her father without the realisation of three illlportant and interrclaled factors: firs!, lhc
and ensure a smooth and peaceful transition of power. Also, she played a recognition of the political ability or competence of women. ;\s we noliccd ro
crucial role in persuading her brother, who was unwilling to get involved above, women were regarded as fully-fledged citizens capable of participat-
(}'I

in the conflict that erupted between Ali and Muawiyah, to attend the arbi- ing in all political adivities (including hav'a, sh11ra, granting asylums,
'°
ro tration which was set up to discuss the conflict and solve the problem taking part in Jihad and holding prorninenl positions) and indeed they were
peacefully and amicahly. 211
allowed to do so; second, this recognition or acknowledgement gained
Contrary to the traditional image of women being secluded and sup- momentum when women became politically conscious or aware of their
pressed, women in early Islam participated in armed conflict either hy responsibilities in society. ;\n awareness which Muha111rnad 1111dcrtook lo
organising food and water and taking care of the wounded or through raise and promote among all women. This was accomplished thrrn1glr
playing a crucial part in the actual fighting when ii was needed. Among instructing women lo gain knowledge and ed11catio11 and encrnrraging them
the many examples of wo111en who took active part in the battles was to attend public gatherings (especially Eid celchralions, which oflen took
'·'
Ii, Saliyya, an aunt of the Prophet, who defended a fortress in Medina at the
~·
place in mosques) even when they were menslnrating this being an illustra-
time of the Battle of the Trench. She noticed an intruder who had pene- tion that although women were at certain times relieved from the obliga-
~I"

r.1"
trated the defences of the fortress; she managed to manoeuvre and kill tions of their daily worshipping, this did not lend to an automatic reduction
• hirn hefore he was able to do any harm to the women and children. 21 in their duty to participate in a111111al public meetings. On the contrary, they
Women also reached positions of high responsibility as was the case with were urged to altend Eid festivals and the congregational Jumah (i.e. Friday)
al-Shafa' who was appointed hy the second Caliph Umar as a market prayers, which were regarded as general political 111eetings during which
inspector in Medina. Their involvement in politics, furthermore, mani- imporlant issues concerning the whole nalion were discussed and debated.-''
fested itself by the fact that they were alert and actively opposed to any This provided the mi11inH1m level of political (as well as social) awareness
nrlers who they thought were deviating from implementing Islamic princi- needed for lhe majmily of them, especially those whose domestic respons-
ples and maintaining a jusl society. Two examples can he cited in this ibilities prevented them from :1llending congregational prayns such as
context. First, there is the case of the wo111an who publicly opposed Umar Friday prnyers. To achieve maxi1m1m benefit for !hem, the Prophet, more-
for passing a law restricting the dowries of wo111en. He was forced, after over, used to give the111 advice and guidance, especially when he learnt thal
admitting his mistake to repeal his decision.
they could not hear him properly during one of his Eid serlllons. 21
 88 lhr RiRhls n( Womm in fs/11111 Women and !'olitic11/ ;\ction 89
The Prophet actively supported thosc women with special abilities and a women to stay at home ;111d not to 'interfere' in public life. They argue that
higher level of awareness and whose cirrnmstances allowed them to attend women are incapable of handling puhlic affairs: therefore. it is better for
the regular congregational prayers. In fact. he instrncted 1nen (their hus- the111 Ill perform the work they are gllod al -- that is. to he 11111thcrs ;md
bands or relatives) not to prevent them from doing so even if they wanted wives only. According Ill them. wo111en never participated in the politics of
lo attend the dawn and night prayers. 2 ~ during which time the <)uran used the Muslims throughout their history. And. it is argued that despite the foci
to he recited. explained and interpreted. Such sessions formed the basis for that Islam !-!ave wllmen rif!hls equal to thllse of men. Islam deems it neces-
their religious education as wdl as their social :rnd political awareness. Jn sary that women should stay al home and concentrate on their domestic
addition. in order to satisfy their intellecttrnl needs, the Prophet designated affairs, in the interest hoih of women themseives and of society as a
a special d;iy for this group of women in which he u-;ed to teach them the whole.m But one might object. what about the different social, politic;il and
principles nf lsl;im ;ind other related issues. 25 This raised the self aware- economic activities played hy women during the Prophet's time? The
ness of Muslim women and increased their understanding of their respons- scholars then respond hy insisting that those were mere individual cases
ibility in society, 26 leading. consequently, to greater puhlic participation: which cannot he cited to legitimise the participation of women in political
and third. the broad politicnl participation of women which was condi- affairs. Anyone who thinks to the contrary is mistaken. they say. and does
tioned by their abilities nnd their degree of self-awareness was practised in not comprehend history. As for Aisha who played a prominent role in pol-
,., a favourable social setting tlrnt gave it its stimulus and momentum. This itics, they argue that although she fought a famous battle, in the end she
.,, supportive environment wns the result of determined efforts, hy the regretted her act (for she should not have left her home and taken p;1rt in
Prophet. to erndicate any practices and lrnbits that would hinder or resist that battle) and asked for forgiveness. Consequenily. it cannot he claimed
the progress towards wider political engagement of women in society. that her act is a proof for the participation of Muslim women in politics. for
llence, he pushed ahead the process of socirtl clrnnge rtnd ensured that the it was an individual act which proved to he a complete failure. 11
community would accept and regard women's activity in the politicrtl O'>
It is important to stress thal those who oppose women's involvement in O'>
sphere as an asset and a valuable contribution to a healthy society. This politics differ among themselves reg;1rding lhe IPvel or degree of women's
was fulfilled: firstly, through the Quranic injunctions and Flndith regula- exercise of power. For ex;imple. while some me prepared to tolerate the
tions. both of which encourage women to he energetic and creative. while idea that women can lwve limited access to politics (such as the right to
at the same time, exhort men to help them fulfil their roles as active and vote and nominate persons for certain public offices), others deny them
equal members of the comn111nity: secondly, the example set hy the any political rights. However. they ;ill agree (hat women cannot he
Prophet in dealing with his family in particular and the companions allowed to hold ministerial positions or become prime minister or presi-
(women) in general. 27 He constantly encouraged them lo take part in all dent of a state. They base their prnhihilion on the following:
aspects of life: social, political, economic and religious. This support
found its echo when women, especially the Ansari women, demonstrated (I) Q11rn11: they maintain that ('ha pt er 4, verse 34 of the ()uran which
their interest and eagerness to participate in all activities. thus. selling a reads thus: 'Men have authority over women because Allah has made the
role model for othcr women lo follow. 28 In doing so, they pioneered lhe one superior to the other. and because they spend their wealth to nrnintain
way for radical social change that allowed more space and greater mobil- them', has virtually closed the door to women's advancement to higher
ity for women in society. 29 positions. For them. this verse has sanctioned men's authority over
women and made the domain of politics or power an exclusively male
preserve. This is because men have strong leadership characteristics
which entitle them to rule over women who tend to he weak and more
TllE RETRE/\T OF MUSLIM WOMEN FROM PUBLIC LIFE emolinnal. 12 According lo them. the ver.se is cle;ir in enlrusling men (not
\Vomen) with the Qi1ro1110 or g11ardianship. It follows that since men arc
Despite lhc clear-cut Quranic and lladith instructions encouraging women the caretakers ( (}1111·11·111111111) of women. it is not possible for them to hold
lo play an effective role in public life (alongside their private one), the positions of ;1ulhority which would allow them to exercise power over
general tendency, among Muslims. has been one which opposes women's men. Moreover, they <U)!UC lhal even if !hey have to accept the view
invlllvement in politics. Most scholars prefer an interprcl;ition that enjoins which states that this verse deals specifically with family affairs and
 90 Thr RiRfrfs of Womrn in lsf<1111 Wo111r'11 1111fl l'oli1ical ,1\c1im1 CJI
cannot he gl'nernlised to includC' male-frmale relations in public life, the ought to he nhandoned hecnuse wc:1k ll11ditfrs usually do not carry any
proof (fr11jia) still stnnds: women cannot rule over men. For if they are legal effects: 17 others ncknowledgc the lladitfr a.s authentic. h111 stress that
unqualilicd to manage their family undertakings. hy the snme token, they ii has hcen grossly misinlcrprcled. They argue that the deficiency men-
arc unfit to lrnndle puhlic mailers. tioned in the lladith does not refer lo rrntmal hut rather specific deficiency.
llnwever. we arc of the strong opinion that this verse (4: 34) deals In other words. there arc two forms of deficiencies: (a) natural or innnlc
exclusively with family affairs and hns nothing to do with the relation- deficiency (naqs(itri). ;1 form of natural defect which lrnmpers the hunrnn
ships hctween men aml women in puhlic life. This is because the verse is intellect at various levels. the extreme one heing madness. This does no!
mentioned solely within the context of nrnrricd life, 11 in which one p;1rly - include women u1tegorically hecrnse they are regarded (from !he ()1mrnic
the husband - is clrnrged with the responsibility of being the head and viewpoint) as accountable and responsible human beings capable of
caretaker of the family - hearing in mind that relieving the wife from such fulfilling their duties: (h) specific deficiency (naqs nall''i) of two types:
a responsibility is hy no means an indicntion of her inability to do the joh ( i) casual defect (am di), which can temporari Iy upset the natura I disposition
properly: on the contrary, she can easily replace him if he is absent (for of a person, especially during menstrnation nnd pregnancy. This form of
whatever rensnn) or unfit to fulfil his duty. Therefore, it is not right lo gen- frnilty does not weaken or impair women's natural ahilities: (ii) incidental
eralise the ruling of this verse (which handles only marital mailers) to defect of long-term effects which results usually from living in special
encompass the relationships hetween men and women in S!lciety, so as to conditions (such ns conlinemenl to four walls, constant engagement in
deny women the opportunity to hold public officcs 34 pregnancy and childbirth. etc.) that are not conducive to contacts and
interactions with outside world. This, in time. lessens women's social.
(2) lladitlr: Two lladith.1 arc of particular importance in this issue. The political nnd economic awareness of their smroundings nncl reduces them
Prophet is reported to have said '()women! Give alms. as I have seen that to their private circle of ladies, with devastating consequences on their
the majority of the dwellers of Hell-fire were you (women). They asked, potential for playing an active role in public life. It must he stressed, 0
why is it so, 0 Allah's Messenger? He replied, you curse frequently and however, that this form of deficiency can he remedied by altering the 0
r-1
are ungrateful to your husbands. I have not seen anyone more deficient in circumstances that lead to its existcnce. 18
intelligence and religion than you. A cautious, sensible rnnn could he led As for the link made in the lladith hetween women's intellectual
astrny hy some of you. The women asked, 0 Allah's Messenger! what is deficiency and their testimony in law, we might point nut that the connec-
deficient in om intelligence and religion? lie said. is not the evidence of tion occurs only in one case, namely, the evidence which requires the testi-
two women equal to the witness of one rnan'I They replied in the mony of one man and two womfn. This testimony is mentioned in the
affirmative. lie said, this is the deficiency in her intelligence. Isn't it true Quran in Chapter 2. verse 282. which deals solely with financial matters.
that a wo111an can neither pray nor fast during her menses'! The women And this is the only testimony in which the issue of gender is a dominant
replied in the aflirmative. He said, this is the deficiency in her religion'. 11 factor: in other testimonies the Qurnn stipulnles justice rather than gender.
This lladi1fr is used, by the opponents of women's rights in politics, to Therefore, it is not right to use this verse in order to accuse women of
prove their point in saying that women cannot he trusted with handling being intellectually deficient. For it is no more than a guiding verse niming
public matters. They stress that the above lladith nrnkes it clear Iha! nt promoting justice when dealing with complicated financial issues. In
women cannot have power over men because they nrc spiritually as well other words. the verse is meant to give advice th;il if. undn certnin cir-
as cognitively deficient. They thus associate deficiency with womanhood c111nstanccs. men arc not available IP testify, the alternative is lo accept the
and insist that women, hy nature, are less prepared (rationally and erno- fcqimony pf two W(1111e11 (who C(luld he ordirwry members of !lie public
lionally) than men to cope with the pressure of public life. Therefore, hnving liltle or no experience with financial lllaltcrs. or who could he
(iod. according to them, has relieved them from certain duties (such as undergoing temporary disturbances resulting from lllcnstruation or post-
at lending Jumah prayers and participnting in Jihad) which are compulsory natnl conditions) as being equal to that of mnn; the aim here being to
for mcn. 1r'
ensure Iha! precautionary measures are in place when dcnling with an area
However, there are those who see the lladitlr differently: some do not where women arc less likely lo he experts. Overall, the deficiency referred
accept it and consider it as fabricated or at best a weak /laditlr, which to in the lladitfr. therefore, is not natural hut rather contingent or casunl
92 Thr Ri>;hts of Wo111r11 in l.1/11111 Wo111r•11 1111d !'olitin1l J\f"/io11 9.1

and dot?s not necessarily contradict the fact tlwt there ;ire women who excelled men in their abilities. did not show any interest in holding public
possess high qualities and enjoy special capacitit?s in comparison with office. In response. one can mention the example of the second Caliph
ordinary men and women. Indeed. in some cases there are th;1se who me Umar. who appointed a woman (;il-Shafa') as superintendent in a market
wiser. well-advised. and more intelligent than mcn. "1 in Medin<i. This position was. ;it the time. more of a politic1I th;in a busi-
The second llndith which is reported in Bukhari and reads as th11s: ness office. as the market was not only a centre for trading hut also a
Ah11 Bakra said 'when Allah· s Mcssrngcr was informed that thC' Persians focal point for political activities. Also. the fact that few women were al
had crowned the daughtt?r of Kisra (Khosrau) as tlwir ruler. he qid. such the top of the admi11istr;1tion docs not rcnecl hadly on the abilities of
people as ruled hy a lady will never he successful.''10 This !lodirh has women to n111 public offices. Moreover. one has to hear in mind the
hecn widely cited to hlock any attempts to give women the opportunity natmc of the social setting prevailing at the time. in which prc-lslalllic
lo wield power in society. The opponents argue that the Prophet in this customs were still competing and resisting any changes brought about by
Hadith advises Muslims not to follow in the footsteps of the Persians Islam.'1'1 So. although the social environment was favourable (d11e lo the
who appointed a woman as their leader and consequently led them to a changes hrought about hy Islam) and allowed women greater mohility in
disastro11s end. Por them, thC' !111dith contains a clear-cut warning (for society; yet it w;1s still less willing and less amcrrnhle to the idea of
Muslims) to he vigilant and not to allow womC'n to overstep the line and entrusting women with governmental positions. However. social practices
enter into polities; otherwise. their fate would ht? the same as tlrnt of ('Ad111) should not he allowed to take precedence over Divine instructions.
Persia hefore Islam: defeat and humiliation. 41 However. one has to dis- Most importantly, they should not he used as a pretext to continue to
agree with this view for two reasons: first. the !ladith deals mainly with neglect or even (in some cases) abandon the Islamic principles. which
a specific case. namely, the situation of Persia at the time of the oblige women to have their shares in p11hlic life and he active and effect-
42
Prophet. Indeed, it is no more than a prophesy (hishom) in which the ive in society. For social c11stollls arc s11hjecl to change: they change with
Prophet predicted the fate of the Persian empire. As such. it has no legal time and place. while Divine principles arc llleant for all tillles and all s
r-l
ruling and therefore it cannot he generalised to include all women at all places. As such. the emphasis should he on the Divine tenets not social
times; second. if the Hodith is to he accepted ns general. it would surely customs."1'
contradict the Quran. and this cannot happen. The Quran. in chapter 27.
(4) lhr Co11sc11s11.1 <iima): there arc those who stress that there is an
speaks highly of the Queen of Sheba, Bilqis, who ruled over her people
agreement among sclwlars on the so-called 'unsuitability' of women to
with wisuom and insight and led them to success ;111d prosperity 'I found
hold public office. However. invoking the issue of consensus is no more
a woman reigning over the people. She is possessed of every virtue' and
than a fall:icy since there is hardly any unity among them on this subject.
has a splendid throne'. The only fault found with her. was not her posi-
For example. the position of Judge is regarded hy some to he suitable for
tion and authority as a woman. hut her false faith 'she and her subjects
men only; J\bu Jlanifa, however. disagrees and allows a woman lo he
worship the sun instead of Allah'. Later, the wise wo11w11 met Solomon.
appointed as Judge and gives her the right lo deal with all matters except
admitted her sin (for not worshipping God) and, along with her people.
those under the penal code. lhn farir al-Tahari. on the other hand, qualifies
accepted Islam: 'Lord'. she said. 'I have wronged my own soul. Now l
a woman for the post of j11dge without any restrictions. This renders the
submit with Su layman to Allah, Lord of the creation' .41 From the above.
whole issue of the ex isling. consensus among scholars suspicious and. in
we can deduce that the Hadith is not general, hut rather specific and is
fact. a mere sham. Moreover. it is essential to hear in mind whether the
related to the episode of the people of Persia.
ijnra (on a particular question. and. in this case. the issue of women) takes
into consideration the overall interest of the community. For if it nms
(1) Tiu' 11n1(·1ir11/ f'Xprrir11cr of the cad1• cm111111111itr: the opponents point
counter lo the social interest. then there is tHi use in accepting it in the first
out that there is no precedent in early Islam which indicates that women
place.
were appointed to high positions. despite the fact that there were ample
opportunities for such appointments. Neither the Prophet nor any of his ('i) !\.111s/11h11 (welfare): the opponents argue that perm1tt1ng women to
companions invited women to take part in the administration of the state. occupy puhlic positions would he detrimental to both society as well as
Moreover, women themselves, and although there were many who family. According to them. top jobs require courage. wisdom and strength.
94 The l?iRhts of \Vo111c11 in lsfo111 l\'0111c11 1111d f'oliticol !\ctinn 9.'i

and women. in general. lack lhese characteristics: they are feeble and This would inevitably facilit;1te mingling. between the two sexes: an issue
can he e::isily misled. /\s such. they cannot he trusted with executive roles. which is clearly prohibited in Islam. According to them. the (Juran
especi::illy leadership roles. l'or instance. a president pr a ruler in an explicitly orders women to stay at home and ;ivoid any puhlic rxposure:
Islamic st;:itc needs to perform important ::Ind not merely ccrc111oni;1I dulies therefotT. it is not appropriate for thrm lo take on public dutirs. hecausr
such as: conducting war, signing pe::Ke lreaties. defending the country. this \Votild expose thcrn to all forms of public imnHir:ility. In response. we
delivering sermons. and leading people in prayers - all of which women c:rn say that this view is certainly out of context with hnth the (Juran as
cannot cope with. because of their fragilities and emolinnal vulnerahililics. well as the practical Sunn;ih of the l'rophcl. For instance. the ()uran in
htrt hermore. they state t h::it woman's advancement to e xcn11 i vc power Chapter -13. verse 32 17 ordered (solely) the l'rophct's wives lo stay at
goes against her social function: th::it is to he a good wife and molhcr. home and not to displ:iy any public appearance, hec<iuse they were
They argue th;il if she is to assume an execulive role-·- which is a full-time reg::rnled as the mothers of the believers: other women were not included.
commitment - this would inevitably force her lo neglect her household For they used to take part in public wor-;hip. seek knowledg.e and educa-
duties, \Vith devastating consequences on the stahility of the family in tion. participate in Jihad. enjoy wider social interactions, and atlend voct-
society. They point out that even if !here are some women \vho can handle tional training. So. the verse deals with a specific case. namely. the status
both roles, they arc, in reality. exceptions; therefore. it is unwise to set up of the Prophet's wives. and therefore, it is not right to generalise it t(I
and accept mies on rare cases. It rnust be stressed. however. llwl those include (1ther Muslim wo111e11: in doing so, they reject the practical
who lhink that fem;ifc leadership would damage state-interest base their Sunnah of the l'n1phet. and this cannot he rig.ht. It must be made clear.
view on the assumption that women are, by nature. incapable of coping 111oreover. that of all social interaclions only K/111{11·11 (seclusion). promis-
with public responsibilities. But this is not the case as we explained cuity. lustfulness. and extravagance or excessiveness arc prohibited in N
earlier: women. like men. arc qualified to nm st::ite ;iffairs. /\lso. the oppo- blam. Other societal acti\·i1ies. which ;ire needed for lhe C(lnduct of 0
.-!
nents view public positions. especially state le;idership as ;:i one-person normal and respectable social life arc :illowed and enc(lttraged. So. t(l 11se
responsibility, thus neg.lecling the sh11ra principle. which rnakcs st::ite fitna (temptation) as an excusr in order to change a religious ruling is
affairs a collective responsibility. Moreover. they regard 1hc state syslem indred unjustifiable. For women. especially nowadays. cannol perform
as more or less similar to that of the Medinan or trih:il system with limited their duties without meeting men. /\!so. it must he reme111bered !hat God.
scope and structure, hence. confining. the lslmnic concept of state within a wlw is the legislalor. knows better what the st<ite of his creatures is in
particular historic;il context. In doing so, they contradict the universal terms of their piety or corruption.
vision of the lsl::imic st<lfe. When Islam encournged women to take part in public life. it did so hy
/\s for the welfare of the family, the ;isstttnption is that only those laying down cerlain rules of conduct. so as to curb any tendency towards
women whose dome.stic responsibilities permit them to engage in public fi111a or corruption. It did not show any inclin;:ition to restrict or prevent
duties should do so. lfaving said that, domestic responsibility should not women from mixing with men under the pretext of(i11111. This is despite
he taken as pretext (by both men and women) lo discourage or prevent the fact that 111a11y unpleasant incidents occurred. especially during the
women. especially able ones. from involvement in public activities. In Prophet's time. as a result of the wide social conlacts that prevailed
other words. wnmen should strike a halance between their domestic mid between the two sexes. Nevertheless. those incidents were regarded as
public cor11111ilments ;ind try and ::ivoid a sillrntion whereby one cnmmit- exceptions. and they did not disturb or stop the normal course of social
menl overshadows the other. This means that. in essence, only a few life.'rn To portray women as a source of le111ptation and corruption
women would he able to qualify in lerms of this criterion. Hence, the slan- conveys a message which is based 011 lack of confidence in women them-
dard of judgement should he based on the few not on the m::ijority as the selves. Most irnpmtantly. it shows a complete disregard for their dignity
opponents claim. This is because prominent johs are usually based on as independent and rational human beings. ;rnd that is certainly againsl
ability and merit rather than on g..ender.~ 6 the very essence of lsl::un.
To conclude. it is clear that Islam has granled women full politic::il
((1) Cut thr pretexts (Sodd al-T>hiir/i'i): the opponents stress that leader- righls. Contrary to the view which opposes women's involvement in polil-
ship positions require public display and constant cont<icts with people. ics. there is no evidence in the scripture which suggests that women are
96 '/he Rights of Women in lslu111

not entitled to play an active role in politics. Also, an examination of the

early history of Islam at the time of the Prophet, shows that women were
not kept aloof frorn politics, rather they were cncouraged to he at the fore-
9 Conclusion
front of the political affairs of their society. As for leadcrship positions, it
is true that they require particular abilities, hut it is equally true that thcre It has become apparent from this study that contrary to the general mis-
arc women who have talents and skills and are capable -- like men - of conceptions, women in Islam - at least theoretically speaking - are en-
handling public offices, including ministerial and presidency oflices. As titled to full rights as citizens. These rights were put into practice during
such. therc arc no grounds or justification for those who oppose frmale the Prophet's time and in the period of the early Caliphate. during which
lcadcrship. In fact, their argument neither has a theological rationale nor is women enjoyed the privilege of fullilling their private as well as their
it in line with current reality. public duties. Early Muslim society never embraced the concept of social
division of labour hetween the two sexes. It entertained no such ideas as
the differentiation between puhlic and private roles, as far as women were
concerned, nor the subordination, as is the case today, of puhlic life to the
private one. Indeed, both roles were equally valued, and women were
expected to enjoy and excel in them. Whilst performing their public
duties, women were not encouraged to he secluded, confined or con-
strained, nor were they forced to form a world of their own, separate,
invisible and totally cut off from the so-called men's world. Roth sexes
mixed and worked together within the rules of conduct laid down by Islam
in order to build up their society. In the process, they encouraged and
(Y)
helped each other irrespective of their sex or status. In their relations with 0
...--<
one another, they transcended all evil thought currently prevailing in most
Muslim societies: there were no ill-feelings, sexual lemplalion or lust. This
atmosphere of peace, harmony and piety uplifted their spirits and trans-
formed them into creative and resourceful human beings respecting and
respected by others. In other words, it was a healthy society, primarily
because women were highly revered and honoured, for they realised that
the spiritual, material and intellectual progress of a society is closely
linked with the position of its women, and that no society which enslaves
its women would ever prosper.
This bright picture began to be clouded with the decline of the first
caliphate. Like other aspects of Muslim lives, the position of women
started to deteriorate. Slowly hut surely their rights faded away: firstly,
they were discouraged from taking part in public life; secondly, they were
ordered to withdraw and hide behind four walls. This was done by separat-
ing the private from the public role and subordinating the latter to the
former. Hence, and in time, women became passive, yielding and publicly
less visible. with little involve111ent in public 111alters. It was left entirely to
men, wlrn were only too happy to take over, lo decide their own destiny.
For centuries women were forced to accept humiliation and exploitation.

97
 98 1he Rights of Women i11 I.I/um ( "011c/11.1io11 99
To ensure they were kepi under their whips, the ultra-conservatives used
I am sure there is a great deal to learn from the West, hut first and fore-
many misogynistic interpretations of Islam. Under the false name of Islam
most any attempt to improve the position of Musi im women must come
they virtually stripped women of every right: no lo education, no to insti-
from within: 'God does not change the condition of a people until thl'y
gating divorce, 110 to travelling alone, no to leadership positions, no to
change it for themselves' said Muhammad. It is only through the authentic
work outside the house, and so on.
Islamic way that Muslim women will achieve freedom and self-respect,
This form of repression was hound to create, eventually, re hellion, espe- and will be able to demonstrate !he beauty of their religion and dispel the
cially among the educated elite who had to rehel against the status quo and
misconceptions surrounding the true position of Islam regarding women.
lead the liberation movement. But the secular feminists in their quest for
change decided to break away with the tradition and fully embrace Western
ideals. So convinced are they by the superiority of Western values that they
see no way for the liberation of Muslim women other than via the Western
model, to the extent that they believe that to be Western is to be free and to
he Muslim is to be a slave. Content that they have chosen the right path for
salvation, they launched a crusade against anything to do with Islam. For
example, they have bitterly attacked and ridiculed the very foundations of
Islam; expounded views which are alien and contradictory to the spirit of
the Islamic faith; made a mockery of the Islamic principles; showed no sens-
itivity towards their own culture; formed a class of their own very much out
of touch with the needs of ordinary women; tolerated no criticisms or dis-
senting views; presented women's case in a sensational way and used lan-
guage often transcending all hounds of decency; demonstrated no sympathy "1'
0
or understanding towards the views of ordinary Muslim women. Indeed, rl

they have displayed self-righteous and self-conceited attitudes, viewing

themselves as superior to 'ordinary' Muslim women.
This apprnach is doomed to failure; indeed it has already backfired,
since it alienates sections of Muslim women who want change but not at
the expense of losing their religious idcnlity (some have argued that !he
laller arc a minority, but it should be stressed !hat they arc a strong minor-
ity, mostly educated or living in !he West, who have come to appreciate
their own Islamic heritage). These women have become less receptive to
the secular feminists' vil.'ws and ideas and even queslioned the validity of
a model which did not, after all, provide adequate answns to their prob-
lems. Moreover, they havl.' alienated a group of men whose support and
co-operation is essential to achieve the expected change in society. There
is 110 douht that many misogynistic notions are prevalent in Muslim soci-
eties, but these can only hl.' eradicated hy advocating authentic Islam. It
must he stressed. however, that propagating true Islam does not mean fun-
damentalist Islam; for the falter has nothing to offer other than a distortl'd
image of Islam. Rather, the emphasis must be on the Islam of Aisha,
Khadija, Fatima, and Umm Salama: all wdl-known Muslim figures and
excellent role models for inspiration.
 ;I
.11
18 ;1·1
.I
,g
May Allah give us the strength to dissociate ourselves I~·
from burdensome and profane tribal customs smacking of pride It,,
'
and arrogance, give up false notions of prestige and follow the ~
i~
practice of the Holy Prophet down to the last minute detail.
I :1
Ameen!

/
PART Ill
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f~~( (-:\_ i IDEAL WIFE IN ISLAM

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TI-IE foremost qualification of a bride is as the Holy Qur'an
says : "Marry such women as seem good to you" (4: 3). It
appears therefrom that the bridegroom has to exercise this choice II)
with greatest caution and consideration. The following Hadith is 0
.....-<
of utmost importance in making the correct choice; otherwise the
very purpose of marriage (domestic peace and happiness) is likely
to be frustrated :

Abu Hurairah reported Allah's Messenger as saying :

"A woman may be married for four reasons : for her
property, her status, her beauty and her religion ; so try
to get one who is religious, and prosper."
(Bukhari & .Muslim)

It is generally the worldly consideration which predominates

the mind of man in making a choice for the woman to be con-
tracted for marriage. The Holy Prophet exhorts his followers
to make religious piety the first cause of choice of a lady. And
there is no denying the fact that if a Muslim acquires piety and
abstinence, it is mostly due to a virtuous wife who in the words
of Holy Prophet again is "the best object of benefit of the
world".

The ideal wifehood in Islam is love and affection. Accord-

ing to the Holy Prophet woman was not "an organ of the Devil"

~
.,,_
~ -- llft!Rl'! - ····----
11111111 ... - -- -------- .
 20 21

but Muhsanah-a fortress against Satan. She is a safeguard (iii) "Lo ' men who surrender unto Allah and women who
against sin and transgression. She is a partner in life for peace surrender, and men who believe and women who believe,
and consolation. Allah states in the Holy Qur'an: and men who obey and women who obey, and men who
speak the truth and women who speak the truth, and
(i) "And of His signs is this: He created for you helpmates
men who persevere (in righteousness) and women who
from yourselv~s that ye might find rest in them, and
persevere, and men who are humble and women who
He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo! herein
are humble and men who give alms and women who
indeed are portents for folk who reflect." (30 : 21) give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and
(ii) "And Allah hath given you wives of your own kincl men who guard their modesty and women who guard
and hath given you, from your wives, sons and grancl- their m<Jc!esty, and men who remember Allah much
and women who remember-Allah hath prepared for
sons, and hath made provisions of good things for you."
(16 : 72) them forgiveness and a vast reward. (33 : 35)

(iii) "They (the women) are raiment for you and ye are According to a saying of the Holy Prophet : "modesty and
raiment for them." (2: 187) chastity are parts of faith." The picture of house wherein the
wife is unchaste and impure is horrible to the extreme. The
And who does not know that raiment gives protection and
1[oly Prophet lus spoken of such a wife as the worst calamity
security, charm and beauty, above all, warmth and intimacy-
in a man's life. In this connection the Holy Qur'an reminds
that great attribute of companionship which the Creator of man
11s : "Vile women are for vile men and vile men for vile women.
and woman ordained to subsist between the two?
Cood women arc for good men, and good men for good women."
>--' Islam regards woman spiritually and intellectually equal (24: 26)
0
CY> to man. The only difference it makes is in the realm of physical
conditions, and this difference is based on hard facts. The A woman is the guardian of her home, she is responsible
world, therefore, must know and accept the truth that no other for the comfort of her husband and children. It is her responsi-
faith has given the woman folk so many rights and has so bility to keep the house in order. She should spend wisely.
preserved their honour and chastity as Islam has done. This She must ensure that an atmosphere of piety prevails at home to
is made plain in the following verses of the Holy Qur'an: help the moral growth and upbringing of her children. Likewise,
she should see to it that no other man enters her home in the
(i) "0 mankind ! Be careful of your duty to your Lord atsence of her husband. She should guard her chastity.
Who created you from a single soul and from it created
its mate and from them twain hath spread abroad a One of the greatest advantage of marriage is to have
multitude of men and women. Be careful of your children. Having children is one way of multiplying the number
duty toward Allah in Whom ye claim (your rights) of of ~Iuslims. The Prophet said, the prayers of children profit
one another, and_ toward the wombs (that bare you). their parents when the latter are dead. Children, who die
Lo! Allah hath been a Watcher over you." (4: 1) before their parents, intercede for them on the Day of Judge-
ment.
(ii) "Whosoever doeth right, whether male or female and
is a believer, him verily We shall quicken with good The Holy Qur' an defines the role of a :tlfoslim man and woman:
life, and We shall pay them a recompense in propor- "I have only created jinns and men that they worship
tion to the best of what they used to do." (16: 97) Me." (51 : 56)
 22
23
As a wife you should obey husband, nevertheless a woman
should not obey her husb<i.nd if he orders her to do something Thus, every Muslim male and female-should try his
sinful. Many husbands may frown at this, but obedience to the
lltmost to avoid it. The men have been exhorted to overlook
la~s of Allah should be held supreme in all circumstances. the faults of the wives and the women have been instructed to
Such a problem will not arise if there is mutual love, trust and
spiritual relationship. seek reconciliation with their husbands, making the miximum
sacrifice. But if, in spite of all these efforts, there is no chance
Once the Prophet's wives complained to him about their of conciliation and they find no other alternative JP.ft for them
poverty. There were many things they did not have, so they but separation from each other, then they should not give
complained too much. The Prophet could do nothing about it, themselves up to utter disappointment. They must keep this
so he left them for one month, people thought he was divorcing fact in their minds that All Powerful Lord can provide them
them. better substitutes and can properly meet their needs and
requirements, and can adequately provide them with sustenance.
When the verse was revealed-If they wanted the glitter of According to the Holy Qur'an "men are the maintainers of
this world they could have it . . . . (33 : 28 and 29)
women because of what Allah has made some of them excel
He went to each one of them. Starting with Ayesha, IH~ others" (4: 34). The superiority of the male in strength, activity
asked, "Do you want to be divorced, what is your choice ?" and courage saddles upon him the responsibility of maintaining
Ayesha said, "How can I make a choice? Of course not, it is to the family and so he enjoys supervisory status in the disposal of
be with you." And each of his wives said the same. They its affairs. Thus the precedence of man over woman apart from r--
biological factors, is due to his great responsibilities, being the 0
were not quick to ask for divorce, and were able to overcome ......
many trials. This is the group, best in conduct and behaviour. head of the family. This degree of precedence conferred upon
Their lives are the best example to be followed. man does not in any way give him the right to ill-treat the
women, but it lays heavy responsibilities upon him that he, being
Thauban reported that the Messenger of Allah said : stronger, should treat the woman kindly and behave to her
"Whichever woman asks her husband for divorce without fault, with the tenderly feelings of love and affection and show
the fragrance of Paradise is unlawful for her." magnanimity in his dealing with her. The idea behind the above
(Ahmad &: Tirmidhi) quoted S2ur'anic expression is that male and female are
counterpart of each other and if a male enjoys superiority over
The institution of divorce in Islam is a ri:eans of dissolving female, it does not necessarily mean the inferiority of the female,
the contract of marriage in abnormal circumstances when the for they both are the inseparable parts of each other.
couple finds it impossible to live together in matrimonial bond.
This precedence has been stated in order to bring home
Thus divorce is not a passing whim but the result of a settled
the fact that the option. to pronounce divorce or to rescind a
determination over a length of time. Though the institution of
provisional divorce rests with the husband. Men have an
divorce has been kept as a sort of reservation in abnormal
circumstances yet the Sha;iah condemns its free use in the most upperhand in this regard because they contract women in
emphatic terms. marriage by spending their means and as such the choice to
part with their wives rests with them. This right (to divorce)
lbn Omar reported that the Apostle of Allah said : "The has not been conferred on woman*, otherwise she would have
most detestable of lawful things near Allah is divorce."
*However. the Shar'iah has given women the right of Khllla or separa-
(Abu Daud) tion from husband in abnormal circumstances (i.e. oppression, ill.treatment,
[Contd,

~
... !!!'!1111111._ .
------~--.~- ~ ~ ~ ~

- - - .. lllllllllllll !!!lll!lllJlll ..
 24 25

become very daring and embolclen towards her husband. It is married couple and hinders the strengthening of this (union by
deplorable however that in blind pursuit of the West some marriage) and demolishes it. Divorce alone puts an end to the
Muslim countries like Turkey etc., has taken this right from men hatred that may occur between the husband and his wife before
and gave it to the courts. This misgL1ided step is decidedly it is aggravated and becomes an intolerable misr.hicf to society"
against Qur'an and Sunnah. None is authorised to usurp the (quoted by Hasan Ibrahim Hasan, Islam, Religious, Political,
right from husband and delegate it to the courts. This is Social a11d Economic Study, p. 274).
morally unju~t and intellectually unsound. It can result in
nothing else but enactment of shameful family episodes and
sranch.ls, the dreadful consequences of which are being 'witnessed
DUTIES OF HUSBAND
in the \Vest where only a court may decree a divorce after
The Qur'an devotes a Surah (chapter) entitled An-Nisa
admonishing the parties to patch up rela~ions, but still large
(the Women) depicting mutual rights and obligations of men and
numbers of divorces do take plzice there. In America alone the
women. It says: "Consurt with them in kindness, for if ye
rate of divorce is 40% - the highest in the world.
h;itc thrm it may happen that ye hate a thing wherein i\llah
The French lcgists Pla11iol and Ripert have explicitly hatli placed 111ud1 good." (4: l'J)
emphasised Islam's point of view in regard to divorce in these A husband sl1ould not hate his wife for one bad trait in her,
words: "Divorce is a mischief. However, it is measure that :1s there may be other good qualities in her as well. A husband
cannot be avoided for the welfare of the community, btcuasc it 'ol1ould trv to make some off-time enjoyments and sports with his
is the only remedy for another harm which may be more \\·ife as this strengthens the nuptial knot more firm.
dangerous. The prohibition of divorce, whatever harm it rnav OJ
imply, is like !he prohibition of surgery, because the surgeon is Hazrat J\:vesha (R.A.)' reported: I was playing in the pavi- 0
r-l
compelled to amputate some of the limbs of the patient's body. lion in the presence of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) 2 and I had some
However, there is no danr;er, whatsoever, in legislating fnr companions who \1·ere also playing with me. \Vhen the Messenger
divorce (in accordance with the rractice established by lslam) of 1\llah came in, we stopped it. He serit them to me and they
since it is not divorce that spoils married life and dissolves its phycd with me. (13ukhari)
sacred tie, but the misunderstanding that arises between the "\Vives should be allowed sometimes to mix with their
friends and companions for purposes of recreatio11. The
mutual discord on account of wife's dislike of husband etc) by making the Proplict (S.A.\V.) allowed it in case of Ayesha (P.:\ ).
same compensation to the husband which has been mutually agreed upon.
If husband is adamant becauoe of mischief or selfishness, the woman can
Husbands should also participate with their wives in their
approach Qadi (lslamic Judge) for legal separation. Qur'anic verse 229 of innon:nt s11nrts."
Surah al-I3aqara refers. l1. is our failing that in actual practice we have
denied this right to woman which lc;id to mar·y a heart-burnings and in- Jiazrat Ayesha (R.A.) reported that she accompanied the
justices for which the Shar'iah is not the lt:cist responsible. Even now if we :lfcssenger of ;\ll:lh in a journey; She said : I had a race with
restore this legitimate right of.women in societies where they are denied liim and overcame him (by running) on my feet. \Vhen I he-
this opportunity, many of our chronic conjugal problems can be solved as ca111c flrsh\", [ liad a race with l1im, and he overcame me. He
pent up grievances give birth to movements in the reverse direction. It
.. ;1icl : This is bec11Ise uf thz1t race. (Abu D:u1cl)
should. however, be borne in mind that Khul'a is intended for genuine, hard
and pressing cases and as such the free use or <ilrnse of this facility is cquallv 2\Llrk hrm the Holy Prophet (S.A.\V.) played with his
condemnable. The Holy Frophct k1s "·limed "Women who withdraw
themselves from their husbands and 11·nrn<'1l who persuade their husbands to 1. Harliallililo Ar;ha. (Allah be pleased with her).
divorce them for a compensation lire l!vpnn1tcs." (NZ1'i\.j 2. Sullallilho Ahihc Wasallarn. (Peace be upon him).

·--------------~~-- .,., .•.. -,,~·-· ---~· ···~ ~

 26 27

wife at times in order to give her comforts and enjoy- (The people would understand that he had two wives and
ments. This example should be followed by all Muslims. he did not discharge the right of one of them.)

Love, which is a matter of emotion is beyond one's control.

Hazrat Hakim-b-Muawiyah (R.A.) from his father reported :
It is, therefore, too much to expect of a human being that he
I asked : 0 Messenger of Allah! what right has the wife of one
must observe perfect equity amongst his wives in regard to the
of us got over hi!"!l ? He said : It is that you shall give her food
sharing of his ferlings for them. Allah has not, therefore,
when you have taken your food, that you shall clothe her when
burdened His servants with this unbearable burden of main-
you have clothed yourself, that you shall not slap her on the
taining balance between their wives in the case of emotions and
face, nor revile (her), nor leave (her) alone except within the
feelings. He has saddled upon them a responsibility which they
house. (Abu Daud)
can undertake, viz., they should deal with their wives on the
basis of equity and justice as regard their outward behaviour
Here are some of the duties of the husband towards his
:ind practical treatment towards them, e.g., sharing days and
wife. What greater and nobler teachings can be expected
nights, kindness, "nd providing them with maintenance.
regarding mutual duties and obligations?
Abu Bakr Siddiq (R.A.) reported from the Messenger of Allah
\1·ho said :
Hazrat Abu Hurairah (R.A.) reported that the Messenger of
All;d1 said : "The most perfect of the believers in faith is he who "One who treats badly with ~hose under their authority OJ
is the best of them in conduct, and the best of you are those 0
shall not enter Paradise." {Tirmidhi, & Ibn Majah) ..--1

who are the best to their wives." (Tirrnidhi)

Those who victimize or misbehave with their servants and
Hazrat Jaber-b-Abclullah (R.A.) reported that the Messenger subordinates will not enter Paradise in the beginning but they
of Allah said : "Fear Allah regarding women. Verily you hzi.ve ll"ill enter it after expiation of sins. If this is the punishment
married them with trust of Allah and made their private parts meted out to the defaults in the above cases, then the lot of
lawful with the word of Allah. You have got (rights) over them 1 hose who persecute their wives for minor faults and omis;;ions

that they entertain nobody to your beds which you dislike. If ( :rn be well i:nagined.
they do this, give them be::i.ting without causing injury. They
Abu Hurairah reported Allah's Messenger as saying:
have got (rights) over you in respect of their food and clothing
"\Voman is like a rib when you attempt to straighten it, you
according to means." (Bukhari)
would break it. And if you leave her alone you would benefit
Goodness towards women is the ever-recurring descrip- ily her, and crookedness will remain in her." (Muslim)
tion of the Qur'an and Haclith. Wife and husband are
bound by contracts at the time of marriage according to It means, if we want to get benefit from our wives, let us
not :iiternpt tn r:1dically change their modes of thinking and
the laws of Islam. Beyond that, both have got inde-
· ·ision because that may encl up in divorce. So a wise husband
pendent rights. Th~ Qur'an says : They have right similar
is one who benefits from his wife despite the incompatibility with
to those against them in ·a just manner. (2 : 228).
lier temperament.
Abu Hurairah reported from the Holy Prophet who said : Laqit bin Silbira told that he said, Messenger of Allah, I
"When a man has two wives and he does not deal equitably l1a1·c a wife who utters foul speech ? He told him to divorce her,
between them, he will come on the Resurrection Day with when he replied that he had a son from her and was a com-
a side hanging down." (Tirmidhi, Abu Daud & Nasai) panion (for a long time), he Sil.id, Give her a command (mraning

- - -......................_...J\llll!lll!ll'I.'""'""" ~-- 91' ~ 11111111!!181 1111'11111111 111!111111111!1

- ...
 28 29
gi\·e her ar: exhortation), and if there is any good in her she will wanted by the husband, 12) when she is called for sexual
accept it; but do not beat your wife as you would beat vour intercourse and shr. refuses without any lawful excuse, (3) when
young slave-girL" (:\bu
:'he is ord cred to take ha th from impurities for prayer and she
Umar reported the Prophet as saying, "A ma·· r he rdnses and (4) when she goes abroad without permission of her
asked about why he beat his wife." (Abu Daud c.' Ii.Jn Majah) lmshancl. This mild beating though allowed was discouraged
hv the Holy Prophet in practice. At any rate, slap on the face is
The wisdom of this commandment is manifest from the fact strictly prohibited.
that a great many disputes between the married coup] es arc
caused by the intervention of a third person who spread false The Holy Prophet advised us to win the hearts of our wives
reports, slanders and thus adds fuel to their family quarrels. ancl to correct their defects by admonition and good treatment
The fact that man is inchargc and the maintainer of the woman and not by beating; because in the latter case there would be
necessitates that he should have the right to admonish his tension, hatred and strained relations.
disobedient wife as the following verse very clearly shows :
Aisha (R.A.) reported Allah's Messenger as saying, "The best
"As for those (women) whom ye fear rebellion, admonish of you is he who is best to his family, and I am best among you
them and banish them to beds apart, and scourge them. to my family. When one of yon dies speak no ill of him."
Then if they obey you, seek not a way against them. Lo I (Tirmidhi & Darimi)
Allah is ever High Exalted, Great." (4: 34)
The above verse is very instructive. It also illustrates how Same reported Allah's Messenger as saying, "Among the
penetrating an eye Islam has into the psychology of woman believers who show most perfect faith are those who have the
hr.st disposition, and are kindest to their families." (Tirmidhi) 0
who being proud of her beauty and personal charm at times rl
plays a coquette so much so that virtually it becomes an rl

impudence. As such her separation to a bed apart means that A husband should also not cast aspersions on the cha,;tity
the husband is impervious to her beauty, charm and coquetry. of his wife on false or flimsy grounds for harassing and ill-
This may deflate a little her swollen pride and thus bring her treating her. Islam has taken a very serious view of slandering
back to her senses. But if all these means of correction fail to women. If anything _is said against a woman's chastity, it would
bring her round, then chastisement is the last resort. However, be supported by evidence twice as strong as would ordinarily
the Islamic Law has laid it down that the chastisement should be required for business transactions, or even in murder cases,
be of a mild severity. that is, four witnesses are required instead of two. Failing
such preponderating evidence, the slanderer is himself treated
Chastisement is the last resort. The first is exhortation as a wickecl transgressor and punished with eighty stripes.
an6 persuasion-then suspending the conjugal relations, for a :\ot only woulcl he be subjected to this disgraceful form of
short time, exceeding not more than four months. And if those 1111nishment, but would be deprived of the citizens right of giving
measures miserably fail· then chastisement is allowed. The evidence in all matters of life, unless he repents and reforms,
Holy Prophet is reported to have said : Beat your wives if you in which case he can be readmitted as a competent witness.
find it absolutely essential but the good amongst you would This act of defamation or slandering and making false accusation
never beat them. (Ahkam-ul-Qm'an, Ibn Arabi) especially of fornication is known as Qadhaf in the Shari' ah.

The learned jurists say that a mild beating of wife is allowed Abu Hurairah (Allah be pleased with him) reported: A
111 four cases : (1) when she does not wear fineries though bcduin came to Allah's ~I essenger (may peace be upon him) and

'-----L.-......111-._____ ~· '~-~ ......,...,,.

- ._._,
-·-
 30 3l

said: My wife has given birth to a dark-complexioned child reflect calmly over the pros and cons of the matter. The Holy
and I have disowned him. Thereupon Allah's Apostle (may Qur'an has laid down some principles of divorce. The first
peace be upon him) said : l-Iave you any camels? He said : principle that the divorce should be pronounced in the period
Yes. He said : What is their colour? He said: They are red. of purity when menses are over. The idea behind it is that in
He said: Is there any one dusky among them? He said: Yes. this period man is inclined to resume conjugal relations and so
Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said : How has it far as woman is concerned she is in a rational frame of mind as
come about? He said : l'vlessenger of Allah, it is perhaps due to menstruation bas a disturbing effect on her mind. The Holy
the strain to which it has reverted, whereupon the Hoiy Prophet Qur'an says, "0 people, when you divorce women, divorce them for
(may peace be upon him) said : It (the birth of the black child) their prescribed period" (65: l). Then the second point is that
may be due to the strain to which he (the child) might have the pronouncement of divorce should be spread over three
reverted. (Bukhari & lVIuslim) periods (three monthly courses) and then the final decision
should be made whether one is prepared to take her back or one
The colour of the child clocs not necessarily resemble th;it
h:is decided lo bicl her good-bye for ever. The Holy Qur'an says:
of the father. There are so many other factors, physiolot;ical,
climatic and even psychological which determine the colour of "Divorce may be (pronounced) twice, then keep (them) in good
fellowship or let (them) go with kindness." (2: 229) \\'hat it
the child.
rnc;ins is that divorce should be pronounced separately in two
periods of Tuhr (purification). This is to be treated as Talaq
PROVISION OF DIVORCE (r<:vocable divorce) after which the husband has the right to
rl
resume conjugal relations. But after the expiry of two periods rl
According to Islam, marriage is a civil contract ; yet the
of temporary separation, the final choice is to be made-either rl
rights and responsibilities consequent upon it are of such
to take her b'.lck in love and amity or le~ her go finally and that
importance to the welfare of humanity that a high degree of
too with grace and kindness.
sanctity is attached to it. But, in spite of the sacredness of the
character of the marriage tic, Islam recognises the necessity of T!;c right of woman in demanding the dissolution of marriage
divorce in cases when marital relations are poisoned to a degree is known as Khul'a (meaning, literally, ~he putting off or taking
which makes a peaceful home life impossible. But Islam does llllt off a thing). It is a kind of facility provided to the wife in
believe in unlimited opportunities for divorce on frivolous and seeming Talaq (divorce) from her husband by returning a part or
flimsy grounds, because any undue increaoe in the facilities for full amount of the bridal gift (Mahr).
divorce would destory the stability of family life. Therefore,
while allowing divorce even on genuine grounds, Islam has taken The Holy Qur'an says:
great care to introduce checks designed to limit the use of "If a woman feareth ill-treatment from her husband, or
available facilities. desertion, it is no sin for them twain if they make terms
of peace between themselves, Peace is better, But greed
We have already seen that divorce is the most detestable uf
hath been made present in the minds, (of men). If ye do
all things permitted. hlam,.thercforc, permits it as a last resort,
f-'.riod ancl keep from evil, Lo ! Allah is ever informed of
when all efforts of peaceful living between the husband and the
what ye do." (4: 128)
wife miserably fail. Islam exhorts both the husband and tlie
wife to think a hundred and one times before making the final The peculiar Qur'anic verse denotes exhortation. If some
decision of separation, and it bas, therefore, afforded all possible reconciliation could be made between the husband and the wife
opportunities for reconciliation and provided ample time to by forgoing some of the demands on either side, it must be

~--·· .,...,....
 ")
]]
-'~

1 h11l'a only through the Qadi or judge or through those who are
made. The Qur'an, however, sticsses that if both the p;irties
:1uthorised to administer justice.
honestly feel that it is not possible for them to get on together
and there is no help to it, but separation then it should be done According to the Hanafis a woman is entitled to get, without
in a kind and graceful manner. the decision of the Qadi, klrn/'a in case the husband and the wife
The standard procedure for this separation as alre;idy ;i~r1:r, bnt if the husband refuses, then the woman has to go to

explained is that a man who wants to divorce his wife, he should the ccnnt for seeking separation through khul'a.
pronounce one divorce in the period of purity after the monthly
The case of Jamila b. 'Abdullah, who was the wife of Thabit
course of his wife, and then in the second period of purity, he
h. Qays provides a good illustration of khul'a. She came to the
should pronounce second divorce. Up to these two divorces, he is
J foly Prophet and demanded a divorce from her husband on the
permitted to take his wife back, but at the end of third period of
~~round that she hctd no liking for him, in spite of his good
purity, the pronouncement of divorce would become irrevocable.
It is reported that a companion of the Holy Prophet once asked ronduct and behaviour. The Holy Prophet (peace and blessings
him : The Qur'an has spoken of only two divorces, whence rif Allah he upon him), granted her khul'a on the condition that
comes the third one. The Holy Prophet asked him to take ··he chould return to Thabit the garden which he had given as
her dower (Mahr) at the time of their marriage. (Bukhari,
into consideration the words, 'Or send them away with
\';isai, Jim Maj2h on the authority of Hadrat Ibn 'Abbas).
kindness,' meani11g thereby that after the first two divorce t!ie
:-;irnilar ;ciliadith have been transmitted on the authority of
husband should honourably retain her or send her away i.e.
T-fadrz1t Ai5ha (may Allah be plensed with her) relating to the
divorcing her for a third time. 7,'iJ11/'11 of a 11'nm;1n called HuiJaybah bint Sabi, and are found in , ...
The husband is required to m:1ke full payment of the do11·er lf11;1U:t' J111arn .'\Ldik and .'\I11sn:icl of Ahmad.
money if he takes the initi:tti1·e in clivorcc. Moreover, he is not
allowed to take from her anyth1n,t; out of this dower money or lt shnuld :1lso he borne in mind that khul'a is an irrevocable
other gifts he had given t() her. !'he Holy Qur'an says : ":\nd cr·p;:iration ;ind thus it is absolute and final. The woman
it is not lawful for you that ye take from women aught of tl1at 1110rrics ;i not her person an cl not her previous husband at the
which ye have given them ; except (in the case) when both fear r·xpirv of her 'Jddat (period of waiting). This principle has
that they may not be able to keep within the limits (imposed licrn laid down so that the people may divorce their wives after
by) Allah. And if ye fear that they may not be able to keep carefully taking into consideration its repercussions and not take
the limits of Allah, in that case it is no sin for either of them if it lightly. Thr:y should keep this thing before their minds that
the woman ransom herself. These are the limits (imposed by :1 ft('r the final separation the chances of remarriage are very few

Allah. Transgress them not. For whoso transgresseth Alla!1's :tncl far between. The only chance left is that the husband
limits : such are wrongdoers." (2 : 229) (lies nr the second marriage proves failure and the second
l1usb;rnd, out of his own will, and not under any pressure,
If the demand for separation is initiated by the wife, (as is
divorces his wife. Shah Waliullzih. while explaining the signi·
the case set out in the ]as_t portion of the above verse) then 5he
llcancc of this injunction, l1as stated that the idea behind this
is required to return the dower which he received from her
command is that the people should not take the institutions of
husband at the time of marriage ; and in this payment there
mZJrria;;e and divorce as mere playthings. They should be fully
shall be no blame on either of them. This is known as !dml'a.
:'.l'aI'2 of their responsibilities and obligations.
The scholars of Islam, have on the basis of the plural form of the
ve1 bas;.;.;... instead of the pair form as used before and after
The tone of the subsequent verse 230 of Surah AZ.Baqara
this in this part of the verse, concluded that the wife can gd

lll\l
_______ .___ .... ,.- ~
- - - - - · - · II'!!'!! - ~·~.
!V'"" ~ ~ llJl!l!ll!I
- ....... - - - ..
 34
35
does not approve the shameful custom known as halalah,
Lord, ancl for ZL Paradise as wide as are the heavens and the
(temporary marriage), gone through with no other object but to
c;1rth, prepared for those who ward off (evil), those who spend
legalize the divorced wife for the first husband. There must be
genuine marriage-determination to unite as husband and wife (of that which Allah hath given them) in ease and in adversity,
as long as they live. those who control their wrath and are forgiving towards mankind;
Allah loveth the good ; And those who, when they do an evil
The Holy Prophet has condemned this type of marriage. tl1ing (>r wrong themselves, remember Allah and implore
It is reported on the authority of lbn Mas'ud that Allah'~ f11rgiveness for their sins. Who forgiveth sins save Allah only ?
Messenger (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in vokeci ::ml will not knowingly repeat (the wrong) they did. The reward
curse upon those who resort to such practices. (Tirmidhi) r,f such will be forgiveness from their Lord, and Gardens under-
neath which rivers flow, wherein they will abide for ever-a
It should also be noted thZLt marriage with another husband J,ountiful reward for workers I" (3: 133-136)
includes not only matrimonial contract but also sexual intercourse
between them. The husband should therefore think a hundred
times before making the final decision as divorce is not a fun HUSBAND-WIFE SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP
but something very serious, and thus no one is allowed to ruin
conjugal relations in a fit of rage. That is why the Holy Prophet In Islam the union of the sexes bas been purified and the
time and again warned us not to become angry as "anger spoils jl)y of the married relations secured by the absolute prohibition
faith as aloes spoil honey." (I3aihaqi) Again he said, "If one of every kind of extra-matrimonial connection. The Holy
restrains his anger, Allah will keep his punishment from him on <}ir'an stresses upon the people to marry as it is the must
the Day of Resurrection." (Baihaqi) effective means whereby one can lead a virtuous life free from (Y)
rl
immorality ancl emotional inhibition. The Holy Qur'an says: rl
Abu Hurairah reported Allah's Messenger as saying, "The "They (your wives) are as a garment to you, and you are as a
strong man is not the good wrestler ; the strong man is only he g;ument to them" (2: 187) The mutual relation of husband and
who controls himself when he is angry." (Bukhari & Muslim) \\·ife is here described in words which could not be surpassed in
beauty. Herein is the correct description of the relationship
Ibn Umar reported Allah's Messenger as saying, "No one
1Jr::twccn the two. The husband and the wife are for mutual
has swallowed back anything more excellent in the sight of
support, mutu;1l comfort and mutual protection, fi~ting into each
Allah Who is Great ancl Glorious than anger he restrains seeking
<1ther as garments fit into each other.
to please Allah Most High." (Ahmad)
Tlic liolv C_)ur'an further points out that sexual gratification
A bu D harr reported Allah's Messenger as saying, "Anger
111 the married life is not meant only for the satisfaction nf the
comes from the devil, the devil was created of fire and fire ic;
;lh1·sic;1l lust. but it must be: directed to some higher ends."
extinguished only with water ; so when one :if you becomes angry
Y<111r mJmc11 arc tilth for you, so go into your tilth as ye like,
he should perform ablution." (1\lrn Daurl.'
incl p1ovid1: beforehand for your souls, ancl fear Allah and know
May Allah enable us not 1.o be carried by our passions and tlt;1t Y"u arc i;oing to meet Him" (2: 223) Herc the wives are
be kind and just to our wives as ordained by Allah and His liJ.::ene<l to the cultivable land which are ploughed for sowing
Apostle. Ameen ! and reaping the produce (in the form of offspring)' and not
rnerelv for carnal indulgence. The concluding µart of the ver.se
"And obey Allah and the Messenger, that ye may find
refers to still higher and sublimer ends which tell that evrn in
mercy. And vie one with another for forgiveness from your
the b1·i~ht of ccunal pleasure the moral and spiritual rcsponsibi-
 'I:
i
42
i
I
11
'I The Jews used to come tu their wives by the back i.e. by
the rectum. This was made unlawful by the Holy Prophet.
11/i He dfre~ted ~en to come by the natural way (i.e. vaginal canal)
in whatever position they like. Coition is an act of procreation
11: whereas this unnatural practice is not only filthy, but quite
l/i,i
''
,l'
I'
unproductive, rather very harmful and injurious for heal th. The PART IV
I Holy Prophet has rightly cursed one who indulges in this
I'
abominable act.
I
I Allah has not made the women a happy hunting ground for
man, but the tilth in which they are required to sow the seecl
and reap the harvest. The simile of tilth used in verse 223 of THE TRUE QUALITY OF A GOOD WIFE
Surah al-Baqara and repeatecl. subsequently in order to stress
the object behind this act of tilling-that is to get harvest
(children) and not merely carnal pleasure. This simile abn \Ve reacl in the Holy Qur'an:
makes it clear that birth control is inconsistent with the teachings "~Ien arc incharge of women, because Allah hath made
of Islam. the one of them excel the other, and because they spend
of their property (for the support of women) .. So good
women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which
Allah hath guarded." (4: 34)
'1'
..-;
The above verse summarises some of the sterling qualities ..-;

of a good wife : she is obedient and harmonious in her husband's

presence, and in his absence guards his reputation and property
and her own virtue as ordained by Allah. The good wife,
remembering how Allah has given her a sheltered position does
everything to justify the trust reposed in her.

The true qualities of a good and exemplary wife are further

elaborated in the following ahadith:

I. lfazrat Anas reported the Messenger of Allah as saying,

"\Vhen the wife says the five-times prayers, fasts for the whole
month (of l~amadan), abstains from adultery and obeys her
husband, she will be told to enter Paradise through any door she
likes." (Ahmad)

:2. 1-Lu.rzit Omzir (R.A.) reported that the 2\Iessenger of

:\llzih sziid : "Shall I not inform you about the best treasure
 44 45

which a man should hoarcl ?-:i \·irtuous wife who pleases him said : "Ever\'thing with which a man plays is unlawful except
whenever he turns his look towards her, and who obeys him his shooting with his arrows, and his training his horse, and his
whenever he orders her, who guards herself when he is absent sporting with his wife, and verily these are of the truths."
from her." (Abu Daud) (Tirmidhi, Ibn Jvlajah & Abu Daud)
A virtuous wife is a man's best treasure according to the These three things are useful sports. The two are necessary
Prophet (S.A.W.) The object of treasures is to gain com- in case of war or Jihad in the way of Allah, and the third thing
forts; but nothing can give more comfort and solace than is for domestic and conjugal happiness. Islam, therefore,
a vi.rtuous and chaste wife. She is always a joy to her recognises everything which is necessary for fighting in the way
husband. Besides, a virtuous wife can make her husbaml of Allah and which brings greater good than its injury. Games
and children virtuous. Mother has the greatest share in of chance have been made unlawful with the exception of three,
the formation of character of the children. A virtuous as these arc not needed in the way of AJ!ah and bring more injury
wife centralises love in her husband thereby keeping him than good in the form of rancour, loss of time, dispute and
in absolute check from extravagant mode of life. The quarrels. Playing with arrows, training of horses and sporting
mother is the queen of the household and unless the queen with wife should be made as they serve double purposes
is pious and virtuous, the inmates cannot be expected to pleasure and physical exercise.
turn out good.
6. Thauban reported that the Messenger of Allah said :
3. Hazrat Abu Omamah reported from the Messenger of "The best of the property is a remembering tongue (about L()
..-I
Allah who used to say: ".Next to fear of Allah, the believer Allah), a grateful heart and a believing wife who helps him in ..-I

finds nothing good for him than a virtuous wife. If he bids her, his faith." (Ahmad & Ibn Majah)
she obeys him ; if he looks at her, she gives him pleasure ; and
if he is absent from her, she gu:trds herself and his propety." Snch was llazrat Khadijah--the widowed wife of the Holy
(Ibn l\lajalii l'ropl1et who was the first of the Muslims believing in the truth
nf his mission. He got wonderful consolation from her at the time
4. Hazrat Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of of extreme anxiety. From this, we can infer how virtuous
Allah was asked: "Who among women is the best?" He replied: wives can help us in struggle for the enforcement of Shariah in
"She who gives pleasure to him (husband), when he looks, obeys l\Iuslim lands.
him when he bids and who does not oppose him regarding
herself and her riches fearing his displeasure." (Nasai) 7. Hazrat Aisha (R.A.) told that Allah's Messenger said
to her, "If you wish to join me (in the Hereafter), be satisfied
The wife is expected to contribute to the success and with worldly things to the extent of a rider's provision, avoid
peacefulness of the marriage as much as possible. Attentive to sitting with the rich, and do not consider a garment worn out
her husband's comfort and well being, she should neither offend till you patch it." (Tirmidhi)
him nor hurt his feelings. It would have been easy for the
Prophefs first wife, Khadijah, to hurt his feelings when he first This should serve as an eye opener to those of our sisters
told her about the angel Gabriel coming to him and pressing who don one at tire in the morning and another in the evening!
him to his chest. When he narrated the event, he was trembl-
8. Abu l'mama Ilyas bin Thalaba reported Allah's
ing with fear, but she comforted him and put his heart at case.
Messenger as saying, "Listen, listen! wearing old clothes is a
5. Uqba bin Amer reported that the lllessenger of Allah part of faith, wearing old clothes is a part of faith." (Abu Daud)

----........._. _____ __ _____

..,. , --
 46

9. Ibn Umar reported Allah's Messenger as saying, "He 47

who wears grand clothes in this world will be made by Allah to
"If yon want the adornment and silk of Paradise, do not wear
wear humble clothes on the Day of Resurrection."
them in this world." (Nasai)
(Ahmad, Abu Daud & Ibn Majeih)
Here it would also be worth-while to narrate the story of
10. The Messenger of Allah was quoted as saying, "He rigorous domestic duties performed by Hazrat Fatimah, the
who gives up wearing beautiful garments when lie is able to do
rlearest and most beloved daughter of the Holy Prophet :
so (out of humility), will be clothed by Allah with the robe of
honour and he who marries for Allah's sake will be crowned by Hazrat Ali says: "Fatimah used to grind the grain
Allah with the crown of the kingdom." (Abu Daucl & Tirmidhi) herself which caused corns on her hands. She carried
11. Ibn Umar reported the Messenger of Allah as saying, water for the house in a leather bag which caused scars on
''Whoso imitates other people becomes one of them." (Abu Daud) her breast. She cleaned the house herself which made
her clothes dirty. Once some war captives were brought
Let those who wear or advocate wearing of Western dress to Maclinah. I (Ali) said to her, 'Go to the Prophet and
ponder over this Hadith and determine their destiny for them- request him for an assistant to help you in your home
selves ! work'. She went to him but found many people round
him. As he was very modest, she could not be bold
12. Imran bin Hussain reported Allah's Prophet as saying, enough to request the Prophet in the presence of other
"The perfume used by men should have an odour, but no colour, people. Next clay the Prophet came to our house and
and perfume used by women should have a colour but no odour." said, 'Fatimah! What made you come to me yesterday?'
f-' (Abu Daud) She felt shy and kept quiet. I (Ali) said : '0, Prophet
f-'
of Allah ! Fatimah has developed corns and scars on her
~
13. Abu Hurairah said that he heard the Messenger of hands and breast on account of grinding and carrying
Allah say, "The prayer of a woman who has perfumed herself water. She is constantly busy in cleaning the house and
to go to the Mosque is not accepted till she bathes as she would in other domestic jobs, causing her clothes to remain dirty.
(take bath) for sexual defilement." (Abu Daud) I (Ali) informed her about the captives and advised her
to go to you and request for a servant.' The Prophet
14. Abu Musa reported Allah's Messenger, as saying, said, "Fatimah ! Fear Allah. Acquire Taqwa (piety) and
"Every eye is adulterous (when it cast glances with lust on keep doing your sevice to Allah and attending to your
strange women), and when a woman pe::fumes herself and domestic jobs. When you go to bed recite Subhanallah
passes a company, she is such and such"-meaning adulterous. 33 times, Alhamdulillah 33 times and Allahoahbar 34
(Tirmidhi) times. This you will find more helpful than an assistant :
Fatimah remarked, 'I am content with Allah and His
It is high time that our sisters took heed of this warning
Prophet·.··
and avoid using perfume while going out for genuine need as
perfume attracts the attention of passersby who may be led to Look this is the life of the Prophet's dear daughter. In
stare at such women with evil intentions. moderately rich families of our times the ladies think it below
their dignity to attend to domestic work. They need assistance
15. Uqba bin Amir told that Allah's Messenger, used to
in each and c\·erything. What a difference !
restrain people who adorned themselves and wore silk, saying,
The main responsibility of ensuring that an Islamic way of
 49
48
Abu Hurairah reported the Messenger of Allah as saying,
life is instituted in the home rests on the husband. Allah "Do you know the thing which most commonly brings people into
commands in the Holy Qur'an : Para cl ise ? It is the fear of Allah and good character. Do you
know what most commonly brings people into Hell ? It is the
"0 Believers! Save yourselves and your families from the
tll"o hollow things : the mouth and the private parts."
Fire." And the only way of saving ourselves and our
(Tirmidhi & Ibn Majah)
families from the Fire-the punishment of Allah-is in the
obedience of Allah's Law and in emulation the life- lJbaba bin as-Samit reported the Prophet as saying, "If you
example of the (last) l'vlessenger of Allah. guarantee me six things on your part I shall guarantee you
Paradise. Speak the truth when you talk, keep a promise when
you make it, when you trusted with something fulfil your trust,
PLEASURE Of HUSBAND
avoid sexual immorality, lower your eyes, and restrain your
A wife is the centre of activity at home. By her forbear- hands from injustice." (Baihaqi)
ance and her concern for everyone, she creates a relaxed and
happy atmosphere. Here ability to listen with loving attention There is a great lesson for us in the above quoted ahadith and
draws her closer to her children and to her husband. She is a it should not go unnoticed; fur a wilful disregard and abstinence
source of consolation and comfort for them. The wife is not on our part may spell disaster.
expected to be rude to her husband.
The only and the only solution and the best to ensure a happy
Hazrat Abu Bakr reported the lVIessenger of Allah as saying: home wherein all members of the family will flourish-wherein
"A woman who annoys her husband with her tongue, she incurs the husband-wife relationship and the parent-children relation- .....
,-;
the reproach and wrath of Allah, all the angels and the human ship will be one of joy and happiness-is to adopt a purely ,-;

beings." Similarly Hazrat Usman narrated that the Holy Prophet Isl un:c w:-ty of life. For our family success and happiness it is
said: "A woman who says to her husband that she has seen no essential that our lives be governed by the Sunnah of our beloved
good in him, Allah blots her good deeds over a period of seventy Prophet. The Holy Qur'an says: "Verily in the Messenger of
years although she may have observed fast all along during the Allah ye have a good example for him who looketh u:ito Allah
day and worshipped at night." (Ibn Majah & Kasai) and the Last Day, and remembereth Allah much." (33 : 21)
Hazrat Abdullah bin Umar reported the Messenger of Allah A bu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah said:
as saying: "lf all the earth turns into gold and silver and some "Isl;im is : To worship Allah alone, not to make anyone sharer
woman takes it to tbe house of her husband and says boastfully of worship due unto the Lord to offer Salat properly (i.e. with
that all this wealth is her's and that he (husband) has no share elevation and ;it the prescribed time with ]amaat), pay Zakat
in it Allah thereat renders waste all her good actions although and fast in the month of Ramadan, perform the Pilgrimage
these may be plentiful." (Ahmad) (to the House of Allah), enjoin right conduct and forbid the
Generally rich and resourceful women wedded to poor fami- wrong and make salutations (Assalani-o-Alaikztm) to the inmates of
lies make such a show ot"vanity and haughtiness which is highly the house. Whoso forsakes any of these things, he harms one of
contemptihle in the eyes of Islam as it denudes one of hr:r good the component units of Islam and if anyone abandons all these
deeds without any gain. It is a sin without pleasure. Our characteristics (of Faith), he has turned his back from Islam."
ladies should therefore guard themselves against abnse of tongue (Hakim)
and slander which arc the worst and most abomin:-tble of catanic The Qm';rn also says the same thing in its inimitable style:
attributes which exist in us.
 5()
51
"0 ye who believe ! Enter into Islam whole-heartedly ancl
(3) "There are three (persons) whose prayer is not accepted,
follow not the footsteps of the devil. Lo! he is an open enemy
nor their virtues taken above: The fugitive slave till
for you. And if ye slide back after the clear proofs have come
he returns to his masters and places his hand in their
unto you, then know that Allah is I\Iighty, Wise." (2: 208, 209)
hands ; and the woman on whom her husband remains
Asma bint Yazid Ansari came to the Prophet and said : "0 dissatisfied, and the drunkard till he becomes sober."
Prophet of Allah ! You are dearer to me than my parents. The (Baihaqi)
Muslim ladies have deputed me as their representative to talk (4) Hadrat Ana~ reported that the Holy Prophet had said :
to you on their behalf. Verily you are the Prophet of Allah for "For a \\·oman her husband is Paradise as well as Hell."
both men and women. We ladies stay for most part of our time (Ahmad and Nasai)
within the four walls of our house:;. 'vVe remain pinned to our It means that if her husband is pleased it is Paradise
jobs of fulfilling the sexual desires of men, bearing children for for her but if he is displeased it is Hell for her.
them and looking after their homes. Notwithstanding all this, (5) Hadrat Aiyesha reports that she asked the Holy Pro-
men excel us in getting reward for thing which we arc unable tu pht:t \\hose right was greatest on the woman and the
do. They go and say their daily Salat and weekly ]wnmah in Holy l'rophet said : Husband's. Then she asked: Whose
the Masjid, visit the sick, attend the funerals, perform Hajj and right was greatest on man and the Holy Prophet said :
above all fight in the way of Allah. When they go for Hajj or His mother's. (Bazaz and Hakim)
Jihad, we look after their property, bring up their children and (6) J-faclr;i.t lbn Abi Auf1 reported that the Holy Prophet has
weave cloth for them. Don·t we share reward with them?" s;i.irl : "By Allah in Whose hand is my life, the woman
ro
who dr>es not disch:irgc her duties to her husl>and is
The Prophet addressing the Sahabah (Companions) sitting '"""
clisr,\wrlient to 1\llilh, and the discharge of duties to- '"""
round him said : "Di(] you ever hear a 111.dy asking a better w;11ds :\llah dcpr:nds on the discharge of duties 10\vards
question ?" Sahabah replied : "0 Prophet of Allah ! \Ve never the husband." (Ilm I\Iajah)
thought that a lady could ever put such a question." The (7) lladrat Ihn Umar reported that the Holy Prophet had
Prophet addressing Asma said: "Listen attentively ancl then s;i.id: ";\llah would not like even to look at the \1-·oman
go and tell the ladies who have sent you that when a woman who is not thankful to her husband." (Nasai)
seeks the pleasure of her husband and carries out her domestic
It means that wife is dependent on her husband in all
functions to his satisfaction, she gets the same reward as men get
matters and what would be greater ungratefulness if she
for all these services to Allah." Asma returned very happily docs not thank him.
after getting this reply to her question.
(S) Haclrat Z;i.id bin Arqam reported that the Messenger of
Obedience to and good behaviour towards husbands is a All;ih s;iicl: "A woman will not discharge her obligation
very great asset for the ladies provided they know its value. to 1\lbh unless she discharges her obligation to her
husband." (Tabrani)
The following is reported to have been said by the Holy Th:1t is to say, the discharge of obligation to Allah is
Prophet in this connection : clcpenclcnt on the discharge of the obligation to the
l1ush<i.nrl.
(1) "A woman whose husband is pleased with her at the
time of her death goes straight to Paradise." (Tirmiclhi) (9) :\liu Hurairah reported that the ~.Iessengerof Allah said:
"It W:-ts not permissible for any woman who believes in
(2) "One who sows seeds of discord between a woman and
.ti llah to allow anvone to enter the house whose coming
her husband does not belong to us." (Abu Daud)
is not likrd by her husband. And it is not permissib!e
 APPENDIX F

MODULE 5: GENDER AWARENESS TRAINING

Objective

At the end of the training the women are to be able to:

Understand the concept of Gender or what is gender?

Start to look at women's role and stereotypes in a non--confrantation way
Allow women to express and share some of their feelings and experiences
Allow participants to discover some of the contradictions and complexities of
their lives in exile

Reading Materials

The Concept of Gender, what is gender?

Women's Issues in the Context of Conflict

Gender Awareness and self-awareness

Hand-out# 7, Building Gender Awareness

A Gendered Vision of Religious Fundamentalism

Gender, Culture, and Cautionary Tale, Case Study

119
The Concept of Gender

The use of the concept gender helps to identify women and men's roles. Gender draws
attention to the social character of the divisions of labor between women and men. It
points out that differences between women and men are shaped not so much by biology
as it is by cultural and economic forces. For example, while men cannot bear children
they can take care of them after they are born. Conversely, women bear children; they
also and often carryout tasks (such as agricultural production) which require skills
different from those involved in child care.

What Is Gender?

While sex refers to physiological differences between women and men, gender refers to
the socially constructed roles played by women and men in a given society. Differences
between women and men take on specific forms in various societies. These differences
must be ascertained every time a development project is to be formulated. No
presumption can be made on women's activities, needs, and priorities outside a socio-
economic and cultural context. The only universal character of gender is that women's
needs and priorities are not usually even/visible to men.

Source: Benerjee, H. Lina and Udong S, (1994), UNDP, New York, 1994.

120
The Impact of Conflict

Identifying Women's Needs in Conflict

1 Women's role in the survival of their families and communities is critical. Efforts to
support women may be important for their own sake, but in conflict situations they
are essential.

2. Women's ability to survive and support other must be seen holistically addressing
issues of personal psychology protection of and by women, economic resources and
. activities, community support, and national and international issues of governance,
representation and human rights.

3. Women's capacity to extend their economic performance depends not only on access
to the means of production, but also to community for an in which their needs can be
addressed, as equal and active community members.

4. Women's health issues have to be seen in a total context of collapse of services and
support system as well as of the range and depth of suffering women experience in
conflict. Women's health in conflict covers issues of psychological and social
adjustment, personal integrity, and injury and disability as well as physical and
reproductive health.

5. Conflict dramatically increases levels of violence against women, whether from the
actual fighting or not. Personal violence is major threat to women's well being and
hence to the integrity of communities. Violence against women must be addressed at
different levels, locally, nationally, and internationally, and further research should be
promoted into the factors, which enhance it.

6. Trauma is a largely unrecognized outcome of conflict for men, women and children.
It needs to be researched and measures taken to help people recover from it at both
personal and community levels. Men and women react to psychological stress
differently, with women's needs for supportive social networks, frustrated by the lack
of privacy and opportunities to have intimate conversations with friends and kin.
Meeting men's needs in overcoming trauma may be of direct benefit to women if they
lead to more egalitarian relationships.

7. Women's principal focus of identity tends to be the family. It is at the family level
that conflict can cause women much distress and at the same time it is the family that
may offer the most solace and security. Demographic imbalance-- more women than
men, more female-headed households limits women's marriage prospects.

121
Women's Issues in the Context of Conflict

1. women-headed households:

Temporary, in the context of displacement until reunited with spouse in original place of residence or
permanent in the context of death of spouse, or resettlement in a far away place without the spouse who
may have decided to stay behind in the conflict area or join the armed forces.

Specific Problems:

1. Increased burdens as women are left alone to care for children and the aged.
2. Issue of survival/increased marginalisation in a society where the sexual division of
labor determines allocation of resources, rights and opportunities (statistics from third
World country show that women-headed households tend to be the poorest.)

3. More vulnerable to sexual abuse (though women who have their spouses around have
also been raped some in front of their defenseless and fearful spouses.)

4. Mental stress/psychological impact of war and its consequences; women have to

attend to the needs of family members who have been scarred by war even while they
suffer severe stress themselves, and the damage and vulnerability caused by conflict.

Sexual Abuse and Harassment, in the Context of the Following:

1. Within area/community of conflict, during operations (civilians caught in the war

local or international.)

2. under interrogation/detention by military

3. when seeking welfare assistance (e.g. evacuation, food, water, health services.)

Forms of Sexual Abuse Specific Problems:

1. Rape, military/political rape (repeated rape by one man/multiple rape.)

2. Sexual harassment, threat of sexual abuse humiliation through verbal vulgarities and
abuse by men; vulnerability to touching of sensitive/private parts by men
3. Sexual slavery, in the context of forced, regular sexual favors through the mistress
system.
4. Military prostitution as an established institution/ clutter of patriarchy.

122
 Severe condition of reproduction-related responsibilities among women civilians
caught in the midst of military operations total war tactics and strategies

1. As food reproducers, procurers and prepares; increase hardship due to food blockades
to man's land (limited mobility) food quotas, economic constriction, devastation of
livestock crops
Specific problems (outside sexual abuse and harassment, and as women headed
households)
2. As household health managers increased hardship due to bombing and strafing
resulting in deaths
In the household, deaths of infants and chidden due to malnutrition and outbreak of
epidemics, cutting -off of institutional support, limited mobility,
3. As child-carers, unimagined hardship due to all of the above, as managers of children
during evacuation, bombing, etc.
4. As prepares and lactating mothers, malnutrition, physical and emotional stress.
5. Women's health there is a need to separate this as an issue since most often, it is only
the health of children and mother which is addressed in the context of relief assistance
during armed conflicts and in evacuation centers.

Specific health problems:

1. Malnutrition among women

2. Maternal health
3. Psychological/emotional stress or instabilities resulting from war and its
consequences (death, dislocation, rape, etc.)
4. Physical disabilities/illnesses arising from war that make it difficult for women to
carry out critical reproductive role. Sexual transmitted diseases and viral/ bacterial
infection may be due to rape, inadequate/poor sanitation, often overlooked by women
themselves; if unattended, may lead to more serious reproduction-related illnesses
such as cancer.

Source: Gigi Francisco, Women's Resource and Research center, April 1991. In the
Oxfam Gender training Manual, Oxfam UK and Ireland, 19941

123
 Gender awareness and
self-awareness

This section is in two parts:

• ~uilding gender awareness
• Self-awareness for women and men

In this section we provide a number of awareness-raising activities for use with

different kinds of groups. Please use those most suited for the level of gender
awareness of your group, and to the kind of group you are training. It is, however,
essential that any gender training course includes at least one of the gender-
awareness activities in this section, so that the group has a shared understanding of
gender before going on to gender analysis.

Building gender awareness

The activities in the first part introduce the concept of gender, explore participants'
emotions and ideas about gender relations, and begin to look at gender and
development. Some of the activities are very basic, suitable for groups who are new to
gender analysis and who have had no or very little exposure to gender training (e.g.
The gender game, Activity 16. Others assume a familiarity with the concept (e.g.
What is gender?, Activityl 7). Some activities are controversial and should only be
used after the first, basic activities or with groups who are familiar and comfortable
with the basic construct of gender. Many of these activities throw up strong emotions,
whether people are new tothem or not, and facilitators should be prepared for this~

Before going through this section, we advise that you read through Section A.2 Key
Concepts to refresh your memory if you haven't done very much gender training, or
you have not done it recently. The activities are suitable for mixed-sex groups.

Self-awareness for women and men

The activities in the second part are all potentially highly-emotional sessions.
Activities such as .Millie's mother's red dress Activity 23 and Violence against
women Activity 31 are likely to touch some women very deeply. You should ensure
that the feeling and atmosphere in the group are sufficiently supportive for women
I

to be able to express their feelings without fear. The activities are forwomen-only or
men-only. However, if you want to try them with a mixed group- and this could be
very powerful and an important learning experience - it may work best to run the
sessions concurrently with women-only and men-only groups, and then bring them
together at the end for discussion.

124
_1 1 l\A A 0 1
 HAND-OUT# (7)

Building Gender Awareness

Please indicate whether the following statements are sex or gender:

1. Women give birth to babies, men don't

2. Little girls are gentle, boys are tough.

3. In one case, when a child brought up as a girl learned that he was actually a boy,
his school marks improved dramatically.

4. Women can breastfeed babies, men can bottle-feed babies.

5. Most construction workers are men.(may not be applicable in some countries)

6. Men's voices break at puberty, women's do not.

7. In one study of 224 cultures, there were 5 in which men did all the cooking, and
36 in which women did all the house building.

8. According to UN statistics, women do 67% of the world's work, yet their

earnings for it amount to only 10% of the world's income.

9. Boys will remain with parents; girls will get married and leave their parent's
house.

10. Women can not live alone, they should live with their parents or siblings.

11. Women's production work is often less visible and less valued than men's.

12. In refugee camps, women are more exposed to the danger of sexual assault (e.g.
rape,), men do not.

Source: OXFEM, Gender Training Manual)

125
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1
A Gendered Vision of Religious
1 I cl C Fundamentalism

Introduction
The surge of religious fundamentalism since the 1970s in
culturally distinct areas of the globe has raised concern and
interest among scholars and citizens. Regions of the world that
have witnessed the rise of religious fundamentalism are as
diverse as Algeria, Israel, the United States, Iran, and India. l..O
N
Indeed, the li~t goes far beyond these examples. Fundamentalism .~

has been observed among the three major monolithic and many
polytheistic religions of the world in countries in different stages
of socioeconomic growth and diverse forms of political
organizations. Both democracies and dictatorships have been
affected by this phenomenon.
What is religious fundamentalism and under what
sociohistorical conditions does it emerge? The following is a brief
historical account of fundamentalism. Later, we will postulate a
conceptual framework.

Historical Antecedent
The ongm of fundamentalism goes back to American
Protestantism as practiced on the frontier in the late 1800s. The

~ 23
 24 Wo111c111111d F1111rl111nc11t11lis111 /\ Ge11dcri'd Vision of Religious F1111damc11talisnz 25
structural changes occurring in America unsettled many scientific discovery, and the general condition of the modem
inhabitants of the frontier. Industrialization and urban growth culture" (Webber, 1987:96). The credence given to science as the
brought new inhabitants with different life styles and unfamiliar only valid and acceptable source of information posed a serious
cultures. The new Irish immigrants introduced a culture and threat to traditional knowledge. Nowhere was this displayed
religion that was unfamiliar and threatening. Urban growth better than in the Scopes trial of 1925 when William Jennings
meant a pluralistic society with divergent groups closely mixing Bryan went on a collision course with modernism, as defended
in institutions such as schools and the workplace, Labor unrest and presented by Clarence Darrow. By itself it was a minor
challenged the ideology of a fair and free society in the new land. affair, in which John Scopes, a biology teacher in Dayton,
·Many (Chalafant et al., 1987; Ricscbordt, 1993) have observed Tennessee, was said to have taught the evolution of species
that fundamentalism was a frontier response to the encroaching according to Darwin. Scopes himself could not recall whether he
city, with its alien sociocultural system that was viewed as had done so. His prosecution propelled the discord between
heathen and threatening. · science <ind nonscience, in this case religion, into the public
Also associated with urbanization was the economic scene. Bryiln could not defend the integrity of religion against
transformation of American economy from agriculture to the fact-oriented presentation of science.
industry. The industrial growth fostered new ideas and a This public humiliation had two consequences for the
plurality of alternative beliefs. This had two consequences: the evangelicals: It reaffirmed their belief in the inerrancy of the
predominance of science and the spread of revisionism among Bible and led to their withdrawal from the public scene. They r-
biblical theologians. Biblical revisionists brought scientific withdrew into their churches and their closed communities. N
,--i
techniques of evidence and verification to the Bible. On their Speer suggests that "on the way to becoming a 'beleaguered
examination table, the Bible became an historical document sect,' the legitimations for political activity gave way to an
compiled through centuries, reflecting the cultural and historical almost exclusive emphasis on regeneration" (1984:30). This
')/ markings of each revision, compilation, or translation. What was retreat lasted until World War II. National events, such as the
left was suitable for the urban intelligentsia. It was existentialist diffusion of public schools infused with rationalism and the
rather than spiritual (Bruce, 1992). It was disputable and scientific investigation of nature and the international spread of
disputed. The frontier Protestants had assumed the infallibility socialism, provided impetus for another reawakening.
of the Bible. The cost of challenging the Bible in the face of other There is a debate about the exact coinage of the word
changes was serious. "fundamentalism" (see Sandeen, 1970; Marsden, 1980; Caplan,
"By 1910, the clash concerning nonliterary biblical 1987). Mostly it is attributed to an editor of a Baptist paper who
interpretations, the Social Gospel ideology, and liberal theology called upon the faithful to defend the "fundamentals of
had erupted into open controversy" (Chalafant et al., 1987:174). Protestantism" (Sandeen, 1970:246). These fundamentals are (a)
In an effort to stem the tide of revisionism, two wealthy biblical inerrancy; (b) the virgin birth of Jesus; (c) His
California brothers, the Stewarts, arranged for the production substitutionary atonement; (d) His bodily resurrection; and (e)
and wide distribution of twelve pamphlets named Tile the authenticity of miracles. This list varies depending on
Fundamentals. These pamphlets, instead of diminishing the historical zmd denominational proclamation (Sandeen, 1970).
debate, widened its scope.
The impetus for the emergence of fundamentalism is
attributed to the spread of modernism. "Fundamentalism came
about as a self-conscious rejection of modernism in theology that
sought to take into account the results of Biblical criticism,
 26 Wo111c11 and F11nda111enta!is111 !l Cc11dcrcd Vision of Religious Fu11da111entalis111 27

Conceptual Framework rc;ison=common sense=usefulness=science seriatim equa-

tion ... (1989:56)
For our purposes here, I will adopt fundamentalism and dust off
Irrational means fanatic and dangerous. The Scopes trial is
some of its popular appendages, beginning with a broad and
often cited as an example of the fanatic and irrational nature of
general definition as the background for this research. I will first
Protestant fundamentalism. In the spring of 1993, when a group
delineate the differences between fundamentalism and similar
of Muslim men were accused of bombing the World Trade
social phenomena.
Center in New York City, all the images associated with fanati-
Fundamentalism is not orthodoxy. Webster;s New World
cal, irrational, and dangerous were conjured up in the public
Dictionary defines orthodox as "conforming to the usual beliefs
mind.
or established doctrines as, in religion, politics,. etc.; approved or
It is not regressive. When the Islamic revolution took
conventional" (1978:1004). Fundamentalists claim to ascribe to
place in Iran, many observers warned that Iran was going back
the "true" essence of a religious doctrine. This is where the
in time, rejecting the achievements of modernization and
common ground between orthodoxy and fundamentalism ends.
Westernization. Given the fundamentalists' claim to the original
Fundamentalists are more than orthodox. Their political activism
doctrine, particularly in civil and family regulations, this may
separates them from the orthodox. They are ·modern while
seem justified. The Muslims' return to Shariat and their rhetoric
orthodoxy is not (Lawrence, 1989). They are present and future
on gender segregation, and the Protestants' call for uniting God
oriented, whereas orthodoxy is past oriented~ Fundamentalists
and country and rejection of the women's movement, reinforce
use the legitimacy of past ideals to reshape the present and
such a description (Falwell, 1980; Chandler, 1984). It is this
postulate the future. Orthodoxy is otherworldly while fun-
feature of fundamentalism that leads to its clash with
damentalism is this-worldly.
'" modernism. For now, I will suggest that fundamentalism is
Fundamentalism is not fanatic. According to Webster; co
selective Iy regressive and thus selective in its response to ,_,
N
fanatic is "unreasonably enthusiastic, overly zealous ... a person
modernism.
whose extreme zeal, piety, etc. goes beyond what is reasonable"
After constructing a conceptual boundary for any fluid
(1978:505). The important word here is "unreasonable."
notion, we set ourselves up to be questioned and face decon-
Fundamentalists are also accused of being irrational, which
,.. struction. For the purpose of this research, I will draw some
"implies mental unsoundness" or "the utterly illogical nature of
loose boundaries around the notion of fundamentalism.
that which is directly contrary to reason" (ibid::745). Being
It is contemporary. It is a response to present-day issues.
synonymous, they both imply "bad judgment, willfulness, (and)
Marty suggests that "Fundamentalism occurs on the soil of
~I prejudice" (ibid.:745). The notion of rationalism is at the heart of
traditional cultures" (1992:18). Lawrence maintains that
the fundamentalism. For Barr, Protestant fundamentalism is
fundamentalism has "historical antecedence" (1989:100). This
rational and based on reason (1981). But he is in a minority. The
historical tradition is recast to address "today" and now.
hegemony of positivism, and its associated notion of equating
Fundamentalists dwell on the past as long as it is relevant to the
science with reason and knowledge, degrades other forms of
present. Their historical discourse is not merely intended to set
information. As Lawrence aptly p:-its it:
the record straight; it is geared toward correcting the present
Technological discoveries, with their accent on commercial deviation from the true path. The Protestant fundamentalists, by
discovery and quantitative (not qualitative) output, holding true that the Bible is the word of God and is inerrant, are
emphasize reliance on only one kind of reason. A limited hastening its application to the present. The five fundamentals
appreciation of reason was not common to all scientists, that are considered nonnegotiable by Protestant fundamentalists
but it became the popular understanding of the
 28 Wo111c11 and Fzuzda111rntalis111 !\ Cc11de11'd Vision of F\cligio11.~ F1111da111cnfa/is111 29
free the supporters from intellectual debate to engage m /\mcric;rn hegemony, thus the attack on Americcrn establish-
activism. ments in America and abroad.
It is active. This is often cited as the hallmark of It rejects skepticism. For the fundamentalist, ideology and
fundamentalism as compared to previous reawakening or group membership come as a package, in toto. Participants are
revivalist movements. Compared to the quietism or retreatism of strongly discouraged to dismantle the package and pick and
previous trends, fundamentalists are active and aggressive. After choose parts that appeal to their individual views. Since the
the Scopes trial in America, evangelicals retreated from public decision is between God and evil, there is no room for
life and into the churches (Chandler, 1984; Speer, 1984). compromise and doubters. To maintain group solidarity,
Similarly, in the Middle East, facing aggressive and militant fundamentalists resort to labeling, eternal damnation,
secular governments, religious leaders who had participated in psychological isolation, and the use of force. A devoted member
independence movements across the region retreated into the of the Assemblies of God told the author that when she missed a
mosques and their Madresch (theological centers). The new wave Wednesday night service to care for a sick child, the pastor told
senses a dire challenge to its core and thus actively seeks power her, "We choose our action and the Lord chooses our
to halt the attack and reclaim its past glory. punishment."
It is a response to a threat. Whether actual or perceived, The last two features of the group are closely interrelated.
fundamentalists respond to an assault on their ideal normative The more a fundamentalist group feels isolated and threatened,
system. Fundamentalists perceive their position as being a Lhe stronger is the emphasis on in-group association and loyalty.
minority under attack from outside forces. Marty suggests that Similarly, these two features are related to the next one, namely ()')

"threats may come from within, as when someone in a group N

boundary maintenance. .-l
turns innovator, experimenter, or -adapter" (1992:19). For the To separate the in-group from the out-group,
"' fundamentalists, however, these revisionists are seen as lackeys fundamentalists develop a complicated behavioral and
of the enemy, duped or co-opted by the outsiders, not as true communication code to make identification simple. These codes
believers. An insider who revisits the core principles could not serve to locate the in-group and warn the out-group.
have been an insider but a fake. In terms of behavior, the members may practice
,The threat is defined in anti-faith terms, for example, identifying rituals, use dress codes and insignia, engage in body
/. secular humanism, imperialism, and Westernization (Caplan, rituals (i.e., growing beards among Muslim men and speaking in
1987; Zubaida, 1987). ·The threat has access to the political tongues among the Protestants), etc. Douglas (1970) suggests
apparatus and consequently to power. This power is the tool of that the more closed a group's ideology, the more bodily control
} evil and is doing Satan's work. Lawrence· points out that it exerts over its members. Fundamentalists, like any other
fundamentalists are advocates of a pure minority viewpoint. group, develop their own argot. Some extreme antiabortion
"Even when the remnant/vanguard seizes political power, and fundamentalists in America insist on calling family planning
seems to become the majority, as happened in Iran in 1979, they clinics "abortion mills." This is intended to abhor outsiders while
continue to perceive and project themselves as a minority" exposing them to the group's agenda. Stoning adulterers or
(1989:100). The point here- is that fundamentalism, especially carrying a dead fetus to a family planning center are public acts
Islamic fundamentalism, is anti-Western and anti-imperialistic. of boundary maintenance.
This global focus of the movement allows it to perceive itself as As a consequence of the above features, fundamentalists
under attack, surrounded, and a minority. While the Protestant are exclusionary groups. They do not practice an open-door
fundamentalists are concerned with reviving American membership policy In many groups, membership requires an
greatness, Islamic fundamentalists are focused on fighting ascribed characteristic, such as in the Khalsa movement among
 30 Women and Fw1dame11talis111 A Gendcrrd Vision of Rrligio11s Fundamentalism 31

the Sikh, Haredim among Jews, and Baptist fundamentalisn1 These circles operate in a circumfluent fashion. Faith
among white Americans. While the fundamentalist group may provides the instruction, the state the tools, and the family the
align itself temporarily with an Olltside group for political or building foundation for a godly system. Vigilance is required in
military exigencies, for example, Baptists and Catholics against all three circles, particularly the family because the family's
abortion, they do not recruit among the outsiders. This is anomie will spread rapidly to other social institutions and foster
perhaps the most visible feature of fundamentalism, which leads universal moral decay.
to labels like prejudice, intolerance, and racism Women, being the central figure of the family, bear the
Next, I will address the regressive nature of fundamental- brunt of holding the family .together, preserving morality, and
ism. safeguarding continuity. Since they cannot be trusted to do this
on their own wits or wills, mechanisms are in place to safeguard
their morality and consequently the faith. Whereas self-
A Gendered Explanation sacrificing and submissive women, such as Mary or Fatimah,
were crucial for the perfect societies of the past, modernity has
While permeating all aspects of social life and organizations, fostered selfishness in women, which in turn has led the society
fundamentalist movements have paid more attention to politics to moral decadence.
and family. In other words, these areas have been the main A configuration of these circles cast in private/public
targe.t of religious fundamentalists to reformulate and dimensions presents a holistic system of faith, family, and state
c
reorganize. Following the above description, two issues demand operating in a bi-spheric cosmos. None is exclusively concerned (Y

particular attention with regard to this research: with one domain. As indicated in chapter 1, the state regulates
... the private aspects of family relations and draws its legitimacy
What is a religious fundamentalist vision of social order? from the enforcement of the ordained. In return, the family
Is it ordained by God or maintained by citizens? How
provides the state with a supportive constituency. It is the state's
does this relate to the separation of God as a source of
responsibility to safeguard the family against incursion of
sacred power and the state as a source of secular power?
foreign values and practices. By doing so, it protects the faith
Is the family a microcosm of this larger ordained and, as a consequence, safeguards its right to rule.
<1 system? Is then the father's authority ordained by God7 One needs to envision a continuously dynamic
How does this affect sex roles in the society? configuration of the circles. The three circles are always engaged,
Fundamentalist discourse revolves around three otherwise the system would disintegrate. They often overlap,
' I interconnected circles of faith, family, and state. Other variants may align in a synchronized fashion, or one may eclipse the
of similar combinations have been suggested (see Bradley and other two. Fundamentalists start by suggesting that the three
Khor, 1993). These fluid circuits overlap, change, and constantly centers are disengaged, with the family and the state operating
create a new configuration. They are dynamic, and none can in a self-serving manner devoid of the ordained laws.
survive in isolation. Faith provides the ideological foundation for The debate about fundamentalism as being modern or
mobilization. Mccarthy Brown suggests that fundamentalism is anti-modern (see Barr 1981; Lawrence 1989; and Bruce 1992)
the "religion of the stressed and the disoriented" (1994:175). If so, ignores the point that fundamentalism can be, and is, both.
religion provides direction for protestation, rebellion, and, if When it concerns itself with the public domain-the economy
successful, premises for restructuring. The state should be the and polity-fundamentalism is modern; when it looks toward
manifestation of ordained power. Finally, family is the building the private domain-the family and women's status-
block of a godly society, structured after a divine formula. fundamentalism is anti-modern or regressive.
 32 \'\10111e11 a11d Fu11da111rntalis111 J\ Ce11rlcrerl Visin11 nf Religious Fundamentalism 33

The gendered vision of fundamentalism is more apparent

in the overlapping areas. The double life of fundamentalism, The discourse between religion and modernism is marred
cooperating and modern at the public level and traditional at the by patriarchy. Although cast in universal terms, science and
private level, is reflected in these interlocking circles, as shown in religion are gendered entities, which detracts from their
figure 2.1. Woman's realm is the family, or the C circle. Her universal application. Comte "equated religion with childhood,
involvement in the other domains of A and B should be an philosophy and science with adulthood" (in Lawrence, 1989:11). 1
extension of her familial obligations. Accordingly, women's Such a projection conveys a distorted image of historical trends.
engagement in the two large circles of A and B, outside the When religion, philosophy, and science emerged, their battle for
overlaps and independent of the family, is strongly discouraged. dominion took place in a male-centered universe of discourse.
Ideally, the fundamentalists envision an eclipse of the These rtre conceptual stages in the life of a male entity, not a
other two circles by faith, regulating as well as conducting the female entity.
affairs of state and family. In this case, the area denoted by d will The battle between modernism and fundamentalism
be expanded under supremacy of the faith. In reality, however, demands a gendered explanation. We have drawn some
fundamentalists strive to expand the c area and swallow family delinei1ting lines around what is fundamentalism. Modernism
as much as possible. This configuration will reduce the b area itself is one of those catchall cultural constructs that as soon as
and basically will leave faith and state to vie for managing social formulated begs for deconstruction. Generally speaking,
organization and formulating the normative order. In contrast, modernism is associated with the supremacy of science, and the~
secularism will vie for subsuming faith under the _state. latter is closely linked with positivism, which holds as true the ,.....r
supremacy of reason over faith, observation over judgment, and
FIGURE 2.1 INTERLOCKING RELATIONSHIP
detachment over passion.
BETWEEN STATE, rAITH, AND FAMILY
"' According to Lawrence:
Modernism is the search for individual autonomy driven
by a set of socially coded values emphasizing change over
continuity, quantity over quality; efficient production,
.'l~ power, and profit over sympathy for traditional values or
vocations, in both public and private spheres. At its
utopian extreme, it enthrones one economic strategy,
consumer oriented capitalism, as the surest means to
I ) technological progress that will also eliminate social
~'.! unrest and physical discomfort. (1989:27)

The idea that modernism penetrates all areas of social life

Parnily is noted by others. According to Bruce:
[T]he basic assumptions that inform modern industrial
c production-that all complex objects and procedures can
hL' reduced to repeatable acts and replaceable components,
a: nuclear disarmament or Jihad; that nothing is more than the sum of its parts, that
everything can be measured and calculated, that nothing
b: taxation;
is sacred and that everything can be improved-cannot be
c: sexual obligations or family structure;
confined to !he world of work. The formal rationality
d: education, reproduction, or child custody.
 34 Women and Fw1da111e11t11/is111 !\ Cnulcrcd \!1s1n11 of F.cli,r.;io11s F1mdm11e11t11/isnz 35
which dominates thilt sphere gr<1dually invades all c1thcr
satellite technology that transfer modern and Western values
areas of social action. (1992:63)
into remote areas pose an unending challenge to social agencies
Fundamentalism is also defined as an all-encompassing committed to safeguarding some "unsoiled" tradition.
social phenomenon responding to and rejecting modernism. For Meanwhile, these agencies want and need the same technologies
Lawrence, "fundamentalism is the affirmation of religious to reinforce the tradition, promote their ideology, and learn
authority as holistic and absolute .... " (1989:27). When two about others' agendas. In sum, modernism is more public than
hegemonic forces clash for dominion over formulation of social private. It promotes individual choice, change over continuity,
order and definition of legitimate citizenry, the battlefield is not and homogenization of the population. But it fails to deliver
evenly spread. Each suffers from a weak point that allows the them evenly in both social spheres of life.
other to prod and attack. In the battle between fundamentalism Change, when it comes to women's domain, is much
and modernism, this juncture is in the private domain. slower than when it comes to men's. It takes modernizing and
These two forces are both pervasive and hegemonic. modern societies longer to grant women the franchise, offer
Modernism, in particular, is more predominant and inclusive. It them eduu1tion, employ them in the public sector, provide them
permeates all aspects of social life, though unevenly. Its material with health care, and guarantee their individual civil and human
dimension is more pervasive and more easily adopted than its rights. It is not surprising, then, that in 1993 the United Nations
normative system-modern values and norms. The lag between for the first time considered rape as a war crime. In any society,
i·
! ..
material adaptation and cultural transformation is more
prominent in the private domain, which is the weak link in the
areas can be easily identified in which women need to match
men's gain. Women have to fight twice to gain the same rights as
N
(Y)
rl

~I
modernization process. men: the first time for everyone's rights (which means men's
... Modernism as a whole stage-both in terms of material rights), and then a second time to obtain the same rights for
products and the normative order-is more readily institution- themselves. Examples can be found in the independence
alized in the public than in the private sphere. Peripheral nnd movements of various kinds. Women are mobilized to further
subperipheral areas are incorporated into the capitalist world the cause of national independence and are then told not to push
~ economy and produce for the capitalist world market. World
system participation leaves very little unchanged in the
too hard for their own rights, which may derail the movement.
They are told to wait, that it is too early.
~ economies of even the most remote societies. Research on the Bruce (1987:58) suggests that modernism offers
world-system incorporation indicate that economical and alternatives. One needs to add a qualifier: mostly in the public
political structures of the participating societies change during domain. Women's alternatives are late in coming, limited in
t
..:11
scope, and lower in social value. As indicated earlier, women's
';'.I and after incorporation (Dos Santos, 1970; Chase-Dunn, 1975,
..,, 1983; Evans, 1979). World system participation also affects the individual autonomy is delayed and granted piecemeal, and
structure of the household. Women find employment in the even then it lacks the intensity and enforcement of men's
formal labor market and access new products. autonomy.
New technology, when available and affordable, mod- Since modernism penetrates the private domain slowly
ernizes the household eve~ in traditional societies. However, the and marginally, fundamentalism can root there and have a
value system that made these new inventions and that regulates stronger claim. Fundamentalism is more private than public.
their utilization is either blocked or untiringly controlled. for Where modernism is weak, fundamentalism is strong. In the
instance, the new communication technology produces a major public domain, fundamentalism gives more to modernism in
headache for what Riesebordt (1993) calls radical patriarchal order to further its own hegemonic goals.
states or organizations. Video players, recorders or cameras, and
 36 Women and F11111!1111w11t11/is111 /\ C1·111frrcd Vision of Religious Fu11da111rnta/ism j7

"Fundamentalists seek iluthority" (Marty, 1992:20). Their choice in the selection process. Whiltever the mechanism of
clilim to pursuing authority is tow Md an end: dominion of their ildoption, the results were less than satisfactory. Rampant
faith. To this end (access to authority and its safeguard), they poverty ,rnd unemployment, increasing population, military
must and do utilize modern technology and social organizations. defeats (whether a country was directly involved or not), and
When in power, as in America in the 1980s and presently in Iran, other seemingly insurmountable problems have left the people
they do not reshape the state appilratus according to the original and the intelligentsia searching for an alternative (Ayubi, 1980;
authority structure. The Islamic Republic doubled the number of Esposito, 1992).
government ministries compared to the Shah's period. The New Among the Middle Easterners, as among other third world
Christian Right (NCR) reinvented capitalism as a biblical people or exploited minorities of Western societies, the legacy of
premise (Falwell, 1980; Rubenstein, 1986). colonialism and the experience of imperialism have left a deep
Fundamentalists' thirst for new technology, particularly sense of powerlessness and other-blaming. The failure of the
means of force, is well noted (l\ubenstein, 1986; Marty, 1992). It Nilsseritcs or the Pahlavis is due to the superpowers' inter-
is their selection and rationalization that at times are vention or to Western ways. There are few inward-looking
dumbfounding. The NCR advocated the use of nuclear bombs collective efforts, except partly for the fundamentalists.
and Star Wars weaponry, but it opposes RU40 (the abortion pill). Muslim fundamentalists, too, place the blame for the
In the Islamic Republic, street posters advertise video players, current crisis in the region at the door of the West, which they
~. though owning one is illegal. The rationalization fails one, unless
the dualistic nature of modernism and fundamentalism is
also blame' for the corruption of the Islamic ethos. They are
looking inward insofar as calling for a return to the Islamic ways
(Y)
(Y)
rl
recognized. To revitalize the economy, the Rafsanjani govern- and expressing disdain for the Western methods. Since
...~' ment promotes free-market capitalism, but it cannot convince its
radical colleagues in the Maj/es (the parliament) to relax
Westernization and modernization in the form of large
government bureaucracies, new transportation, modern health
·~
regulation of private consumption. Video tapes, produced in care, or modern ideas about government by representation
America and watched in homes, promulgate the dreaded cannot be completely eradicated, the goal is selective adaptation
v.. Western values; yet, advertising them earns the city ilnd
government revenue.
of modernism. What is compatible with Islam will sL1y; what is
not has to go .
'l Let us digress here and briefly review Muslims' views of
modernism. For Muslims, modernism is associilted with
It is in this selective adaptation of modernism to Islam that
the private domain is singled out to be the bastion of the
Westernization ilnd colonialism and thus is more suspected and incorruptible Islam. Fundamentalists experiment with Islamic
t resisted. Moghadam suggests that "Islamist movements are a economy and the government of the Ulamma (religious leaders).
"'•
;·~
product of the contradictions of transition and modernization; Some of these are pure window dressing, some are more genuine
...
~,.

they also result from the North-South contention. What is (Saiedi, 1986). Despite their rhetoric, they gradually go to the
unclear is whether they impede or accelerate the transition to World 13ank and ask for loans, accept the bank's preconditions,
modernity" (1993:138). Realizing they cannot revamp and pay the interest fees. Modernization in the public domain is
modernization, Muslims struggle to adapt it on a per-need basis. cantankerous and unyielding.
After independence, many Middle Eastern countries adopted But the private domain is all together a different story.
available Western models-open-door capitalism or socialism- Muslim fundamentalists sense a free hand in the protection of
and aligned themselves with one super power (Zubaida, 1987; their household from the undesirable influences of West-
Saiedi, 1986). Nasser preferred socialism and the Shah adopted ernization and modernization. An extreme case is the resistance
capitalism. Here we will refrain from debating the issue of free of Afghan men to education and employment nf women
 38 Women and Funda111e11talism A Gendered Vision of Rellgio11s Fundamentalism 39

(Moghadam, 1992). Fundamentalists in other countries show between the two societies provided irresistible intellectual
varying degrees of resistance to the modernization of the private challenges.
domain. In chapter 6, we will discuss how the Islamic Republic's During this time, Iran constituted an Islamic Republic,
militancy has adapted to practical considerations and has recog- defended and fought an eight-year war with Iraq, and initiated
nized modernization of women's status in some areas. an aggressive campaign to remove the residue of modernization
The clash of the fundamentalists with modernism is from the family and women's status. At the same time in the
intended not to eradicate the latter but rather to control it. In this, United States, Protestant fundamentalists managed to propel an
fundamentalists are not alone. Liberal intellectuals debate the unlikely candidate to the presidency and maintained a strong
utility of unbridled modernism, particularly its technological presence in the public arena. The interaction between American
growth. As Weber predicted, modernism has left a portion of conservatism and Iranian fundamentalism haunted three
humanity well fed and cared for but naked and isolated (Weber, American administrations, and the juxtaposition continues.
1946). The rage of secularism has severed our ties with the Meanwhile, similar fundamentalist trends in other parts
cosmos through a God, at the same time failing to provide as of the world, particularly in the Middle East, were destroying
convincing and reassuring a link as a God. . old alliances and challenging established assumptions.
Here we come back again to the issue of regression. To Fundamentalist movements from India to Algeria vie for
label fundamentalists as regressive can be misleading. It is attention. Modernized Egypt is struggling with one of these
mostly in the family issues that they hold fast to traditional movements. There, fundamentalist groups are set to replace a
k •' - practices, but when it comes to politico-economic structure, they secular, Western-oriented government with an Islamic one. <j<
"
I'
. ti~ give in little to the past. It is this interplay between Women's rights and roles are central to all of these cases. (Y)
r-l

...·t. fundamentalism and modernism that has escaped the attention

of scholars as well as the public's mind. Recognizing the
Women themselves are involved in the centrifugal forces, pro
and con .

"... gendered nature of these phenomena allows one to conjure up a

clearer picture of their shapes as they span the social landscape.
I was propelled by scientific curiosity and personal desire
to gauge women's attitude toward these trends. A cross-cultural
The interaction between these recalcitrant forces shapes study was clearly the only plausible way. Iran is a third world
J
...• the social definition of woman. Until recently, most of their
discourse occurred in the male domain. More and more women
country in which the fundamentalists have managed the forces
of a national revolution to successfully enthrone an Islamic state.
<'(
."";>•,,
participate and influence the contour of their interaction. This Despite daunting adversities, the Islamic Republic has managed
study proposes to debate these issues with women themselves. to survive and thrive. In the United States of America, the
f...:.\ The author has had a unique opportunity to observe two distinct fundamentalists managed to place presidents friendly to their

-...
r·· fundamentalist trends. During the past eleven years, I have been cause in the White House. There, too, despite some setbacks and
stationed at a Midwestern town in America with strong adverse publicity surrounding television evangelists, the
fundamentalist sentiment. Four Bible colleges and the fundamentalists are forming strong grass roots programs. Egypt
headquarters for the Assemblies of God inform the texture of is another Muslim third world country in which a resilient
public opinion in the town. i have had conversations with fundamentalist movement is bent on changing the course of
women and men who strongly support fundamentalist premises postindependence Egypt. They utilize both peaceful means and
and those who vehemently oppose them. Meanwhile, being a violent tactics in their campaign.
native of Iran, I have maintained close contact with that country These three countries provide a diversity of social scales
and its middle-class urban groups. Going back and forth for modernization, industrialization, and the evolution of
fundamentalist movements. Comparing them is a task with
Facilitator's Notes

1. This is a particularly useful exercise for people working in an unfamiliar cultural

situation, where they may be tempted to make assumptions based on their own
cultural values. It shows the danger of introducing inappropriate views of gender
equity. It also shows clearly that good intentions are not enough!

2. [tis interesting to compare the situation descried in. The problems were similar,
and were eventually resolved, after some difficulties. In this case, the approach
was culturally-sensitive, and the women concerned were consulted and involved
in the decisions that were made as he situation changed.
Gender and Culture Activity
Time: 1 hr

A cautionary tale

Objectives
To become aware of some of the complex cultural issues involved in trying to
work with women.

2 To consider how development and relief agencies should deal with cultural
barriers to working with women.

Method
Explain the objectives of the activity. (5 minutes)

2 Divide the participants into groups of four or five and give each group Handout 85
(Part 1 of the case study). Ask them to read through the case and discuss the
question on the handout. (20 minutes)

3 Hand out Part 2 of the Case Study (Handout 86) to each group. Ask them to read it.

4 Bring the group together again and discuss the following questions:
a. Are there any ways in which this situation might have been predicted or
avoided?
b. What cultural issues does it raise for the implementing agency?(20-30 mins)

Materials
Handouts 85 and 86
Pens
 Activity

Case study: Working with women - a

cautionary tale

Part 1: The Tale

Introduction
This case study involves Afghan refugees living in a refugee camp in the North-west
Frontier Province of Pakistan.

This camp is one of the oldest and largest settlements of refugees in the Province,
with a total population in the region of 20,000. Numerous organisations have
established a range of programmes in the camp, including health, education, water
and sanitation, income generation, and shelter.

Programmes involving women were centred mainly around health (mother and
child and basic health education) but also involved some income-generating
projects.

The widows' project

The organisation involved in this case study had established projects in the camp and
felt that they should be doing more for women.

A large proportion of women living in the camp were widows.These women ranged
in age from teenagers to quite elderly women; some with and some without children.
The organisation targeted this group of women for a specific project because it was
felt that they suffered especially from isolation in the camp. They had no male
relatives and, therefore, no form of access to the external environment beyond their
homes.

The aim of the project was to establish a widows' centre where these women could
bring their children and escape from the home for a short time. The centre would run
health education programmes, and a children's playground would also be set up in
the centre.
The project had been running for a couple of months when the organization received a
strong letter from one section of the camp community. The letter stated that women had
been seen washing, and playing on swings, and that men, both Afghan and expatriate, had
been seen entering the center. The letter stated that the center should be closed down.

The director of the organization consulted colleagues and it was felt that no action needed
to be taken since other member of the community had not expressed similar feelings.

Discussion Question:

You are the director of the organization involved. What action would you take on receipt
of the letter and why?

138
 Handout. Activity

Part 2: The Outcome

The organisation received a total of three letters over a period of about six weeks. All
were of similar strength and content. The organisation maintained its original stance
and ignored the letters.

A short while later during Friday prayers in the camp, the mullah condemned the
women's centre and the organisation involved. Feelings were such that after the
prayers, approximately 5,000 refugees marched on the centre, threatened the guard
and destroyed the building and its contents. The refugees did not stop at this. The
organisation also had a concrete-making factory and vehicle workshop established
in the camp, employing some 350 refugees. The workshop ran training courses in
mechanics.

The factory and workshop were destroyed, 15 vehicles vandalised and workshop
equipment destroyed. The total damage was estimated at $5 million.

Two weeks later the organisation's concrete factory in Afghanistan was destroyed.

The director was held up by a road block in Pakistan and fired upon. Fortunately he
·was not injured.

A short time later the organisation completely withdrew from any involvement with
Afghan refugee projects in Pakistan .

•
 HAND-OUT NUMBER 8: EVALUATION FORMS/QUESTIONIAR

Information for Facilitators: Inform the participants that we will now do an evaluation of
the training program. Emphasize the need for the participants to be open and honest in
answering the questions. The information may be used for further training programs.
Distribute the evaluation forms, read over it make sure that everyone understands it.
Collect the forms and complement the participants on their good work.

Evaluation

Read each statement below about the training and indicate whether you agree or disagree
with it by checking the appropriate box.

Please try to be specific in your answers.

The content of the training program was useful. C2J Agree bl Disagree
and relevant to the needs of refugee women.

2. The content of training program was

D
Agree ~ Disagree
difficult to understand

3. Because of the training, I feel better able to take a OJ Agree OJ Disagree

leadership role on empowerment of women. Why Why not

4. The training has not changed my thinking cSJ Agree cSJ Disagree
in any important ways

5. I have learned some things about myself through ffree D

participation in the training. (if you agree, what
have you learned?)
6. How important the concept of empowerment is to you? Important
Not important
Very important

7. What tasks outside the home did you take responsibility for before?

8. What household chores do you take responsibility for?

9. Who-men or women make decision in you family?

10. Are there any topics you wish had been covered in the training but were not? If yes,
please specify:

11. Please comment on the facilitators in terms of their knowledge, clarity, and devotion.

12. Please add any other further comments or observations you have about the training
program

I
Z.\ 0
 HAND-OUT NUMBER 9: GENDER AWARENESS EVALUATION
FORM FEEDBACK FROM PARTICIPANTS

The Afghan Women Center for Education in Exile in collaboration with the (Gender
and Development Research Institute request your cooperation in answering this form.
Please return the form to the training team by ( )

1. You are from

2. How satisfied are your, in general with the workshop you have just attended?

{ } Not at all { } Somewhat { } Extremely

3. What was your objective in attending this workshop?

4. To what extent has this objective been achieved?

{ } Not at all { } Somewhat { ] Extremely

5. What factors facilitated the achievement of this objectives?

6. What factors hindered the achievement of this objective?

7. To what extent did other participants help you achieve your learning objectives?

{ } Not at all { ] Somewhat { } Extremely

Additional comments
 HAND-OUT# (10)

Training Exercises

Your are a group of top level advisors to the president of the an Asian country. The
president is concerned with his nation's fast growing population. He wants to develop a
policy that will help to better manage the growing population and a rationale for that
policy that the people will accept. You are the group. The president is waiting for your
advice.

Exercise # Two

You are a small group of international advisors sent to an Asian country's village
community to help design and implement a program that will improve the "carrying
capacity" of the village and its surrounding areas. You are the group. The community is
looking forward to receiving your recommendations.
 REFERENCES

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Asghar Ali Engineer (1992), The Rights of Women in Islam: S.T. Martens Press,
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Asghar Ali Engineer (1992), The Rights of Women in Islam: S.T. Martens Press,
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Batliwala, P. in Patel, Sheela, (1986), From Seed to a Tree, Building Community: Indian
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Friedan, B, The Feminist Mystique, (1995): New York, W.W. in Moser, Caroline. D.N.,

143
 Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training, London.

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Headland. T.N. Kenneth I. Pike & Morvin Harris, (1996), Ernie & Etic: The
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Kanani, S , Maneno, J. and Schluter, P. (1986), Administrative Support Unit, African

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Kinsey, David, Deborah Fredo, Maria Diarra Keita, Sandra Matin, Marie Samake and
Djenabou Tounkara, (1993) UNIFEM Mission to Mali, August 22-Sept. 7, 1993,
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Maguire, P. (1984), Women in Development, Alternative Analysis: Center for

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Majotte, J. (1992), Disposable People? The Plight of Refugees: Orbs Books, Mary Knoll,
N.Y.

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