Sufi Ideology

And Its Integration With Indian Society

And Culture

Submitted by

Muhammed Midlaj P.A

M.A first year, Department of English

JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

Introduction

Sufism, the mystical traditional of Islam has now become an object of

curiosity and re-adaptation. Many academic studies have been
undertaken even in western countries, though origin of Sufism and
Islam itself belong to east. Says, R.W.J Austin (professor, school of
oriental studies, University of Durham), “There are various ways in
which one may approach study of Islamic mysticism. Firstly there is
the approach of the Sufi himself, who regards his Way or Method as
the true expression of Islamic spirituality which, as began, with the
Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) and has been part and parcel of the
spiritual tradition of Islam as a whole ever since. To study Sufism
from purely Sufi sources, however, assumes a thorough
acquaintance with Islamic religion in general and also preferably a
grasp of one of its native languages. Secondly, one may study the
many works of scholarship produced over the last fifty years so far or
so by Western Orientalists, much of it painstaking and highly
informative, but almost completely lacking in any appreciation of
experimental flavour of Sufism so essential for any proper
understanding. Also, this approach is usually committed to the
notion, variously expressed, that Sufism is something essentially
alien to Islam which has been grafted onto it by borrowing from
other religions”. So it is obvious that, it is rather approach Sufi
sources to understand Sufi ideologies than the western studies as it
often mislead and cause misunderstanding of even the basic Sufi
concepts like Wahdathul Wujood or Anal haq. Here, I try to depict
not only Sufi ideology, but also its existence in the context of Indian
society and culture with the reference to historical and Sufi texts. It is
very significant to study the process of social change as a result of
Islamic impact on Indian life and thought.
What is Sufism?

More than two thousand definitions can be seen in the behalf of Sufism.
However, two definitions among them recognised by prominent Sufi saints as
comparatively most related to its core are:

 Self submission to the god in the way the god will be satisfied
 An art of teaching through which one can learn how to enter to the
proximity of Almighty

It is the spirituality or mysticism of the religion of Islam. In Islam the two

domains – outward and inward- remain more or less distinct, though they bear
a very definite relationship to one another. This relationship can perhaps best
be described as follows : the outward religion or ‘exoterism’, (known in Islam
as Sharia) may be likened to the circumference of a circle. The inner Truth, or
‘esoterism’, that lies at the heart of the religion (and is known in Islam as
haqiqa), may be likened to the circle’s centre. The radius proceeding from
circumference to centre represents the mystical or ‘initiatic’ path (tariqa) that
leads from outward observance to inner conviction, from belief to vision from
potency to act. 1 These three are inevitable to acquire Sufi status.

In Arab, Sufism is called as tasawwuf. It is derived from Arabic words swafa’

(purity), swafwath (those who attained plenitude) or swoof (wool). Some
scholars say that it is originated from Ahlu Suffah (people who lived in the
scaffold of the Prophets’s mosque in Madina).

No Sufism without Islam

Now a days, in many interpretations of Sufi ideologies, Sufism is introduced

without Islam. It is obvious that there is no Sufism without Islam considering
Sufi concepts and texts. One might as well to purvey human life without a
human body.2 Most importantly, by separating Sufism from Islam, many
orientalists denied the significance of the Quran, the Prophet Muhammed, and
Islamic law and ritual of Sufism; yet for the peoples who are called Sufis, all
these elements were very much part of their worldview and their
practice3.What prominent Sufis said about their religious concepts makes lucid
that Sufism completely belongs to Islam.

Sufi believes are rooted upon Ahlussunna, says Abdul Vahhab Sha’rani4. Imam
Malik depicts that if someone wears Sufi dress without knowledge in Islamic
Jurisprudence (Fiqh) he is almost like an infidel. If someone with deep
knowledge in Jurisprudence is not a Sufi, he becomes Fasiq (Hypocrite). So that
Sufism and Knowledge in Jurisprudence should be reconciled each other5.
Imam Razi says that Sufis are always in the contemplation of Allah6. According
to Ibnu Qayyum, Deen is meant by behaviour. Deen prospers as much as
behaviour becomes good. So that is Thasawwuf7. Imam Shafi’ explicated that
Sufis possess thaqwa, the foundation of Islam8.Ibnu Khaldun wrote as follows:
Sufism belongs to the sciences of the religious law that originated in Islam. It is
based on assumption that the practices of its adherents had always been
considered by the important early muslims, the men around Prophet
Muhammed (Swahabath) and the men of the second generation (Thabi’) as
well as those who came after them (Thabi’u Thabi’) as path of truth and right
guidance.

Wahdathul Wujud

The central doctrine of Sufism is Wahdathul Wujud. It has been very

controversial these days, and many western scholars misunderstood it thus,
their misunderstanding caused them to say that Islam has nothing to do with
Sufism. Many interpretations referring it as Advaita Idealism also took place.
But, in essence, Wahdathul Wujud is directly derived from Shahada, the basic
concept of Islam, la ilaha illallah (there is no God, but Allah), but also as there
is no reality except Reality. Al-Haqq is one of the names of God which means
reality. Interpretaions of Wahdathul Wujud other than the two definitions
depicted by Sufi scholars, contradict with the core of Sufi ideologies.
Wahdathul Wujud defined by Sufi scholars is:

 Melting of heart in Allah without any materialistic thoughts other than

Allah.
 Comprehending only Allah has entity, rest comes after its shadow.

(Ibnu Hajar; Fathaval Hadeesiyya P240)

But, it has been interpreted by subsequent studies that God is everything, he is

in every creatures which become irony as it is against even the foundation of
Islam. Some Sufi notions like, when veil of selfishness is lifted from the spirit
which is hidden underneath the spirit which sees through the essences of
things- then for the first time things are seen as they really are and God can be
seen in everything, made them think so, misunderstanding what was it really
meant. Examinations of what Sufi scholars said provide us true vision in this
regard.

Shaikh Hajweri says, as love towards Allah becomes strong, whenever one sees
a creation, he notices only its creator, not mere creation9. According to Ibnu
Theemiyya, that Allah could be seen in matters, means Allah’s artistry could be
seen it10. Muhiyuddin Ibnu Arabi delineates that if a man or an Angel rises from
their own sphere and melts in the entity of Allah, it will alter even the
existence of the world. Because Almighty will fall to the level of worshipper, or
Worshipper will be given the status of Almighty11. Shaikh Muhammed Zakki
says, i testify that we, Sufis are against the polemics like incarnation and being
God and creation one. We resist Advaita idealism. We keep distance from
everything against Sharee’a12.

Subsequent additions to the original text by pessimists also caused the

misunderstanding of Wahdathul Wujood. Imam Sha’rani says, many paradoxes
can be seen in some editions of the text Futhoohath makkiyya written by Ibnu
Arabi. When I examined these texts with the original one in Ganiya, i could
understand that there are lot of external interferences has been taken place13.
Ibnu Theemiyya says, even Rabiathul Adaviyya was not exceptional from this. It
was spread that she said Ka’ba is an idol in the earth14.

Concept of Oneness (Tawhid)

The Qur'anic concept of Tawhid (monotheism) is that there is only one God --
Allah. All those characteristics which can only be associated with God must not
be attributed to anyone else.
The Qur'an says:
Declare [O Prophet] that God is One He is the rock. He is neither anyone's
father nor anyone's son. And none is equal to Him.[112:1-3]
Therefore, the whole world is His creation: He is above all, and there is
nothing like Him.
It is the correct belief in God which enlightens the heart and solves the riddle
this universe is. Every creation points out to the fact that there must be a
Creator and therefore reflects God:
Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. [24:35]
In Sufism, however, Tawhid, is expressed as 'only Absolute Reality is
absolutely real'. To the Sufi, this concept of Tawhid is different from pantheism
(regarded un-Islamic by almost all the Muslim scholars), for the
Sufistic Tawhid is not 'everything is God': it is 'God is everything', or, more
ostensibly, 'there is nothing except God'. The result is that in
Sufism, Tawhid expressed as la ilaha illallah (there is no God but Allah) is
the Tawhid of the ordinary, whereas the Tawhid of the elect is la mawjuda
illallah (there is nothing but Allah). This is what, in fact, Wahdathul Wujud is
also meant.
Origin of Sufism

In traditional view Sufism had its beginning in the first centuries following the
life of Prophet Muhammed. Sufism was born in the bosom of Islam. At the
time of the Prophet Muhammad (saws) and his companions (Ashab), the term
Sufism (tasawwuf) did not exist as a distinct discipline. Because Sufism is the
soul of Islam and that soul was not given any name during that period. ‘It was a
reality without a name’ which was practiced in the daily lives of the
companions through their spiritual initiation at the hand of the Prophet. He
was their ‘living model’ and their source of inspiration. Thus the companions of
the Prophet are, in essence, the first Sufis historically. The emergence of
individuals labelled as Sufis was in seventh and eight centuries. Ali Hajwiri says,
‘today Sufism is a name without reality, it was once a reality without a name’15.
Within a hundred years of hijra, after the rule of four Khalifas, there was
political turmoil in muslim world. Many muslim rulers occupied with hankering
in selfish thoughts. As a result, many reputed muslim scholars started to
demonstrate their opposition against governments. Thus, they started to be
called Sufis. Between 660 and 850 C.E the earliest Sufi circles emerged. Sufism
was also introduced to the mass sweepingly to defend subsequent rational
storm influenced by Greek philosophers. The Persian shaikh Abu Hashim Kufi
(d. about 776 C.E) and Hasanul Basri (d.728 C.E) were the first among them.
Subsequently, Sufis came after them started to follow one of them, either Kufi
or Basri.

According to Imam-Al- Qushairi, “Those who had the good fortune of being in
the company of the Holy Prophet (saw) in his lifetime and his descentants after
the Prophet’s (saw) death commanded special respect and status by virtue of
this distinction which they enjoyed in the Islamic Society. They were therefore,
distinguished as 1) Sahaaba 2) Taab’een and 3) Taba Taab’een. After their
respective periods came the Zahid and Abid classes of pious persons and
succeeding them, another particular class of ascetics came on the scene that
were called Sufis. By the end of 200 A.H, the word of Sufi, had become the
recognized title or badge of all Muslim mystics, According to Maulana Jami, the
first person to assume the title of Sufi was Sheikh Abu Hasham Kufi (died 150
A.H.)16

Tariqa

One has to make a mystic journey to attain Sufi status. The road which he
needs to travel through is called as Tariqa or suluk and the wayfarer as Salik.
The path is open to everyone who desires, however, it can be done only under
the guidance of shaikh, master (often called as murshid or pir). The admonition
is provided to Salik by Shaikh which he received from his Shaikh, the chain of
transmission of spiritual guidance coming from Prophet Muhammed (PBUH)
through ages. This chain of succession is known as Silsila. It is a direct and
personal transmission from master to disciple. Though, it was in 11th and 12th
centuries, regular Sufi orders started to be established, and Qadiri tariqa is the
first great sufi order among them, established by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani
(1071-1166). Subsequently, Suhrawardi order of Abul Najib Suhrawardi (1098-
1168) and Naqshabandhi order of Khwaja Baha’uddin Naqshabandi (1318-
1389) established.

List of prominent Tariqas

Ashrafiyya – Hazrat Ashraf Jahangir Semnani

Badawiyya – Hazrat Ahmad al-Badawi

Chisthiyya – Hazrat Abu Ishaq Shami, popularized by Hazrat Moinuddin Chisthi

Dasuqi – Hazrat Ibrahim al –Dasuqi

Jalwatiyya – Hazrat Aziz Mahmud Hudayi

Khalwatiyya – Hazrat Umar al-Khalwati

Kubrawiyya – Hazrat Najmuddin Kubra

Mahlawiyya – Hazrat Jalaluddin Rumi

Naqshabandiyya – Hazrat Abdul Khaliq al- Gujdawani, Hazrat Yusuf al-

Hamadani, Hazrat Baha’uddin Naqshabandi

Qadiriyya – Hazrat Abdul Qadir Jeelani

Rifa’iyya – Hazrat Ahmad Kabeer al-Rifa’i

Shadiliyya – Hazrat Abul Hasan al-Shadili

Suhrawardiyya - Hazrat Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi

Tijaniyya – Hazrat Ahmad al-Tijani

Yasaviyya – Hazrat Ahmad Yasavi

Three Ways

The Sufi ways to reach God, described in Sufi Texts are different according to
different authors. Even though they are same ideoloically, only the way it
described is varied. Ali Hajweri wrote: ‘You must know that the way to God is
of three kinds; Maqam, Hal and Tamkin. Maqam (station) denotes anyone’s
‘standing’ in the way of God, and his fulfilment of the obligations appertaining
to that ‘station’ and his keeping it until it comprehends its perfection so far as
lies in a man’s power. It is not permissible that he should quit his ‘station’
without fulfilling the obligations thereof. Hal (state), on the other hand, is
something that descends from God into a man’s heart, without his being able
to repel it when it comes, or to attract it when it goes, by his own effort...
‘station’ denotes the way of seeker and his progress in the field of exertion and
his rank before God in proportion to his merit, the term ‘state’ denotes the
favour and grace which God bestows upon the heart of His servant.. Tamkin
denotes the residence of spiritual adepts in the abode of perfection and in the
highest grade. Those in ‘station’ can pass on from their ‘stations’, but it is
aimpossible to pass beyond the grade of Tamkin.’17

Maqamat (stations) as delineated by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi, have various

stages. They are Tauba (Repentance), Wara’ (Astinence), Zuhd (Piety), Faqr
(Poverty), Sabr (Patience), Shukr (Gratitude), Khauf (Fear), Raja (Hope),
Tawakkal (Contentment), Riza (Submission to the Divine Will) respectively18.

In essence, Hal means the emotional attachment with God. It is also

subcategorized as follows; Mahabbah (love through zikr), Shouq (longing),
Ghairath (jealousy of God’s service/feeling of gratitude), Qurb
(proximity/nearness), Haya’(Shyness), Uns-o-haibath (intimacy), Qabz-o-basl
(expansion of heart), Fana-o-baqa (Submission), Ithisal (complete union).

Tamkin which is also known as Vasl, is being in a state in which there is no

difference between ‘I’ and ‘Not I’.

Khanqah

The word Khanqah is derived from Persian language which literally means
house-place or residence19. Its an institution of religious studies for sufis. The
emergence of these institutions are obscure, even though, it is commonly
considered that it was originated from Khurasan in the tenth century. But, it is
called in different names in different places, like Ribat, Zawiya, Takiya etc. In
the predominantly South Asian Chishtī order an institution for Ṣūfī activity was
called jamāʿat khānah and was centered on the residence of the shaykh.
Sections of these Ṣūfī complexes were named according to their particular
functions—samāʿmaḥall (room for audition) or langar khāna (room for the
preparation and distribution of food). Today they function predominantly as
shrines to deceased saints where pilgrims can receive blessings or cures and
make vows. In these khanqahs, very close resemblance to old hindu Guru
system can be seen as a result of its integration with Indian culture.

It is clear that by that time of khanqah hbad exercised a deep social, political,
economic and cultural influence in India. Sufi disciples gathered round their
murshids, Shaikhs or Pirs to learn the rites, rituals and rules of each order,
which were designed to stabilize their emotional and intellectual faculties and
to enable them to realise Reality or the direct intuitive recognition of God. The
Urs ceremonies and other anniversaries celebrated in the khanqahs developed
into significant cultural institutions and were eagerly awaited by both poor and
affluent like.

Origin of Sufism in India

It was Arab sea traders operating between the Malabar coast and Ceylon who
first introduced Islam in Indian subcontinent. Also, early Arab conquerors
settled their families in large numbers in various parts of Sind. Many Brahmans
holding high government offices embraced Islam in order to retain their
position. The raja of Asifan in the Punjab is said to hbave converted to Islam
after persuasion from some Muslim Merchants20.

The first Sufi who settled in India was Shaikh Safi-uddin Kaziruni, the native of
Kazirun near Shiraz in Iran. Ibnu Battuta wrote, ‘this Shaikh Abu Ishaq is highly
venerated by the people of China and India’21. The conquest of Punjab by
Mahmud Ghazni also prompted many Sufis to come and settle in the area.
Shaikh Husain Zinjani happened to come to India as ordered by his Shaikh Abul
Fazl Muhammed Bin al-Hassan Khattali. Later Khattali ordered Abdul Hasan Ali
bin Usman bin Ali Al Ghaznavi al Jullabi al Hujwiri to follow Zanjini. Hujwiri
probably reached Lahore in C.1035. He was known as Data Ganj Bakhsh
(distributor of unlimited Treasur). Among early mystics who undertook hard
ascetic exercises in Lahore at Shaikh’s tomb was Khwaja Moinuddeen Chisthi.
After the conquest of northern India by Muslims, various sufi orders including
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, Naqshabandi, Shuttari and Madari were
established.

Sufism and Hinduism

Sufism seems to have come into contact with Hinduism and Budhist mystical
ideas at a larger state. Early translation from Sanskrit into Arabic under under
the Abbasids dob not seem to have included any works of Hindu mysticism.
The earliest contacts between Sufism and Budhism took place in the north
west Persian and Central Asian marches of the Caliphate. Analogies can be
done between the ‘noble path’ of the budhists and mystic path of the Sufis,
between the Sufi concentration (Muraqaba) and Budhist Dhyana. Lot of close
resemblances can be seen in Sufism, Hinduism and Budhism. The sufi concept
of ‘peace with all’ (Sulh-i-kul) is very similar to Mahanaya Budhism or Yogi
Hinduism. The Naqshabandhi order’s practice of ‘Tasawwur-i-shaikh’
(concentration on the mental image of the preceptor in the early stage of the
initate’s education) resemble with Budhist rituals, which is traceable ultimately
to Post vedic substitution-meditation in early Hinduism. In both mystical
systems, monism has a similar conceptual terminology; the Reality is Absolute
(mutlaq ; param), the truth of truths (haqiqat al haqa’qa ; satyasya satya) and
so on. The followers of the Shattari order lived in forests like the Yogis on a
frugal diet of fruits and herbs and subjected themselves to hard physical and
spiritual exercises22. Shaikh Hamiduddin was also a strict vegetarian. The
Chishti Sufis adopted those excercises that were not found in clash in Quranic
teachings, even though they had their origin in Brahmanism or Budhism. For
instance, the great Chisthi saints are reported to performed the ascetic
exercise of breath-control23. There has been ongoing controversary in the
muslim community over the sanction of music. In India, Ali al-Hujwiri regarded
listening to music permissible for Sufis under some very rigid conditions.
Despite the religious attitudes towards music ranging from wholehearted
acceptance to complete rejection, the devosional assembly of Islamic
mysticism, called Qawwali, is popular throughout India, Pakistan and
Bangladesh.

The majority of the Muslims in India have historically followed the Sufi strain of
Islam, which is liberal and spiritual — it is not based on the outer trappings of
Islam but focused on the inner essentials of the religion. Over the centuries of
co-existence and cultural intermingling, there emerged a mixed and mosaic-
like Hindu-Muslim culture in the Indian Subcontinent. Sufi saints like Khwaja
Moin-ud-Deen Hasan Chishti popularly known as Ghareeb Nawaaz of Ajmer,
Mahboob-e-Ilahi Auliya of Delhi came to be with equal reverence by Hindus
and Muslims alike for their simplicity, mystic powers and the role they played
in spreading compassion and harmony.

The Hindu community appear to be greatly attracted by the ideas of social

equality and fraternity of Islam, to witness the evidence of this fact one should
visit Ajmer Shareef where millions belonging to other communities gather to
find a spiritual shelter in the veil of Ghareeb Nawaz. Thus the simplicity,
toleration and liberation of the Sufis in India led to a sort of cultural synthesis.

Pre-Islamic India was entirely based on a caste system in which society was
broken into separate parts. Hence Sufi saints gained immense popularity,
cutting across religions. Often, entire castes would convert to Islam at a time.
This would happen for many different reasons. Often, however, the equality
Islam provided was more attractive than the caste system’s organized racism.
In the caste system, who you are born to determines your position in society.
There was no opportunity for social mobility or to achieve greater than what
the parents achieved.

Major Sufi silsilas in India

Chisthiyya is the oldest Sufi silsila in India. Khwaja Abdul Chisthi is the founder
of Chisthi (d. 940–41) establishing the Chishti order in Chisht-i-
Sharif within Afghanistan. Even if some chisthi saints came to India before
Shaikh Mueenuddin Chisthi, but the credit of establishing the Chisthi order in
India goes to him. Khwaja Moiuddin Chishti was originally from Sistan (eastern
Iran, southwest Afghanistan) and grew up as a well traveled scholar to Central
Asia, Middle East, and South Asia. He reached India in 1195. The spiritual
descendants of Mu’inuddin have been amon the most famous saints in India.
Qutubuddin Bhakthiyar was then appointed as his Khalifa. It was due to the
efforts of Khwaja Qutb-uddin that the centre of Chisthi order was established
at Delhi. He died in the same year as that of his master.

After Qutubuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki, his Khalifa, Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar,

popularly known as Baba Farid, became the head of Chisthi Silsila. It is
reported that he was ardent practisioner of yoga and was known as wandering
dervish. Under Mohammed bin Ahmad Danyal, better known as Shaikh
Nizamuddin auliya, the chishti order reached its zenith under his able of
guidance.

Following the appearance of Chishti order in India, the next sufi order
introduced in India was Suhrawardi which started by Shaikh Bahauddin
Zakaria. Awariful ma’arif is a famous book written by him. The third of the
major sufi orders in India is Shattari which was introduced in India by Shaikh
Sirajuddin Abdullah Shattari. The forth religious order that made inroads into
the religious life of Indian Islam was the well known Qadiri order. It was not
introduced to india for 300 hundred years after its establishment. The last
among the great sufi orders in India is Naqshabandiya which was found by
Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshabandi. It was introduced by India by Khwaja
Mohammed Baqi Billah who died in A.D 1603.
Conclusion

The religious orders through which the Sufi doctrines and practices were
brought in India have a long history. The process of social rapprochment in
India put forward by Sufism is unique. The Sufi Shaikhs could attain a pride
place in the society. By virtue of their spiritual attainments, noble deeds and
liberal outlook they left an indelible imprint on the socio-religious milieu of our
country. Thats why, one finds the socio-religious ethos imbued with powerful
Sufic influences wherever he/she goes. Today, the tombs of the great Sufi
saints have become objects of veneration and places of pilgrimage for lakhs of
devout people owing allegiance to difference religious belief systems. These
holy places stand as epitomes of communal harmony, universal love and
brotherhood and symbolize the pluralistic nature of the Indian society.
Footnotes

1. W.Stoddart; Sufism; The mystical doctrines and methods of Islam

2. Ibid

3. W.Ernest, Carl; Sufism an introduction to the magical tradition of Islam

4. Al Anwarul Qudusiyyaj

5. Iqal

6. i’thiqadathul Firaqil muslimeen val mushrikeen

7. Madariq al swaliheen

8. Jami’a majalisa ssoofiyya

9. Kashful Mahbub

10.Majmu’athub rasa’il val masa’il

11.Futahatu Makkiyya

12.Fiqha sswalawath

13.Al yaqaveet val jawahir

14.Majmu’athu rasa’il val masa’il

15.Kashful Mahbub

16.Begg, Mirza Wahiduddin; The big five sufis of India-Pakistan

17.Kashful Mahjub

18.Awariful Ma’arif

19.Fenandes; the Khanqah: the evolution of a sufi institution

20.Abdul Abbas Ahmad al Baladhuri; Chacha Nama

21.Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi; A history of Sufism in India

22.Taneja; Sufi Cults

23.Iqtidar Hussain Siddiqui; Sufi Cults and making of a pluralistic society

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Introduction of Muslim spirituality, theology and philosophy; Reza Berenjkar

Sufism; an introduction; Farida Khanam

The biographical tradition in Sufism; Jawid A Mojaddedi