Home Economics and Craft Studies Research Reports 42

Anna Kouhia

Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

Academic dissertation,

To be publicly discussed,
by the permission of the Faculty of Behavioural Sciences at the University of Helsinki
in the small hall of the University Main Building, Fabianinkatu 33, 4th floor,
on November 12th, 2016, at 12 o’clock.

2016
University of Helsinki
Faculty of Behavioural Sciences
Department of Teacher Education



Supervisors
Professor Pirita Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, University of Helsinki
Dr. Sirpa Kokko, University of Helsinki

Reviewed by
Professor Nithikul Nimkulrat, Estonian Academy of Arts
Professor Sinikka Pöllänen, University of Eastern Finland

Opponent
Emeritus Professor Patrick Dillon, University of Exeter, UK

Cover photo
Screenshot from the autoethnographic cinema at 3:51.
Original screenshot photo by Jukka Kiistala, modified by Anna Kouhia.

© Anna Kouhia and the original publishers of the articles

ISBN 978-951-51-2496-8 (pbk)

ISBN 978-951-51-2497-5 (PDF)
ISSN L 1798-713X
ISSN1798-713X

Unigrafia, Helsinki, 2016


University of Helsinki, Faculty of Behavioural Sciences
Department of Teacher Education
Home Economics and Craft Studies Research Reports 42

Anna Kouhia

Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate the meanings of modern day textile
hobby crafts for makers who engage with crafts as a creative leisure outlet. The
research is embodied in the term unraveling, which conceptualizes the study
both as a means to reflect on the meanings of embodied practice, and as a way to
open up new perspectives on making. The theoretical framework reviews con-
temporary textile hobby crafting culture and uncovers how it has found new
meaning in recreational leisure, gendered domesticity and individual resource-
fulness linked with Do-It-Yourself.
The thesis consists of three sub-studies. The first level of examination is
based on interviews with craftspeople coming from different cultural back-
grounds, who were asked to talk about how they see the meaning and value of
craft making in their lives. Secondly, textile hobby craft making is approached
as a collective practice through a study conducted with an open-curricula craft
group. Thirdly, the story of a craft-maker-researcher is sewn into the research
narrative through autoethnographic cinema in order to create an understanding
of the performativity of craft practice from the perspective of a young maker.
The three studies address how hobby craft making opens up opportunities for
learning, sharing, community building and self-discovery, and how it materializ-
es experiences of belonging to a social group and nurtures emotional sensibility
in relation to one’s own being. The studies show that the meanings attached to
hobby craft making have many dimensions, and can be characterized as multi-
ple, overlapping, connective, contextual, shifting and conflicting. Regardless of
individual differences, there is a range of commonalities shared by the crafts-
people, and accordingly, a wider sense of the world, which becomes agreed upon
by the people interested in textile hobby crafts. This suggests that as people take
up hobby crafting, they become involved in the negotiation of comprehensive
strategies for discussing and sharing hobby practices. This implies that a shared
view of the world plays an important role in cultivating meaningfulness of one’s
craft work, as it generates a common cultural interpretation of the meanings of
craft as a leisure pursuit. All in all, experiencing personal meaningfulness seems
to be the most important reason for taking up textile hobby craft activities.

Keywords: craft, hobby crafts, meanings, Do-It-Yourself, autoethnographic

cinema

Helsingin yliopisto, Käyttäytymistieteellinen tiedekunta
Opettajankoulutuslaitos
Kotitalous- ja käsityötieteiden julkaisuja 42

Anna Kouhia

Käsityön harrastamisen merkityksiä purkamassa

Tiivistelmä
Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on tarkastella käsityön harrastamisen merkityksiä
osana ihmisten vapaa-aikaa. Merkitysten tarkasteleminen näyttäytyy tutkimuk-
sessa purkamisena, joka viittaa sekä käsityöntekijän kokonaisvaltaiseen kehollis-
materiaaliseen vuorovaikutuksen että tapaan ymmärtää tutkimusprosessi uusien
näkökulmien etsimisenä ja avaamisena. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen tausta rajaa
tarkastelun nykyisiin harrastamisen kulttuureihin tarkastellen käsityöharrastusta
vapaa-ajan, sukupuolistuneen kotiympäristön sekä yksilöllisiä resursseja koros-
tavan tee-se-itse kulttuurin näkökulmista.
Tutkimus koostuu kolmesta osajulkaisusta, jotka lähestyvät tutkimustehtävää
eri aineistoin ja näkökulmin. Ensimmäinen osatutkimus syventyy eri kulttuuri-
taustoista tulevien harrastajien käsityökokemuksiin avoimien haastattelujen
kautta. Toinen osatutkimus tarkastelee käsityötä kollektiivisena käytäntönä,
tavoitteenaan ymmärtää yhteisöllisyyden kokemuksen rakentumista monikult-
tuurisessa, jakamiseen perustuvassa käsityöryhmässä vapaan sivistystyön kentäl-
lä. Kolmas tutkimusartikkeli kehittää autoetnografista elokuvametodia, jonka
kautta tutkimuksessa kuvataan ja käsitteellistetään nuoren käsityöharrastajan
kokemuksia omasta harrastuksestaan ja sen merkityksellisyydestä.
Aineistoista ilmenee, että käsityöharrastus avaa mahdollisuuksia oppimiseen,
jakamiseen, yhteisöllisyyden rakentamiseen ja itsensä löytämiseen. Käsityö-
harrastus näyttäytyy kompleksisena toimintana, joka yhtäältä tuottaa harrastajille
kokemuksia kulttuurisesta kuulumisesta, toisaalta materialisoi käsityöharrasta-
jien kokemuksia omasta itsestään. Tutkimus esittää, että käsityön merkitykset
ovat moninaisia, päällekkäisiä, yhdistäviä, kontekstuaalisia, muuttuvia ja risti-
riitaisia, ja että käsityöharrastajat kokevat merkityksellisyyden yksilöllisesti ja
muuttuvasti. Merkitysten yksilöllisyydestä huolimatta käsityöharrastajat jakavat
monia ajatuksia ja kokemuksia käsitöistä. Tutkimus osoittaa, että jakaminen
muiden harrastajien kanssa näyttäytyy tärkeänä merkityksellisyyden kokemuk-
sen muodostumisessa, sillä koetun samanmielisyyden kautta rakentuu myös
ajatus käsityöharrastuksen kulttuurisesta merkityksellisyydestä. Silti omakohtai-
nen merkityksellisyyden kokeminen näyttäytyy tärkeimpänä tekijänä käsitöiden
harrastamisessa.

Avainsanat: käsityö, harrastus, merkitykset, vapaa-aika, autoetnografinen

elokuva


Acknowledgements

This study reveals how hobbyist craft makers perceive and understand the mean-
ings of recreational craft making as part of their lives. Most of all, the study has
been an exploration on the experiences of craft making, both engaging personal
and collective levels of experimentation. Although my name alone stands in the
cover page of the published articles, the study would not have been completed
without the help of many people. I consider this dissertation as a result of shared
capabilities, which have not only emerged in terms of scholarly support and
collaboration, but also as social interaction and exchange of ideas with the
people I have encountered. I have received a lot of intellectual and emotional
support throughout my doctoral journey, and my sincerest gratitude is expressed
for all those who have supported, encouraged, and inspired me during the
writing of this dissertation.
First, I would like to thank my supervisors, who have both offered their
help, guidance and broad-minded insights into craft research along the way. I am
grateful that Professor Pirita Seitamaa-Hakkarainen has so generously shared her
theoretical and methodological expertise, and always believed in the completion
of my doctoral project. Under her supervision I have felt that although I have
been free to make my own decisions, I was never lost or alone. My deepest grati-
tude goes also to Dr. Sirpa Kokko, who agreed to be my supervisor during the
most critical moment. I highly appreciate her always excellent advice and con-
structive comments. She has understood well the strengths and weaknesses of
my work, and her wide-range knowledge has helped me to focus on the priorities
of my research. I have been fortunate to have such encouraging and thoughtful
women as my supervisors.
Special thanks go also to the reviewers of this dissertation, and to the
anonymous reviewers of my research articles, who have all helped me to
improve the quality of my writings to the higher standards with their pinpoint
comments. I am very pleased to have Professor Sinikka Pöllänen and Professor
Nithikul Nimkulrat as reviewers of my dissertation, and I highly appreciate the
careful work they have done in reviewing this study. Thank you for your prompt
comments and insightful recommendations! Furthermore, I am honored to have
Emeritus Professor Patrick Dillon as my opponent.
During the doctoral journey, I have had an opportunity to conduct my PhD
study in encouraging seminar groups, communicating and changing ideas with
experienced academies and unbelievably creative young scholars. Most of my
fellow doctoral students from Craft Studies and Craft Teacher Education semi-
nar group have already wandered through their doctoral journeys, and thus
showed me the path to follow. I am especially grateful to Kaiju Kangas, Tarja-


Kaarina Laamanen and Hanna Kuusisaari for their lead in craft seminars and
elsewhere. I am grateful for many scholarly discussions, but also for the off-
topic joy and laughter. I also want to thank all other seminar peers for the
inspiring and supportive atmosphere: the past years have been truly educational,
especially the last ones, when I had a chance to work as a doctoral student at
SEDUCE Doctoral Programme.
I also want to thank all other research colleagues, who have contributed to
this research and inspired me throughout this doctoral process. Special thanks go
to fellow doctoral students Tuure Tammi, Maiju Paananen, and Kristiina
Janhonen, who have repeatedly offered their timely encouragement and helpful
comments and suggestions. I would like to thank them, and many other
greathearted colleagues, such as Markus Hilander, Marjut Viilo, Raisa
Ahtiainen, and Timo Nevalainen, for the many intellectual (and other kinds of)
discussions. Encounters with them have given rise to several interesting
discussions about being and becoming, scholarly communities, methodologies,
metaphors, and doctoral identities, and inspired many yet-to-come projects about
everyday creativity, play, reflexivity, in-and-out-placeness, and bottle collecting.
Special thanks are owed to Tuure, whose superb comments have helped me from
the early manuscripts of my first articles. Our collective writing projects have
been extremely important for me, I am grateful for all what we’ve come to share
throughout our doctoral journeys.
Most of the time of writing I have been privileged to work as a doctoral
student, first at Palmenia in my dear hometown Lahti, and thereafter at the
Department of Education in Helsinki. The time spent in Lahti was extremely
educational for me in many ways. I want to assign my warmest thanks to the
fellow researchers and co-workers at Palmenia. You were marvelous! I also wish
to express special gratitude to textile teacher Tuija Vähävuori, who offered her
help with the data gathering by welcoming me to her courses at Wellamo Opisto,
and in doing so led me in contact with the research informants. Without her help
the dissertation would look very different from what it is now.
Along the way, I have had a chance participate in different writing projects.
Amongst other things, these projects have equipped me with wide-range
knowledge of article writing and publishing, and brought me in connection with
interesting writings from the fields of craft, education, new materiality and post-
structuralism. I would like to give warm thanks to the professors and university
lectures working at Craft Teacher Education, and as well to the members of
Education, society and culture seminar group. You have all have taught me a lot
about academia, and you all deserve special acknowledgement for your wisdom,
warmth and friendliness.
I would also like to extend my thanks to the institutions, which have
granted me financial support for doctoral studies. I wish to assign my gratitude
to the Finnish Cultural Foundation and the University of Helsinki Grant Founda-


tion for financing my PhD study project in the beginning, and for the Emil
Aaltonen Foundation for supporting the pursuance of the summary writing
abroad. I am especially grateful for the Aino-koti Foundation for the long-time
support that already began from the early phase of proposal writing. With the
scholarship granted by the Aino-koti Foundation I was able to conduct the
autoethnographic video project, and work with the talented videographer Jukka
Kiistala – thanks are in order also for Jukka for his efforts on the video project!
Later on, the Aino-koti Foundation enabled me to travel to the UK and spend
there some three months, writing this thesis, visiting conferences, and meeting
some extremely dedicated craft reserachers and practitioners. I want to thank
Angela Maddock for inviting me to Swansea and organizing me a place to work
at the UWTSD. I had such a good time in Wales, and I hope we’ll continue our
reflective and tasty needlework projects in the future!
An essential part of my PhD project has been the time that I’ve spent with
my friends and family. I want to thank Eeva, Vilja, Justiina, Maija, Krisu, Juulia,
Susku, and AK for being only irregularly interested in my study and work. The
off-work time with these friends has been extremely important, and I’ve very
much enjoyed their company at karaoke, pubivisa, and elsewhere. The only
thing they’ve been continuously asking me about has been the forthcoming
karonkka party. That has kept me motivated.
Finally, I would like to thank my dearest: my husband, my mom, my dad,
my brother and his wife, my sister abroad, and my parents-in-law, for their keen
interest in my study. I now acknowledge that at times the dissertation became a
disagreeable family member. All in all, the most loyal supporter of all my work
has been my furry friend Halti, with whom I’ve walked countless kilometers in
the neighborhoods of Lahti and Helsinki. During these quiet walks I’ve had the
best ideas about almost everything. You have deserved the tastiest dog bone
ever!

On a train from Kokkola to Helsinki, 30.9.2016

Anna Kouhia


Ode to my socks

Mara Mori brought me

a pair of socks
which she knitted herself
with her sheepherder's hands,
two socks as soft as rabbits.
I slipped my feet into them
as if they were two cases
knitted with threads of twilight and goatskin,
Violent socks,
my feet were two fish made of wool,
two long sharks
sea blue, shot through
by one golden thread,
two immense blackbirds,
two cannons,
my feet were honored in this way
by these heavenly socks.
They were so handsome for the first time
my feet seemed to me unacceptable
like two decrepit firemen,
firemen unworthy of that woven fire,
of those glowing socks.

Nevertheless, I resisted the sharp temptation

to save them somewhere as schoolboys
keep fireflies,
as learned men collect
sacred texts,
I resisted the mad impulse to put them
in a golden cage and each day give them
birdseed and pieces of pink melon.
Like explorers in the jungle
who hand over the very rare green deer
to the spit and eat it with remorse,
I stretched out my feet and pulled on
the magnificent socks and then my shoes.

The moral of my ode is this:

beauty is twice beauty
and what is good is doubly good
when it is a matter of two socks
made of wool in winter.

Pablo Neruda (1956, translated by Robert Bly)



List of original publications

This doctoral dissertation is based on the following original publications, which

are referred to in the text by their Roman numerals (Studies I–III):

I Kouhia, A. (2012). Categorizing the meanings of craft: A multi-perspectival

framework for eight interrelated meaning categories. Techne Series:
Research in Sloyd Education and Craft Science A. 19 (1), 25–40.

II Kouhia, A. (2015). Crafting the collective sense: A descriptive case study

on recreational textile craft making in Finnish adult education, International
Journal of Education Through Art, 11 (1), 7–20.

III Kouhia, A. (2015). The making-of: An autoethnographic cinema on the

meanings of contemporary craft practicing for a young hobbyist. Textile:
Journal of Cloth and Culture. 13 (3), 266–283.

The studies were funded by the Finnish Cultural Foundation (grant number
00110406), the University of Helsinki, Finland (2011), the Emil Aaltonen
Foundation (2015), and Aino-koti säätiö (research grants for doctoral research in
2010, 2014, and 2015). The original articles are reprinted with the kind
permission of the copyright holders.


List of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LIST OF ORIGINAL PUBLICATIONS

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Casting on ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Unraveling and reconstructing: Aim of the study....................................... 5
1.3 Crafts........................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Hobby crafts.............................................................................................. 10
1.5 Do-It-Yourself as a contemporary mentality of making........................... 14
2 TEXTILE HOBBY CRAFTS AS CONTEMPORARY CULTURE ........................ 17

2.1 Textiles and the making of the feminine .................................................. 17

2.2 Textile hobby crafts and new domesticity ................................................ 19
2.3 Crafts expressing the personal .................................................................. 21
2.4 Doing crafts together ................................................................................ 23
2.5 Being (well) with textile hobby crafts ...................................................... 26
3 RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................... 29

3.1 Research tasks and questions .................................................................... 29

3.2 Social constructionist perspective on meaning-making ........................... 31
3.3 Knitting it together: Methods and data ..................................................... 33
3.3.1 Interviews with craftspeople .............................................................. 35
3.3.2 Participant observation and reflection on action ............................... 37
3.3.3 Autoethnographic cinema .................................................................. 40

3.4 Overview of the data analyses in Studies I–III ......................................... 43

4 THE MEANINGS OF TEXTILE HOBBY CRAFTS ............................................ 48

4.1 Study I: Multiple and overlapping ............................................................ 48

4.2 Study II: Connective and contextual......................................................... 50
4.3 Study III: Shifting and conflicting ............................................................ 52
4.4 Summary of the results ............................................................................. 54

5 DISCUSSION: WEAVING IN............................................................................. 57

5.1 General discussion .................................................................................... 57

5.2 Methodological reflections ....................................................................... 63
5.3 Re-casting—suggestion for further studies ............................................... 69
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 73
 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

1 Introduction

Loop to loop, casting on stitches,

I made a start, I made a heel, needle passing to needle
Silmäsiä sisaruita, rivi puikoille luotihin,
Syntyi alku, syntyi pohja, puikko puikolle jakeli

1.1 Casting on
Like so many other craft hobbyists, I have been interested in craft making all my
life. From early childhood, I have enjoyed experimenting with all kinds of crafts
ranging from paper crafts and ceramics to crocheting, silk painting, sewing, and
knitting. I remember that my now departed grandmother, who was known as an
enthusiastic craftsperson, had made me a crafting bag for storing my craft tools
and materials. On the one side of the bag she had typed a verse “Now Anna is
crafting,” which I liked to put facing upwards while I was engaged in my craft
activities. This, I remember, was important to me, because the verse symbolized
the significance of the actions that I was doing. The other side of the bag had
another verse “Now Anna gathers her craft belongings back to this bag, thank
you!” which I did not consider anywhere near as inspirational. For me, the only
value of this lackluster side was to demonstrate the gravity of craft making that
was just temporarily put on hold while the bag was stored in a drawer the
uncrafty side upwards.
The motivation to undertake this study is rooted in my experiences as a
hobby craft maker: I am one of the many thousands of people who have been
triggered by craft making, and thus contributed to the “resurgence” or “revival”
of craft that has taken place in the Western world during the last few decades
(e.g., Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2007; Frayling, 2011; Bratich & Brush, 2011;
Peach, 2013). During this shift, crafts have not only become extremely popular
leisure-time activities, but are also being represented in the modern mass culture
through the language of advertising, packaging, and popular culture in general
(Frayling, 2011, 61). This indicates a change in the meaning and value of crafts
in society. Against this background, this dissertation aims to examine the
shifting meanings of hobby-based textile crafts today, in the times of the grand
narratives of individualism, consumerism, and post-everything hybridity.
Today, hobby crafts are indisputable on the up. Especially my age group,
women between 25 to 34 years of age, has been said to lead the renaissance of
craft making with the increasing participation in yarn craft activities. For
example in the United States, the Craft Yarn Council of America estimated in

1
Anna Kouhia

2004 that about 6.5 million Americans in the age group from 25 to 34 years of
age started knitting or crocheting between 2002 and 2004 (Craft Yarn Council of
America 2004 Tracking study cited in Wills, 2007, 29)1. In 2011, the Crafts
Yarn Council of America estimated that there were 38 million people
participating in either knitting or crocheting in the US, nearly one fifth of them
belonging to the age group between 18- to 34-year-olds (Craft Yarn Council of
America 2012 Tracking study cited in Stannard & Sanders, 2015). Recent
reports from the UK reflect the trend in the US by estimating that 7.5 million
people in Britain are regularly engaged in knitting and crochet activities (UK
Hand Knitting Association, 2016).
The situation in Finland seems somehow coincidental, at least when it comes
to the popularity of craft-related activities. In Finland, craft making was listed as
one of the most popular leisure activities in 2002 in a survey by Statistics
Finland (Statistics Finland, 2005). Following the popularity of leisure-time
activities in different age groups from the early 1980s to early 2000s, the study
confirmed that hobby crafts were widely practiced among people in Finland
across all ages. Two thirds (67%) of the study respondents reported having some
kind of craft practice as their hobby—domestic textile crafts, weaving, furniture
making, woodwork, sewing, mending, and repairing being the most popular
ones. Compared to the overall population of Finland this means that about 3.5
million people take up craft-related activities on a regular basis.
Yet, the situation in Finland does not gibe perfectly with international
statistics. In fact, home-based textile hobby crafts, such as knitting, crochet, and
embroidery, were reported to come down in popularity from 82% in 1981 to
61% in 2002 among the Finnish female population, parallel to a downshift of
leisurebased hobby craft making among women from an incredible 86% in 1981
to a steady 72% in 2002. In the light of these figures it seems that there has not
been a tremendous renaissance in craft making in Finland, though hobby crafts
have never really ceased to be an attractive mainstream hobby. To a certain
degree, this might be due to the role of craft making in the Finnish school
system, where craft making is taught to all pupils as a mandatory school subject.
In Finland, craft education has been valued for its potential to teach children
important skills for life, such as problem solving, strategic planning, interaction

1Since 1994, the Crafts Yarn Council of America [CYCA] has conducted surveys on yarn
trends about women who knitt or crochet, and purchase yarn for their craft activities.
CYCA does not provide summaries from previous studies, or release original research
data since the data contains retail-sensitive information. Only the press release of the
recent Tracking study is accessible on CYCA websites (http://www.craftyarncouncil.com
/know.html). Currently, CYCA provides the press release of the 2014 Tracking Study
”What inspires & motivates crocheters & knitters,” which surveyed more than 3,100
crocheters and knitters in the US. With an overview of sources of inspiration and the
current craft projects of the study respondents, the study shed light on the motivations to
undertake craft projects, and the experienced benefits of knitting and crochet activities.

2
 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

with tools and materials, patience, perseverance, independence, responsibility

for the environment, and gender equality (e.g., Garber, 2002; Kokko, 2009;
Kangas 2014; Veeber, Syrjäläinen, & Lind, 2015). Accordingly, the value of
learning to create something from scratch has also been addressed as a means of
encouraging the creativity and cultural competence of children and youth, and
on a broad scale, is regarded as a skill capable of revitalizing the country’s
productivity (Strategic Government Program, 2016). Craft making has also
affirmed its popularity among adults, not only arousing interest among makers
who practice hobby crafts privately in their homes but also within the field of
liberal adult education, where arts and crafts have been counted for ages among
the most popular areas of study. Overall, in Finland, the hype about craft making
seems to have only intensified during the past decade, eventually translating into
a marked increase of interest in maker cultures, both online and offline, and
across all ages. Against this background, it is not surprising that crafts have been
woven into the fabric of the nation’s state, and regarded as trendy, urban-vibe
hobbies that appeal to a larger number of people than perhaps ever before (The
Finnish Crafts Organization Taito ry, 2012; Aalto & Luutonen, 2012).
Today, textile hobby craft activities are undertaken for a variety of reasons.
For example, a vast online survey conducted in 2014 by Irina Nykänen, which
reached over 3000 Finnish hobby craft makers, suggested that some hobbyist
makers considered textile craft making as an ordinary pastime project or a means
to compete idleness, while others found hobby crafting a serious part of their
leisure (see Nykänen, 2014, 102–103). There are also differences in the
meanings and motivations in different age groups. For instance, middle-aged
makers are more likely to say they knit and crochet because it provides them
with a creative outlet than younger makers (Crafts Yarn Council of America,
2014); younger makers report appreciating the ability to multitask and the
various social aspects of crafting along with the enjoyment of creative making
(Stannard, 2011; Stannard & Sanders, 2015). In addition, there is a diversity in
the ways in which people interpret and articulate their craft learning processes
and conceptualize the meanings placed on textile crafts (Kokko & Dillon, 2011;
Rönkkö, 2011; see also Wills, 2007, 30).
The present study examines the meanings of textile hobby craft practice, with
an underlying intention to develop new, more sensitive methodologies to
conceptualize and communicate the meanings of craft making. The first level of
examination is based on interviewing women interested in crafts and asking
about what they consider to be the meaning and value of craft making in their
lives. In this sub-study, I interviewed six women from different cultural
backgrounds. These interviews offered remarkable range and depth of the
meaning of hobby crafts and its attentiveness to culture and locale. Second, the
study examined textile hobby craft making as a collective practice contributing
to the generation of collective sense in an open-curricula craft group within

3
Anna Kouhia

Finnish adult education. Among the hobby craft makers who participated in the
craft group, a collective sense was negotiated and enforced in various ways,
among them sharing the processes related to the making of the craft works or the
makers expressing themselves through the materiality of craft making as they
learned new craft techniques from other group members. Beyond these notions,
my own story as a craft maker–researcher is knitted into the research narrative to
build up an understanding of the performativity of craft practice from the
position of a young Do-It-Yourself (DIY) maker. Here, DIY is understood as a
culture of creativity, which bases its relevance on the richness of material
production. In this sense, DIY not only explores the repair, customization, and
modification of raw and semi-raw materials but also embraces a range of
recreational and cost-saving activities taken up as a creative spare-time activity.
These activities are often pursued in contemplation of self-maintenance and are
motivated by the wish to compete with mass production with self-made objects.
With the DIY woolly sock project that was undertaken in the third sub-study in
this research project, I aimed to reflect on my identity as a young hobby craft
maker, and in doing so, to unveil the meanings of modern-day hobby craft
making as leisure and recreation. This endeavor experimenting with reflective
research methods, practice-led documentation, and artistic film-making was
accomplished in the interest of cultivating an appreciation for textile hobby
crafts. Methodologically, the aim was to open up a new perspective on the
search for the meanings of hobby practice through cinematic production.
As a researcher, I was not only involved in the studies but also actively
contributed to the research process in all phases of the study. I framed the overall
study and chose the research respondents for each sub-study, and even
positioned myself as a research respondent when I composed an auto-
ethnographic narrative about my own craft making. This means that the study
unavoidably reflects on my embeddedness in the culture of craft. Now in my
early thirties, I have been involved in academic craft education for more than a
decade, first studying to become a crafts teacher and a textile designer and then
following academic discussions from the position of a graduate student. My love
of crafts, which formed in early childhood, has changed much throughout the
years and eventually turned into a scholarly interest in the culture of making.
During this research process, I became increasingly interested in the
understanding that occurs through self-reflection. From my own position, I have
delved into contemporary craft culture through self-reflection from the position
of a young hobbyist maker—a position that will be evidently lost as time goes
by. Therefore, it was extremely important that I made every effort to keep my
voice clear and uncorrupted during the writing of this study, and I have searched
for a great level of descriptiveness about my own experiences as a textile hobby
craft maker.

4
 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

This study comprises two parts. The first part is a summary consisting of five
chapters; introduction, aims, and the definitions of key concepts (Chapter 1), an
overview of contemporary textile hobby craft (Chapter 2), a description of
theoretical and methodological commitments (Chapter 3), a presentation of the
main findings based on the empirical studies (Chapter 4), and a discussion
(Chapter 5). The latter part consists of three journal articles, which approach the
research task with different data sets, and with different interests of the practice.
The original studies have been published in international peer-reviewed journals.

1.2 Unraveling and reconstructing: Aim of the study

The overall aim of this study was to investigate the meanings of recreational
textile craft making in the lives of so-called ordinary hobby practitioners, in
other words, adults who engage with textile crafts as a means of creative outlet
as part of their leisure, and through this, better understand the worth and value of
craft making in the present times. In order to act in response to this aim, this
study framed one general research question as follows:

What kind of meanings do textile hobby crafts have for makers?

The general research question is twofold in the sense that it has an interest in
realizing the meanings of textile craft making on the subjective and collective
levels. On the one hand, the study approached the subjective experience of craft
making, in other words, how one senses crafts with one’s body and makes sense
of the experiences visually and verbally. On the other hand, the examination of
the subjective experience was related to the collective processes of sharing and
regenerating meanings with others.
I have characterized the investigation as “unraveling.” Here, unraveling is
intended as a term which is capable of elucidating the nature of the research
process as a sensitive and embodied exploration. Moreover, unraveling serves as
a metaphorical concept linking research to the materiality of making, and to the
twists and turns of the craft process: while unraveling, the yarns of a knit are
pulled out and the knit undone, the threads disentangled, or the skeins unwound.
Correspondingly, the previous studies have conceptualized unraveling as a form
of scholarship for decoding the memories, beliefs, and understandings of the
maker (Wickham, MacNeille & Read, 2013), demonstrating the meanings of
knitting (Kingston, 2012), and investigating the relationship between the knit
and its wearer through remaking, altering, and embellishing the knitted garment
(Twigger Holroyd, 2014b). In this light, unraveling is regarded as a
methodological tool to reconfigure and reflect on the making process—and
metaphorically “open” up new perspectives on the meanings of embodied
practice (see Twigger Holroyd, 2014b). As a deliberate strategy, unraveling is

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Anna Kouhia

not simply imposed on materials, but can invite people into self-reflective,
experiential dialogue with the materials, provoking makers to puzzle out the
meaning of practice through self-reflective thinking and material interaction (see
also Schön, 1983; Mäkelä & Nimkulrat, 2011; Mäkelä, Nimkulrat, Dash &
Nsenga, 2011; Nimkulrat, 2012).
In the craft process, unraveling may take place, for example, when a knitter
wishes to undo the stitches and rip the knitting in order to straighten out an
inaccuracy or misreckoning of the work-in-process. Sometimes unraveling is
required in order to re-insert the needles and continue stitching, for example, if a
stitch has been dropped during a complicated lace knit. From this perspective,
unraveling may also be considered a phase of reconstruction and repair. In this
study, I understand “reconstruction” to be as an interpretative and embodied
meaning-making process at the intersection of culture and the self, which
includes the idea that the activities in our culture reshape the experience and
influence the imagination though reconstituting and re-enacting the conception
of the experiment itself (Saleebey, 1994; also Gooding, 1990: xv; Nash 2001,11)
This is to say that mental and material processes are complementary to each
other, and “the agency whereby observers construct the images and discourse
that convey new experience embraces both” (Gooding, 1990, xv). Accordingly,
as we knit, and the material is being transformed from the yarn to stitches in our
hands, at the same time the world is being reconstructed stitch by stitch. Stitch
by stitch, the world changes, and we as makers change along with the making,
reconstructing the world itself through the act of making.
Acknowledging the various roles played by textile hobby crafts today, with a
view of the current time constituted by fluidity, individualism, and a fragmentary
conception of the world (Bauman, 2001; 2011), the present study sought to
contribute and participate in the discussion of the range of meanings and
motivations for makers to engage in recreational textile craft activities within the
course of the current craft boom (e.g., Grace & Gandolfo, 2014; Hunt &
Phillipov, 2014; Stalp, 2015; Stannard & Sanders, 2015; Pöllänen, 2015b). From
this standpoint, the research invites an observation of the varying views and
beliefs of contemporary hobby craft makers, and goes on to suggest that it takes
both discursive and material practices to perceive and capture the worth and
value of craft making for people living within this cultural moment.
Although the present study was conducted in Finland, the study had an
underlying aim to explore and interpret the meanings of craft on a broader scale,
nurturing communication across different individuals and their cultures. This
international emphasis can be seen in the theoretical background, which builds
on international research literature. However, the data of the present study find
the means of knowledge from an eagerness to learn from hobby craft makers
from different cultural backgrounds.

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

1.3 Crafts
“Craft” is a slippery term that has compelling historical alignments with the idea
of increasing expertise resulting from the knowledge of the practice. In the
sixteenth century, craft was used as a reference to strength, power, and force, or
intellectual skill (Lucie-Smith, 1981, 11); later definitions glide over the
spectrum of nuances from modernist interpretations of craft as the mastery of
handmade beauty as opposed to the creativity and freedom of expression related
to art, and postmodern ideas of craft as a critical, speculative, self-reflective
practice, or a form of bricolage over skill (e.g., Greenhalgh, 1997; Rowley,
1999; Frayling, 2011; Gauntlett, 2011, 46–49). In detail, “to craft” has been
understood as human-material interaction through the application of one’s skill
and material-based knowledge “to relatively small-scale production” (Adamson,
2010, 2). Although much of the habitual discussion seems to embrace craft as an
ability to do something with one’s hands, further conflicting interpretations have
also been offered. Recently, craft has been used increasingly as an intellectual
characterization which realizes authenticity, originality, and homegrown
nostalgia – qualities that have been harnessed for commercial artisanry-like
production appropriating the image of the handmade as original, high-quality
work (Frayling, 2011, 61; Walker, 2016).
As long as craft has been used to describe the materiality of the work created
by the human hand, there has also been an emphasis on the quality of the
handmade as well. Traditionally, craft has been approached as the control of the
ability to execute personal know-how, empowering the maker to take charge of
the technology, design, and materials to produce “a thing well made” (Fariello,
2011, 23; also Dissanayake, 1995; Dormer, 1997; Adamson, 2007). Similarly,
sociologist Richard Sennett (2008, 9) has sought to make sense of craftsmanship
by defining it as “an enduring, basic human impulse, the desire to do a job well
for its own sake.” Craftsmanship, as Sennett (2008) has argued, is seen to extend
to a broad range of skilled manual activities from artisanry work to computer
programming, therefore serving all people practicing a skilled craft. Concep-
tually, craft seems to allude to a form of connoisseurship trained to master a
practice. However, in a material sense, craft can also be understood as a name
for material entities demonstrating the ways of preserving traditional skills
generated and nurtured through social interaction over time (Dormer, 1997, 150–
151; Owen, 2005, 30; also Dant, 1999, 1–3).
In recent academic discussions crafts have been repeatedly contextualized as
hybrid works that confuse elements from different material, visual, and
conceptual frameworks (Roberts, 2010; 2011; Hemmings, 2015), and migrate
across disciplines blurring boundaries between the stereotypical categories of
craft, art, and design (Shiner, 2012; Twigger Holroyd, 2014a; Paterson &
Surette, 2015). Personally, I would like to think of craft making as a material
practice that has the potential to extend beyond the production of conventional
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Anna Kouhia

products, and therefore, express critical ideas through handmade artefacts (see
also Hickey, 2015). Perhaps my reading of the possible material criticism
integrated in hobby craft is affected by linguistic contextuality, as the Finnish
word craft, käsityö,2 is interpreted as an entity including both the idea of the
product that is going to be made during the process of crafting, the embodied
craft know-how of the making of the product, and the product itself
(Kojonkoski-Rännäli, 1995: 31; Ihatsu, 1998: 16, also Ihatsu, 2002). Moreover,
according to Anna-Marja Ihatsu (1998), the Finnish conception of “craft”
reflects a closer relation to design (and greater remoteness from art) than to craft
in the English-speaking world. Ihatsu (1998, 162–163) has argued that the word
craft tends to be interpreted in relation to its etymological origin of the
performing of skill and strength, which leads to a division into the worlds of
“conventional craft” and “art-craft” based on the differences between individual
expression and personal commitment in the craft process (see also Jeffries, 2011,
223–224). In comparison, the Finnish word käsityö tends to sustain a view of
holistic process as a core element both in professional and hobby craft (Ihatsu,
1998, 163). In this vein, it emphasizes the role of the maker and an individually
initiated, skillful act conducted by the practitioner (see Pöllänen, 2009a). As
Ihatsu (2002, 12) has further argued, käsityö carries some minor differences in
comparison to the meaning of “craft”, but since they share the same conceptual
background, and have much equivalent in their lingustical definitions, they can
be used interchangeably in terms of research.
In the Finnish context craft is often discussed either as a “holistic” or
“ordinary” process, which refers to the maker’s own input in the process of
designing and manufacturing the craft product (Kojonkoski-Rännäli, 1995, 58–
60; Ihatsu, 1998, 17–18; Pöllänen & Kröger, 2004; Pöllänen, 2009a; 2009b).
The concept of holistic craft is based on a nested set of arguments about
individual creativity: it refers to a unique craftwork where all phases from
product ideation and product design to making and manufacturing are conducted
by the same maker or a group of makers, and where design solutions are not
taken as given (for example, by the patterns or instructions), but apply the
knowledge of the practice through “the management of a particular context”
(Pöllänen & Kröger, 2004, 162). As such, the activity of craft making is seen as

2
Finnish word käsityö derives from the word käsi, hand, and työ. Contemporary Finnish
Dictionary defines käsityö as work made by hand, or with tools that are held in hands;
this definition covers both the process of making and the end product (Nykysuomen
sanakirja II, 1992, 705). It also acknowledges that käsityö has a connotation to “ work
especially made by women”, and can be used a name for a school subject. By definition,
hobby crafts are habitually distinguished from professional craft work, and from the
artistic creation of craft objects (Ihatsu 1998, 162–165). The etymological background of
käsityö has been reviewed in English in several studies, most recently in relation to the
DIY culture (Na, 2012), and the politicization of the handmade in the era of Finnish
cottage industry (Kraatari, 2016).

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

a form of action demanding both mental-intellectual and physio-motoric skills

and abilities (Ihatsu, 1998, 18; also Kojonkoski-Rännäli, 1998, 48–68).
Much of hobby craft work is “ordinary” and unoriginal in the sense that it
reproduces traditional models, techniques, and patterns without its own
contribution to the design of the object, for example in cases when handcrafted
works are conducted by following ready-made patterns, step-by-step
instructions, or previously learned models of technical solutions (Kojonkoski-
Rännäli, 1995, 94–95; Pöllänen, 2009b), and are conducted, as Glenn Adamson
(2007, 139) has noticed, “in a spirit of self-gratification rather than critique.”
Ordinary craft, though, embraces a traditional understanding of hobby craft as an
activity adopting established patterns rather than adopting the critical modes of
interpretation. In this way, ordinary craft sheds light on craft practice, which is
usually understood in terms of hobby-level step-by-step DIY affected by
materials provided by the massmerchandising (Alfoldy, 2015).
However, it needs to be highlighted that both holistic and ordinary craft can
provide a means of material interaction and a sense of meaningfulness for hobby
makers; holistic craft discovering its origins from the maker’s own
resourcefulness, and ordinary craft from the variations and appropriations of the
process of making. As illustrated in the study by Marja-Leena Rönkkö (2011),
ordinary hobby craft making may fulfill the same purposes as holistic craft
making, if the craft process is “complete” in that it includes the maker’s own
input in the design and manufacturing process and if the project develops the
maker’s skills and knowledge. Although Rönkkö examined craft-making
processes in the context of learning, similar qualities can be applied to leisure-
based hobby craft making in general. If the maker carries out the craft process
with his or her own plans and ideas, masters the project through the realization
of his or her own skills and knowledge, and shows commitment to the process,
the craft-making process can be regarded as a “complete craft”—even if the
project itself followed traditional patterns or a determined set of plans of actions
(Rönkkö, 2011, 125, 130–131). For Rönkkö, a complete craft is a key concept
for understanding the complexity of the holistic craft process, as a complete craft
not only reproduces the predefined “holistic” craft intended as making
completed by the same maker from the beginning to the end but also produces a
layered conception of the varieties of the holistic craft process. Rönkkö’s study
showed that holistic and ordinary crafts tend to merge with one another and are
constituted by overlapping processes. What is essential is how craft makers feel
about their craft projects and what these projects enable the craft makers to
express.

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Anna Kouhia

1.4 Hobby crafts

The idea of “hobby craft” as a pastime craft work conducted by unprofessional
craftspeople has its origins, albeit vaguely, in amateur embroidery made outside
the legitimate guild system in medieval monasteries (Lucie-Smith, 1981, 136).
Although some crafts, like the embroidery work of noble ladies done as a
pastime may be interpreted in favor of the conception of recreational leisure, in
medieval times craft making was not a kind of self-initiated leisure pre-
occupation that hobby craft is today (see Parry, 1994). The way we understand
“hobby craft” today is an outcome of many later changes that originate from the
transformation of work and leisure that occurred during the Industrial
Revolution, accompanied with the eighteenthcentury perception of amateur work
as “an aesthetically accomplished occupation done for enjoyment with little
consideration of use or functionality” (Knott, 2015, 80–81). However, only in
the 19th century did the notion of leisure begin to be applied to opportunities to
gain intrinsic satisfaction from activities outside the workplace (Roberts, 1999,
1–3). The writings of Thorstein Veblen (1992), particularly The Theory of the
Leisure Class originally published in 1899, located leisure as a non-productive
pastime of the “conspicuous class,” who could afford a life of idleness, and
therefore undertook redundant activities for the sake of beauty or expressi-
veness. 3 Accordingly, Veblen suggested that conspicuous leisure pursuits
addressed the status of the “conspicuous class” through the accumulation of
social capital and expressed a new departure through its habits of consumption
(Veblen, 1992, 43, 47; also Miller, 1987, 148; Dant, 1999, 18). In a more limited
sense, as Daniel Miller (1987, 147–148) has argued, Veblen perceived leisure to
be the ability to absent oneself from work, and eventually, the world of practical
necessity. In this sense, Veblen’s conception of leisure could be understood as a
capability to accomplish subjective value through nonproductive, quasi-
professional work outside the disturbance of economic forces and the pressures
of productive labor (Veblen, 1992, 45; also Miller, 1987, 147–149).
In this vein, I want to emphasize the recreational role of craft making in the
lives of the practitioners. For want of a better term, I have chosen to characterize
the practice as hobby craft making, or hobby craft, by which I refer to Veblenian

3
Veblen’s The Theory of Leisure Class identified leisure accomplishments as an
“unproductive expenditure of time” extending to redundant activities or knowledge of the
processes “which do not conduce directly to the furtherance of human life” (Veblen, 1992:
45). These kinds of activities included, for example, the production of goods which are of
no intrinsic use, the knowledge of dead languages, or various forms of household art.
However, Veblen did not see handcraft as a noble leisure employment, since he believed
such menial, productive practices as handcrafts could not serve highly moral premises or
provide a pride in work that were required from wealthy leisure employments (Veblen,
1992: 78–79). At a general level, The Theory of Leisure Class habitually neglects the
world of work and leisure of lower classes and women, though identifying leisure from the
hegemonic viewpoint of white, wealthy males.

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

“conspicuous” intentions to abandon the obligations of being prolific, and

undertaking the practice of making for the sake of enjoyment and
expressiveness, albeit with a critical attitude to Veblen’s reductive view of social
status relating to the activity. Thus, “hobby craft” is intended as a name for self-
governed leisure-based craft activity, with an emphasis on hobbies as an
enjoyable, private time outside the burden of vocational work. This
characterization is, at least when contextualized in relation to the Finnish word
harrastus, hobby, derivingfrom the word harras (meaning a devotee, a
dedicated, enthusiastic person, or one’s heart’s desire, see Nykysuomen
sanakirja I, 1992, 375), and in line with other interpretations of the worth and
value of recreational activities that are undertaken as part of one’s leisure. In this
sense, the conception of a hobby expresses an intrinsic passion to pursue the
activity, and a willingness to be involved with the things one enjoys, and
practicing the activity that one perceives to be meaningful with a kind of joy
(Hanifi, 2005, 119; Crawford, 2009, 192–197; Wolf, 2010, 11–17).
According to English dictionary definitions,4 having a hobby is obviously a
matter of pleasure: something that brings contentment, delight and relaxation
into the lives of people undertaking the praxis. These definitions clearly separate
hobby practice from the burden of daily work, yet at the same time commission
it as un-work that is only undertaken for the purposes of entertainment or
recreation. A hobby is regarded as an activity or interest pursued in spare time,
in other words, in one’s own time and at one’s own convenience; it is the
opposite of duty and takes place “when…not working” and “not as a main
occupation.” In terms of hobby craft practice these claims create an interesting
debate: even if the hobby craft practice could be free from the pressures and
deadlines of professional work, the practice itself is constrained by the
materiality of labor, since craft making is always hands-on “work” in the sense
that it is an exertion with the materials in the hands of the maker. Whether the
work results in a finalized product is not so important; what is important is the
enactment of actions that develop their own configurations of work appearing
like the utopian dreams of unalienated labor (Knott, 2015, xii). Consequently,
hobby craft seems to be constituted by the self-driven logic of the management
of work in the context of leisure.
All in all, hobby work seems to carry promises of uncorrupted enthusiasm,
endless curiosity, affecting anticipation, and a freedom to undertake the activity
or interest at the convenience of one’s own time, own will, and own effort. This

4
English online dictionaries share many similarities in the ways they define “hobby”: a
hobby is regarded as “an activity or interest pursued for pleasure or relaxation and not as
a main occupation” (Dictionary.com), “an activity done regularly in one’s leisure time for
pleasure” (Oxford Dictionaries), “an activity that someone does for pleasure when they
are not working” (Cambridge Dictionaries Online), and “an activity pursued in spare time
for pleasure or relaxation” (Collins English Dictionary).

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Anna Kouhia

is, of course, a romanticized, and extremely individualistic translation of hobby

practice. However, such notions also inform the importance of pleasure in
experiencing satisfaction and harmony in activities named as hobbies (see
Crawford, 2009). For example, Ellen Dissanayake (1995, 41) has described this
inherent pleasure of making as joie de faire, with which she refers to the
experience of importance rising from the sheer enjoyment of transforming the
materials at hand into a form that did not exist before by using “one’s own
agency, dexterity, feelings and judgment to mold, form, touch, hold and craft
physical materials”. Therefore, she considered that making is not only
pleasurable, but also meaningful, because working with one’s hand makes us
humans, and allows us to express our human values.
In regard to terminology, I am aware that many academic and popular
discussions relating to DIY have used the term “amateur” while specifying the
relationship between the professional and leisure-based craft practice (e.g.,
Mason, 2005; Beegan & Atkinson, 2008; Jackson, 2010; 2011a; 2011b;
Hackney, 2013; Knott, 2015). In these discussions, the term amateur, which
originates from the Latin root amare meaning “to love” (Adamson, 2007, 139–
140), is used to celebrate individual love and passion by calling the person with
such love amator, “someone who loves what they do and does it for its own sake
rather than financial reward” (Beegan & Atkinson, 2008, 310). However, as
Gerry Beegan and Paul Atkison (2008) have noticed, a dominant challenge for
the term amateur is its inevitable confrontation with expert work. According to
Jane Donlin (2011, 107), this confrontation further pushes “the concept of
amateurism into a reductive dichotomy”, which therefore fails to adequately
understand the complexities of amateur work.
In many recent studies (e.g., Hutchinson, LeBlanc, & Booth, 2006; Jackson,
2010, 2011a, 2011b; Liss-Marino, 2014; Nykänen, 2014; Twigger Holroyd,
2015), hobby craft practices have been approached from the viewpoint of the
integrity of the skilled work, emphasizing the perpetually serious role of craft
activities in the lives of hobbyist makers. The term “serious leisure,” which
originates in the work of Robert Stebbins (1992; 2001; 2007), praises leisure
activities for the enjoyment they bring for the makers but acknowledges that the
participants sometimes find leisure activities are “so substantial, interesting, and
fulfilling that . . . they launch themselves on a (leisure) career centered on
acquiring and expressing a combination of its special skills, knowledge, and
experience” (Stebbins, 2007, 5; modified from Stebbins, 1992, 3). This
emphasizes “serious leisure” as a form of systematized, thoroughgoing amateur
activity that is pursued mainly for the love of it, where practitioners strive for
professional standards. “Serious” is based on descriptions of the role of the
activity as a free-time passion, which anchors serious leisure with qualities such
as earnestness, devotion, and sincerity (Stebbins, 2007). In the field of craft,
serious activities extend to a range of quasi-professional, pro-amateur activities,

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

which reach and sometimes even surpass the quality of the professional craft
work in the skill, worth, and value of the handmade but are most often pursued
as a form of self-actualization and taken up as pastime projects. Accordingly,
Stebbins distinguished among three types of serious leisure—amateurism,
voluntarism, and hobbies—but emphasizes that all three types can nurture
personal growth and support self-confidence through a sense of accomplishment
(Stebbins, 1992, 2007).
“Serious leisure” is often contrasted with “casual leisure”—a term mainly
used to refer to “unserious,” consumptive, and incidental leisure activities, which
are considered to have considerably less substantial value and are often
described as much less complex than serious leisure activities. According to
Stebbins (2007, 1–2, 5), casual leisure activities can be defined as immediate,
intrinsically rewarding actions that require little or no special training. These
casual leisure activities can be best understood as a set of simple actions, such as
handing out leaflets, directing traffic in a parking lot, or clearing snow off the
neighborhood hockey rink, which are quite different from serious leisure
activities that require far more nuanced and interrelated core activities in order to
be found attractive. Nonetheless, Stebbins (2007, xi) synthetized serious leisure,
casual leisure, and project-based leisure (an exquisite, one-off combination of
serious and casual core actions that often occur in the form of a “project”) into a
common serious leisure perspective framework, which aims to show, at once,
the similarities, interrelationships, and distinctive features of all three forms of
leisure. On one level, the serious leisure perspective addresses the subjective
motivational interest to take up leisure activities described as enjoyable (casual
leisure), fulfilling (serious leisure), or enjoyable or fulfilling (project-based
leisure), and distinguishes among six qualities found among leisure activities (an
occasional need to persevere, the pursuit of a leisure career, a significant
personal effort to use acquired knowledge and skills, a need for durable benefits
such as enhancement of self-image, a quest for the unique ethos that grows up
around the activity, and a tendency to identify oneself with the pursuit of the
leisure activity). On another level, the serious leisure perspective stresses the
importance of the personal and social rewards received from the leisure
activities, which tend to be a range of spontaneous, emotional, self-reflective,
and financial benefits (Stebbins, 2001; 2007).
Although the term “hobby craft” may not be a better term than any other, at
least I believe it manages to overcome some of the controversies that relate to
the term “amateur craft” as craft practice failing to reach the quality of the
professional work, and the impersonal and fragmented term of “leisure crafts,”
which I think overemphasizes free time than the experienced joie de faire
associated with the wholehearted hobby activity. Although hobby craft is
obviously a term for a self-initiated, enjoyable occupation, it extends to a vast
array of “serious” forms of making (see Stebbins, 2001; 2007; also Jackson,

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Anna Kouhia

2010; 2011a; 2011b) associated with integrity and criticality, and the acquiring
of special skills, knowledge, and experience through hobby practice, but may
still bring casual enjoyment for the maker, for example in terms of material
experimenting, which does not necessarily require any special training or skills.

1.5 Do-It-Yourself as a contemporary mentality of making

Hobby craft making today is often characterized with DIY, a broad term used to
describe a creative-recreational ethos that seeks to confront and redefine
consumerism through the production, transformation, or reconstruction of goods
that express the values of self-worth, autonomy, maintenance, and affordability
(Atkinson, 2006; Spencer, 2008; Na, 2012, 81; Wolf & McQuitty, 2011;
Stevens, 2011). In general, DIY seems to be a broad mentality that relates not
only to the practices of craft making, but also to the ways that “go beyond the
construction of meaning of a commodity” (Wolf & McQuitty, 2011, 154) with
self-initiated work. Accordingly, DIY has been characterized as a reaction to
mass design and patriarchal hierarchies of connoisseurship (Atkinson, 2006, 1;
Stevens, 2011, 50). Nevertheless, it seems to be widely agreed that DIY embra-
ces individual creative capabilities as resources for alternative forms of produc-
tion, consumption and material possession, and engagement with raw and semi-
raw materials through practices which are based on informal learning and non-
expert work (Dant, 1999, 70; Kuznetsov & Paulos, 2010; Gauntlett, 2011, 50–
51; Wolf & McQuitty, 2011, 156).
As a democratic, low-threshold craft ideology, DIY is nothing new to the
culture of craft. According to Paul Atkinson (2006), DIY occurred as a creative
reaction to a post-war shortage during the 1950s; Fiona Hackney (2006, also
Hackney, 2010) interprets that DIY already featured in women’s magazines in
the 1920s and 1930s in the form of home-based make-do-and-mend and interior
decoration. All in all, DIY mentality has long provided a stream of intention,
creative experimentation, productive criticism, and repurposing of tools and
materials to many individuals in their creative work (e.g., Kuznetsov & Paulos,
2010, 295; Jeffries, 2011, 226). Today, DIY embraces a large scale of hobbyist
home-based activities situated within the practical-utilitarian rationale, such as
saving money and increasing the value of one’s own house, aligned with socially
and ethically conscious consumption, and the use second hand and recycled
materials that would otherwise have been discarded as junk (Jackson, 2011b,
261). In its extreme, DIY invokes the ideal of a proactive response to social and
economic change recognized through the ideas of domestic efficiency, denial of
excessive goods, self-maintenance and customization: a form of technological
utopia based on “actualization through participation in a narrative of
technological utopianism and rehabilitation,” imagined partly “as resistance to
corporate and capitalist power” (Sivek, 2011, 205).

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

According to Janis Jeffries (2011), DIY mentality has at least three different
aspects within the current culturescape of textile craft making; first, the making
of self-conscious extreme craft that masquerades as art; second, the recognition
of irony, craftster, within every DIY craft object; and third, the pursuing of
crafty activist activities with a political agenda, craftivism. Of these three,
extreme craft (a term set originating from the “Extreme Craft” contemporary art
exhibition of 2007) is meant to describe “a democratic ‘anyone-can-make-and-
do’ exhibition space in which self-organized groups of artists and makers across
the globe could create forums for people to make things for themselves through
politicized handmade extreme objects such as punk knitting, origami with an
agenda and epic cross-stitch” (Jeffries, 2011, 235; CAC, 2007). In its extreme
form, DIY raises questions of the power and privilege of professionalism in art
spaces and offers a critique within wider societal issues. Although we might talk
about “extreme craft” as an attitude that is a constitutive part of DIY craft, it
needs to be acknowledged that DIY craft, whether extreme or not, does not exist
outside the logics of capital, but uses the materials sold and bought (or otherwise
gained) within the system of modern mass-merchandising (Groeneveld, 2010,
263; also Sivek, 2011; Jakob, 2013; Solomon, 2013).
The way to dispute capitalism is to confront capitalistic imaginary through
self-conscious, subversive aesthetics, and the use of playfulness, irony, wit,
humor, and sarcasm as a way of prompting countercultural politics, related for
example to gender and consumption (Greer, 2008; Chansky, 2010; Winge &
Stalp, 2013; Myzelev, 2015). DIY crafts have often been conceptualized as
crafts embracing “irony as an expressive part of their attitude” (Stevens, 2011,
56) and using “alternative or subversive visual, textual and symbolic messages”
(Winge & Stalp, 2013, 74) as an opposition to traditional, home-based hobby
crafts. Humor, or craftster as Jeffries suggested, seems to offer a way to
challenge the presumed role of domestic creativity within our culture (see
Stevens, 2011, 52), and emphasizes the potential of handcrafted products to
address social consciousness, environmental and ecological justice and ethical
consumption (Hickey, 2015, 120). In Finland, for example, we have seen hobby
craft makers create woolly socks and mittens not only with seemingly
anarchistic patterns of skulls and crossbones, but also appropriating of comer-
cial logos from candy wrapping papers and beer bottles, exhibiting irony and
humor (and often play too) in the face of the materiality of mass consumption.
However, just much as DIY can be about style, it can also be about the
attitude: DIY crafts today, as Dennis Stevens (2011, 50) has argued, demonstrate
a form of micro revolt through their ‘because we can, dammit’ domestic
creativity that is inspired by the eclectic celebration and appropriation of lo-fi
culture and the reclamation of the public space through craft-related activities
(see Dawkins, 2011; Gauntlett, 2011, 53). Taken up under the banner of
activism, or craftivism, craft making is also becoming a form of personal protest,

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Anna Kouhia

or a “quiet activism” (Nelson, 2010; Hackney, 2013): a soft weapon cam-

paigning for social and political change (Greer, 2011; Koch, 2012; Garber,
2013), or simply demonstrating “an aspect of uniqueness and difference from the
norms” (Derry, 2011, 186). Originally, craftivism started from tiny cross-stitch
antiwar pieces campaigning against the materialism and inequalities in society in
the early 2000s (see Greer, 2011; also Greer, 2008). Since, craftivism has started
to attract makers around the world as a way of fighting for change creatively,
and it has now been taken up by a vast number of makers dexterious in playing
with both mouse and needle as a strategy to examine and challenge various
contemporary issues such as fast consumerism, capitalist power regimes,
increasing reliance on digital technology, or social inequality (e.g., Greer, 2008;
Pentney, 2008; Black & Burisch, 2011, 205; Gauntlett, 2011, 57). On the one
hand, activist craft activities may take different forms from public knitting
circles to street art performances decorating the urban landscape (e.g., Prigoda &
McKenzie, 2007; Hagedorn & Springgay, 2013; Myzelev, 2015; Price, 2015);
on the other hand, craftivism may be an intimate outcry undertaken for example
in the form of a knitting group working quietly for a variety of charity projects
(Greer, 2008; Nelson, 2010; see also Suomen Punainen Risti, 2016). Although
craftivism seems to favor individual expression, it could be best understood as a
politicized grass-roots effort to create social change through craft making.
In the light of this study, DIY is embraced as an open-source culture which
provides endless possibilities of self-expression through practices of crafts for
textile hobby craft makers. While DIY covers a wide range of activities carried
out for a variety of reasons embracing both neoliberal consumerism and anti-
capitalistic purposes and extending to different levels of quality and design
input, it tends to embrace an alternative, lo-fi maker ideal. Textile hobby craft
practices undertaken during this study are, at least in terms of their material
objecthood, “ordinary” and “un-extreme”; however, they are multiple and
contingent DIY practices that exhibit personal aesthetics and qualities based on
individual resourcefulness.

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

2 Textile hobby crafts as contemporary culture

Today, millions of makers enjoy textile hobby craft as a form of leisure

enjoyment with practices spanning wide across the craft realm. At one end,
textile hobby craft activities cover a range of seemingly uninventive step-by-step
craft projects portrayed in craft magazines, blogs, Pinterest, and YouTube, and a
vast spectrum of different so-called ordinary craft activities. At the other end,
hobby craft extends to semi-professional craft projects, radical-activist riot
crafts, and critical artwork capable of occupying art space. In this chapter I take
a closer look at the shifting culturescape of textile hobby craft today, and try to
unveil the discursive scene that provides a background for understanding
contemporary textile hobby craft activities. I start by discussing the alignments
of textile craft making as the making of the feminine, and then proceed to textile
making within the realm of new domesticity, participatory craft making, and
wellbeing.

2.1 Textiles and the making of the feminine

This study has a particular interest in hobby craft making in the field of textile-
based craft production. It is important to acknowledge that although textile
hobby craft today is an increasingly heterogeneous praxis and extends to a vast
array of different activities, textile crafts have been conventionally identified as
trivialized domestic chores and seen as women’s responsibility (Hanson & Pratt,
1995, 142–149; Hardy, 2005). This has further had an effect on the contextuali-
zation of the practices within the household as the making of the feminine (Dant,
1999, 70; Burman, 1999; Turney, 2009; Briganti & Mezei, 2012, 125–127, 153;
Beaumont, 2013, 13, 29, 61). Overall, it has been argued that the traditional
position of textile handcraft within an intersecting network of discourses,
including motherhood, female subordination, sexuality, and housewifery, has
influenced the understanding of home and family life, albeit home has never
been a place simply for rearing and caring (MacDonald, 1988, 47; Hackney,
2006; Turney, 2009, 9; Parker, 2010, 2–3; Kraatari, 2016, 165). However,
calling these textile-related domestic activities “crafting” only occurred in the
late twentieth century, when crafts such as knitting, sewing, and crochet were no
longer associated with quotidian life, but had been reclaimed as recreational,
middle-classed leisure activities (Groeneveld, 2010, 264). Since then, there have
been many changes in the attitudes of work and leisure, relating to the
construction of contemporary femininity though increased independency,
mobility, individual consumerism, and throwing off of the chains of traditional
housewifery (Turney, 2009, 2; also Schofield-Tomschin, 1999).

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Knitting, in particular, has been frequently associated with the nostalgic

representation of the feminine; yet, during the past decades knitting has
undergone a post-feminist resurrection though claiming a status as a public and
social activity (Turney, 2009, 10). Today, women, and sometimes men too, not
only knit at home, but also out of the home, and they are also involved in the
production of contemporary maker identities out of the “perceived safety of the
home” (Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2011, 42). As Elizabeth Groeneveld (2010,
266) argues, relating revolutionary rhetoric to knitting may be simply a way to
boost the popularity of a trendy hobby; however, “the language of revolution and
reclamation” has also been a way to install a whole repertoire of meanings which
not only relate to the politicization of the space of making, but also to the
practice of knitting itself. According to Groeneveld, the politicization of knitting
becomes visible when knitting, which is traditionally associated with the private
domesticsphere, takes place in public in a way that challenges the clear-cut
distinctions between public and private. This may, for example, take the form of
“Stitch ‘n Bitch” knitting groups based on socializing and exchange of skills
(Stroller, 2003, 113–115; Prigoda & McKenzie, 2007; Ruland, 2010; Fields,
2014), or participatory online culture enhanced by new technologies (Orton-
Johnson, 2014; also Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2007; Gauntlett, 2011). Craft
activity in public, whether online or offline, can be interpreted as an activity
aiming to revolutionize the privacy of the domestic and resisting the traditional
placing of women (Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2007, 14).
Although the gender normativity of textile hobby, along with the connotation
of the Veblenian notion of social class, seems to be gradually eroding and craft
making nowadays invites people across a range of backgrounds and skills
(Myzelev, 2009; Hewitt, 2010; Fisk, 2012), it would be difficult to deny that
textile-based hobby crafts still appeal to many middle-aged, middle-classed
women (e.g., Wills, 2007, 30; Shin & Ha, 2011; Hanifi, 2005, 126). In Finland,
recent discussions have tended to highlight hobby craft making as an activity
exceeding (and challenging) the ostensible social and cultural boundaries with a
vision of openness with catchphrases such as “käsityö kuuluu kaikille” craft is
everyone’s business (Käsityö elämässä, 2013; also Nykänen, 2014, 17). Given
the deep-rooted imagination of textile hobby craft as a site of femininity, this
narrative of openness can be understood as a quest to dispute both disciplinary
power, and the normativity of the gender sedimented in the practices of domestic
crafting (see e.g. Hanifi, 2005; Kokko, 2009; Bain, 2016). However, women
engaged in textile hobby craft making at home are still often obligated to
negotiate their activities within the constraints and responsibilities of family life
and home duties (Stalp, 2006, 112), which suggests that craft making as fun
leisure is not completely liberated from domesticity—the norms are just being
re-negotiated (and re-accepted, reproduced, and resisted) within the
contemporary time and space.

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

2.2 Textile hobby crafts and new domesticity

Whas traditionally taken place in homes has recently become celebrated in
places that in normative society have served public socialization – pubs, parks,
libraries, shops, streets, and cyberspace (Myzelev, 2009; also Minahan &
Wolfram Cox, 2007). This has also changed the understanding of the place that
has traditionally been regarded as a site of women’s production, namely, the
home itself. Jack Bratich and Heidi Brusch (2011, 239–240) aim at explaining
the reterritorialization of feminine home space with a process they call
“reclaiming”: Bratich and Brush make a distinction between the return to the old
and the reclamation of the old, since, according to them, reclaiming is about
changing the old, negatively-charged associations of domesticity as female
subordination, devalued labor, and social role restrictions with new affirmative
notions. For Bratich and Brush, “reclaiming” means reconstituting and
refurnishing the past rather than just building on the heritage of the past. Within
this process, the relation to space changes, partly due to the act of reconstitution,
partly due to the new meanings it evokes:

This is an affirmation of something that is no longer what we thought it

was. We could call it “returning to the home,” but that space is no longer
the same. Within contemporary fabriculture, practitioners are not forced
to go, nor is it always framed as empowerment due to postfeminist
“choice.” A sentiment like “you can’t go home again” evokes the pro-
cess here: The return is of something that is not the same and may not
have been the same even “back then.” To put it another way, this is not
“returning to the home” but more like “detourning the home” (p. 239).

Other authors have conceptualized the changes within the home by alluding to
the “new domesticity,” which refers to a trendy way of appropriating of
traditional housework and domestic feminine practices, with the emphasis on the
1940s and 1950s styles and home practices (Chansky, 2010; Dawkins, 2011;
Hellstrom, 2013; Hunt & Phillipov, 2014; Dirix, 2014). In this vein, Rosanna
Hunt and Michelle Phillipov (2014) have written about the re-emerging
femininities understood as both a resistance to neoliberal consumerism, and a
reflection of the “progressive politics of consumption expressed through images
and aesthetics that are culturally coded as conservative.” For Hunt and Phillipov,
the retrofeminists new domesticity that is being “reimagined as simultaneously
nostalgic and politically progressive choices for women” articulates the politics
of anti-consumerism, environmentalism, and sustainable consumption through
the mobilization of the practices of the grandparent generation. The retrun to
practices associated with traditional domesticity and femininities has been
conceptualized with an image of grandmother, and references to “nanna style”
(Hunt & Phillipov, 2014), or “the inner nana” (Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2011).
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Anna Kouhia

Hunt and Phillipov (2014) consider nanna to be a “countercultural icon”

exemplifying the resignification of the home-based practices such as craft
making, cookery, baking, repairing, and gardening, which have been tradi-
tionally coded as old-fashioned, outdated, conservative, or uncool. In line with
Bratich and Brush’s (2011) ideas of “detourning to home,” Hunt and Phillipov’s
(2014) examinations show that nanna activities do not indicate a return to a
patriarchal, pre-feminist conception of home, but cherish the home as a space for
deliberation where “the past can be reinterpreted in the context of contemporary
needs and politics.” On a broader scale, we might also talk about the emergence
of “historically reflexive and community minded new amateurs,” who according
to Hackney (2013, 187), perceive craft as a powerful capacity, are well informed
about the on- and offline resources, and engage in alternative craft economies.
These emerging maker identities have left the door open for the reconsideration
of hobby crafts “as a fun, urban, slightly ironic, but sexy, hobby” (Groeneveld,
2010, 261) that is capable of appealing to the young hipster generation exploring
alternative interpretations of consumerism, domesticity, and traditional gender
norms, and with the power to rebel “against the globalization of labor exploit-
tation and consumer indifference” (Jeffries, 2011, 223–224; also Crawford,
2009, 8; Mackinney-Valentin, 2013; Kelly, 2014; Hunt & Phillipov, 2014; Dirix,
2014).
In Finland, the arts of nanna have come into being through the renewed
interest in domestic, granny-like craft practices mixed with trendy, urban-vibe
hype. The resulting grannyism (mummoilu in Finnish, derived from mummo,
granny), cherishes enthusiasm for traditional cultural activities as fashionable
lifestyle choices that allow individuals to build and enhance identities though an
engagement with “old-fashioned” domesticity (e.g., Koskelainen & Saure, 2014;
Sivonen, 2015). In this vein, grannyism is entwined with simplicity, dexterity,
sustainability, and downshifting (Sivonen, 2015), the same values demonstrated
in the broader nanna-phenomenon with the re-emergence of domesticated crafts,
homely production, and contemporary third-wave feminism.
Today, young adults interested in mummoilu undertake seemingly rural and
traditional domestic activities, like mending and repairing, woolly-sock knitting,
berry picking, and enjoying domesticity through “homing” (Pöllänen, 2013a;
also Koskelainen & Saure, 2014; Sivonen, 2015). However, the practices of the
grandparent generation are not always adopted straightforwardly, but “resigni-
fied and reinterpreted in the context of contemporary needs and politics” (Hunt
& Phillipov, 2014), for example when they are transformed and applied to
contemporary practices, methods and materials (see Koskelainen & Saure,
2014), and shared within the social media. Enhanced by new tools and techno-
logies, such as blogs and social media, the new domesticity has become widely
dissem nated. This, according to Maria Hellstrom (2013, 52), blurs even more

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

the boundaries between the “old” domesticity as something private, and the
“new” domesticity as domestication set out in the public realm.
Sometimes new domesticity home activities are considered to be “an explo-
ration of feminine power and pride” that provide a channel to many difficult
emotions with powerfully productive activity (Chansky, 2010, 682), while at
other times the nanna-style activities appear as a culture of restraint embracing
conscious home economy, and frugal and self-sufficient ethical consumption as
the means to a good life in opposition to a high-speed, work-dominated,
materiallistic lifestyle (Soper, 2007, 115, also Soper, 2008; Dirix, 2014). This
counterconsumptional ethos sustains a view of nanna activities as the affirmation
and redevelopment of the practices of the grandparent generation, and enables
the idea of intergenerational affiliation, cohesion, and the pleasures of familial
warmth between the makers of the different generations (Groeneveld, 2010, 273;
Morrison & Marr, 2013; Dirix, 2014). Still, even if craft making would be
understood as a way to feel more engaged with the older generations, this does
not mean that the meanings of the practice would become shared. Indeed, as
Joanne Turney (2009, 11) has noticed, the women who have lived through the
period of oppressed feminine domestication, may find it difficult to reconcile the
meanings of the younger generation to whom hobby crafts may be understood as
a pleasurable choice, and a way to encompass public or social activity distanced
from the necessities of domestic chores. Thus, the renewal of old household
practices represented through new domesticity could be best understood as
resignification (Bratich & Brush, 2011; Hunt & Phillipov, 2014), which allows
contemporary nanna makers to carve a space of pleasure for themselves. Indeed,
the larger strengths of contemporary hobby craft today, as Hackney (2013, 187)
argues, seem to build on values that have been cherished within the discussions
of new domesticity, namely, historical reflexivity, and an interest in community
building and sharing.

2.3 Crafts expressing the personal

Narratives of craft culture commonly discuss craft making as a form of self-
expression: a growing body of research literature explores the practice and
occupational applications of craft within different specific and local settings
(e.g., Gandolfo & Grace, 2010; Dawkins, 2011; Kokko & Dillon, 2011; Shin &
Ha, 2011; Dirix, 2014;). Among other things, these studies have highlighted the
meaning and value of craft making as a form of self-identification, social
inclusion, and a critique of institutional and sociopolitical structures. For
example, Jill Riley (2008, 71) represented one of several craft researchers who
have emphasized the importance of craft making as an expression, highlighting
how engaging in creative making contributes to a person’s sense of self, and “of
being and becoming who we are.” At the core of this thinking is the belief that

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the self is constantly being reformed and regenerated in dialogue with the world.
This dialogic conception of the world insists on the idea of liquid modernity,
namely, the awareness of the ever-becoming self through feelings of uncertainty
and privatization of ambivalence (Bauman, 2001; 2011). This nomadic search
for the self builds on the idea of continuous individual transformation, enabling
the reading of conflicts, tensions, and contradictions in self-representation. In
this light, craft making can be understood as a means of material expression that
reflects on the values, assumptions, and social positions of the given moment,
while the meanings of craft making remain temporal, situational, and
progressive. Accordingly, “to craft” becomes a concern for individual vision and
material expression, which correspond to the maker’s self-enrichment and visual
practices of self-realization.
In recent years, textile hobby crafts have been often discussed in a reflection
of the need to express one’s inner thoughts, beliefs, and aesthetic ideas.
Generally, the emphasis has shifted beyond the functional needs of the
household to embrace personal exploration, at least in terms of craft projects
undertaken as pastime projects outside the necessities of household domesticity.
Nevertheless, there is no denial that many craft projects serve functional and
expressive purposes. For instance, a recent sociological study by Marybeth Stalp
(2015) revealed that feminine leisure activities, such as quilting and knitting, are
undertaken because women themselves consider the activities expressive and
private fun, both engaging and entertaining. Despite the emphasis on self-
expression and leisure fun, these projects often require the production of a new
meaning in dialogue with functionality (see also Risatti, 2009). However, it has
been claimed that a great number of contemporary craft makers embrace their
craft projects “with a sense of strength, not servitude” (Chansky, 2010, 681), as a
form of personal expression instead of repetitive and specialized tasks (Bratich
& Brush, 2011, 235).
The craftivist movement in particular (e.g., Greer, 2008; 2011; Groeneveld,
2010; Koch, 2012) seems to have harnessed craft making in the service of self-
expression. In craftivism, craft activities are usually undertaken to protest the
materialism and inequalities in society, with aims to recognize the power of
creativity as a catalyst of change and a way to “actively recognize and remember
[one’s] place in the world” (Greer, 2011, 180). Today, this opportunity to
actualize individual strength and personal choice through textile craft making
seems to attract to a vast number of makers as a way to fight for change
creatively. Thanks to the rise of online craft forums on the Internet, sharing
one’s personal microrevolts with likeminded people has become effective and
effortless (Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2007; Gauntlett, 2011). This has further
created a space for the politicization of the handmade and launched a range of
projects “knitting for good” (Greer, 2008). For example, in Finland, we have
witnessed several politically-savvy collective craft projects during the past few

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years, most notably a project campaigning for good in the form of a knitting
challenge, which encouraged craft makers to knit woolly socks for asylum
seekers in order to express humanity, sympathy, and hospitality. There has also
been a widespread social craft movement to express graciousness and warmth
with the making of crocheted octopuses for premature babies and their families.
This movement has not been purely a function of the intention to protest but
rather an act of asserting the worth of craft making as a way to campaign for
good. Crocheted octopuses seek to explore opportunities for the production of
new meaning generated through personal expression and the materiality of
making striving for the greater good.
Overall, it seems that craft making has become known in the current debates
as a means of expressing oneself, since it lets ordinary people illustrate their own
aesthetic taste and creates an avenue for self-contemplation. Moreover, craft
making has been recognized as “a way of creating space and time for the self”
(Parkins, 2004, 433). In such view, craft projects are portrayed as personal
projects that require large amount of attention, determination, and reflection on
one’s own maker identity. However, it needs to be highlighted that no culturally
approved identities as craft makers exist, and identities which are communicated
subtly through “an urgent selfexpression, a claiming of something integral,
joyful and somewhat subversive”, are ambiguous and contradictory, and their
understandings of themselves are complex (Gandolfo & Grace, 2010).

2.4 Doing crafts together

Today, collective craft efforts provide the ground for many forms of
collaboration. In recent research literature, making crafts together has been
habitually portrayed as a way to exchange mutual respect, nurture interaction
between makers, and build collaborative skills in a community (e.g., Schofield-
Tomschin & Littrell, 2001; Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009; Gandolfo & Grace,
2010). Many studies have also underlined the significance of social connecting
through hands-on engagement, and the value of sewing circles, craft groups, and
other types of social craft communities. On a broad scale, the recent research
literature shows that informal social skill-sharing within the realm of amateur
production nurtures the wellbeing of the makers participating in collaborative
activities (Maidment & Macfarlane, 2011a; 2011b; Gandolfo & Grace, 2010;
Ruland, 2010; Morrison & Marr, 2013). Social or community-based craft
making has also been granted to provide an avenue for experiencing individual
and collective identities (Scholfield-Tomschin & Littrell, 2001; Johnson &
Wilson, 2005; Riley, 2008) and identified as a means to nurture social
connectedness through friendship and mutual aid circulated within hobby craft
groups (Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009).

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Anna Kouhia

The view of people developing memberships in craft groups through

participation in shared activities leans on ideas about community development
within communities of practices, where understandings of engagement and
interest are shared among the people within a particular domain of interest (see
Lave & Wenger, 1991). According to Stacey Kuznetsov and Eric Paulos (2010,
296), crafting communities are often communities of low threshold showcasing
“meta information” about the community participants: communities invite
sensitivity to share personal experiences and knowledge among fellow members,
offering possibilities to contribute collaborative and interdisciplinary skill
building by circulating ideas in and across communities, and increasing their
participation through participation in informal group activities (Kuznetsov &
Paulos, 2010, 301; also Stevens, 2011, 46–47). This in turn, allows one to
observe crafting communities as ideal spaces for sharing knowledge, skills,
resources, processes, sense of purpose and support as an outcome of network ties
(Maidment & Macfarlane, 2011a; Millar, 2013).
Considering craft making as a connective activity recognizes the fundamen-
tally social, culturally situated, and relational character of craft. Accordingly,
Amanda Ravetz, Alice Kettle and Helen Felcey (2013) talk about collaboration
through craft as a dialogic, reciprocal process integrating the maker’s conception
and execution of idea, form, and matter with ongoing interaction with others.
They suggest that collaboration is “expansive in its vision . . . made real with the
action repeatedly constituted and reconstituted” (Ravetz, Kettle & Felcey, 2013,
10). This view challenges individual authorship and the ideas of craft making as
the artisanship of the lone genius craftsman (cf. Sennett, 2008, 74–80). Instead,
craft making becomes imagined as a relational, dynamic creative praxis based on
collaborative capabilities expanding our personal engagement with the material.
Correspondingly, Otto von Busch (2013) has suggested that DIY culture is,
in fact, inscribed in a social framework through the mobilization of community
capabilities. By this he means that besides enhancing internal capabilities among
makers, craft making actualizes shared community forms and therefore produces
a new Do-It-Together “bodyhood of skills” collectively based on the initiated
action (von Busch, 2013). However, von Busch (2013, 145) argues that the do-
ittogetherness which occurs in collaborative craft activity is more producing
“molecular and interconnected discourse and practice” and mobilizing and
sharing interconnected skills, tools, patterns, and methods to enhance internal as
well as external capabilities, than about making collective actions concurrently
in harmony. This view emphasizes the importance of the shared repertoires of
skills mediated in social interaction, and connective capacities of craft.
All in all, it has been suggested that through involvement in group-based
craft activities practitioners discover many positive social benefits: craftspeople
might enjoy spending time with likeminded people, share ideas, and gain mutual
support (Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009). Beyond these everyday social benefits,

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it has been claimed that craft activities are capable of providing a sense of
continuity and support during life transitions and changes in the conditions of
everyday life (Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009; Kenning, 2015). Joint craft
activities are also believed to afford makers opportunities for reciprocal inter-
action, peerto-peer support, and spiritual commitment, ultimately contributing to
one’s perceptions of health, well-being and quality of life, and experiences of
belonging (Schofield-Tomschin & Littrell, 2001; Riley, 2008; Kenning, 2015;
Stannard & Sanders, 2015). Craft traditions mediated in social interaction may
also connect makers with each other, and help to build social bridges between
the makers. Accordingly, a study by Enza Gandolfo and Marty Grace (2010)
reported that hobby craft making not only helped to treasure memories of
intergenerational family connections, but also maintain and develop relations
with various family members. There is also a growing consensus that craft
making is capable of forging intergenerational connections with other makers
within the community of practice (Morrison & Marr, 2013; also Groeneveld,
2010, 274).
Textile handcraft communities that are most often based on voluntary
participation have long provided opportunities for craft makers to identify their
place in the world individually and collectively (Schofield-Tomschin & Littrell,
2001; Johnson & Wilson, 2005; also Stalp, 2006). Today, as Kuznetsov and
Paulos (2010) have noticed, many hobby craft practitioners belong and
contribute to several, and often co-existent, communities of practices. Locally,
people might gather together in public or semi-public places such as cafés, pubs,
and leisure centers to practice and discuss craft, engaging in collective learning
processes in a shared domain (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Simultaneously, they
might take part in the actions within online communities afforded by
technological innovations, and share and showcase their craft projects with other
community members virtually (e.g., Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2007; Gauntlett,
2011; also Vartiainen, 2010).
In fact, accessibility of information and resources seems to stimulate inter-
relations across community domains (Kuznetsov & Paulos, 2010, 301). In this
vein, Arden Hagedorn and Stephanie Springgay’s (2013) research highlights that
many craft makers merge traditional crafting skills with technological strategies,
engaging in various coexistent and sometimes overlapping communities of prac-
tices online and offline. The sense of community, though, is developed through
spontaneous sharing and accessible informal support: hobby craft communities
offer a supportive network and a place where those committed to craft can acti-
vely pursue their creative efforts, building lasting group connections through a
shared learning experience (Hagedorn & Springgay, 2013, 26).

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2.5 Being (well) with textile hobby crafts

What seems to be characteristic of hobby craft activities, whether those that are
individually practiced or those undertaken as part of social activities, is that the
activities are often reflected in the discussions how crafts benefit the well-being
of the makers. Similarly, scholars have highlighted that craft making contributes
to the well-being of the maker in a number of ways: craft making has been
celebrated as a source of pleasure and creative self-expression (Schofield-
Tomschin, 1999; Johnson & Wilson, 2005; Jeffries, 2011; Collier, 2011), and
regarded as therapeutic material exploration providing a means of distraction
from emotional stress and depression through feelings of calmness, relaxation,
social connectedness, and a sense of empowerment (e.g., Reynolds, 2000;
Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009; Corkhill, Hemmings, Maddock & Riley, 2014;
Pöllänen, 2015a).
The term “well-being” has been habitually used to describe a state of being
characterized by health, happiness, and prosperity: positive outcomes that
emerge in terms of physical, mental, and social meaningfulness found in many
sectors of society. Although well-being is frequently discussed from the
perspective of public health building on disease prevention and institutional
health promotion, in this study I use the notion of well-being in relation to
mental health as a condition of being contented, balanced, and happy. A healthy
physical condition is, of course, fundamental; however, this study places greater
emphasis on well-being as a condition of existence “in which every individual
realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can
work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his
community” (World Health Organiztion, 2014). In this view, well-being related
to hobby crafts can be defined as a sense of contentment and pleasure arising
from the purposeful and self-determined act of making, and well-being is
intimately connected with a sense of being (Riley, 2008).
Well-being refers to purposeful, self-initiated craft making oriented toward
leisure. In a reflection of Stebbins’s (2013) ideas, human beings intrinsically
strive for freedom and leisure and intentionally search for ease, peace, and
repose. Accordingly, Stebbins introduced the term homo otiosus, with which he
characterized the nature of a human being. He argued that finding more free time
is a fundamental, “albeit, initial step in improving the quality of life”, and that
people are able to express their own selfhood through “leisuring” (Stebbins,
2013, p. 20). In this sense, as Stebbins also argued, leisuring is an active state of
mind and includes a vast array of pleasurable actions pursued in free time, in
order to find enjoyment and well-being.
There are many ways to enjoy crafts, yet especially for a skilled maker, the
flow of the process itself seems to be cherished over materiality of products.
Critical to an understanding of the experienced well-being of craft making is
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) interrogation of the notion of flow as a kind
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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

of immersion in the activity, when the maker experiences meaningfulness in the

course of an activity. The soft click of knitting needles, the touch of the material
in one’s hands, and the repetitive movement of the body are all part of the
meditative flow so familiar for many hobby craft makers. Hand knitting, in
particular, is often described in resonance with the broader aims of mindfulness
and well-being gained through bodily enactment: it has been argued that knitting
offers a moment of comfort and enjoyment during difficult times by and giving a
sense of purpose to both the mind and the body (e.g., Fisk, 2012; Riley, Corkhill
& Morris, 2013; Corkhill et. al. 2014). In many respects, the experience of
groundedness to the world shares affinities with the celebration of knitting as a
soothing spiritual practice, which helps to build a connection with the inner self
(Parkins, 2004; Riley, 2008).
Whether approached from the view of religious spirituality (Fisk, 2012), or
meditative zen-like mindful activity (Murphy, 2002), knitting seems to link with
metaphysical self-discovery and a desire to rediscover meaningfulness in life. In
this vein, the rhythmic and sensory flow of making is said to coalesce with
descriptions of knitting as a meditative and selftherapeutizing activity, with
statements promoting the use of needlecraft as a therapy medium or a self-
initiated quietist retreat from the world (e.g., Reynolds, 2000; Parkins, 2004).
Not only knitting has a positive impact on experienced well-being: Jill Riley
(2008), and more recently, Emily Burt and Jacqueline Atkinson (2011) and Ann
Collier (2011) have privileged the idea of craft making enhancing the sense of
the self through various different media; knitting, sewing, crocheting, weaving,
spinning, embroidery, cross stitch, dying, and quilting being the most widely
applied ways to practice crafts (Collier, 2011, 107). A study by Burt and
Atkinson (2011) explained that, amongst other things, quilting enhanced feelings
of satisfaction and self-fulfillment, boosted the confidence and sense of mastery,
and helped to maintain cognitive abilities. Riley (2008) and Collier (2011),
amongst others, have reported that textile handcraft contributes to experiences of
self-maintenance and creative expression, enhancing one’s sense of the self,
along with social fulfillment and sense of collectivity. Many other studies have
also underpinned the significance of craft making for facilitating personal
growth, and providing a sense of continuity and connectedness for the lives of
the makers (Schofield-Tomschlin & Littrell, 2001; Johnson & Wilson, 2005;
Gandolfo & Grace, 2010; Hagedorn & Springgay, 2013; Pöllänen, 2015b).
Many studies in the field of craft highlight material characteristics of the
handcrafted products. For example, a study by Joyce Starr Johnson and Laurel
Wilson (2005) found that, amongst other benefits, craft making provided
tangible benefits first, during the process of making through the commitment to
the learning of skills and the planning and creation of textile handcrafts, and
later, during the intended use of the product through the materiality of the
products. In fact, handcrafted objects, in particular, seem to have value and

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Anna Kouhia

significance as objects conveying and narrating memories and life histories of

their owners and concretizing the perceptions of the place (Hoskins, 1998;
Luutonen, 2008; Pöllänen, 2013b). Accordingly, studies have suggested that
craft makers do not only produce objects for themselves, but that handcrafts are
also given – and received – as gifts, and therefore have significance as valuable
and meaningful objects for both maker and receiver (Mason, 2005; Turney,
2012; Pöllänen, 2013b). According to Sinikka Pöllänen (2013b), crafts have
meaning and value both as material objects in the homes of their makers, “as
visible marks of work done that could be passed on to successive generation,”
and as meaningful activity nurturing the development of physical and cognitive
skills and personal identities, and learning to cope with significant losses, illness,
or emotional and physical stress. Also, “holistic intentionality of making”
(Pöllänen, 2013b) has been associated with the sense of success gained from
learning a new technique from readymade instructions, or a successfully
conducted self-expressive design process providing experiences of mastery of
the praxis (also Schofield-Tomschin & Littrell, 2001).

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

3 Research design

Needle clicked against needle, shifting loops.

Spinning yarn, knitting on, the bonny ball turned
Tikku toistaan kilkutteli, silmukoita siirteli,
Lanka juoksi, silmää loi, kerä kimmoinen kiepahti

This chapter provides a view of research methodology, and to turns, spins, and
twists of data gathering, analyses, and the writing of the research narrative. The
chapter starts with a summary of research tasks and questions, which all deal
with issues of reflexivity and perceived meaningfulness in one way of another.
These are followed by sections that show that there is a strong focus on personal
subjectivity, and a great deal of overlap between research methodologies. The
onto-epistemological assumptions of the study fall within social construction-
nism; the methods and data all fit within a qualitative framework, and include
interviews, participant observation, and arts-based autoethnography. Part of the
unique contribution of the overall study lies in the development of a visual-
reflexive self-study methodology working on the meanings of practice captured
and reviewed through autoethnographic cinema. This, along with other examina-
tions of the meanings of textile hobby crafts, is reported in the final part of the
chapter.

3.1 Research tasks and questions

This dissertation comprises three sub-studies (Studies I–III) reported in three
different research articles. Each sub-study provides a different angle to the
meanings of textile hobby craft. The sub-studies draw from the general research
task. The detailed meanings of textile crafts for hobby practitioners in current
times are discussed, but the task is approached through different research
interests, questions, and research methods. As is so often the case in qualitative
research, the sub-studies have emerged from each other, each study proceeding
from the ground reframed by the previous ones. Together, these three studies
add to an understanding of the meaning and value of textile-based hobby craft
making in the contemporary world. Table 1 summarizes the research design,
tasks, and research questions in Studies I–III. Study I focused on the meanings
that emerge from subjective craft experiences and had one specified research
task and question. Study II specified two research questions, which aimed to
explore the intersubjective meanings and resources required to generate a
collective sense in a hobby craft community. Study III distinguished between
two research tasks and questions, an interest in the meanings of the young maker

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Anna Kouhia

generation and the development of new visual-reflexive research methods for

studying such meanings.

Table 1. Summary of research design in Studies I, II, and III.

Sub- Research Specified research tasks Research questions

Study interests

Study I Meanings Discover and categorize (1) What can be identified as the
emerging from the common content for common kinds of meanings that
subjective lived subjective meanings crafts have?
experiences attached to textile hobby
crafts

Study II Meanings Explore the generation of (2) How is a collective sense
emerging intersubjective meanings nurtured, lived through and
through and a collective sense in a interpreted by craft practitioners
collective craft hobby craft community in a hobbyist community of
processes practice?
(3) What kinds of resources are
required for the generation of a
collective sense?
Study III Meanings Investigate the meanings (4) What constitutes the
emerging from of textile hobby crafts for meanings of textile hobby crafts
subjective lived the young maker for a young maker, and what do
experiences generation these constituents reveal about
discursive debates within the
contemporary craft culture?

Representation Elaborate on the use of (5) What is the value of

of the meanings visual-reflexive research autoethnographic cinema as a
methods in capturing and method of self-reflection, and
reviewing one’s own what does it provide for the
maker identities and the study of practice?
meanings of hobby
practices

At the time when I started this study, I was curious about how other people
experienced craft products as material objects and made sense of their processes
of making. Framed accordingly, Study I focused on subjective experiential
meanings as argued by the makers themselves (Table 1). Study I was particularly
interested in the meanings emerging from “the ways of using material, of sharing
it, of talking about it, of naming it and of making it” (Dant, 1999, 11) as a
common ground for sharing values, activities, and lifestyles with others. Thus,
the study had an interest in, first, the materiality of craft products as
representatives of culturally embedded knowledge, and second, the processes of
making crafts as recreational activity. The overall aim of Study I was to discover
and identify different kinds of commonly argued meanings experienced by
hobby craft people coming from different backgrounds, and classify the

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

identified meanings into representative meaning categories that could reveal a

knowledge of the meanings of craft that go beyond cultural boundaries.
The interrogation of the intersubjective meanings of hobby craft making
nurtured my interest in collective craft practices in Study II (Table 1). Focusing
on the generation of collective sense among a group of textile hobby craft
makers, Study II examined the meanings emerging from shared craft process.
Study II had a particular interest in the formation, reproduction and negotiation
of collective meanings within an informal peer-learning-based hobby
community. The aim of Study II was to produce knowledge on how collective
meanings were constructed, nourished and lived through by community
members, and on the other hand, how collective meanings were disciplined and
resourced in the given community of practice. The first research question (see
Table 1) was connected to the second one, since the quest for the collective
sense entailed a need to look into the resources for the activities. For this reason,
the emphasis in Study II was in the case-sensitive descriptions of the lived
situations that occurred in the very community of practice. The descriptions
merged reflective accounts of the researcher participating in the group, and nine
other hobby craft makers, who were interviewed after the group meetings.
Finally, adding to the search of the experiential meanings of hobbyist craft
making, Study III provided a perspective on the representation and
performativity of the meanings of making with the assistance of cinematic
technology (Table 1). Study III built on my own experiences of being a hobby
craft maker through an arts-based autoethnographic short film production.
Through that, the aim was to explore the meanings of hobby crafts from the
perspective of a young maker in order to understand what constitutes meaning
for the young maker generation, and reflect on the addressed concerns within the
current discursive debates underlying the realm of hobby craft. From a
methodological perspective, Study III focused on promoting and developing
visual-reflexive research methods when searching for the meanings of embodied
practices. This was done through the elaboration on the worth and value of
autoethnographic cinema as a method for reflecting and documenting practice.

3.2 Social constructionist perspective on meaning-making

In the overall study, the theory of knowledge leans on social constructionism,
which is based on a belief that people inhabit the world with other beings,
constructing understandings of the world and what occurs on the grounds of
social interactions (Hacking, 1999; Burr, 2015; also Scott, 2011, 177–179).
Drawing from symbolic interactionism (Mead, 1950; Blumer, 1986),
phenomenology (Schutz, 1970), and most notably from Peter Berger and
Thomas Luckmann’s The Social Construction of Reality (1985, first published in
1966), recognized as a classic of sociology of knowledge, social constructionism

31
Anna Kouhia

emphasizes that the understanding of reality is constructed through social

processes, namely that reality is itself being created and rationalized through
interaction with the social world (Liebrucks, 2001; Fairhurst & Grant, 2010;
Burr, 2015). Accordingly, social constructionism focuses on the ways in with
people construct, cultivate and habitualize realities through social processes, and
engage in the construction of perceived social phenomena as specified by
prevailing historical and cultural circumstances. Such a view does not deny the
existence of the material reality behind social phenomena – some scholars have
even interpreted social constructionism in the light of a subtle realism that
recognizes the existence of phenomena independent of our subjective claims
(Hammersley, 1992; Searle, 1995; also Andrews, 2012) – but insists that there
cannot be direct access to such reality since our knowledge of reality is socially
conditioned. Social constructionism tends to take a relativist view of reality by
stating that the nature of reality and beliefs about its knowability are negotiated
and reinterpreted, and that social structures and cultural meanings are
constructed and circulated through the concatenation of social interaction, and
inextricably intertwined with subjective values, symbols, and perspectives (Burr,
1998; Scott, 2011). Thus, meaning-making is understood to take place in a
dialectic relationship to lived reality as people construct the world through
interactions between and among social agents while being simultaneously
affected and transformed by these same worlds (Berger & Luckmann, 1985, 204;
Hacking, 1999; Fairhurst & Grant, 2010).
In terms of the present study, social constructionism is prior to relational
epistemology. Social constructionism renders crafts as sociocultural entities
whose meanings are not fixed or prescriptive, but open to endless negotiation,
reinterpretation and recontextualization. These meanings evolve, and are being
repeatedly redefined in social circumstances. When applied to the study of craft
making, this suggests that as people participate in craft making they make
connections on the material level to create something new. They also make
connections with others practitioners in social processes, eventually connecting
with the surrounding world through situational cultural practices that shape the
meaning of these practices (see Gauntlett, 2011). Accordingly, David Gauntlett
(2011, 2, 25, 63; see also Vartiainen, 2010) has shown that material connections
involve a social dimension which brings makers together, and further, with the
tools and technologies of online and offline environments, increase the sense of
sharing within the maker communities through the materiality of making.
Moreover, Gauntlett has suggested that craft making connects human beings
with broader social communities and value systems through hands-on
engagement, and offers a frame for creativity “which helps people to learn and
bond together” (Gauntlett, 2011, 67). Perceiving craft making as cultural
socialization provides a ground for the present study to examine the meanings
attached to textile hobby crafts. In this study, I have approached meaning-

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

making as interpersonal and collective processes that base their relevance on

individuals and their socially constructed actions. This is to say that the inter-
pretative processes that constitute the social structures are seen as irreducible to
individual action, although the frameworks that inform the construction of social
reality are being negotiated in the hands and minds of individuals.
With the overall aim to explain and understand the meanings of textile hobby
crafts today, the dissertation has been inspired by the philosophy of pheno-
menological research, which requires the researcher to become involved in the
participants’ lived experiences, and is accompanied by a “phenomenological
attitude” (Wertz, 2005; Finlay, 2014) which emphasizes an empathic “attitude of
wonder” (Wertz, 2005, 172) as a principle of acquiring knowledge of practice.
Throughout the dissertation process, I have paid close attention to images, ideas,
and emotions attached to the aspects of experience (see Holstein & Gubrium,
1998, 139), with an aim to acknowledge “the meaning of the situation purely as
it is given in the participant’s experience” (Wertz, 2005, 172).
It is important to note that although meaning is often connected with
conscious linguistic expression, the corporeality of lived moments is part of
phenomenological understanding. Along with consciousness, the body associates
emotions with particular types of experiences through habitualization. According
to Lanei Rodemeyer (2008), consciousness and the body are both part of pheno-
menological understanding; only when we need to bring this embodied
consciousness to others, does language come into play. Consequently, a pheno-
menological examination of embodied experience aims to bring meanings into
language and description by conceptualizing them. Although linguistic
description always informs and influences the body, just as body can influence
language, all meanings do not come straight to us or translate into language.
Nevertheless, even embodied experiences have been mediated for us by
discourse (Rodemeyer, 2008, 207–208). Accordingly, as this study has been
driven by an interest to explain lived experience through immediate involvement
in everyday concerns, unnamed, embodied experiences are of great value in this
examination: throughout the research process I have lived in the culture under
study and through the course of actions become more and more absorbed in it
through the reconstruction of the sensibility of experiences (see Groenewald,
2004; Smith, 2004; Kleiman, 2004; Cerbone, 2014).

3.3 Knitting it together: Methods and data

The empirical investigation is based on complex real-life cases dealing with
multiple and complementary data sources (Yin, 2009), which aim to depict an
understanding of the phenomenon under scrutiny through a rich description of
the case and themes uncovered (Creswell, 2013, 99). Methodologically, the
overall study combines two different explanatory approaches; one that develops

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Anna Kouhia

an understanding of the experiences through an accustomed, interview-based

qualitative research methodology and participant observation (Studies I and II),
and another that is grounded in self-reflective articulation of experiences
(Studies II and III). In detail, Study I was committed to a descriptive, interview-
based qualitative case study approach, and it used qualitative content analysis
(e.g., Mayring, 2000; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Schreier, 2014) to interpret and
describe the subjective meanings of craftspeople. Study II leaned on similar
qualitative interview methods but combined them with an autoethnographic self-
study methodology in order to add to the understanding of the collective
meanings of textile hobby crafts. Study III drew from the interplay of the
introspective, personally engaged self with cultural descriptions through an
autoethnographic research approach (see Ellis & Bochner, 2000; Ellis, 2004).
Table 2 summarizes the research methodologies and data gathering processes in
Studies I–III.

Table 2. Summary of research methodologies and data gathering processes in Studies I, II, and III.

Sub- Methods of Study Data Data

Study data collection participants specification analysis
Study Unstructured 6 craftspeople Unstructured Qualitative content
I interviews coming from interviews analysis
Participant different cultural Written and visual
observation backgrounds field notes
Hobby craft makers
participating in two
recreational craft
events

Study Focused 16 hobbyist craft Focused interviews Qualitative content
II interviews makers participating Field notes analysis
Participant in a hobby craft Analysis through
course Descriptive-
observation reflective research narrative writing
Autoethno- of which narrative
graphic 9 were interviewed
self-study-
practice
Study Autoethno- Craft maker- Autoethnographic Analysis through
III graphic researcher craft narrative narrative writing
self-study-
practice Process diary
Short film script
Autoethnographic
cinema

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

3.3.1 Interviews with craftspeople

Interviewing is a fundamental research method to gain knowledge of social
phenomena and lived experiences. The epistemological background of the
interview- based methodology is founded on a belief that individuals who
actively create and construct their views of the social world are able to
communicate their perspectives verbally (Lewis & McNaughton Nicholls,
2013); accordingly, interviews draw from an attempt to make sense of the
phenomena in terms of the meanings that people have within a certain culture
through linguistic expression (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Myers & Newman,
2007). In the context of qualitative research, interviews are widely used as tools
“to explore people’s understandings of their lives and aspects of their
experiences” (Edwards & Holland, 2013, 11), or to record and analyze
informants’ subjective perspectives, and meanings and motives for action (Hopf,
2004, 203). In general, interviews are amongst the most fundamental approaches
to gain knowledge of the motives, ideas, and beliefs behind people’s behavior,
and learning about the experiences of others (Jennings 2005; DiCicco-Bloom, &
Crabtree, 2006; Myers & Newman, 2007; Taylor, Bogdan & DeVault, 2015).
In the course of this study, I conducted both informal, unstructured inter-
views (Study I) and focused interviews (Study II) among craftspeople. With
unstructured (or, unstandardized, Berg 2009, 106–107) interviews the aim was to
elicit the meanings of crafts through free-flowing interaction with craftspeople,
with questions emerging spontaneously during the interviews (DiCicco-Bloom,
& Crabtree, 2006, 315). In Study I, interviews were conducted among women
coming from six different countries (Finland, England, Uruguay, Peru, Tanzania,
and Slovakia). Access to interviewees was achieved through hobby craft courses
in a local crafts center, networks related to craft activity, and by word of mouth
concerning the interests of the study within different social groups. The
interviews in Study I were conducted either in semi-public places, or in the
homes of the study participants’. The interviews lasted 1 to 3 hours.
In each interview session, I posed at first some systematically formulated
questions regarding the study participants backgrounds, but the interviews
readily turned out as conversation-like discussions about (1) the craft culture of
the study participants’ country of origin, (2) family traditions and craft
memories, and (3) cultural values and social, economic, or political influences in
craft traditions in the interviewees’ home countries. The same questions were
not asked of each interviewee (see Latham & Finnegan, 1993, 42); only general
topics were shared among the interview sessions. The free-flowing nature of the
interviews allowed the exchange of information with craftspeople in the manner
of equal peers. It also enabled study informants to feel explicitly in control of the
interview situation and to guide me to their world in their own ways. In most
sessions, the interviewees also showed me photographs, craft products brought
from their home countries or pictures of these products, or other kinds of

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Anna Kouhia

personal craft belongings with which they illustrated their dynamic relation to
craft making. This allowed their narration to merge with material experience,
and eventually, permitted me to witness how the study participants made sense
of the meanings of craft through the materiality of the products. I took altogether
285 photographs of the material that was shown in the sessions; the photographs
were mainly used as visual field notes, but they also provided a reminder of the
embodied consciousness of the interview sessions (see Photo 1).

Photo 1. Hobby craft maker describing her relationship to her self made artistic work at her home.
Photos serve as visual field notes. This photo is taken from an interview session in Study I. Courtesy
of the photo: Anna Kouhia.

In Study II, nine interviewees were recruited from a recreational craft course
held at a local adult education institute in southern Finland. In the field of craft,
an educational institute provides non-formal adult education (i.e., liberal adult
education) usually in the form of substance-oriented craft courses. However, the
course chosen as the setting for the data collection had an interest in sharing,
community-building, and including minority groups, and therefore was
reminiscent of informal hobbyist communities that build on self-motivated
participation and peer learning.
In this study, interviewees were hobby craft makers sharing an experience of
participating in a hobbyist community of practice by attending a craft course.
The interviews in Study II were “focused interviews,” in nature, as they involved
the implementation of the pre-determined subjects of conversation: I was
interested in hobby craft makers’ participation in the craft course, and the aim
was to “collect reactions and interpretations in an interview with a relatively

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 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

open form” (Hopf, 2004, 205). In comparison to standardized interviews,

focused interviews resemble dilemma-interviews or problem-based interviews,
but allow more associative reactions and the freedom to digress (Hopf, 2004,
205; see also Schmidt, 2004; Fylan, 2005; Berg, 2009, 107). In this vein, focused
interviews are regarded as “a special form of the semi-standardized interview”
which aim to capture discussed topics at their broadest, though provoking
interviewees to enrich interviews with new, sometimes unanticipated topic
points emerging during the freeflowing discussions (Hopf, 2004, 205).
Accordingly, in Study II the focused interviews were based on pre-planned
topics, and relatedly, a list of questions concerning (1) one’s personal history of
craft practicing, (2) well-being gained through hobby crafts, and (3) reflections
on encountering throughout the course. Each question from the question list was
addressed and discussed during each interview. However, the interviews only
loosely followed the pre-planned interview schedule, and most interviews were
more like informal meet-ups, as the interviewer me and the interviewee already
knew each other. The main topic ended up being recalling and reflecting on
incidents from the past craft classes. All in all, the interviews concentrated on
examining participants’ experiences of becoming engaged with other members
of the group, their motivations for encouraging peer-to-peer responsibility, and
their ideas on collaboration which emerged through the making of crafts. The
purpose of the interviews in Study II was to allow a variety of different voices to
be heard in order to arrive at a better understanding of the ways in which
collective meanings were enperienced within a given community of practice.
The interviews also allowed the exchange of information, probing together the
experiences and beliefs of the participants and researcher. The interviews were
conducted mostly in semi-public spaces, and the interviews lasted from 35 to 75
minutes.

3.3.2 Participant observation and reflection on action

In order to better understand the embodiedness of the meanings of hobby crafts,
the data also included material experimentation and “hanging out” in a research
setting (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2011, 4; also Pyyry, 2015). Accordingly, I collected
data from hobby craft groups through embodied action; that is, making crafts
together with other hobby craft makers in natural settings, and observing and
reflecting on these making processes (see Schön, 1983; Alvesson & Sköldberg,
2000; DeWalt & DeWalt, 2011).
In contemporary qualitative research, reflexivity is seen as an important part
of the research (Taylor, Bogdan, & DeVault, 2015, 25). The idea of using
reflection as a methodological tool in making sense of one’s own thinking and
making draws its origins from Donald Schön’s (1983) philosophy of reflective
thinking. In the philosophical book The Reflective Practitioner: How Designers

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Anna Kouhia

Think in Action (1983), Schön presented two methods for displaying and
expressing the fluctuating relation of thought to action: reflection-in-action
(which involves the idea of knowing-in-action, where reflection coincides with
the processes reflected; Schön, 1983, 49, 54), and reflection-on-action (which he
considered methods to think back to an event or an undertaken project from a
distance; Schön, 1983, 61). Reflection in action occurs unconsciously in
designer practice, but when studied, must be verbalized consciously. Similarly,
reflection on action requires effort in order to be brought into language more
specifically. Reflective research has since become widely applied to different
types of research interested knowledge gained by means of practice (practice-
based), and in contextualizing and interpreting the creative process (practice-led;
see e.g., Mäkelä, 2007; Mäkelä & Nimkulrat, 2011; Mäkelä, Nimkulrat, Dash, &
Nsenga, 2011). In this study, reflection on action was considered an analytical
process leading to new understandings about the meanings of practice, in other
words, a form of practice-led research during which thinking, actions, and
feelings were taken into consideration in connection with the issues explored.
Reflection on actions and experiences permitted the exploration of the
collectivity and sharing from the perspective of a maker taking part in the
activities of the community – what emerged from the process was a narrative of
what was included in the experiences and observations through the body and
mind of the practitioner (Schön, 1983, 276–283; Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2000;
Mäkelä & Nimkulrat, 2011).
Different iterations of making and reflection on action were carried out
during the overall study. During Study I, I participated in hobby craft events,
practicing crafts and taking reflective field notes in two locations. In these
sessions, I was continuously trying to observe and record how people carried out
craft activities in the groups, and how they communicated their craft experiences
to others. After each session, I wrote a field diary entry based on my obser-
vations and experiences. These descriptive reflections, and the audiotaped
conversations recorded from those events, are used in Study I as secondary data,
which assist in capturing fragments of free-flowing association that occur on
occasions where people meet, discuss, and make crafts informally.
This study of the collective meanings of crafts embarked upon an inter-
pretative and reflexive account of knowledge, and emphasized the ways in
which the meanings were formulated and communicated in dialogic relation-
ships between the researcher and the researched (see Berg, 2009, 40). Under-
stood in this way, I have positioned research informants in Study II as study
participants, with whom I have actively reconstructed collective meanings
through making crafts together with them. This emphasizes the idea that people
inhabit the world with other beings, and once constructed, the world along with
the other people acts back upon the individual transforming and reconstructing

38
 Unraveling the meanings of textile hobby crafts

the individual through interactional dialogue and collective action (Berger &
Luckmann, 1985, 204; Kratochwil, 2008, 88).
In Study II, reflexive methodology enabled me to reconsider the cultural
practices of hobby craft making from an insider-perspective, from the position of
a peer group participant and a hobbyist craft maker, who shared craft processes
with other group participants in the hobby craft community (Photo 2). Through
self-reflective writing, I was able to examine my own experiences of being and
becoming a member of a hobbyist crafting community, and further explicate the
negotiation of a collective sense through a careful review of my subjective
experiences and the views of other makers. When entering the hobby craft
group, I made sure that I formally declared myself as a researcher; however, I
took part in the craft activities of the group as a “complete participant” (cf. Berg,
2009, 80–81), as I carried out activities with other makers, and contributed to the
practices and interactions of the group.

Photo 2. Felted flowers made by twelve hobby craft group participants in Study II. Researcher’s
work is second left in the front row. Courtesy of the photo: Tuija Vähävuori.

During the course session in Study II, I wrote field notes in a notepad I had with
me; later, after each course session, I composed a detailed research narrative
entry based on these handwritten field notes that reflected on my experiences
from the past session. While writing, I tried, on the one hand, to describe the
temporal structure of the course, as I hoped that it could capture the ongoingness

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Anna Kouhia

of interaction through the events of the course. On the other hand, my aim was to
make visible my own embodied experiences and interactions between myself
and other course participants through reflecting on the fleeting experiences and
deeper, thick descriptions. After the final course session, I wrote a recollection
of the course, which verbalized my contemplative experiences and perceived
engagement in the community. The resulting fifteen-page narrative provided
data both on the descriptive and the reflective levels: on the one hand, it outlined
the course structure and arrangements, and on the other hand, it emphasized how
I felt about becoming engaged with other makers during the course, what
motivated me to share, my thoughts and how I experienced a sense of collec-
tivity growing throughout the course.

3.3.3 Autoethnographic cinema

In Study III, I aimed to investigate the meanings of hobby crafts through
autoethnographic self-study methods. The study of the self was undertaken as a
means to arrive at knowledge about individuals and their society through
expressive and evocative description and reflection (see Ellis & Bochner, 2000;
Roth, 2005a; Mitchell, O’Reilly & Weber, 2005; Ellis & Bochner, 2006; Reed-
Danahay, 2008; Delamont, 2009; Pinnegar & Hamilton, 2009; Ellis, Adams &
Bochner, 2011). Historically, autoethnographic methodology draws its roots
from the generation of postmodern and feminist research movements in the
1970s and 1980s, which aimed to prioritize less hegemonic, reflexive, and
artistic research methodologies as ways of “knowing differently” (Liamputtong
& Rumbold, 2008), raising doubt about factual knowledge and vocabularies, as
well as paradigms of positivistic authoritative research (Liamputtong &
Rumbold, 2008, 1–2; Reed-Danahay, 2008; Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011). The
resulting emergence of the personalized voice placed great emphasis on
reflexive, practice-led research approaches that were based on critical reflection
on the experience (e.g., Reed-Danahay, 1997; Ellis, 2004; Ellis, Adams &
Bochner, 2011; Leavy, 2015). Accordingly, the emerging first-person point of
view as the basis of the explanations about particular social phenomena intends
to reconcile nontraditional forms of inquiry and expression, eventually weaving
together the personal and the cultural through the articulation of the experience,
and reflection on the constantly changing self (Roth, 2005b; Ellis & Bochner,
2006; Wall, 2008). In this way, autoethnography seeks to address the view of an
individual as part of the culture by paying attention to emotions and experiences
through selfcongratulatory retrospective introspection, and to set up a critique of
the habituated ways of doing qualitative research by speculating with the
multiplication of voices, styles, and stories (Atkinson, et al., 2007; Ngunjiri,
Hernandez & Chang, 2010; Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011). As a means of
critical analysis of the self, autoethnography bases its relevance on radical

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questioning of the universal narratives and explanation-seeking methods (Roth,

2005a; Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011).
For the purposes of the present study, autoethnography provided a way to
narrate the discourse-in-context through subjective experience, and reflect on my
own position in hobby craft culture from an insider-perspective, adding layers to
the meanings of other hobbyists with a view of the “embodied presence”
(Todres, 2008). The use of autoethnographic methods was therefore meant to
emphasize my own embeddedness in the culture of hobby craft making and
unveil the epistemological ground relating to data collection. Methodologically,
autoethnography was considered a reflective project during which I as a
researcher-practitioner rewrote myself into the theory and practice of a
phenomenon under investigation through my own intimate autoethnographic
narrative (McIlveen, 2008; Delamont, 2009; Denshire, 2014).
In Study III, the autoethnographic research methodology approach was en-
riched with an arts-based research approach. This enabled the realization of my
own subjective, autoethnographic reflection into a form of a state-of-the-art film
format. Methodologically, this autoethnographic cinema combined autoethno-
graphic and arts-based methodologies: the aim was to reconstruct a meaningful
account of the phenomena through the researcher’s own self-reflection (see
Estrella & Forinash, 2007; Barone & Eisner, 2012; Leavy, 2015). Accordingly,
autoethnographic cinema was intended as “an effort to extend beyond the
limiting constraints of discursive communication in order to express meanings
that otherwise would be ineffable” (Barone & Eisner, 2012, 1); as a new
methodological approach to study the researcher’s own assumptions, behavior,
and performativity through narrative-fictive film portrayal (see Photo 3).

Photo 3. Performing knitting in front of the camera in Study III. Screenshot from the
autoethnographic cinema at 1:12. Courtesy of the photo: Anna Kouhia.

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Delivering self-reflective, sensitive and poetic content about the phenomenon

under study, autoethnographic cinema allowed an awareness of the layered
nature of data generation, analysis, interpretation, and representation. However,
unlike practice-led self-studies, autoethnographic cinema did not capture reality
on the run, but provided an insider-view of the phenomenon through the
practices of the artistic film-making process and the practices of scripting,
casting, shooting, and editing. This entailed careful consideration of what was
being framed in and out, and what was being performed in front of the camera
(see Deleuze, 1986). Accordingly, this kind of cinematographic portrayal
reflected back on the collaboration between the researcher-practitioner who
performed the practice in front of the camera, and the person behind the camera
who framed the performance, and in so doing, interconnected the private and the
publicthrough the shifting authority between the viewer and the viewed.
The stages in autoethnographic cinema making were similar to film
production: The project started from the development stage in which the ideas
for the film were created, the background story of the project was outlined, and
the cinema was situated in the context through memory work, story writing and
scripting; second was the pre-production stage in which the groundwork—
namely, the autoethnographic retrospective and positioning—for the following
film-making was detailed, shooting locations were selected, and the required
work-in-process woolly socks were knitted; the third stage was the production
itself, which was the actual “making-of”, i.e., the shooting of the raw footage
based on the film script; and finally, the post-production stage in which the film
was edited and mastered—and in this case, reviewed, released to the public,
subjected to criticism, and set into dialogue within the discourse through article
writing.
I started my autoethnographic cinema project “conventionally” with
reflective recalling: I wrote a retrospective description of my meanings and
experiences as a craft maker. In this self-reflective essay, I recalled my
childhood memories, my craft learning experiences at school, at home, and with
friends at arts classes, specified and explicated my most memorable craft
projects, and remembered my long departed grandmother and her enormous
stash of craft materials. While writing, I tried to record the incidents as they
occurred to me without removing any of my previous writings, only adding new
layers and new entries to the narrative. As I proceeded with my memory work
and writing, some recurrent themes regarding my own hobby craft practice
started to emerge. Consequently, the narrative eventually turned out to be a
layered recollection of my own, subjective maker-becomings. It is important to
acknowledge that the retrospective was not created as a chronological story, but
that it consisted of several autoethnographic vignettes (see Humphreys, 2005),
which like “windows” provided access to my experiences as a maker, and asked
“readers to relive the experience through the writer’s or performer’s eyes”

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(Denzin, 2000, 905). During the story writing, I also kept a diary of my
reflective process, which as a kind of a metareflection augmented the ideation of
the cinema scripting.
The next phase in the cinema-making was reformulating the autoethno-
graphic narrative into a form of script. The content of the script was derived
from analysis of the autoethnographic narrative; what was to be portrayed were
the knit, the habitat, the ambiance, the layered composition, and the complexity
of material negotiations. Likewise, the structure of the script was composed to
give an impression of the fragmentary and layered story writing process.
The film shooting itself was conducted in three phases. First came the audio
recordings, such as the sounds of knitting needles clicking, and the raw footage
capturing the unwinding of a woolen skein. The second phase was the actual
film shooting, which took place in several locations given in the script: it was
also the predominant phase for screening, as most of the raw footage was
recorded in the second shooting session. This phase also required most prepara
tions: for example, I had knitted seven work-in-process socks in order to
demonstrate and perform the ongoingness of the woolly sock making in front of
the camera. During the film shooting, knitting was performed in several phases,
with only some stitches or rows being completed at the time. The performance
was captured on film in several takes, with changing positions and angles. The
third and last shooting session took place after the preliminary film editing
process, which revealed the certain gaps in the raw footage. During the last
filming session, some new takes were shot, and a few retakes captured on film.
The research writing stage came after the autoethnographic writing and film
shooting sessions. The article reporting the “making-of” project is itself both a
process and a product as it includes both doing and writing, recalling and
narration (Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011).

3.4 Overview of the data analyses in Studies I–III

Study I: Crafting meanings through interviews
The primary data in Study I consisted of unstructured interviews of six women
coming from different cultural backgrounds. With the interviews, the aim was to
capture the subjective meanings given to craft, and by so doing, add to an
understanding of the meaning and value of crafts in the lives of the respondents.
A set of supplementary data were also collected. Supplementary data include
field notes and audiotaped material gathered from two craft events, as well as
photographs taken from the interview sessions. In Study I, the analysis relied
strongly on the interview data, whereas supplementary data were mainly used in
representing relevant examples for the overall categories captured in the analysis
of the transcribed interview data.

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In Study I, a qualitative content analysis (see Krippendorff, 1980; Mayring,

2000; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Moretti et al., 2011) was undertaken as a method
for describing and manifesting the meanings of craft. The analysis was set to
assign the data into a frame of descriptive categories through a systematic
coding process that could both specify and abstract the information about the
meaning attached to a phenomenon under scrutiny. The examination was based
on iterative data repeatedly processing going through the steps of analysis in
order to establish a descriptive and meaningful categorization of the meanings of
hobby crafts.
Typical of qualitative content analysis (Schreier, 2014, 171), the analysis
combined aspects of concept-driven and data-driven analyses within one coding
frame. The categories and names for the categories emerged through inductive
category development (Mayring, 2000; Ryan & Bernard, 2003; Hsieh &
Shannon, 2005). The process involved repeatedly reading data word by word
coding, labeling the texts with notes, sorting and linking the notes and
preliminary codes into larger themes and sub-categories, and eventually,
clarifying definitions for each overall category.
First, transcribed data were read several times to obtain a whole sense of the
data, and the data were coded inductively through a word-by-word coding. At
this stage, a vast array of different meanings was found in the data. Next, each
transcription was annotated with coloured highlights, and the data were re-read
carefully. Framing categories was the second step, and here notes with highlights
were grouped into larger themes, and the preliminary codes were formed.
Subsequently, broader themes were assigned for the overall categorization.
Broader categories were derived from iterative cycles of reading, annotating,
coding, and organizing the content of the existing codes; the codes were grouped
and regrouped based on the relevance of the emerging taxonomy in relation to
the empirical setting. This kind of categorization, as Gayle R. Jennings (2005,
109) has acknowledged, required “reflection and questioning of assignment of
the codes and the categories and the real-world context.” In this way, the
analysis was as a process of making decisions and reframing the categories
based on social, material and embodied interactions, and systematizing the
meanings derived from both material and imaginary praxis. In the early stages of
interpretation, the interview data dominated close readings, but as the analysis
proceeded, data derived from field work also proved helpful, especially in
naming the meaning categories and offering representative samples for the
presentation of the analysis. Nonetheless, interview data was the principal
material for the analysis and the basis for further categorization. The key aspect
of the categorization of meanings was the process of interweaving the analysed
talk, observations and literature, and by so doing, establishing a reciprocal
dialogue between data and theory. This process also related to the validity of the
inductive analysis.

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Study II: Crafting collectivity in a hobby craft group

Study II was a descriptive case study elaborating on the collective meanings of
crafts generated through making crafts together. Data were collected from a
collaborative learning-based craft course entitled Textile Crafts Building Bridges
held at a liberal adult education center in Southern Finland. Including myself,
the group comprised 16 female hobby craft makers. From a position of a peer
group participant, I was able to reflect on the dynamics of the group from an
insider perspective, and contribute to the examination of cultural practices and
patterned behavior in the group. After each course session I wrote an entry in my
field diary; based on the field diary entries I later composed a descriptive-
reflective course narrative in which I elaborated on my own learning experi-
ences, and reviewed the encounters and interaction that took place in the course.
After the course, I interviewed nine course participants. With the interviews,
I wished to investigate how other group participants considered their engage-
ment, made sense of their motivation to interact with other group members, and
unfolded their experiences they had built through crafts.
The data analysis concentrated on the sense of increasing participation and
the factors that nurtured collectivity within the community of practice. The
analysis was conducted in two phases. First, the content of the transcribed
interview data was analyzed using qualitative content analysis methods (see
Mayring, 2000; Smith 2000; Moretti et al., 2011) in order to bring out the
knowledge sharing processes and experiences of increasing participation among
the group members. I started by listening to the interview tapes and making
notes in the margins of the transcription prints. Next, I clustered the interview
data into different overall themes based on recurring expressions and repetitive
topics (see Ryan & Bernard, 2003, 89; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006, 90).
The analysis itself began with an episodic description writing (Smith 2000, 329)
in which I recalled and the events of the course with hindsight. Next, the
descriptive text was annotated with my own autoethnographic, evocative
emotional experiences (see Ellis, 2004, 30). Through this, I aimed to give space
to the subjectivity of description and the feelings of being a group participant
myself.
The second phase of the analysis concentrated on bringing together the views
and experiences of the course participants and the researcher through narrative
analysis and writing (Cortazzi, 1993; Smith 2000; McCance, McKenna, &
Boore, 2001). The purpose was to pay attention to the subjective ways of
experiencing interconnectedness and perceiving the environment, and through
that, establish a shared view on the generation of the collective sense in the
group through concise themes. While writing, I enriched the proceeding research
narrative with descriptions that cut across the views of interviewees. In these
descriptions, I revived the incidents addressed by the craft makers using overall
themes gained from previous analysis. This was done in order to “tie together

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individual experiences in order to create the context for understanding meaning”

(McCance, McKenna, & Boore, 2001, 354). In the analysis, I concentrated on
the ways of communicating and negotiating the experiences of those incidents,
translating the argumentation of the intersubjective experiences to the resources
required for the generation of the collective sense. Last, I re-reflected on my own
subjective experiences about the understanding of the self in relation to the
others, knitting together my own views of interconnectedness with the views of
other group participants. All in all, the analysis was a back and forth editing and
writing process, where narrative writing and analysis (see Cortazzi 1993)
proceeded simultaneously phase by phase.

Study III: Crafting (and reflecting on) the self through film
In Study III, autoethnographic cinema was undertaken as a method to
uncover the experiences of a young hobbyist craft maker, and contribute to
current debates on the meanings of contemporary craft. On the one hand, the aim
of the study was to harness the reflexive potential of textile craft making to
examine and critically review the meanings and experiences of a young hobbyist
maker, and on the other hand, to develop a new visual-material approach for
exploring the value of hobby practices through autoethnographic film-making.
Although the actual age of the film-maker was representative of the age cohort
of 18 to 30 years (see e.g., Stannard & Sanders, 2015), on a broader scale the
film embraced the socially constructed understanding of the young maker
generation that has grown up in the course of the resurgence of craft making.
I started my autoethnographic film project entitled as Crafts in My Life by
writing a retrospective description of my experiences as a hobbyist craft maker.
In this narrative, I looked back on my craft learning and recalled my feelings and
emotions when making some personally significant craft projects. Based on the
retrospective narrative, I composed a script for the film. Like written autoethno-
graphies, the script and the resulting film were not only intended to elucidate a
particular phenomenon, but also to unfold the processes “by which a researcher
creates meaning and knowledge in his/her disciplinary context” (Noble &
McIlveen, 2012, 109). Narrative writing was undertaken as a process of
generating “new understandings of a nexus of self-theory-practice” (Noble &
McIlveen, 2012, 109) regarding my personal experience: on the one hand, narra-
tive writing was about reflecting on the facets of cultural experience through an
inscription of my own story, on the other hand, it concentrated on making the
characteristics of a cultural experience visible through intimate storywriting, and
introducing an emotionally rich narrative to the prospective audience and
readership.
The scripting itself was regarded as a way to arrive at an analysis of the
knowledge of the researcher through narrative storytelling. The structure and the
content of the script were drawn from the autoethnographic narrative: the film

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was framed so that it would to provide “conscious and reflexive elaboration . . .

of the author’s life” (Cortazzi, 1993, 12) in an episodic form, and show how
interpretations of the experiences were constructed through critical reflection.
Structurally, I divided the script into four narrative sequences so that it would
give an impression of the fragmentary and layered story writing process. In
between the sequences I used self-composed poetry about knitting to give
rhythm and regularity to the script. Accordingly, poetry was used both as a
structural element in the cinematic screenplay composition and a deliberate
reflexive strategy to turn autoethnographic narration into evocative descriptions
(see Butler-Kisber, 2005; Pinnegar & Hamilton, 2009, 130). Layers were also
added to the script through kaleidoscopic screen compositions and close up takes
that were set to occur in several scenes throughout the cinema. In content, the
film was intended as a portrayal of my experiences as a young hobby craft
maker. Accordingly, in order to have my own voice heard clearly through the
film, the script was framed as an episodic first-person story, where the self was
set to recall and interpret itself. However, despite the clear narrative voice, the
framing of the self through the lens of the camera was represented through the
eyes of the other in accordance with the habituated traditions of screenplay – the
camera following and framing the actor who performs the scripted play in front
of the camera (Deleuze, 1986, 16–17; Minh-Ha 1990).
Based on the script I later produced an autoethnographic film in collaboration
with a professional videographer. The layered, four-minute autoethnographic
film was intended as a reflective, arts-based documentation composed from my
lived experiences. In the film, I navigate between the traditional and subversive,
original and replicating, professional and amateur, public and private, and
gendered and generational discourses underlying the culture of craft with the
means and methodologies enabled by cinematic digital technologies.
In the autoethnographic research process data generation and the layers of
analysis merge. Writing and reporting were an integrated part of the analysis
throughout the research process; first in terms of composing a retrospective and
scripting the cinema, then communicating the process through reflective diary
writing, and lastly, through the writing of a critical research narrative, where the
personal and cultural experiences fuse with the researcher’s theoretical under-
standing of the phenomenon. Accordingly, the resulting research article is more
than just a brief report of the cinematic making-of process; it is instead a thick
description (see Geertz, 1973, 6–7, 19–20; Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011)
demonstrating both personal and interpersonal experiences that were visualized
through autoethnographic cinema, and a theoretical account of the context where
the practices became meaningful to the protagonist-maker, facilitating an under-
standing of the practice for other people both inside and outside the culture.

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4 The meanings of textile hobby crafts

This section presents the main findings reported in three journal articles. Further
details of the studies are available in the original publications.

4.1 Study I: Multiple and overlapping

Many studies have discussed at lenght that by serving the human needs of
creative self-expression, craft making can provide a sense of self-worth, address
a sense of reward and purposefulness through the making of material objects,
and offer moments of recreation as a counteraction to our technologically
saturated lives (e.g. Reynolds, 2000; Parkins, 2004; Riley, 2008; Gandolfo &
Grace, 2010; Burt & Atkinson, 2011; Pöllänen, 2015a). The aim of Study I was
to throw light on the complexity of these claims by examining what kinds of
meanings individual craftspersons attach to hobby crafts.
The analysis revealed eight meaning categories conceptualizing the common
kinds of meanings placed on crafts. Disclosing both meanings of craft making
and meanings gained through the use of craft products, the categories illustrated
the shared social content expressed and discussed by the craftpersons, and
outlined the discursive commonalities that people linked with textile hobby
crafts. The categories were identified as functional, material, aesthetic,
expressive, experiential, multi-sensory, collaborative, and narrative meanings.
Functional meanings implied usability and suitability, and intersected with
the practical-pragmatic functions and aesthetics of craft objects. Craftspeople
frequently described crafts from the viewpoint of purposefulness; however,
functional meanings were not only understood in terms of utility or maintenance,
but also extended to resources, interests, capabilities, and prospects tied to
functionality.
Material meanings related to the production, possession and use of craft
products. Materiality was attached to the quality of the craft both in terms of
making skillful objects, and the consumption of tangible products. Materiality
also played a significant role in performing relations of power and selfhood, as it
embraced personal expressions and values materialized in craft objects, and the
mediation of the mastery of skill through the practices of making.
Aesthetic meanings provided ground for recognizing the aesthetic value for
the makers, owners and viewers of craft products. In addition to the capability of
upholding personal values and cultural representations, qualities such as
technical competence and faultlessness were addressed as aesthetically
meaningful. In this sense, aesthetics were understood in terms of both looking
and performing correctly. This emphasized the value of skilled work as a source

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of aestheti cally meaningful experience, and interlinked aesthetic meanings with

the experientiality, expressivity, and functionality of craft products.
Expressive meanings related to ways in which people expressed who they
were as crafts makers, and how they communicated their values and personal
style through making, using, and consuming craft objects. Expressive forms of
craft making were extensively linked to self-discovery and personal lifestyle, for
example, in the way people furnished their homes, or used traditional craft
products to express and act upon themselves in social circumstances.
Experiential meanings were identified with experiences that had been
gradually developed and personified over time. Experientiality emerged from the
associations of mundane experiences, and was linked with cognitions and
emotions related to everyday activities. Crafts were generally understood as
objects witnessing and sustaining the cultural associations and meanings of
being connected and belonging to a cultural flow.
Multi-sensory meanings were manifested in sensory responses to the bodily
act of making crafts, such as touching the material and its surface, or in smelling
the scent of the felted wool. Multi-sensory meanings were linked with the sense
of enjoyment gained through craft making; producing finished objects
sometimes seemed less important than experimenting with the material at hand.
The craft products themselves did not lack worth and value as material objects,
but their meanings derived from other social and cultural aspects and
appreciations.
Collaborative meanings were bound to the social and cultural embeddedness
experienced in and through crafts. The analysis revealed that crafts were seen to
embody and manifest cultural identities and social practices in their material
objecthood; for example, culture, national heritage and perceived identity might
be addressed. The collaborative dimension also occurred on the communal level,
nurturing the feelings of collectivity and togetherness developed through
practicing crafts together.
Narrative meanings were bound to lived experiences, personal histories and
identities. Narrative meanings contained free-flowing associations linked to
individual being: narrativity was nourished in material products in which the
makers had put their signatures through the act of making, or through use or
consumption; these artefacts then became emblems of personal and cultural
histories, or narratives of a nation’s state.
Although these eight common kinds of meaning categories prevailed, and the
study participants agreed upon many ideas, the results indicated that there was
great variety in the subjective meanings attached to crafts. Correspondingly,
every meaning category extended to a wide range of personalized meanings
linked with crafts. Since each respondent addressed the meanings of crafts in
their personal ways, there were also differences in the ways in which the
meanings were communicated, shared, and expressed.

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In short, the ideas behind categories were not unanimously addressed by

craftspeople, and the weight of the concerns within the meaning categories was
not equivalent: some meaning categories featured content that was vigorously
addressed by many, while others had a more subtle contribution for sharing and
discussing the meanings of crafts. Clear boundaries between the categories could
not be drawn either, but the categories extended along each other, interrelated
and overlapped, however featuring content that transcended individual
perspectives. This resulted in viewing of the meanings categories as
multidimensional, relational conceptualizations that characterized crafts as
complex entities associated with subjective meanings undermining an apparent
individual identity.

4.2 Study II: Connective and contextual

One essential premise for the quest to find collective meaningfulness in craft
making is that crafts exist in social contexts, and therefore they produce and
circulate meanings through social interaction. In Study II, the focus was on
examining the development of a collective sense within an informal, peer-
learning based community where understandings of engagement and interests
were shared among the participants of a situational community of practice (see
Lave & Wenger, 1991). The aim was to examine collective meanings built
through making crafts in a hobby craft group, including the resources needed to
generate a collective sense among the group members.
Four thematic narratives arouse during the analysis: mutual agency, active
participation, social interaction, and shared responsibility. These themes showed
the capacity for connectedness among the study participants.
Mutual agency represents the underlying motivation and shared interest in
craft making among the group participants. Finding mutual agency with other
makers was inextricably intertwined with their own personal interests in
undertaking craft activities. Hobby craft makers participated in craft activities
because they wanted to enjoy their free time by undertaking pleasant activities.
They also wished to learn new craft techniques, encounter new people, or share
their intuitively gained knowledge, though these were secondary motives for
participation. In conclusion, interest in craft making was portrayed as a
motivational agent that nurtured a peculiar sympathy to other makers and led
people to connect, helping craft makers to forge social connections with others
in their hobby craft community.
Active participation recognized an individual’s right to take part in the
activities voluntarily, making one’s own management decisions regarding the
activities of the course. It referred to the active role of a practitioner in the
organization of learning sessions and course arrangements: during the course,
participants were themselves able to choose the learning tasks they wanted to

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deliver and participate in. Consequently, freedom encouraged sympathy for the
tasks delivered by others, and eventually contributed to the course participants’
commitment to the community of practice and the experienced connectivity
between the makers. Learning and teaching crafts, craft makers nurtured
connectivity among the makers through the assignment of shared goals, and
helped to generate shared understandings about the meanings of hobby crafts.
Social interaction required an individual agreement to share and socialize
with other makers including decisions to enter the craft events, participate in the
learning tasks arranged during the craft course, and contribute to the community
development through the distribution of knowledge and interests. Analysis
revealed that shared social activities in a welcoming, warmhearted company
urged craftspeople to encounter various kinds of otherness around them, and find
a new affinity among the emergent community. Accordingly, when people
became engaged in the social interaction in the community of practice,
connections were made across cultures, across individuals and across different
levels of expertise through the exchange of stories, skills, and knowledge in a
social environment.
Shared responsibility referred to the frame and organization of the course, I
cluding joint responsibility for the learning tasks and collective accountability of
the activities within the community. When provided with a shared responsibility
for the course organization and learning tasks, participants were given mastery
over their own learning and participation, and, eventually, responsibility for the
conditions beneficial for the generation of a collective sense. What was of
particular interest was how sharing responsibility contributed to a perceived
connectivity and a sense of belonging to the community of practice. All in all,
the experience was that the group members did not just share ideas with newly-
met people superficially, but acted in the spirit of communal trust by sharing
their own knowledge with other group members. This encouraged group
participants to build new understandings of themselves as craft makers and
experience commitment to the group and a sense of connectedness with others.
In conclusion, the analysis showed that at least four kinds of resources were
required for the generation of a collective sense within a hobby-based craft
learning community: First, motivational-based resources, which prompted
hobby craft makers to participate in the course itself; second, agency-related
resources emphasizing the active role of participants within the organization of
the course; third, social resources relating to the experience of growing
involvement and perceived affinity; and fourth, engagement-related resources
enhancing a sense of empowerment and a commitment to modes of action which
facilitated learning. These resources were deliberatively addressed as meaningful
accounts in finding connectivity and in nurturing a collective sense in a hobby
craft community. All in all, a collective sense was understood as a dialectical,
situational, and transformative construction that was explained from the

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viewpoint of the acting individual, whose experiences were seen to feature the
social world s/he was embedded in.
Although the analysis revealed that the group participants experienced
collectivity and shared a joint intention with others, the collective sense itself
was temporary; it began to emerge in social interaction with individual craft
makers sharing a joint interest in a specific time and place, was supported with
different course tasks and learning assignments that augmented participation,
deepened due to the participants’ active agency, and faded away when the group
eventually scattered when the course was over. Many group participants reported
that they had felt an affinity with other group members during the course; some
stated that during the course they had acquired new understandings of
themselves. These experiences indicated that even during a course this short, it
was possible to experience collectivity in a maker group, even despite the fact
that it was known beforehand that the community itself was temporary, and
would disperse after the final course session. Even the temporary mode of we-
ness, however, led to situational experiences that left marks on the participants.

4.3 Study III: Shifting and conflicting

Textile crafts have long served as media for self-expression, and as a form of
social positioning for craft practitioners. Against this background, Study III
reflected on my own learning and “becoming” in the craft field through an
autoethnographic cinema, deliberating on the powers and pressures inherent in
the traditions of textile hobby crafts. My autoethnographic film making project
began with a reflection of the moment, developed through a portrayal of an
intensive interaction between myself and the craft materials that I held in my
hands, and evolved into a layered depiction of the thoughts and actions
performed in front of a camera. Performing occurred both on the conscious and
the unconscious levels; what was presented as an outcome of the project was a
screenplayed, performed resurrection of the real lived experiences that built its
relevance on the viewers’ meanings and experiences.
With the assistance of cinematographic technology, I crafted a story of the
experiences of a young hobby craft maker. In the autoethnographic film, I
reflected on my own craft practice in resonance with tropes of identity,
expertise, public gaze, and gender, and placed myself in various positions based
on my shifting identity as a professional craftsperson, hobby practitioner, young
middle- class woman, and a consumer and user of craft products. Eventually, I
found myself being placed in many fluctuating positions and imbricate
discourses that sometimes coexisted and shifted, sometimes obstructed and
transcended each other.
Overall, I came to realize that my fluctuating identity suggested the
complexity of this moment, not only in terms of the struggles of contemporary

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crafts(wo)manship, proficiency, traditionality, and the politics of consumption,

but also in the numerous ways of engaging with these struggles and
materializing them. The research project led me to conclude that within these
discursive debates, hobby craft making offered me a significant, yet infrequent
source of emotional well-being: As much as I enjoyed craft making, I practiced
crafts irregularly, often making inherently unoriginal craft products. Although I
usually practiced hobby crafts at home and in private, mainly creating ordinary
domesticated craft products, I did not consider hobby craft making to be a
domestic chore mandated by gender, but rather as a spontaneous deliberate
action nurturing a sensibility between my own being, the material, and the world
I inhabited. For me as a young maker, hobby crafting carried decisive
reconciliations of femininity, recreation, originality, countercultural consump-
tion, and personal agency and know-how. It was primarily a way to replace the
consumption-driven individualistic view of the world with ethically conscious
alternatives. Certainly, conflicting interpretations of the meanings of hobby
crafting as part of one’s lives still remain, for example in terms of my self-
positioning as an able-bodied maker, or in relation to the way I perceive craft
making as a way to resist fastpaced consumerism by producing new products.
Methodologically, autoethnographic cinema offered a way to reveal a
particular engagement with the world, and address the layered and fragmentary
nature of the process of communicating the meanings of one’s practice with
others. The aim of autoethnographic film-making was to bring forth lived
moments on the screen through aesthetic and evocative performance, and by
showing and narrating thoughts and actions viewers might relate to and reflect
on. All in all, the strength of autoethnographic cinema prevailed in the shift of
authority between the film-maker and the protagonist. Through autoethnographic
film-making I was able to contextualize, frame, perform, and voice my own
practice from the viewpoint of a protagonist, hence pointing the camera at
myself in order to exhibit and express the sanctity of my own meanings that I
assign to craft making. Accordingly, during the film-making process I undertook
knitting-asprocess as a craft practitioner and performed knitting-as-practice
aware of my position of as a practitioner-researcher. On the one hand, I took the
role of the authoritative film-maker(-subject) and set out to define the status quo
the film represented. On the other hand, I was the protagonist(-object)
reconstructing the meanings of the performed actions. In conclusion, autoethno-
graphic cinema let me create an evocative narrative of my own intimate
experiences, and invite viewers to enter my world through my own narration and
performance.
Along with the fluctuating subjective and objective maker-observer positions,
shifting conceptions of truth and reality also occurred in the course of the
cinematic project. Autoethnographic cinema neither set out to indoctrinate the
truth, nor capture reality on the run, but to narrate and reconstruct real

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performative experiences and load them with the adjuct meanings of the viewer.
While making the autoethnographic cinema, the practices were authentically
performed in front of the camera: I knitted, my body moved, and loops became
stitches in my hands. During this performance, I set value on these intimate
practices through the embodiment of actions, living the scenes of the script in
front of the camera. In this sense, autoethnographic cinema was a real depiction
portraying real practice, and real sensitivity to the material. However, the actions
carried out in front of the camera were unavoidably scripted and therefore
staged; what was seen on the screen was a fabricated, manipulated revival of the
real captured through the lens of a camera. Moreover, the cinematic portrayal
was admittedly partial – it was only capable of portraying one fixed, sequential
angle of the practice. Still, with such an autoethnographic, self-reflective method
I was able to reclaim the power and control to perform the actions I considered
of value, giving meanings to the actions through the framing of the performance
myself.

4.4 Summary of the results

The three studies have addressed how hobby craft making opened up
opportunities for learning, sharing, community building, and self-discovery, and
how the materiality of craft objects carried experiences of cultural and social
structures. In the studies, hobby crafts were conceptualized as objects that were
capable of capturing and representing the memory of a place, and materializing
the experiences of belonging to a social group or a realm of culture. Craft
making also had relevance as a communicative practice in mediating and
reflecting in-person histories and past experiences, and was also a way of
nurturing emotional sensibility in relation to one’s own being.
Multiple. Multiplicity as a term describing the worth and value of craft in the
lives of the makers aims to address both individual differences in the meanings
placed on crafts, and the array of conceptual classes in assigning these meanings.
On the one hand, it indicates that meanings placed on crafts extended to a wide
range of personal experiences, values, and attitudes describing craft making as
lifestyle, passion, cultural ritual, and an outbreak of necessary duties in the
household and at work. On the other hand, it aims to summarize that the ways of
discussing and sharing meanings are multiple and contingent and that craft
making is a hybrid practice that extends to a range of different ways of working
with materials in our hands and the embodiment of skills through the use of
hand-crafted objects. Multiplicity highlights the individual human qualities in
the easily recognizable differences of hobbyist craft makers and their habits of
action but also in terms of the hidden differences in makers’ values, emotions,
knowledge, and philosophies of mind that change over time and color the way
each individual reacts and responds to the world.

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Overlapping provides a view of the meanings of crafts as depictions of

socially negotiated processes and addresses the notion that although craftspeople
are individual they share many instances in the ways they come to discuss hobby
crafts. As a name for the meanings of textile hobby crafts, overlapping endorses
the layered nature of meanings and acknowledges that the overlap between the
meanings of people involved and interested in crafts creates possibilities for
multiple lines of connections, therefore enhancing intersubjective understanding
between different individuals. When delineating the meanings of craft using the
term overlapping, the fact that crafts are not experienced or debated similarly by
all is highlighted, even if craftspeople sometimes use similar expressions while
describing their experiences. The term emphasizes the fact that the meanings
that crafts have for one person may not have the same content and connotations
for another, since the meanings of crafts derive from personal accounts, and can
therefore be strikingly relational. However, when portrayed as overlapping, the
awareness of what and how we know, agree or disagree about the crafts becomes
inherently social, and is very much influenced by the culturally habituated craft
practices and social relations of the people we live with.
Connective. Connectivity aims to emphasize one’s individual ability to make
and maintain connections and experience collective meaningfulness with other
people through craft making. This suggests that the connective potential is
highly reliant on the craft makers’ conscious personal pursuits to take up craft
activities, share experiences, and encounter new people. The social dimension
clearly characterizes hobby craft making: hobby craft making encourages
connectivity through shared, casual craft activities. Almost as important as
making, such activities provide occasions for sharing stories, skills, and
knowledge in and through hobby crafts. Such activity forges connections
between people and materials by resonating with their lives and bringing them
closer together through sharing. Hobby craft makers might feel a strong need to
share their experiences with people they expect have equivalent ideas and
experiences about crafts. It appears that craft making, even in its very solitary
and alienated form, is a fundamentally communicative practice that has the
potential to bring people together. Therefore, connectivity also addresses that a
sense of collectiveness can be reached through hobby craft making, but
collectiveness requires common ownership of the craft processes and an
understanding of the uniqueness of the experiences of making.
Contextual. Contextuality presents a view of the situational character of the
meanings of hobby crafts. It suggests that the meanings of craft are context-
related, and are reliant on socially and culturally constituted conditions in which
human beings become what they are. Context-relatedness, dependence, and a
sense of belonging may take various forms; in craft groups these aspects may be
promoted by encouraging the active role of the maker, stimulating social
interactions, and strengthening the sense of engagement through shared craft

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activities. Contextuality as a concept for the meanings of craft acknowledges

that craft makers are prompted by various influences, and continuously
participate in the negotiation of social practices. This has an effect on craft
makers’ self-reflective processes, and the ideas how they come to understand
themselves as makers in a particular context. An important aspect of
contextuality is that it acknowledges the contingency of meanings, that is, how
crafts and craft making may, at times, succeed in addressing issues about
memory, subjectivity, and agency, and in different contexts and debates the
same processes and material entities may be used to exhibit other recollections
and reflections that have more relevance in the given referential constraints.
Shifting shows that the meanings of crafts are eclectic, fluctuating and are
continuously being reconstituted and transformed. As a name for the meanings
of hobby crafts, shifting denotes to movement from one place or position to
another: craft making resonates with different debates that place makers in
different positions regarding the identities they identify themselves with. The
term is intriguing and inspired by an approach that resists stabilization. There is
no permanence in the meanings, but the meanings and the ways the meanings
are discussed shift, are filtered, and change in time due to our partial and
forever-fragmented conceptualizations of truth.
Conflicting sustains this view, but further proposes that the meanings of craft
may sometimes have biased and contradictory meanings that oppose the
consideration of craft as a demonstration of the accomplished self. For example,
textile hobby crafts may sometimes be seen as objects of femininity; at other
times, textile hobby crafts might be celebrated for their power to campaign for
domesticity liberated from gendered constraints.
As the terms for the meanings of craft shifting, and conflicting both suggest,
craft making is a fragmentary and incoherent project that is neither a single line
nor a process proceeding from the beginning to the end. It is instead a network-
like project in process that has many parallel beginnings and many parallel ends.

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5 Discussion: Weaving in

Yarn by yarn, I straightened every snag

A ball bundled in a hurry, big bonny ball
Lanka langan lomaan lyöttyi, säie säikeeltä suoristui,
Kerä kiireesti kerittiin, kerä kiinteä kimmoinen

In this chapter, I reflect on the findings of the study in relation to my own

learning and actions taken during the research process. The aim of the present
study was to discuss how craft makers create and express the meanings they gain
and attach to their hobbyist textile craft practice, and to a wider degree,
contribute to the understanding of the complexities of the meanings of crafts in
contemporary society. The first section reflects on the findings and the research
process in general level; the following sections discuss the methodological
ethical and concerns and limitations, and the perspectives on future research.

5.1 General discussion

This study was set to examine the meanings of recreational textile craft making
in the lives of craft practitioners. The interest was in a reasonably widespread
hobby culture centered in craft making and its interrelated meanings and values,
physical and discursive practices, and objects that proceed from craft makers’
material interaction. Accordingly, the overall aim was to add to an understanding
of the worth and value of textile hobby crafts in the present times.
The results of the present study indicate that the meanings attached to hobby
craft making can be viewed in many dimensions. Each one of the conceptual
propositions characterizing the meanings of textile hobby crafts identified in this
study recognize the conflicted nature of hobby craft making, and the many ways
to obtain what it means to craftspeople. Proposing that the meanings of crafts are
multiple, overlapping, contextual, shifting and conflicting the study embraces
different ways of thinking about crafts, and acknowledges that each craftsperson
has his or her own personalized meanings and interpretations of craft. These
concepts reiterate that each craftsperson possesses purely subjective socio-
cultural definitions, and therefore, completely unique rudiments, for finding
meaningfulness in craft making. Consequently, individual meanings attached to
crafts can be strikingly distinctive and disparate, contrasting, and even
conflicting. Because meanings are constituted and formulated in the hands and
minds of individuals in particular ways, their representations are unique in their
content: there are no all-encompassing aspects that all hobbyists would explicitly

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or implicitly agree with, and no univocality in the meanings experienced in and

through hobby craft making.
Regardless of their subjective nature, the meanings of individuals are
grounded in the negotiation of shared social constructions. These social
constructions provide constitutions of individual knowledge, and the explana-
tions, apprehensions and awareness towards the material world and the means
through which one’s experiences of material interaction are made meaningful
(Scott, 2011, 13–16; Burr, 2015). Similarly, the study concluded that despite the
disparity and multiplicity of meanings, there is much transcendence and overlap
in between the meanings of craftspeople and the ways how hobby craft makers
come to share and communicate their understandings with others. Overlap
becomes apparent, for example, if hobby craft makers meet for the first time.
The culture of making implies a particular mentality through which craftspeople
learn to interpret their experiences and place value on their actions. Thus,
makers are likely to find common concerns and affiliations, even though the
meanings of these concerns were not products of shared communicative
practices. These kinds of encounters were also reported by the craftspeople
during the study, when, for instance, the makers entered into a hobby group and
started sharing their experiences with others, reconstituting their thinking and
actions based on the mutuality of the orientation towards hobby crafts.
Consequently, one conclusive result of the study is that regardless of individual
differences, there is a range of commonalities shared by the craftspeople, and
accordingly, a wider sense of the world, which becomes negotiated and agreed
upon by the people involved and interested in hobby crafts. This suggests that as
people take up hobby craft activities, they become engaged in the negotiation of
comprehensive strategies to discuss and share hobby craft practices. This further
contributes to the construction of a socially agreed view of the world disclosing
shared, and connective, understandings of crafts as an important and meaningful
leisure pursuit.
At the level of subjective meanings, the results suggest that textile hobby
crafts have an ability to cherish a sense of intrinsic reward in hobby craft makers
in multiple (and overlapping) levels. Amongst other things, craft practitioners
found meaningfulness in material and embodied making, perceived connectivity
and collaboration, narrative and experiential product relations, self-initiated
expression, historicity, and aesthetic expression. These conclusions substantiate
previous scholarship that has time and again emphasized the value of a
perceived sense of well-being as one of the prevailing reasons for people to
engage in hobby craft making (Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009; Corkhill,
Hemmings, Maddock & Riley, 2014; Pöllänen 2015b). The findings of this
study also indicate that experiencing overlap with other craft makers is an
important aspect in finding hobby crafts meaningful: craftspeople are interested
in sharing things that they find personally important with people who they think

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share their values and appreciate their meanings and experiences. Therefore,
hobby craft making inherently involves a connective level of meaningfulness.
Based on the study results, there is, however, reason to believe that
participation in collective and connective craft activities is predominantly
motivated by one’s own self-determined and somewhat hedonistic interests to
gain intrinsic reward and enjoyment. First and foremost, craftspeople reported
having participated in social gatherings centered around hobby craft making in
order to enjoy their own free time by undertaking activities they found
personally entertaining and gratifying. Getting connected with other people and
communicating meanings with others was a consequence of this self-determined
interest, but these factors were not considered to be the primary impulses for
joining in a craft group in the first place.
Concerning the connective level of meaningfulness, the results of this study
suggested that a contextually shared interest in a hobby craft was perceived to be
a common denominator that led craft practitioners into previously unknown
places and spaces, and eventually, led to connections being formed with other
makers. A mutual interest in craft making also ensured that when entering the
craft group, hobby craft makers already had a common topic to discuss, and
therefore, a mutual orientation to the interaction, even if collaborative pursuits
were not yet taken up. All in all, the common topic that was discussed with ease
succeeded in providing an intimate but still neutral and unbiased ground for
sharing and revealing something of the self through the materiality of
expression. What was shared through craft making was personal, but was not so
private that it would have led to embarrassment or discomfort. This is, perhaps,
because craft making is an embodied material practice linked with interrogations
of the sense of self (e.g., Riley, 2008). In the light of the study findings, it would
seem that even ordinary discussions about hobby craft making have the ability to
nurture connectivity among craftspeople, and bring hobby craft makers together
through the circulation and collective resignification of embodied practices. As
the results showed, sharing experiences and discussing the meanings of making
was for some hobby makers as important as the making itself.
Still, the generation of a collective sense within the craft group required more
than talk, it was also an inclination to act to the community’s benefit by showing
and distributing one’s own craft knowledge and skills. In the craft group that
was followed during the present study, sharing was based on shown-and-tell
type events. In the craft group, everyone was free to experiment and deliver craft
tasks casually, taking control of his or her own actions and sharing responsibility
for the tasks. Many studies have discussed that craft making together strengthens
the perceived sense of belonging and nurtures commitment (Maidment &
Macfarlane, 2011a; Millar, 2013). On a deeper level both a sense of belonging
and of commitment are products of the practitioners’ sympathy for others, which
contribute to the formation of a collective sense within the hobby craft

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community. Accordingly, what was built as a result of social interchange in the

hobby craft group itself was a contextual and transformative awareness of
collectivity generated by one’s consciousness and the flow of shared
experiences.
In this light, the collective sense experienced through craft making was a
product of a contextual meaningfulness that emerged from social interaction
with individual practitioners sharing contextual interests emanating from their
own interest in hobby craft making. Collective meaningfulness was experienced
as a transient mode of we-ness that engaged participants in the group, deepened
with mutual interaction, and eventually faded away when the group dispersed.
Accordingly, the contextuality of the meanings highlights the temporality that
predisposes the actions of craftspeople, making individuals interpret their
experiences in specific ways through becomg integrated into a community of
practice. Even though the community itself permanently dispersed after the
course ended, the mutual interaction had left permanent marks on the makers,
and enabled them to acquire one-of-a-kind contextual experiences with the other
makers.
Indeed, understandings about subjective and intersubjective meaningfulness
are always bound up with situations in which the meanings are reflected on and
discussed. As situations keep changing, conceptualizations of meaningfulness
are constantly being revised and negotiated, and new layers added to the
understandings. Accordingly, shifting as a concept characterizing the meanings
of hobby crafts acknowledges that meanings reflect conscious and unconscious
understandings of embodied experiences that come into decisive play in any
given moment. This includes the idea that craft makers are continuously
prompted by various contextual influences that contribute to the negotiations of
meanings in a given situation.
As already argued, the individual meanings are relational conceptualizations
that derive from the subjective settings of life. Individual conceptualizations are
given to the disparity of the lived experiences, including how one perceives the
meanings of craft processes, and of social structures and emotions relating to
them. Disparity admits that conflicts occur in terms of material interaction, and
on the conceptual level. Take, for example, the emotional conflict proceeding
from a disruption of material interaction, when the yarns jumble or the loops fall
apart during knitting, and the work does not therefore come up to one’s
expectations. On a conceptual level, contradictory readings occur, for example,
in relation to the self-positioning of the craft makers, or are linked with the ways
how different makers perceive hobby craft making in political terms. For some,
hobby craft making might be a weapon to campaign for social chances; others
might find craft making only suitable for private purposes.
In all likelihood, the capability to cater to various functions and desires is a
prevailing rationale for the overwhelming success of hobby craft making. There

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are no regulated or particularly valid ways to carry out one’s hobby craft
practice, no taken-for-granted expectations related to the making, and no highly
trained expertise required for one to find hobby craft making intrinsically
rewarding. One is, however, free to realize one’s hobby crafts in the way one
wishes. Given this background, contemporary textile hobby crafting seems to be
practiced exceedingly casually and more or less convivially, driven by one’s
shifting interests, in order to receive intrinsically rewarding experiences. In this
vein, this study embraces a slightly different idea of casual leisure than Stebbins
(2001; 2007). Textile hobby craft making, as conceptualized in this study, seems
to fall somewhere in between Stebbins’s serious and casual leisure but has some
qualities of project-based leisure, too. Similar to “serious” activities, textile
hobby craft making appears to be a form of systematized amateur activity
pursued simply for the love of it. Many hobby craft makers seem to have an
established devotion to craft making, but they might still not practice hobby
crafts regularly or strive for professional standards. Neither is textile hobby craft
making as immediate an action as Stebbins’s “casual leisure,” which requires
little or no special training (such as handing out leaflets). However, hobbyist
textile craft making is often described similarly to casual leisure—with the
depiction emphasizing the intrinsically rewarding nature of hobby craft making.
Textile hobby craft making might not be taken as ”serious leisure” but as
fulfilling, enjoyable, relaxed, and informal action that brings joy and
enlightenment to the lives of the makers. Although many hobby crafts might
occur as projects, and they combine aspects of serious and casual leisure
activities, textile hobby craft making is not what Stebbins describes as “project-
based leisure.” Many craft projects are started as projects but are left forever
halfway or doomed—projects that did not gain the role that was intended for
them in the first place (see Steihaug, 2011) or that failed or got lost in the course
of making (see Alfoldy, 2015). In addition, all textile hobby craft processes have
an endless number of beginnings and ends, and the projects never proceed
directly from the beginning to the end. Therefore, instead of a form of leisure,
textile hobby craft making seems to be a form of living: a way to find
enjoyment, fulfillment, reflectivity, and enhancement of self-image in the lives
of the makers interested in and attracted by the materiality of making.
However, due to the differences in the manner of taking up hobby craft
activities, the meanings of craft making remain complex and contradictory.
Some textile hobby craft makers take up craft activities regularly and are
extremely interested in and committed to textile hobby crafts, particularly the
creative process. Arguably, textile hobby crafts are an important part of the
everyday life of such craftspersons. It even seems that these hobbyists have
started to take up different interlinked craft projects, through which the makers
learned to express themselves with through textile craft making more and more
creatively. However, there are also other, more subtle ways to consider oneself

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as a craftsperson and be committed to and interested in crafts. Some hobbyists

do not take up craft activities regularly but practice hobby crafts irregularly and
with shifting interests—as projects that often change during the time of their
making. In general, contemporary textile hobby crafting can be characterized as
recreational, relaxed, and reflective activity engendered both by one’s love of
interaction with materials, and by one’s love of getting connected with other
makers. This does not mean that textile hobby crafts could not reach the same
integrity and virtue as artisanry crafts, or that hobby crafts necessarily suffered
from a lack of criticism in terms of their seriousness. It is clear that textile hobby
crafts can be practiced at different intensities with varying degrees of
commitment and engagement. Moreover, they can be undertaken with ease,
borrowing materials and ideas casually and spontaneously from various sources.
I interpret that because textile hobby crafts adapt to different purposes and
conditions, they enable craftspeople to use crafting for multiple and different
purposes that support one’s own lifestyle, needs and beliefs, and promote
different ways of arriving at diverse, shifting, and contextual meanings regarding
the worth and value of the craft making. These finding set up a debate, first, with
the view of hobby crafts as a form of leisure that is merely casual kitsch
practiced for productive purposes or enjoyable and favorable results, and second,
with a dismissive belief that hobby activities would lack critical or intellectual
significance.
In terms of the quest for the meanings of textile hobby crafts in present study,
it is crucial to acknowledge the sociocultural ground on which this study stands.
In Finland, arts and crafts have been celebrated for decades as a source of
creativity and well-being (Statistics Finland, 2005). Institutionally, arts and
crafts have been attached to higher educational, social, and cultural purposes, as
arts and crafts have been included as mandatory subjects in the Finnish
education system for all pupils (e.g., Garber, 2002; Kokko, 2009; Kangas 2014;
Veeber, Syrjäläinen, & Lind, 2015). Recently, arts and crafts have gained even
more cultural and educational weight, as they have become supported by the
Finnish government in its efforts to improve the nation’s creative and cultural
competence with greater accessibility to arts education among children and
youth (Strategic Government Program, 2016). Against this background, it
obvious that crafts not only enjoy popularity as pastime projects but are also
recognized as a material and intellectual means of encouraging creativity,
cultural sensitivity, and a perceived sense of the self. Although there is
individual variation in ways of understanding the meanings of craft, the hobby
craft culture in general seems to be substantiated by a holistic perspective on
creativity that has risen in response to different cultural, institutional, and
educational uses of art, craft and culture as part of the nation’s social welfare.
All in all, there seems to be a widespread awareness of the worth and value of
craft pursuits in Finland for both an individual and a society. However, what has

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been missing is a discursive frame for what crafts mean within the complex and
shifting contexts in which they find their meanings. This research has tried to fill
that gap, providing insight into the subjective and collective meaning-making
processes of people embracing crafts as part of their leisure.
Most notably, the research has shifted the focus from making processes to
comprehensive material interaction, emphasizing the meaning and value of
hobby craft making as a lifestyle and a way of living. Thus, the study has
claimed that the meanings of textile hobby crafts are integrated in and derived
from complex interpretative frameworks in which the makers are socialized and
within which they interact. For many craft makers, craft making is deeply
integrated in everyday life, predominantly because craft making is seen as a way
to provide a fundamental purpose for everyday life through the expression of
ideas and explorations of the self in the materiality of self-made craft designs.
Against this background, it seems productive to let go of the idea of goal-
oriented craft projects as solely substantially meaningful craft pursuits and
instead start thinking about craft making as material exploration that has endless
potential for generating meanings for the makers. Craft objects are, of course,
tremendously important as objects designed to fulfill different expressive,
functional, material, aesthetic, experiential, multisensory, collaborative, and
narrative meanings. However, in consideration of the usability of the results of
this study, in reflection of the interest in supporting creativity through access to
art and culture, this research substantiates the development of more integrative
and explorative craft projects focused more on material interaction, for example,
through the use of materials that have personal value for the makers and are
therefore capable of substantiating better the meaningful experiences through
craft making. These kinds of projects include an idea of contextual and shifting
meaningfulness nurtured through material interaction, and a sense of developing
reflectivity deriving from the interpretation of the material.

5.2 Methodological reflections

To a large extent, researchers are always obliged to tackle different challenges in
data collection, analysis, and research reporting. Especially research that delves
into the social lives of human beings requires commitment to critical reflection,
and a careful review of methodological and ethical concerns faced during the
research process (Berg, 2009, 60–61; Miller et al., 2012). This study has focused
on the meanings that hobby craft makers give to craft making, and the material
objects that are being created in the course of making. Since the study was
dedicated to the aim of explaining and understanding the views of individuals,
and the examination included excursions into craft makers’ private lives, there
was a constant need for sensitivity and an increased awareness over research
ethics and decision making relating to data collection, interpretation, and the

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presentation of the results. Bearing in mind that the researcher was part of the
culture under study, the research built on a dialogue between the researcher and
the craftspeople participating in the study as research informants. In this
dialogue, critical reflection arising at all stages of research became a key to
attaining a degree of transparency. Capturing reality as it “is” was never the
plan; what this study offered to do was to enlighten and unveil the meanings
given to hobby crafts. The process has been considered with the term
unraveling, with which I have tried to emphasize that research can never be free
from bias and that researchers are never fully capable of attaining a fully
objective view of reality (e.g., Benner, 1994; Miller et al., 2012, p. 6; Ormstrom
et al., 2013, pp. 22–23). They unveil only the reality as it appears through
subjective and evocative exploration. The term also links this exploration
metaphorically to a process of undoing the entangled strings of yarn, making the
threads (re)usable for new craft projects. In this process, I was the one to unravel
the threads of yarns, making sense of the elements of research so that it can be
unveiled to others.
Data collection and analyses. There is always much to speculate concerning
the rigorousness of data collection and methods to ensure the highest quality of
research. In terms of data collection, speculation often includes a need to discuss
research validity, reliability, and the representativeness of the sample size,
although it is well known that the attributes meant to validate quantitative
research do not straightforwardly apply to the paradigm of qualitative research
(e.g., Golafshani 2003; Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). Some quantifiable
figures relating to variety and volume are still worth considering in qualitative
research; for example, if a researcher seeks to grasp a phenomenon through
interviewing people, there is a need to estimate how many interviewees are
required in order to reach trustworthy conclusions. This, of course, depends on
the focus of the study, but is also linked with the intensity of the data gained
from the interviews.
In this study, interviews were used as a way to gain knowledge on the
meanings, values, and ideas of craft makers, and to explore makers’ experiences
of emerging collectivity. In Study I, the interviews were unstructured, allowing
the free-flowing interaction in between the researcher and the craftspeople.
Freeflowing conversation and spontaneously occurring questions allowed the
mutual exchange of information; this, I think, was essential to ensure the
richness and depth of the data. However, it needs to be acknowledged that the
unstructured interview method has been criticized for a lack of reliability in
comparison to structured interviews, because the same questions are not asked
from each research informant (e.g., Latham & Finnegan, 1993, 42). Be that as it
may, the aim of Study I was to grasp and explain the phenomenon in its richness
rather than breaking it down in order to reach a patterned explanation. However,
the sample size being rather small – only six interviewees – it can always be

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speculated whether it would have been beneficial to interview more people,

especially when all research informants came from different cultural
backgrounds. More extensive data would have possibly given a chance to delve
deeper into craft makers’ private meaning-making processes occurring behind
and in relation to the common kinds of meanings identitied in the analysis. This
would, however, have possibly engendered a need to reorientate the study itself.
Cultural background was one of the criteria in the selection of research
informants, but as the focus was on the individual and her experiences and
underlying emotions, the demarcation of culture only played a minor role in the
study. All this considered, I do not think that the data lacked rigour or
trustworthiness to portray the social phenomena that needed investigating. There
was enough material to conduct a rigorous, iterative analysis and develop a set
of descriptive categories revealing the sociomaterial interaction between
craftspeople and their hobby crafts.
The choice of interview approach in Study II was made on the basis of the
research task, which was to examine the generation of intersubjective
meaningfulness in a hobby craft community. The task was driven by an interest
to compare and connect the experiences of individuals in order to illustrate how
collectivity emerged within the group. One means to gain knowledge of the
experiences of group participants was by interviewing: the interviews were
focused (Hopf, 2004), and included three substantive topics that were discussed
individually with each interviewee. The depth and length of descriptions varied,
but all study participants who were interviewed provided thoughtful insights into
the study topics. Here again, it is important to reflect on the interviews: I would
have liked to interview all course participants, but for one reason or another
some declined. Indeed, one challenge in the data gathering was that those who
were interviewed were the same persons who were active for most of the course,
and present in most course sessions. Although research is always challenged by
the partiality of views, it is important to acknowledge that the individuals who
were interviewed were clearly encompassed by the culture.
Triangulation of methods and methodologies within the same research
project is one way to promote a wider understanding of the phenomenon under
scrutiny (della Porta & Keating, 2008, 37). Accordingly, by knitting together my
self-reflective thinking and writing with the insights of the interviewed study
participants, I tried to anticipate the issues relating to the active role of the
interviewees. Throughout the project, I aimed to be true to the experiences of
other study participants through an interpretative and reflexive account of
knowledge (see Benner, 1994). However, one concern was that since I and the
person interviewed had both been members of the course, the interpretation
featured much peer-to-peer reflection. Although admitting that research is
always created in a dialogue between the researcher and the researched, it might
be wondered whether the dialogue in this research was more intense – and

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intimate – than it traditionally is in dilemma-based interview studies where

experiences do not have a collective origin. This is a challenge that I had tried to
face with a search of the ways to question and critically reflect on my own views
and accounts. This was done through a self-reflective examination, and a critique
of my subjective writings. However, due to my own participation, I had a chance
to reflect on the interactions of the course on a broad scale, including writing
about my encounters with the participants who were not interviewed. All in all, I
can at least say that my self-reflective writing provided different type of data
than the interviews, and therefore enriched the data as a whole.
Although neither the choice of material nor the gender of the maker was
addressed, the study was constrained by the interest in contemporary textile
hobby crafts, which are usually considered “feminine” and related to the
domestic home realm. The study had a particular interest in the meanings of
younger makers, which affected what kinds of data were collected and how the
data were gathered, produced, and presented. However, the data focused on the
self-reflective experiences of craft making do not reflect the whole maker
population, because it is likely that older makers do not concurrently agree with
the views of younger makers, despite the links between and within generations
(e.g., Morrison & Marr, 2013; Pöllänen, 2013b). It is plausible that there will
always be differences in makers’ meanings and motivations, especially in
comparison to different age groups (Maidment & Macfarlane, 2009, 2011a,
2011b; Stannard, 2011; CYCA, 2014; Stannard & Sanders, 2015).
The main methodological contribution of this study has been the develop-
ment of a visual-reflexive self-study methodology focused on capturing and
communicating the meanings of practice through film-making. Autoethno-
graphic cinema was intended as a method for unveiling embodied experiences
through narrative scripting and evocative performance. It is a method to bring
the lived moments on the screen through aesthetic and evocative performance,
showing and narrating thoughts and actions that viewers of the film might relate
to and reflect on. In autoethnographic cinema, the camera was perceived as a
tool for capturing and reviewing one’s own embodied practices, exposing them
to the viewer’s gazing. Accordingly, the cinema was not filmed through the eyes
of the protagonist, but through a “voyeur’s gaze” attempting “to expose the
social and reveal the hidden truths that lie therein” (Denzin, 1995, 2).
Autoethnographic cinema is both a method for data collection and analysis.
In this study, autoethnographic, retrospective writing was undertaken as a
method to generate self-reflective data through an analysis of the self. Through
filmmaking, the autoethnographic data was converted into the form of a short
movie that demonstrated the self-understanding of the researcher through a
narrative storytelling. In this vein, data generation and analysis merged through
intimate storywriting, and together created an emotionally rich narrative of the
experiences of the young hobby craft maker. For me, autoethnographic film-

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making offered a way to redefine my own subjectification through material

entanglement, and critically review (and change) things that were intimate and
familiar to me, such was hobby craft making. I used autoethnographic cinema to
capture the fragmentary and layered process of self-exploration, provoking the
performance to illustrate the complex maker identity formation of a young craft
maker.
In autoethnographic cinema, the protagonist’s maker identity and maker body
allowed for spectator identification. However, contrary to the habiatual
documentary form, autoethnographic cinema offered a view of the intimate
actions scripted and framed by the protagonist-makers themselves. In this vein,
the authority of the film-maker and the protagonist shifted, as the protagonist
reclaimed the power and control to portray and perform the practices that s/he
found decisive and valuable. For this reason, autoethnographic cinema
succeeded in pointing the camera at the heart of the meanings that are sometimes
difficult to dress in words, putting weight on the experiences that had personal
meaning in the life of the maker-protagonist. Simultaneously, the autoethno-
graphic film approach deprivileged the view of the filmmaker authority, which
has traditionally defined the status quo that the film has set out to represent. All
in all, autoethnographic cinema offered a perspective on the experiences of the
self through unavoidably personal performance, positioning the self as the
directorauthority. This was the undeniable strength of the method in comparison
to traditional documentary forms.
One difficulty in autoethnographic film-making is the shifting conception of
the real world. Although autoethnographic cinema is composed from lived
experiences, the performance is not based on raw footage, but renders the
meanings of action through the “artificial resurrection of the real” (Minh-Ha,
1990, 83). However, no matter how the film setting was staged and the gaze
manipulated, the body performs actions in front of a camera authentically: I
knitted, my body moved, and loops became stitches in my hands. In this respect,
there was no difference between what was performed and how the actions were
made (see Deleuze & Guattari, 1987, 4), since performing included both being
the subject of the action, and constructing my body/self through the action.
Accordingly, autoethnographic cinema requires to be evaluated on the basis of
evocation that facilitates understandings of the meanings of the practice and
opens views to the patterns of cultural experience (Ellis, Adams & Bochner,
2011)—not on the basis of how “correct” representations of the subject matter
are being represented, or whose point of view the viewer agrees with (Minh-Ha,
1990, 84).
Perhaps the main challenge within cinematic production was that it tended to
render the self-scrutinizing contemplation as a coherent story that has a
beginning and an end. In truth, the actions were not captured on the run, but the
filming required many re-takes and re-placements. I re-performed knitting in

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front of the camera time and again to exhibit the ongoingness of the experience;
what is later composed out of the performance is a fragmentary reconstruction of
the performed details moving in time and space. It is apparent that the
autoethnographic narration or its cinematic visualization need not be
chronological, although film still displays the subject matter in a sequential way.
Despite this, the film format obviously succeded in illustrating the facets of
cultural experience differently from written autoethnographies; it offered a
medium for re-viewing, re-assessing, and re-conceptualizing the performed
actions with the assistance of digital tools, allowing both film-maker-protagonist
and spectators to reinforce their own subjectivities by watching the film as
“voyeurs”. To sum up, autoethnographic cinema is a promising method, but
there are still many critical themes that remain to be explored and developed
further.
Interpretation and presentation of the data. Qualitative research requires
reflexivity about the role of researcher in the research process, and an
understanding that the researcher is always part of the phenomenon under
investigation (Alvesson & Sköldberg 2000; Berg, 2009, 198). The assumption
that knowledge is created in the dialectic of individual and society has been at
the heart of this project, acknowledging of course that individuals constitute and
formulate their own interpretations of the world in particular ways (Berger &
Luckmann, 1985, 208; Scott, 2011, 14). The interpretations of each individual
are one-of-a-kind and therefore unique in their content, but the fundamental
elements of individual understandings derive from collective representations
showing socially constructed understandings of the world.
With all this in mind, I have used my own experiences to illustrate the facets
of cultural experience – the common understandings of a way of life deriving
from belongingness to the culture of hobby crafts through an exploration of a
particular life (Ellis, 2004, xvii; Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011). This is to say
that since self-studies do not achieve a value-neutral view of the world (or do not
even pursue to it), they are not “generalizable” in the same way as studies based
on statistical analyses, instead they provide knowledge of the social world
through the researchers’ intimate experiences. Revealing this intimacy has been
crucial especially while writing the study reports. While writing, I have aimed at
critical reflection throughout the research process. One method that has helped
me to make my own voice clear has been to use the first-person in my writing,
hoping that it could best offer me ownership of what has been said and reported.
I have also felt this style of writing has assisted me in developing a
consciousness of an honest and personal self, rather than hiding behind the
passive voice.
Defining my own maker identity has been an essential part of the research
process. During the prosess I have learned to know myself as a maker who
celebrates hobby craft making as a way to nurture sensibility with my own

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being, the material I work with, and the world I inhabit. However, even if I was
not actively crafting I consider myself a hobbyist knitter, a representative of the
younger generation of makers keen on craft making. What I want to emphasize
with my own self-reflection is the way in which I have learned to aknowledge
the complexity of meanings of hobby crafts, which I think is the only way to
productively conceptualize a sense of meaningfulness in modern life. I have also
felt that my own engagement and critical reflection have helped me to realize the
cultural nuances that might not reveal themselves to people outside the culture
under scrutiny. For this reason, I would like to think that my embeddedness in
the culture of hobby craft is more of an advantage than a disadvangate (it is both,
of course), since it has allowed me to build on intimate experiences from the
perspective of an insider. I believe, for example, that my own background as a
hobby craft maker played a crucial role when probing my own views and those
of other participants when I entered the craft course in the second group meeting
session. I was readily asked to share my experiences and invited to take my
place in the group through contributing to the mutual interests of the group. I
believe this also helped me to grasp the experiences of other makers, and
eventually, to knit together the views of the participants and my personal
reflection in the analysis. Later on, critical reflection of my own maker identity
offered an avenue to thinking and writing, especially in relation to issues about
what could be known and how the knowledge was created.

5.3 Re-casting – suggestion for further studies

During the past decades, we have witnessed a renaissance in craft making in the
Western world that has introduced many changes to the material culture of
hobby crafts. Not only have the materials provided by the vast craft supply
industry become overly abundant, but also the methods of sharing and
communication have revolutionized through the emergence of the Internet and
social media. It has been suggested that the current revival of craft making
shares commonalities with the upthrust of maker cultures in the late 1960s and
1970s (see Lucie-Smith, 1981, 274; Adamson, 2007, 166; Stevens, 2011, 51;
Peach, 2013) when crafts flourished because they provided an alternative to
institionalized workmanship. Some fifty years ago craft revival sought
inspiration from the nostalgic and idealistic retreat, and stood against
conservative preoccupations and patriarchal hegemonies of power. However,
much of the current resurgence has been directed towards forward-looking social
movements, which are deliberately ironic in their referencing of the past and
dexterious with innovations in new digital media (Peach, 2013, 174; also
Minahan & Wolfram Cox, 2007; Spencer, 2008, 60; von Busch, 2010). The rise
of these “new” maker cultures does not, however, suggest that the culture of
ordinary hobbyist home crafting would be threatened by extinction. On the

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contrary, this study has shown that textile hobby crafting is to be blooming along
– and in connection with – the urban maker communities.
Given the alignment of the “old” and the “new” maker cultures, there is much
to delve into with future research. For example, there are an ever-increasing
number of hobbyists embracing textile craft making as a valuable leisure pursuit
who engage in the negotiation of meanings through social media sharing.
Besides widespread, worldwide craft communities such as Ravelry and Etsy,
there are countless online communities on Facebook and Blogger formed around
particular craft events or interests. For example, the largest Finnish-speaking
online craft community on Facebook [Käsitöiden ystävien vinkkipankki, Craft
friends sharing tips and tricks for crafty ideas] currently has about 35 000
members, and the number of community members and online posts is still
growing rapidly (see Kouhia, 2016). In addition, hashtag-based Instagram and
Twitter provide the means for negotiating meanings through image-intensive
network sharing, enabling craft practitioners to define their maker identity by
posting photos and videos of their projects on social media. There are already
studies that have unveiled the role and position of craft objects between the self
and the social network (Hellstrom, 2013; Orton-Johnson, 2014), and opened up
views on a new sense of community-development (e.g., Vartiainen, 2010;
Mayne, 2016) as well as different types of online merchandise (Liss-Marino,
2014). Against this background, examining the negotiation of meanings through
the newlyemerged online photo-sharing platforms would be desirable for future
research, especially from the viewpoint of self-representation. Although I am
tempted by the use of quanlitative research methods and visual data, a mixed
method approach might also provide an interesting view on the motivations for
posting and sharing in social media.
There is also a need to develop autoethnographic film-making further, and
substantiate its potential to explore protagonists’ material engagement. The
outcomes of this study indicate that the methodology is applicable to research
interested in the meaning of practice, but what still remains vague is what the
methodology can provide to practice-led study. More films need to be conducted
in order to promote fictional storycrafting and performative resurrection as a
means to gain the knowledge of the practice itself. All in all, I hope that
autoethnographic cinema is able to legitimize more open discussion and further
research into the meanings of the presentation of the self.
Throughout this study, I have aimed to highlight different ways of
experiencing, communicating, negotiating, and reproducing the meanings within
the culture of hobby craft. To sum up, textile hobby crafts are undertaken
because they are capable to realize one’s individuality and interestedness, and
because they become intrinsically meaningful and valuable for the practitioners
themselves. Because of this individuality, textile hobby crafts seem to be able to
generate diverse, complex, and shifting meanings which arise in and through

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craft maker’s material interaction and develop with the passage of time. For
example, my own craft projects sometimes occupy my hands and mind
extremely intensively, but there are times when I put my craft projects aside for
months in order to have time for my other interests. What I have also learned
throughout this process is that many of the projects actually have no substantial
end in terms of material interaction. Even if I could complete my woolly sock
project, the socks will soon be worn out and in the need of repair and
reconstruction—as if my hobbyist textile craft making was just temporarily put
into hold.

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