DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

GRADE 12

PHYSICS

MODULE 2

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

PUBLISHED BY FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

PRIVATE MAIL BAG, P.O. WAIGANI, NCD
FOR DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
2017
Writer
Giles Waken

Content Editors
Science Department
Subject Review Committee

Language Editor
Dr. Mirzi. L. Betasolo

Course Format Editor

Elizabeth. W. Aimundi
GR 12 PHYS M2 TITLE

GRADE 12

PHYSICS

MODULE 2

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

IN THIS MODULE, YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT:

12.2.1: TEMPERATURE

12.2.2: THERMAL EXPANSION

12.2.3: HEAT

12.2.4: HEAT TRANSFER

12.2.5: APPLICATIONS

1
 GR 12 PHYS M2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT & ISBN

Acknowledgement

We acknowledge the contribution of all Lower and Upper Secondary teachers

who in one way or another helped to develop this Course.

Our profound gratitude goes to the former Principal of FODE, Mr. Demas
Tongogo for leading FODE towards this great achievement.

Special thanks are given to the staff of the Science Department of FODE who
played active roles in coordinating writing workshops, outsourcing of module
writing and editing processes involving selected teachers of Central Province and
NCD.

We also acknowledge the professional guidance and services provided through-

out the processes of writing by the members of:

Science Subject Review Committee-FODE

Academic Advisory Committee-FODE
Science Department- CDAD

This book was developed with the invaluable support and co-funding of the GO-
PNG and World Bank.

DIANA TEIT AKIS

Principal-FODE

.
Flexible Open and Distance Education
Papua New Guinea

Published in 2017
©Copyright 2017, Department of Education
Papua New Guinea

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or any
other form of reproduction by any process is allowed without the
prior permission of the publisher.

Printed by the Flexible, Open and Distance Education

ISBN 978-9980-89-558-5
National Library Services of Papua New Guinea

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title………………………………………………………………………………….......................................... 1
Acknowledgement & ISBN….…………………………………………………………………………………... 2
Contents……………………………………………………………………………………….………………….…….. 3
Secretary’s Message…………………………………………………………………………………….….…….. 4

MODULE 12.2: TEMPERATURE AND HEAT 5 - 72

Course Introduction………………………………………………………………..……………………...….….. 5
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………..………………………………….… 6

12.2.1: Temperature ……….…………..……………………………………………...…………..….……. 7 - 21

Temperature Units…………………………………….……………………….…………..………. 7 - 11
Thermometers…………………………………….…………….…………….………..….………... 12 - 19
Temperature Definition….…………………………………………………….…………………. 19 - 21

12.2.2: Thermal Expansion………….…………….…………………………………………...……..….. 21 - 29

Linear Thermal Expansion…………………………………………………………….….……… 22 - 23
Area (Superficial) Thermal Expansion………………………………………………..……. 24 - 25
Volume Thermal Expansion…………………………………………………………………….. 26 - 29

12.2.3: Heat…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…. 30 - 47
Heat Units….……………………….…………………….……………………….…………..………. 30 - 31
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity…..…………….…………….…….………... 31 - 34
Heat Equation………………………………………………………………………………………….. 34 - 37
Calorimetry……………………………………………………………………………………………… 37 - 40
Latent Heat………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41 - 47

12.2.4: Heat Transfer……………………………………………………………………………………….…. 48 - 58

Conduction………………………………………………………………………………………………. 49 - 51
Convection……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 52 -53
Radiation………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53 - 58

12.2.5 Applications of Heat and Temperature 59 - 66

Fire Walking………………………………………………………………………………………………. 59 - 60
Mumu……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 60 -62
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning………………………………………………………….… 62 -66

Summary………………………………….…….…………………………………………………………….………… 67 -69
Answers to Learning Activities……………………………………….………………………….………….. 70 - 73
References…………………………………………………………………………….………………………………. 74

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 MESSAGE

SECRETARY’S MESSAGE

Achieving a better future by individual students, their families, communities or the nation as
a whole, depends on the kind of curriculum and the way it is delivered.

This course is part of the new Flexible, Open and Distance Education curriculum. The
learning outcomes are student-centred and allows for them to be demonstrated and
assessed.

It maintains the rationale, goals, aims and principles of the National Curriculum and
identifies the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that students should achieve.

This is a provision by Flexible, Open and Distance Education as an alternative pathway of

formal education.

The Course promotes Papua New Guinea values and beliefs which are found in our
constitution, Government policies and reports. It is developed in line with the National
Education Plan (2005 – 2014) and addresses an increase in the number of school leavers
affected by lack of access into secondary and higher educational institutions.

Flexible, Open and Distance Education is guided by the Department of Education’s Mission
which is fivefold;

 To develop and encourage an education system which satisfies the requirements of

Papua New Guinea and its people
 To establish, preserve, and improve standards of education throughout Papua New
Guinea
 To make the benefits of such education available as widely as possible to all of the
people
 To make education accessible to the physically, mentally and socially handicapped as
well as to those who are educationally disadvantaged

The College is enhanced to provide alternative and comparable path ways for students and
adults to complete their education, through one system, two path ways and same learning
outcomes.

It is our vision that Papua New Guineans harness all appropriate and affordable technologies
to pursue this program.

I commend all those teachers, curriculum writers, university lecturers and many others who
have contributed so much in developing this course.

UKE KOMBRA, PhD

Secretary for Education

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 INTRODUCTION

MODULE 12.2: HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Introduction

Heat is a form of energy that is very familiar to much of our experience. We rely on the heat
produced by the chemical reaction of food during digestion to keep our bodies warm. The
Earth’s atmosphere requires heat to allow air to move and create weather patterns. These
are just two examples of how much our lives depend on heat.

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy in an object. In order to raise the
temperature of an object, we must add energy to it. Likewise to decrease the temperature
of an object, we must remove energy from that object. The energy that we add or remove
from an object is termed as heat.

Throughout this module, we will discuss several basic aspects of both heat and temperature.

In the first part of this module, we will begin with a look at the particle kinetic theory of
matter and its relationship to temperature. We then define temperature and look at the
many ways in which we measure temperature.

In the second part of this module, we will look at the effect of temperature change on the
size and dimensions of materials.

The third part of this module discusses heat as a form of energy, its units, and how materials
absorb and release heat. We will also discuss latent heat and its implications for changes in
state.

The fourth part looks at how heat is transferred from one place to another and how we can
control the movement of heat.

The final part of this module allows us to apply some of the ideas and concepts of
temperature, thermal expansion, heat and heat transfer to explain common practices and
the operation of refrigerators and air conditioners.

A volcano is evidence of the high temperatures and heat

energy beneath the Earth’s crust.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 OUTCOMES

Learning Outcomes

After going through this module, you are expected to:

 discuss temperature as a quantity and carry out temperature conversions between

different temperature scales.
 discuss operating principles of various types of thermometers and identify practical uses
for the various thermometers.
 explain thermal expansion of materials and perform calculations using thermal
expansion formulae to solve problems.
 identify heat as a form of energy and discuss the various units for measuring heat
including the conversion between these units.
 explain, discuss and apply the concepts of heat capacity, specific heat capacity, latent
heat and specific latent heat capacities of various substances.
 calculate the amount of heat using the heat equation, latent heat equations and
combinations of both changes in state and temperature of substances.
 describe the various methods of heat transfer and apply them in explaining natural
phenomenon, artificial applications.
 solve problems involving heat transfer.
 apply concepts of temperature, heat and heat transfer to explain and discuss various
applications.

Time Frame Suggested allotment time: 9 weeks

This module should be completed within 9 weeks.

If you set an average of 3 hours per day, you should be able to complete the module
comfortably by the end of the assigned week.

Try to do all the learning activities and compare your answers with the ones provided at the
end of the unit. If you do not get a particular exercise right in the first attempt, you should
not get discouraged but instead, go back and attempt it again. If you still do not get it right
after several attempts then you should seek help from your friend or even your tutor.

DO NOT LEAVE ANY QUESTION UNANSWERED.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

12.2.1 Temperature

Temperature is one of the basic SI quantities used to measure how hot or cold an object is.
We are all very familiar with this concept of temperature. However in this section we will
look at temperature from a more scientific perspective.

In this section of our study we will look at temperature as a quantity, what it physically
means and how it is measured in terms of units and instruments. We will look at the
different units of measuring temperature as well as how each is related.

We will also look at various types of thermometers and the influence that temperature
change has on the properties of many substances. The main emphasis is to identify how
temperature influences the various properties.

Towards the end of this section, we will formally define temperature and look at the
concepts of thermal contact and thermal equilibrium.

Temperature Units

The most common unit for temperature is Degrees Celsius (°C) also called Degrees
Centigrade. This unit was made in such a way that the melting point of water is 0°C and the
boiling point of water is 100°C at 1 atmosphere.

Another unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K). The temperature 0K is called absolute zero.
Absolute zero is the temperature that is conventionally thought to be the temperature at
which there is no more heat in a body. That is, the motion of all particles ceases. Another
important note is that degree celsius and kelvin have an equivalent scale. That is 1°C change
in temperature is the same as 1K change in temperature.

Yet another unit for temperature is the Degree Fahrenheit (°F) which is used in some
western nations. In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling
point of water is 212°F. The fahrenheit scale is not equivalent to that of degree celsius
and kelvin.

The conversion of between the temperature units is given below.

1. To convert from degrees celsius (°C) to kelvin (K) use the equation:

TK  T0 C  273

2. To convert from degrees celsius (°C) to degrees fahrenheit (°F) use the
equation:
9
T0  T0 C  32
F 5

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 1
The temperature of a block of metal is 342K. What is the temperature in Degree Celsius?

Solution
T0  TK  273
C

T0  342  273
C

T0  69 0 C
C

Example 2
A normal human body temperature is 37°C. What is the temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit?

Solution
9
T0  T0  32
F 5 C

9
T0  x 37  32
F 5

T0  98.6 0 F
F

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!

Learning Activity 1 20 minutes

Read and answer the following questions accordingly on the spaces provided.

1. Convert the following temperatures from degree Celsius to Kelvin (°C→K)

a. 0°C

b. 37°C

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

c. -32°C

d. 400°C

e. -16°C

2. What is the formula for converting temperatures from Kelvin to degrees Celsius?

3. Convert the following temperatures from Kelvin to degrees Celsius. (K→°C)

a. 197K

b. 251K

c. 465K

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

d. 285.6K

e. 28.8K

4. Convert the following temperatures from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

(°C→°F)

a. 0°C

b. 37°C

c. -32°C

d. 400°C

e. -16°C

5. What is the formula for converting the temperatures from degree Fahrenheit to
degree Celsius?

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

6. Convert the following temperatures from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius

(°F→°C).

a.
98°F

b.
102°F

c.
212°F

d.
158°F

e.
50°F

Thank you for completing learning activity 1. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Thermometers

Thermometers are instruments which measure the change in temperature of an object by

measuring the change in a physical property of the object.

The main physical properties that change with changes in temperature are;

(a) volume of a liquid

(b) length of a solid
(c) pressure of a gas at constant volume
(d) electrical resistance of a conductor
(e) radiation emitted by an object at high temperatures

We can establish temperature scales based on the range of temperatures and the way
particular physical properties of a substance(s) change over the range of temperatures.

Types of thermometers
The following are some types of temperature measuring devices;

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
The liquid-in-glass thermometer makes use of the fact that liquid volume increases when
temperature increases. Such thermometers are made by having a liquid, usually mercury or
alcohol, sealed in a hollow glass rod. Temperature measurement is made when liquid
expands. A draw back to the use of such thermometers is the limited range of temperatures.
Most clinical thermometers are of this type.

reading
scale
0 0
0C 100 C

glass stem vacuum

Figure 1 Figure 1 A typical liquid-in-glass thermometer. The liquid expands depending on temperature.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Bimetallic strip
The bimetallic strip (or compound bar) is composed of two different metals whose lengths
expand at different rates when temperature increases and contract at different rates when
temperature is decreased. The expansion and contraction at different rates causes the
bimetallic strip to bend. It is often used in industries where high temperatures are
measured. It may be limited to temperatures which are less than the melting point of both
metals.

brass

scale
steel
cold

hot

Figure 2 A bimetallic strip bends according to the different

rates of expansion of brass and steel at different temperatures.

Thermocouple
The thermocouple consists of two different metal wires. One end is in a reference
temperature (ice) while the other is used as a probe. Both wires are connected to a sensitive
electric meter such as a galvanometer. When the probe-end is held at a higher temperature,
the galvanometer gives a reading for the p.d. of both ends of a wire. The potential difference
between these metals is proportional to the difference in temperature.

steel probe

copper

copper Voltmeter calibrated to read

temperature

Figure 2 A thermocouple made from copper and steel wires.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Resistance thermometers
Resistance thermometers make use of the fact that resistance increases with an increase in
temperature. A probe is made from a conducting wire and connected to a circuit with a
meter which can give the reading of the resistance of the wire.

Pyrometers
Pyrometers make use of the fact that hot bodies give off electromagnetic (EM) radiation
(infrared part of the EM spectrum).

Constant – volume gas thermometer

This thermometer makes use of the property of gases where if the volume of a gas is
constant then temperature is proportional to pressure. Below is a diagram of such a
thermometer. When the temperature of the gas is increased, its pressure is increased.

scale

mercury
gas

Figure 3 A constant-volume gas thermometer

The temperature in a constant-volume gas thermometer is measured by the change in

pressure of the gas at different temperatures.

Example 3
A liquid thermometer is calibrated by immersing it in melting ice and then in boiling water.
The column of the liquid is respectively 4cm and 29cm.

(a) What is the average change in length (cm) per unit change in temperature (°C) of the
liquid?

Solution
This question is asking us to find by how much the length of the liquid column changes for
every 1°C change in temperature. The melting point of water is 0°C while the boiling point of
water is 100°C. We calculate this as follows;

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

ΔL 29cm  4cm
  0.25cm/ 0 C
ΔT 100 C  0 C
0 0

(b) Find the temperature when the column is 10.0cm long.

Solution
To find the temperature we divide the length by the answer in (a).

10cm ÷ 0.25cm/0C = 400C

(c) What is the height of the column of liquid at 650C?

Solution
To find the height of the column, we multiply the result in (a) by the temperature.

0.25cm/0C x 650C = 16.25cm

Example 4
The following graph shows the change in resistance of a conductor as temperature
increases.
RESISTANCE VERSUS TEMPERATURE GRAPH

30

25
Resistance (kΩ)

20

15

10

0
210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Temperature (K)

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

(a) What is the resistance of the conductor at 280K?

Solution
From the graph the temperature 280K corresponds with 13Ω.

(b) If room temperature is 25°C, find the resistance of the conductor at that temperature.

Solution
TK  T0  273
C

TK  25  273

TK  298K

According to the graph, the resistance of the conductor is approximately 15Ω at 298K.

Example 5
One end of a thermocouple probe is kept in an ice-water mixture at 0°C while the other is
inserted into boiling water at 100°C. The reading on the meter is 64µA.

When one of the probes is kept in ice-water while the other is immersed in warm water, the
reading on the thermocouple becomes 84µA.

What is the temperature of the warm water?

Solution
To answer this question we should note that the change in temperature (ΔT) is inversely
proportional to the change in current (ΔI).

1
ΔT 
ΔI

k
ΔT   k  ΔT x ΔI
ΔI

k  100 0 C x 64μ A  6400 0 C  μA

6400 0 C  μA
ΔT   76.2 0 C
84μ A

Note: The change in temperature (ΔT) is 76.2°C which is the temperature that we are looking
for. This is because one of the probes is in 0°C which is the reference. A reading will only be
obtained in a thermocouple if there is a difference in temperature.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity on the next page!

Learning Activity 2 20 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.

1. List the main physical properties that are used in the construction of the
thermometers discussed.

i. _________________________________________________________________
ii. _________________________________________________________________
iii. _________________________________________________________________
iv. _________________________________________________________________
v. _________________________________________________________________

2. Make a list of the thermometers discussed above, that rely on the expansion and or
contraction of substances due to changes in temperature.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. John constructs a liquid-in-glass thermometer using a thin glass tube and a liquid
that expands at 0.3cm per degree Celsius change in temperature. At 0°C, the height
of the liquid in the thermometer is 2.3cm.

a) To what approximate height does the liquid rise when the thermometer is
at 25°C?

b) Suppose John wants to use his thermometer to measure temperatures

from 0°C to 80°C, what should the minimum height of his glass tube be?

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

4. The resistance scale of temperature is defined by the equation below.

RT  R0
T 0C  x 100 0 C
R100  R 0

Where RT is the resistance value at temperature T°C, R100 and R0 are the resistance
values at 100°C and 0°C respectively.

A resistance thermometer is calibrated by measuring the resistance of the

thermometer at 0°C and then at 100°C. At 0°C, the resistance thermometer reads 10Ω.
At 100°C, the thermometer reads 160Ω.

a) State how resistance, current and voltage generally change when temperature
increases.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) Using the formula and the information above, find the temperature when the
resistance thermometer reads 80Ω?

c) What resistance value would we expect the thermometer to read at 40°C?

5. a) For a constant volume of gas, briefly explain how it’s pressure changes when
there is an increase or decrease in the gas temperature?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

(b) 700g of a certain gas kept in a sealed container at 0°C has a pressure of 101
300Pa. At 30°C the gas pressure is double the pressure at 0°C.

What is the average change in pressure per degree celsius of this gas?

Thank you for completing learning activity 2. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.

Temperature Definition

So far we have looked at the units of measuring temperature and the different instruments
that we can use to measure temperature. Normally we would define temperature as a
measure of how hot or cold an object is. This definition is not sufficient because it is based
on our senses which cannot always be reliable or quantifiable. Let us now define
temperature as a physical quantity.

Temperature and the kinetic theory of matter

In primary school you may have discussed the Kinetic theory of matter. This theory basically
explains that all matter is composed of particles which have energy. Solid particles are held
in close together and vibrate while in fixed positions. Liquid particles are able to move about
freely and are further apart than those in solids. Gases move very quickly and very far apart.
The particles in the three states of matter have energy called kinetic energy which is the
energy possessed by any object that moves.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

PARTICLES LOSE ENERGY AS TEMPERATURE DECREASES

DECREASING TEMPERATURE CAUSES CHANGE OF STATE FROM GAS TO LIQUID TO SOLID

In solids, particles vibrate and In liquids, particles move about In gases, particles are very far apart and
mostly maintain fixed positions. and are further apart. The speed move at high speeds. The speed of the
The amount of vibration of the particles depends on the particles depends on the temperature.
depends on temperature temperature

PARTICLES GAIN ENERGY AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES

INCREASING TEMPERATURE CAUSES CHANGE OF STATE FROM SOLID TO LIQUID TO GAS

Figure 4 The kinetic theory of matter

In terms of the kinetic theory of matter, temperature is defined as the average kinetic
energy that each particle in an object possesses. This means that an object which has a high
temperature would have particles that have a high average kinetic energy or move very fast.
Objects with low temperatures would have particles that have a low average kinetic energy
or move slower.

Thermal equilibrium

Temperature is a measure of whether or not two or more objects in thermal contact are
in thermal equilibrium.

Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if their temperatures are the same. These two
objects will be in thermal contact if there is a way in which the energy from one can be
transferred to the other so that thermal equilibrium is reached.

The definition of temperature above tells us that if two objects that are in thermal contact
are not in thermal equilibrium, then they have different temperatures and we can make a
comparison of the temperatures for measurement.

Suppose we put a thermometer at 25°C in a cup of water which is kept at 50°C. Initially the
water and thermometer are at different temperatures, when we put the thermometer into
the water, we initiate the thermal contact between them. This means that there is energy
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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

transfer occurring between the water and the thermometer. After some time the
thermometer reading changes from 25°C to 50°C and no further change in temperature is
seen. We now say that the thermometer and water are at thermal equilibrium, because
there is no more change in temperature and hence no more energy transfers between the
water and the thermometer.

Note that being in thermal contact does not mean that objects must be in physical contact
or “touching”. Thermal contact can still occur even when objects are not touching. The idea
of thermal contact will be further explained in the section on heat transfer later in this unit.

12.2.2 Thermal Expansion

When an object experiences a change in temperature, a change in length and size also
occurs simultaneously. This changing in length and size when change in temperature occurs
is called thermal expansion.

You probably have wondered why a corrugated iron roof creaks during the day or at night
time or why bitumen roads and cement seem to crack after construction. All of these can be
explained using the ideas of thermal expansion.

Figure 5 Effects of thermal expansion on roads (left) and railway tracks (right)

We have already looked at the effect that temperature has on the substances when we
looked at thermometers. We will now expand this idea in general terms for some substances
which change their physical dimensions when a temperature change occurs.

We will firstly look at the simplest case of thermal expansion which is linear thermal
expansion and the formula for calculating changes in length. This deals with only changes in
length that occurs when temperature is increased or decreased.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Second to this is area or superficial thermal expansion, where the area is changed due to a
temperature change. It is important to note that linear and area expansions can only be
applied to solids.

Lastly we will look at volume expansion which occurs for all substances whether they are
solid liquid or gas. We will also look at how each of the three types of thermal expansion are
related by their coefficients of thermal expansion.

Linear Thermal Expansion

Experimentally it can be determined that for any material, the change in length is
proportional to the temperature and the length of the material.

The equation for calculating the amount of change in the given length of object for an
object is given by;

ΔL  α L0 ΔT

Where α is called the coefficient of linear expansion which is unique number for different
materials where its unit is per degree Celsius (°C)-1, L0 is the original length of the object,
ΔT is the change in temperature.

Some alternative forms of the linear expansion formula are shown below;

L1 = L0 + αL0ΔT

L1 = L0(1 + αΔT)

L1
= 1 + ΔT
L0

Sag on cold day

Maximum sag
4.5 metres on a hot day

Figure 6 Sagging power lines is an example of thermal linear expansion

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Below is a table showing the linear expansion coefficients for some materials.

Material Coefficient of linear expansion, α (°C-1)

Aluminium 25 x 10-6
Brass 19 x 10-6
Copper 17 x 10-6
Iron/steel 11 x 10-6
Lead 29 x 10-6
Glass 9 x 10-6
Table 1 Linear expansion coefficients for some materials

Example 6
A steel beam is 20m long at 20°C. If the extremes of temperature to which it might be
exposed to are -30°C and +40°C, how much will it contract and expand?

αsteel  11 x 10 6
(0 C) 1 
Solution
Here we are to determine the change in length (expansion) when the temperature changes
from 20°C to 40°C and the change in length (contraction) when the temperature changes
from 20°C to -30°C.

Expansion;
ΔL = αL0ΔT
ΔL = 11 x 10-6 x 20m x (400C – 200C)
ΔL = 0.0044m = 4.4mm

Contraction;
ΔL = αL0ΔT
ΔL = 12 x 10-6 x 20m x (200C – -300C)
ΔL = 0.011m = 11mm

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Area (Superficial) Thermal Expansion

Since the length and width of a flat sheet of material will change with temperature, the area
must change and so we can define an equation to calculate this change in area.

Any change in area is given by the following formula.

ΔA = 2αA0ΔT

ΔA is the change in area or A1 – A0, α is the coefficient of linear expansion, A0 = original

area, A1 is the area after thermal expansion; ΔT is the change in temperature.

Alternate forms of this formula are;

A1 = A0 + 2αA0ΔT

A
1 = 1 + 2αΔT
A
0

Each change in dimensions depends on the initial length. This means that for a shape such as
a rectangle, the shortest side changes the least. However the rectangle itself experiences a
change in Area.

Example 7
A circular aluminum washer (shown below) has an inner radius of 5mm and an outer radius
of 12mm at 25°C. It is heated so that its temperature reaches 100°C.
(use π = 3.14, αAl = 25 × 10-6 °C-1)

(a) Determine the initial area of washer to two (2) decimal places.

(b) Determine the new area of the washer to two (2) decimal places

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Solution
(a) We can calculate the area of the washer using the formula for the area of a circle.

A = AOuter - AInner

A = πR02 – πr02

A = 3.14 x (12mm)2 – 3.14 x (5mm)2

A = 452.16mm2 – 78.5mm2

A = 373.66mm2

(b) Let us calculate the new areas of both the inner and outer circles then subtract to find
the new area.

New area of the outer circle

A1 = A0 + 2αΔT

A1 = 452.16 + 452.16 x 2 x 25 x 10-6 x 750C

A1 = 452.16mm2 + 1.6956mm2 = 453.86mm2

New area of the inner circle

A1 = A0 + 2αΔT

A1 = 78.5 + 78.5 x 2 x 25 x 10-6 x 750C

A1 = 78.5mm2 + 0.294375mm2 = 78.79mm2

New area of the washer is A = 453.86mm2 – 78.79mm2 = 375.07mm2

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Volume Thermal Expansion

The change in volume of a material which undergoes a temperature change is given by;
ΔV = βV0ΔT

Where ΔV is the change in volume (m3), β is the coefficient of volume expansion with its unit
(°C-1), and ΔT is the change in temperature (°C).

The table below shows average expansion coefficients for some materials near room
temperature

Average Average
linear expansion Volume Expansion
Material Coefficient (α) Material Coefficient (β)
(oC)-1 (oC)-1
Aluminium 25 x 10-6 Alcohol, ethyl 1.12 x 10-4
Brass and bronze 19 x 10-6 Benzene 1.24 x 10-4
Copper 17 x 10-6 Acetone 1.5 x 10-4
Glass (ordinary) 9 x 10-6 Glycerine 4.85 x 10-4
Glass pyrex) 3.2 x 10-6 10-6Mercury 1.82 x 10-4
Lead 29 x 10-6 Turpentine 9.0 x 10-4
Steel 11 x 10-6 Gasoline (petrol) 9.6 x 10-4
Invar (Ni-Fe alloy) 0.9 x 10-6 Air at 0oC 3.67 x 10-3
Concrete 12 x 10-6 Helium 3.665 x 10-3
Table 2 Average expansion coefficients for some materials near room temperature

Relationship between α and β

From the study of dimensional analysis, we know that volume is length cubed (i.e. raised to
the third power. The original volume V0 can be expressed as the cube of initial length
dimensions.

V0 = L03

Using the volume expansion formula, we can express the above equation with  and .

V1 = βV0ΔT = ((L1 – αL0ΔT)3)

Expanding the expression on the right we get;

V1 – βV0ΔT = L13 - 3αL12L0 (ΔT) + 3α2L1L02(ΔT)2 – α3L03(ΔT)3

Since α is small number any terms that contain α2 and α3 will be very small (close to zero)
and thus are negligible. The only terms that remain then are;

V1 = βV0ΔT = L13 - 3αL12L0(ΔT)

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

We can identify and equate common terms on the left and right hand sides of the equation.
The most important relationship that we have determined from the above equations is that
between the coefficient of volume expansion (β) and the coefficient of linear expansion (α).
The relationship is;
β = 3α.

Example 8
The 70L steel petrol tank is filled to the top with gasoline at 20°C. The steel tank is then left
to sit in the sun where it reaches a temperature of 50°C. How much petrol do you expect to
overflow from the tank? (Use the coefficients of thermal expansion table on pg. 26)

Solution
To work out this problem we need to find the difference in the change in volume between
the petrol tank and the petrol.

Expansion of petrol tank

ΔVtank = V0βΔT

ΔVtank = 70L x 11 x 10-6 x 150C

ΔVtank = 0.01155L

Expansion of petrol

ΔVpetrol = V0βΔT

ΔVpetrol = 70L x 9.6 x 10-4 x 150C

ΔVpetrol = 1.008L

Difference in volume change between petrol tank and petrol

1.008L – 0.01155L = 0.996L = 996mL

We would expect almost 1L of fuel to overflow from the tank.

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity on the next page!

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Learning Activity 3 30 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided. For α and β values, use the table
of thermal expansion coefficients on page 26.

1. State the three factors that determine the linear expansion of an object.

a) __________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________

2. A strip of lead metal initially with a length of 35cm is heated so that its temperature
changes by 80°C.

Find the change in length of the lead and its new length at the new temperature.

3. Find the temperature range of a 25m aluminum cable that expands and contracts by
7mm each day.

4. A metallic axle with a diameter of 20mm has to be fitted into a wheel which has a
circular hole at its center with diameter 18.5mm. To fit the axle into the hole, the axle
is dipped into liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -200°C. Calculate the coefficient of
linear expansion of the metal.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

5. A square sheet of steel is heated from 25°C to 100°C. it experiences a change in area of
0.25cm2. Using the formula for area expansion, find the initial area of the steel sheet.

6. A brass cylinder with a radius of 5cm and height of 5cm is kept at a temperature of -
10°C. if the cylinder is heated to a temperature of 50°C, calculate the new volume of
the cylinder.

7. What temperature change is required to make 25mL of acetone expand to 30mL?

Thank you for completing learning activity 3. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

12.2.3 Heat

The transfer of thermal energy from one body to another by difference in temperature is
called heating. The heat flow between two objects depends on their temperatures.

The word heat can be used to refer to the energy that is transferred between two objects
before they reach thermal equilibrium. This should be distinguished from the energy that is
possessed internally by all objects. We refer to the internal energy as thermal energy. In
other words you can think of thermal energy as the energy that is contained in an object.
Heat can be considered as any energy that is added or removed from the object. Thus when
heating occurs, the thermal energy of a body is either increased or decreased.

In this section of our study we will firstly look at the units used in the measurement of heat.
These units are used in a variety of contexts and it is worthwhile that we identify these units
as well as the methods of conversion which is the main emphasis.

The second part of this section deals with heat capacity and the heat equation. This is also
one of the main parts of our study on heat. In this part we look at how to calculate the
amount of energy used in the process of changing the temperature of a substance.

We apply the law of conservation of energy to the concept of heat and in the use of the heat
equations as well as with latent heat.

Finally also look at the concept of latent heat as it is applied when substances change state.

Heat Units

There are several units used in the measurement of heat as a quantity.

Units for heat

The three (3) units commonly used to measure heat are calorie, BTU and the joule.

1 Calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1°C. The kilocalorie (kcal) is a unit that is often used.

BTU stands for British Thermal Unit where 1 BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by 1°F.

The Joule is the SI unit for measurement of energy.

Conversions between heat units

To convert from Calories to Joules, the conversion factor is; 1 calorie = 4.2 Joules
To convert from BTU to Joule, the conversion factor is; 1 BTU = 1 055 Joules

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 6
1 serving of butter is said to contain 1900 kcal of energy. How much energy is this in Joule
and in BTU?

Solution
In this question we are simply converting the amount of energy already given in kilocalories
to Joules and BTU.

From kcal to Joule

1900kcal = 1 900 000cal x 4.2J/cal = 7 980 000J

From Joule to BTU

7 980 000J
7 980 000J = = 7 563.98BTU
1 055J/BTU

Heat Capacity & Specific Heat Capacity

Equal amounts of heat applied to equal masses of different substances tend to produce
unequal temperature rise. This is a common observation in cooking for instance. If we heat
the same amount of cooking oil and water in the same type of saucepan with same amount
of heat, we will find that the temperature of water will be lower than that of cooking oil. This
observation can be explained by the concept of heat capacity.

Heat capacity
If we apply 1000J of energy to 100g of copper and 100g water, which one do you think will
have the higher temperature?

This question can only be answered if we know how well each of these two substances is
capable of absorbing energy. The ability of a substance to absorb and release heat is known
as heat capacity.

Heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat gained (or lost) by a substance for a
change in temperature of 1°C.
To calculate heat capacity (C) we use the following equation;

Q
C
ΔT

C is the heat capacity in Joules per degree Celsius (J/°C), Q is the amount of thermal
energy in Joules and ΔT is the temperature in degree Celsius.

Example 7
When 5 400J of thermal energy is added to a steel frying pan, the approximate change is
temperature is 30°C. What is the heat capacity of the steel frying pan?

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Solution
The amount of energy added (Q) is 5 400J while the change in temperature (ΔT) of the frying
pan is 30°C.

Q
C
ΔT

5 400J
C
30 0 C

C  180J0 C 1

The heat capacity of the steel frying pan tells us that it requires 180J of energy to increase
the temperature by 1°C. The heat capacity of an object depends on the type of substance it
is made of and it’s mass. The steel frying pan given in the above example would have a
different heat capacity from an identical frying pan with the same mass but is made from
copper.

Heat capacity must not be confused with heat conduction. A substance with a high heat
capacity tends to absorb large amounts of energy to reach a temperature change of 1°C
while a substance with a high heat conduction is able to transfer heat at a faster rate. The
difference here is that heat capacity is not dependent on time whereas heat conduction is
dependent on time.

Specific heat capacity

The concept of specific heat capacity (c) takes the idea of heat capacity one step further.
Take note that specific heat capacity (c) and heat capacity (C) are two different quantities.

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy that 1 kg of a substance
gains (or loses) in order for a change in temperature of 1°C to occur.

Notice that specific heat capacity includes the mass of the substance as well. The unit for
specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg°C).

The relationship between heat capacity (C) and specific heat capacity (c) is given by the
equation below.
C = mc

Given the heat capacity of a substance we can determine the mass of a substance by using
this relationship between heat capacity and specific heat capacity.

Example 8
Determine the mass of the steel frying pan in Example 7 if the specific heat capacity of steel
is 450 J/kg°C.
(solution next page)

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Solution
From example 7, C = 180J/°C while c = 450J/kg°C

C
m
c

180J/ 0 C
m  0.40kg
450J/kg0 C

The table below shows the specific heat capacities of some substances at 25oC and
atmospheric pressure.

Specific heat capacity c

Substance J/kg°C Cal/g°C

Elemental Solids
Aluminium 900 0.215
Berrylium 1 830 0.436
Cadmium 230 0.055
Copper 387 0.092 4
Germanium 322 0.077
Gold 129 0.030 8
Iron 448 0.107
Lead 128 0.030 5
Silicon 703 0.168
Silver 234 0.056
Other Solids
Brass 380 0.092
Glass 837 0.200
Ice (-50C) 2 090 0.50
Marble 860 0.21
Wood 1 700 0.41
Liquids
Alcohol (ethyl) 2 400 0.58
Mercury 140 0.033
Water (150C) 4 186 1.00
Gas
Steam (1000C) 2010 0.48
o
Table 3 Specific Heat Capacity of some substances at 25 C and
atmospheric pressure

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 9
A 1.5kg brass saucepan is heated on an open fire until it reaches a temperature of 250°C.
If the specific heat capacity of brass is 380J/kg°C, what is the heat capacity of this saucepan?

Solution
C = mc

C = 1.5kg x 380J/kg0C

C = 570J/0C

Heat Equation

The heat equation allows us to determine the amount of thermal energy that is gained or
lost (Q) to change the temperature of an object.

This amount of thermal energy is proportional to the mass of the object m and the
temperature change (ΔT). This is expressed in the equation;

Q = mcΔT

Where c is the specific heat capacity of the substance, and is defined as the amount of
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1°C. Unit for
specific heat capacity is Joule per kilogram per degree celsius (J/kg°C).

Example 10
How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 20kg of iron from 10°C to 90°C
given that ciron = 450 J/kg°C?

Solution

Q = mcΔT

Q = 20kg x 450J/kg0C x (900C – 100C)

Q = 720 000J

The amount of energy is also equivalent if the 20kg iron in the example had cooled from
90°C to 10°C. That is the equation is valid for increase or decrease in thermal energy, with a
corresponding increase or decrease in temperature.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 11
Water has a specific heat capacity of 4186J/kg°C. 125 000J of energy is given off by a mass of
water when it cools from 100°C to 25°C. What is the mass of water that has cooled?

Solution
To find the mass of water, we must rearrange the heat equation and make m the subject.

Q
m
cΔT

125580J
m
4186J/kg C x (100 0 C  25 0 C)
0

m  0.398kg

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!

Learning Activity 4 20 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.

1. Express the following energy values in calories and BTU.

Energy (Joules) Energy (Calories) Energy (BTU)

a) 500J

b) 2500J

c) 198000J

d) 800kJ

e) 1.2MJ

2. Explain the difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

3. 100g of copper is heated so that it experiences a 130°C rise in temperature.

a) Given that copper has a specific heat capacity (c) of 387J/kg°C, find the amount
of heat energy added.

b) If we double the mass of copper, how would this affect the amount of energy
needed to heat copper with the same temperature rise?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. Lead has a specific heat capacity (c) of approximately 130J/kg°C. A sample of lead has a
heat capacity (C) of 975J. Its temperature was decreased by 60°C.

a) What is the mass (in kg) of the lead sample?

b) How much energy has been removed from the lead sample in this decrease in
temperature?

5. A 120g amount of sodium chloride is heated from 25°C to 100°C. The amount of
energy added is calculated to be 7 920J.

a) Determine the heat capacity of 120g of sodium chloride.

b) Find the specific heat capacity of sodium chloride.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

c) How much energy is required to cause the same temperature change for 200g of
sodium chloride?

6. 50g of a metal at an initial temperature of 200°C is cooled to 40°C. The amount of

energy that is given off in cooling this metal is 1872J.

a) Find the specific heat capacity of the metal.

b) Use the table of specific heat capacities to identify the metal whose specific heat
capacity you found in a.

Thank you for completing learning activity 4. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.

Calorimetry

Calorimetry is a field of study that looks at measuring the amount of thermal energy gained
or lost by substances. It uses the heat equation and the law of conservation of energy to
help determine amounts of energy as well as heat capacities and specific heat capacities of
substances.

When two or more objects are at different temperatures in some sort of isolation, heat can
flow from the one with the higher temperature to the one at a lower temperature until both
objects are at equal temperature this is known as thermal equilibrium. This also satisfies the
Law of Conservation of energy. In an isolated (or closed) system at thermal equilibrium
conservation of thermal energy can be summarised by the equation below.

Heat lost = heat gained

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

The following examples illustrate the use of the law of conservation of energy in dealing with
situations involving heat.

Example 12
200g of water at 95°C is poured into a 150g glass cup initially at 25°C. What will the final
temperature of the mixture be when equilibrium is reached, assuming that no heat flows to
the surroundings? (cwater= 4200 J/kg°C , cglass = 840J/kg°C)

Solution
At the beginning it is important that we analyse the question to determine which substance
gains energy and which one loses energy. Since water has the higher temperature it is the
one that loses energy to be cooler while the glass gains energy to become warmer. We
should also be aware that since water and glass begin at different temperatures, they will
have to reach equilibrium at the same temperature. With these ideas in mind let’s calculate
the final temperature.

Heat gained = heat lost

Qglass = Qwater

mglass cglassΔTglass = mwaterCwaterΔTwater

0.15kg x 840J/kg0C x (Tf – 250C) = 0.200kg x 4186J/kg0C x (950C – Tf)

Notice how ΔTglass = Tf - 25°C, this is because we expect that the glass will ‘warm-up’ after we
add the hot water into it. The final temperature Tf at equilibrium will then be higher than the
initial temperature of the glass. A similar reasoning is applied for
water (Δ water  950 C  Tf ) which will be at a lower temperature.

126Tf – 3150 = 79534 – 837.2Tf

Solving for Tf 126Tf + 837.2Tf = 79534 + 3150

963.2Tf = 82684

82684
Tf = = 85.840C
963.2
This answer makes sense because, glass having a lower specific heat capacity will reach a
higher temperature (60°C more than initially). The specific heat capacity of water is about 4
times greater than that of glass and so it does not experience a lot of change in temperature.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 13
0.25kg of honey at 63°C is added to an aluminium container of mass 300g initially at 15°C.
Assuming no energy is lost to the surroundings, calculate the specific heat capacity of honey
if the specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900J/kg°C and the final temperature of the
mixture is 48°C?

Solution
We can tell that the aluminium container gains heat because its temperature has increased.
Therefore,
Heat gained by aluminium = Heat lost by honey

Q al  Q hn

m al c al ΔTal  mhnc hn ΔThn

m al c al ΔTal
c hn 
mhn ΔThn

0.300kg x 900J/kg0 C x 33 0 C
c hn 
0.25kg x 15 0 C

c hn  2 376J/kg0 C

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!

e
Learning Activity 5 20 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.

1. 50g of copper is heated by placing it in boiling water (100°C). It is then placed in a

beaker containing 250 g of an unknown liquid at 20°C. The final temperature of the
copper and the liquid is found to be 25°C.

What is the specific heat of the liquid? (Assume no heat is lost to the surroundings.
Specific heat capacity of copper = 390J/kg°C.)

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

2. A 1500W electric jug is used to heat 500mL of water. Calculate the time for the jug to
raise the temperature of the water from room temperature, 20°C, to boiling point.
(Note: 1500W means it supplies 1500J of heat energy every second. The density of
water is 1000kgm–3, Use specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/kg°C)

3. In an experiment, 500g of copper at 80°C is dropped into 1kg of kerosene at 20°C. The
mixture reached a temperature of 25°C. What is the specific heat capacity of
kerosene? (use specific heat of copper = 390J/kg°C)

Thank you for completing learning activity 5. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Latent Heat

The word latent from any dictionary would have a similar meaning to the word hidden.
Latent heat is something that we observe when we change the state of a substance either
from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas and vice versa.

When a material changes state (from solid to liquid or liquid to gas and vice versa) a certain
amount of energy is involved in the change of state. Observe the graph below of thermal
energy added to bring 1kg of ice at -30°C to steam at 120°C.

A GRAPH OF TEMPERATURE VERSUS ENERGY

T (oC)
120
D E
90

60 C Steam
ice +
water water + steam
30

B water
0
ice +
A
water
-30
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Ice 62.7 396 815 3080 3110
Energy added (J)

Notice the flat areas B and D on the graph. In the two (2) areas (B and D), energy is being
added, but temperature is not changing.

From the energy added in B and D are very large. The energy added in B and D is called
latent heat. These two sections earn this name because we can see that energy is added but
there is no change in temperature.

Latent heat capacity (Latent heat) is the energy required to change the state of a
substance without a change in temperature. Latent heat capacity is measured in Joules
(J).

In Figure 8, we can see that latent heat occurs at the melting point and boiling point of
water. This means that we add about 330 000J of energy to change 1kg of ice to 1kg of water
and about 2 260 000J of energy to change 1kg of water to 1kg of steam. If we reverse the
process by changing 1kg of water to ice 330 000J of energy would have to be removed from
water. Likewise, when changing 1kg of steam to water, 2 260 000J of energy will have to be
removed.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Apart from latent heat, we also have specific latent heat capacity. The two (2) types of
specific latent heat are described below.

The heat required to change 1.0kg of a substance from solid to liquid state without a
change in temperature is called the specific latent heat of fusion (Lf). The latent heat of
fusion has the units Joule per kilogram (J/kg).

The heat required to change a substance from liquid to vapour (gas) state without a
change in temperature is called the specific latent heat of vaporization (Lv).

The latent heat in a change of state depends not only on the latent heats but also on the
total mass of the substance.

Latent heat is given by; Q = mL

Q refers to the latent heat (in Joules) required or given off to reach a particular state, m is
the mass of the substance (in kilograms), and L is the specific latent heat of either fusion
or vaporisation (given in Joules/kilogram).

In the graph on the previous page, we can see that water has a specific latent heat of fusion
of approximately 333 000 J/kg (part labelled B). We can also see that the specific latent heat
of vaporization of water is approximately 2 260 000 J/kg (part labelled D).

Latent heat is considered to be the energy required to break intermolecular bonds between
molecules.

During the process of melting, energy is added so that particles can break free from the
bonds that hold them while in solid state. During the process of freezing for instance, energy
is removed from water until its molecules form the bonds that are necessary for water to
become a solid. This is why the temperature of a mixture of ice and water remains at 0°C.
During a change of state of a substance of water from solid (ice) to liquid (water), a mixture
of both states is maintained while the latent heat is applied.

Latent heat has many important applications. Substances such as water have a very high
specific latent heat of vaporisation. This can be very useful in removing heat from areas
where it is not needed.

One application of latent heat is sweating. Sweating occurs when our body temperature. It is
the body’s mechanism for cooling. Water has a very high latent heat of vaporization. Thus
when water in sweat evaporates, it removes heat from the skin allowing the body to remove
excess heat.

Sweat, for instance, is an application of latent heat. When body temperature becomes higher
than normal, a person’s skin will release excess water to the skin’s surface (in the form of
sweat most of which is composed of water (up to 90%)). This excess water when evaporated
(changes from liquid to gas) takes up a lot of heat from the skin. 1 gram of sweat can remove
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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

as much as 200kJ of energy. The cooling effect that one feels after a long walk in the sun is
actually an effect of the removal of heat from the body by sweat. The rate of evaporation of
sweat increases when a slight breeze blows.

Note that both the specific latent heats of fusion and vaporisation are unique for different
substances. A table of specific latent heats for different substances is given in the table
below.

The table below shows the latent heat of fusion and vaporisation of several substances.

LATENT HEATS OF FUSION AND VAPORISATION

Melting Latent Heat Boiling Latent Heat
Point of Fusion Point of Vaporisation
Substance (0C) (J/kg) (0C) (J/kg)
Helium -269.65 5.23 X 103 -268.93 2.09 X 104

Nitrogen -209.97 2.55 X 104 -195.81 2.01 X 105

Oxygen -218.79 1.38 X 104 -182.97 2.13 X 105

Ethyl Alcohol -114 1.04 X 105 78 8.54 X 105

Water 0.00 3.33 X 105 0.100 2.26 X 106

Sulphur 119 3.81 X 104 444.60 3.26 X 105

Lead 327.3 2.45 X 104 1 750 8.70 X 105

Aluminium 660 3.97 X 105 2 450 1.14 X 107

Silver 960.80 8.82 X 104 2 193 2.33 X 106

Gold 1 063.00 6.44 X 104 2 660 1.58 X 106

Copper 1 083 1.34 X 105 1 187 5.06 X 106

Table 4 Latent heat of fusion and vaporisation of several substances

Most calculations involving latent heat will contain changes in state. The heat equation will
also be considered in some cases where a change in phase is part of the change in
temperature.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 14
How much energy is needed to change 0.120kg of solid sulphur to liquid at its melting point
of 119°C?

Solution
This is a simple calculation since the 0.120kg of sulphur is already at 119°C and no other
temperature is given. The energy involved is just the latent heat of fusion (Q). The specific
latent heat of fusion of sulphur is 38 100J from the table above.

Q = mLf
Q = 0.120kg x 38 100J
Q = 4 572J

Example 15
Calculate the energy required to completely melt 10 grams of gold initially at room
temperature (25°C).

Solution
This question is answered by calculating two parts. Firstly we must calculate the energy to
raise the temperature of gold from 25°C to its melting point at 1063°C.
Let us call this Q1. Secondly we must calculate the energy to change state from solid to
liquid. Let us call this Q2. The sum of Q1 and Q2 will give us the energy required to completely
melt the gold. The specific latent heat of fusion (Lf) for gold is 64 400J from the table above.

Q = Q1 + Q2

Q = mc∆T + mLf

Q = 0.010kg x 129J/kg0C x 10380C + 0.010kg x 64400J/kg

Q = 1339.02J + 644J = 1983.02J

Example 16
How much energy does a refrigerator have to remove from 1.5kg of water at 20°C to make
ice at -12°C?

Solution
Care must be taken when solving problems such as this. In this example, notice that there
are three parts to this problem.

First we must remove energy from water so that its temperature decreases from 20°C to
0°C. Let’s call this Q1. This part requires the heat equation.

The next part is to remove energy from water at 0°C so that it becomes ice to ice at 0°C. Let’s
call this Q2. This part involves the latent heat of fusion.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Finally the energy removed to decrease the temperature of ice from 0°C to -12°C. Let’s call
this Q3. This part requires the heat equation.

The total energy (Q) removed from water is then a sum of Q1, Q2 and Q3.

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

Q = mc∆T + mLv + mc∆T

Q = 1.5kg x 4186J/kg0C x 200C + 1.5kg x 333 000J/kg + 1.5kg x 2090 x 120C

Q = 125 580J + 499 500J + 37 620J = 662 700J

Example 17
A 0.5kg chunk of ice at -10°C is placed in 3.0kg of water at 20°C.

a) How much heat is to be removed to bring 3.0kg of water from 20°C to 0°C?

b) How much heat is required to bring the 0.5kg chunk of ice from -10°C to 0°C?

c) In what state will the final mixture be?

d) What is the final temperature of the mixture?

Solution
a) Q = mc∆T = 3.0kg x 4186J/kg0C x 200C = 251 160J

b) Q = mc∆T = 0.5kg x 2090J/kg0C x 100C = 10 450J

c) The final state will be liquid water since the amount of energy to bring water from
20°C to 0°C is higher. The final temperature then must be less than 20°C but above 0°C.

d) Heat gain by ice = Heat loss by water

(mc∆T + mL) + mc∆T = mc∆T

0.5kg x 2090J/kg0C x 100C + 0.5kg x 333 000J/kg) + 0.5kg x 4186J/kg0C x (Tf)

= 3.0kg x 4186J/kg x (200C – Tf)

10 450J + 166 500J + 2 093Tf = 251 160J – 12 558Tf

12 558Tf + 2 093Tf = 74 210J

14 651Tf = 74 210J

Tf = 5.0650C
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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!

Learning Activity 6 20 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided. Use the tables on page 33 and 43
for values of specific heat capacity and specific latent heat capacity.

1. What is latent heat?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Find the energy required to melt 2.5 kg of gold at its melting point.

3. Copper has a melting point of 1083°C. Find the energy required to completely melt
200g of copper originally at room temperature of 22°C.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

4. A 2.0kg bottle of water at 20°C is placed in the freezer of a refrigerator. How much
heat must be removed by the refrigerator to completely freeze the 2.0kg of water?

5. A child wanting to make a cordial ice block, places 200g of cordial at 25°C in the
freezer. If the freezer can remove energy at the rate of 250 joules per second, what
time will it take for the cordial to freeze?
(Assume the specific latent heat and specific heat capacity of cordial are the same as
water.)

6. Two solid ice blocks of mass 20g each at 0°C are placed in 500g of water at 40°C. What
will be the final temperature of the mixture when both ice cubes have melted?
(Assume no heat is lost to the container or the surroundings.)

Thank you for completing learning activity 6. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

12.2.4 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is the process where thermal contact exists between two objects that are at
different temperatures. Heat transfer between bodies occurs in three (3) different ways;

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

This means two objects are able to transfer energy only when one object at a higher
temperature loses energy to another at a lower temperature. If two objects are both at the
same temperature and are in thermal contact, they will have the same amount of thermal
energy. In this case no energy is transferred between them. This occurs at thermal
equilibrium.

If two objects have different amounts of thermal energy they will have different
temperatures and it becomes possible for some of the energy in one object to move to the
other but only if they are in thermal contact. The heat transfer continues until they both
have the same temperature (i.e. they reach thermal equilibrium).

In this section, we will be looking at each of the three methods of heat transfer and using
these to explain a variety of situations.

CONVECTION CONDUCTION
The transfer of heat through a The transfer of heat or electric
fluid (liquid or gas) caused by current from one substance to
molecular motion another by direct contact

RADIATION
Energy that is radiated or
transmitted in the form of
rays or waves or particles

Figure 10 A summary of the three (3) methods of heat transfer.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Conduction

Energy is transferred in solid materials by conduction when bodies at different temperatures

are in physical contact (i.e. touching).

Heat conduction is a fairly common experience. The figures 11 and 12 both illustrate heat
conduction.

plastic
handle

copper
stainless
base steel
sides

Figure 11 A metallic saucepan is an example of heat conduction.

The base of a saucepan is made of copper which is a good conductor of heat. The handle of
the saucepan has to be made of plastic so that heat from the copper is not transferred to
someone's hand when they touch the handle.

foot foot

carpet

tiles

little heat lost through

Heat lost by conduction
conduction

Figure 12 Conduction of heat from the body by a carpet compared to tiles

Carpet feels warmer that tiles when we stand barefooted because tiles conduct heat better
than carpet can.

When an object at cooler temperature comes in contact with one at higher temperature,
energy transfers from warmer object to cooler (eg; pick up a cube of ice)also the same in the
opposite case (eg; touching a hot surface). This transfer occurs until both objects are at
thermal equilibrium.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

The rate of energy transfer (energy transferred (Q) in time (t) through a material depends
T T 
on; length of the material (L), area of contact (A), the temperature gradient,  2 1 
 L 
the nature of the conducting material. Equation is;

ΔQ T  T1
 kA 2
Δt L

k is the constant known as the thermal conductivity of the material and it is unique for
different materials.

Below is a table showing the thermal conductivities of some common substances.

Substance Thermal Conductivity, k

(W/m.°C)
Metals (at 250C)
Aluminium 238
Copper 397
Gold 314
Iron 79.5
Lead 34.7
Silver 427
Non-metals (approximate values)
Asbestos 0.08
Concrete 0.8
Diamond 2 300
Glass 0.8
Ice 2
Rubber 0.2
Water 0.6
Wood 0.08
Gases (at 200C)
Air 0.0234
Helium 0.138
Hydrogen 0.172
Nitrogen 0.0234
Oxygen 0.0238
Table 5 Thermal conductivities of some common substances.

Some materials are better conductors of energy than others. Most conductors will have high
values of k, while poor conductors (insulators) will have low values of k.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Solids are better conductors than liquids and gases. This can be explained by the fact that
the particles are more closely packed. They are able to transfer energy better because of
this.

Metals conduct better than solid non-metals because their particles are not set in covalent
bonded structures such as in non-metals. Covalent bonds cannot allow for transfer of heat.
However, an exception to this is graphite.

Example 18
Determine the rate of energy conduction through a rectangular glass block of area 1.2m2
and 5.0mm thick. The temperature on one side is 20°C while the temperature on the other
side is 8°C.

Solution
For calculation of the rate of conduction it is important that we must make sure that all
measurements are in the same units. That is all lengths must be in metres, all areas in square
metres and so on.
k = 0.8W/m.°C from the table on the previous page, T1 = 20°C, T2 = 8°C, L = 5mm = 0.005m

ΔQ T  T1
k 2
Δt L

ΔQ 20 0 C  8 0 C
 0.8W/m 0 C x
Δt 0.005m

ΔQ
 1920W  1920J/s
Δt

The rate of heat conduction value tells us that the difference in temperature causes 1920J
every second until the temperature on both sides is equal.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat by a mass movement of molecules from high temperature
zones or regions to low temperature zones or regions.

Convection is observed only in fluids (liquids and gases). Fluid molecules are farther apart
than molecules in solids, hence they are not very good conductors of heat. However, when
heated, molecules tend to move further apart causing the warmer part of the fluid to
become less denser. The warmer part of the fluid rises while the colder (more denser) part
sinks (E.g. convection in liquid being boiled, fire heating the air). As the warmer part rises it
loses its energy and sinks, while the colder part gains energy and rises. This continuous cycle
of losing and gaining energy by molecules in a fluid leads to the formation of convection
currents. Figures 13, 14 and 15 show three examples of convection.

water

convection
currents

stove
elements

Figure 13 Water in a saucepan

warm air
rising

cool air
pot-belly stove
Figure 14 Heating air in a house using a stove

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

warm land

warm air on shore

rising breezes

cool sea
Figure 15 The formation of local sea breezes

Some other examples of convection are;

Heat in the body is brought just below the skin surface to be released to the atmosphere by
convection in blood. When the body is cold, any energy from outside the body (such as a
fire) is taken by convection in blood to the rest of the body.

Houses can be cooled/heated by making use of convection currents in air.

Global winds (Trade winds and monsoon winds), local winds (such as land-sea breezes,
mountain-valley breezes) and ocean currents which influence our climates and weather
patterns are caused mostly by convection. Weather patterns such as El Nino and La Nina are
caused by changes in the direction and temperature of ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean.

Radiation

Radiation is a way of transmission of heat energy through a vacuum by electromagnetic

waves (infra-red part of the EM spectrum). The Earth gets its heat from the Sun in this way.
Most of the heat we feel when near a fire is due to radiation of heat.

When a metal is heated, it emits radiation in the form of heat. As we continue to heat the
metal its colour changes from dull red to brilliant white. This can be seen when heating
stones for a mumu. Temperatures above 1500K are needed to achieve this for most metals.

Radiated heat energy can be absorbed, reflected or transmitted in a material. Glass for
instance, reflects some heat radiation, absorbs a little and allows some to pass through.
Absorbers are objects which soak up radiated heat. Radiators or emitters are objects which
emit give off radiated heat. Reflectors are objects which absorb a little heat but transmit
most of the radiation.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Generally, dark or dull objects are good absorbers and radiators, while shiny and light-
coloured objects are poor absorbers and radiators.

You would notice the effect of absorbing radiation by the colour of clothes you wear. On a
hot day, most people would advise against wearing dark coloured clothing because dark
colours are good absorbers of radiation.

emitters best worst

‘matt’ means non-shiny

absorbers best worst

reflectors worst best

Figure 16 The best absorber and emitter of heat radiation is black, while silver is the worst
absorber and emitter. All other colours come in between these two extremes

 ΔQ 
The net rate of energy radiated   by a hot object depends on its temperature, as
 Δt 
well as the type of surface and is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation;

ΔQ
Δt

 εσA T1  T0 4
4

T1 and T0 are final and initial absolute temperatures (in K), A is the area of the radiating
surface, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant which is 5.7 × 10-8 W m-2 K-4.

The factor ɛ is called the emissivity, which is a number between 0 and 1 that varies from
material to material. A dark, dull surface will have an emissivity close to 1 while a shiny
surface will have an emissivity close to 0.

It is important to note that any object that emits radiation must also absorb radiation and
vice versa. If this did not occur, the object that emits radiation will continue to lose all its
energy and never reach thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. Likewise any object that
absorbs radiation also emits some until it reaches thermal equilibrium.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 19
Estimate the net rate of heat loss by radiation from an unclothed person’s body if they are in
a closed room at a temperature of 25°C and their skin temperature is 34°C.
Let the emissivity be ε = 0.70 and the surface area of the skin be 1.5m2.

Solution
First we must make sure that all temperatures are given in Kelvin (K).

Thus 34°C = 273 + 34 = 307K and 25°C = 273 + 25 = 298K

The net rate of energy transfer is calculated below.

ΔQ
Δt

 εσA T1  T0
4 4


ΔQ
 0.7 x 5.7 x 10 8 x 1.5 x (3074  298 4 )
Δt

ΔQ
 59.65W
Δt

More on emissivity
Emissivity (ε) is a measure of the efficiency in which a surface emits thermal energy. It is
defined as the fraction of energy being emitted relative to that emitted by a thermally black
surface (a black body).

A black body is a theoretical object that is the perfect absorber and emitter of heat energy
with an emissivity value of 1. In theory, a black body would be capable absorbing 100% of
the thermal energy available.

A material with an emissivity value of 0 would be considered a perfect thermal mirror. It

would not absorb any radiated thermal energy but would reflect the thermal energy.

Thermal energy radiated by object with surface area A

Emissivity (ε ) 
Thermal energy radiated by black body with the same surface area A

For example, would have an emissivity value of 0.90 if it absorbs or emits 90J of energy with
its given surface area. A black body with an equal surface area would absorb or emit 100J of
energy.

In the real world there are no perfect "black bodies" and very few perfect infrared mirrors so
most objects have an emissivity between 0 and 1.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Example 20
A black body sphere of radius of 12cm is heated to a temperature of 950K. What would be
its final temperature after 3 minutes if it loses heat energy by radiation at a rate of 500W?
(Assume that the sphere does not absorb any radiation while emitting)

Solution
The surface area of the sphere is calculated using the formula: A = 4πr2
A = 4π × (0.12m)2 = 0.181m2

After 3 minutes, the total amount of energy lost is; -500W × 180s = -90000J

ΔQ
Δt
 εσA T1  T0
4 4
 
Rearrange this equation to make T1 the subject of the equation.

ΔQ
4
Δt 4
T 1
 4  T0
εσA

 500
T 4  950 4  935.54K
1
1 x 5.7 x 10 8 x 0.181

Note that the amount of energy lost and the rate of energy loss in this question have been
given a negative sign. This is to ensure that the final temperature we get from the equation
is positive and lower than the initial temperature.

Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!

Learning Activity 7 20 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.

1. List the factors that affect the rate of heat conduction of any substance.

a) __________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________
d) __________________________________________________________________
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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

2. One end of a copper rod of length 30cm and thickness of 0.25cm is placed in such a
way that one end is exposed to a temperature of 120°C while the other end is at 25°C.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer by conduction along the rod.

3. A room is designed to maintain a temperature of 25°C. Outside the room on a cold

night the temperature is measured as 10°C. The room is separated from the outside by
a glass slab of area 0.25m2 and thickness of 8mm.

a) Find the rate of heat loss by conduction of the room.

b) Suppose the owners of the room wish to replace the glass slab with another
transparent material that will allow for a rate of heat transfer of 150W.
Determine the thermal conductivity of this material.

4. Explain the term convection.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

5. In a tropical place such as in PNG a shiny vehicle is more comfortable to drive. Explain
why this statement is valid.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

6. The surface of the Sun has a temperature of about 5800K. The radius of the Sun is 6.96
× 108m. Calculate the total energy radiated by the Sun each second. (Assume that ε =
0.965).

7. The picture below shows a thermos flask which is a common household item. The
thermos flask can be used to keep hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold for longer
periods of time than usual.

Vacuum

Silvered
surfaces

Hot or cold
substance

a) Give a reason why there is a vacuum between the inner and outer surfaces.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

b) Give a reason why the inner and outer surfaces are “silvered”.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Thank you for completing learning activity 7. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.
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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

12.2.5 Applications of Heat and Temperature

The following are some applications of the principles of heat and temperature as we have
seen throughout this module.

As we go through this part, take note of the ideas that we have covered in this module for
each application.

As you also read through you can go back to parts in the module to revisit basic
explanations.

Fire Walking

Some cultures around the world walk on fire during ceremonial occasions. One such culture
is that of the Baining people in East New Britain province.

During firewalking, a person walks barefooted on glowing coals (at about 600°C). This gives
people the impression that they are doing the impossible by walking on fire without being
burnt.

Figure 17 Firewalking is prevalent in many cultures

Some of these ideas that we have discussed in this unit can help us explain why it may be
possible to walk on fire without being severely burnt.

Low specific heat capacity of hot coals

Coals from wood have a low specific heat capacity. Objects with low specific heat capacities
tend to absorb small amounts of energy and then give off small amounts of energy for
temperature changes. This means that a hot coal may be at a high temperature but it may
not have so much energy to transfer. Sometimes stones are used but again they are mostly
those with a low specific heat capacity (e.g. pumice)

Mass of hot coals

The mass of hot coals is significantly less since a lot of the material is already burned away.
According to the heat equation, objects with greater mass, can absorb more energy from
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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

heating. This is not the case with hot coals since, small mass absorb and give off only small
amounts of heat. Also in relation to the low mass, this will also result in a low heat capacity.

Surface area of hot coals

Coals will have to transfer heat to a person’s feet by conduction. We have seen that one
factor that affects the rate of heat transfer by conduction is the area of contact between two
objects at different temperatures. Because the areas of the coals are small, they cannot pass
on as much heat onto a person’s feet although there is a high temperature difference.
Because feet come in contact with coals with small areas, the amount of heat transferred by
conduction is low.

Amount of time spent in contact with hot coals

The amount of time spent on top of the coals is also one possible explanation. Some people
might run over the coals instead of walking. Heat from the fire is transferred mostly by
conduction. Conduction is also described as a rate of energy transfer. This means that time is
closely related with the amount of heat that is transferred. Therefore the amount of time
spent in contact with the coals determines how much energy is actually transferred to a
person’s feet during firewalking.

Liedenfrost effect
The Liedenfrost effect is also another possible explanation. The Liedenfrost effect occurs
when water droplets from sweat and moisture in the air settle on the skin forming a layer of
steam which protects the skin from burns. We often observe something similar when we
pour water on a hot barbecue plate or frying pan.

Although some of the explanations above explain how fire walking is possible, it is
advisable not to practice fire walking unless you are absolutely sure about what you are
doing!

Mumu

The mumu is a traditional method of cooking food by heat that is given off from hot stones.
The stones are heated in a hot fire and then removed while they are hot, a parcel of food is
then placed in a pit surrounded by the hot stones. The food is cooked by the thermal energy
from the stones after some time.

The stones that are used during a mumu have some special characteristics that we could use
to explain how a mumu is able to get food cooked. Generally speaking, the stones used
during a mumu are large, heavy, smooth and dull in colour. Let us look at some of these
characteristics of the stones in relation to what we have studied in this unit.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Figure 18 (Left) Stones being prepared for a mumu. (Right) Food ready for hot stones.

Mass and specific heat capacity of the stones

The stones that are used in a mumu must be able to absorb a great amount of heat and
release this energy when cooking food. From the heat equation, we learnt that objects with
greater mass, can absorb a lot of heat. Smaller stones will absorb less heat and so give off
less heat. The disadvantage of this is that such massive stones require a lot of heat initially to
reach the right temperature. Thus a lot of wood is needed to make a fire to heat up the
stones.

One other concept applied here is the idea of specific heat capacity. All the stones that are
used must have a high specific heat capacity. The most common types of stones used are
igneous rock types which tend to have specific heat capacities. In combination with large
mass, the mumu stones have very high heat capacities.

Use of smooth stones

The stones that are preferred for use during a mumu are mostly smooth stones. Such stones
are better at transferring heat by conduction and also by radiation. To conduct heat energy,
the stones used have to be smooth because smooth stones are able to conduct energy
better to the food. Smooth stones also have higher emissivities than rough stones.

Use of dull coloured stones

The use of dull coloured stones in mumu can also be explained using the concepts of heat
transfer by radiation. Dull coloured objects are better heat absorbers and emitters. A dull
coloured stone is able to absorb more heat from the initial fire by absorbing energy in the
form of infra-red radiation. When in the pit with food, the stones will emit the energy to
cook the food.

Apart from the stones, cooking would not be possible without some form of Insulation.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Insulation
Aluminium foil or other leaves are used to cover the food. This helps to insulate by reflecting
heat from stones inward to the food so that less heat is lost. Because the stones have a high
specific heat capacity they give of large amounts of energy. If this energy is not properly
directed or is lost to the air, then food is not cooked properly.
Thermal expansion of rocks
Stones sometimes crack and break during heating. This is can explained by thermal
expansion.

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigerators work in reverse of the natural process of heat. Heat flows from high
temperature to low temperature areas. In reverse, both refrigerators and air conditioners
take heat from a low temperature area to a high temperature area. This cools the low
temperature area.

The refrigerant is a substance that transfers heat when it evaporates inside the refrigerator.
It absorbs heat to create the cold temperatures. It normally has a high latent heat of
vaporisation. It changes between gas and liquid at different stages of the refrigeration cycle.

There are four (4) basic components to any refrigerator. They are the:

1. compressor which is a pump that circulates the refrigerant. It helps to increase the
refrigerant pressure and temperature. In the compressor, cool refrigerant gas at low
pressure is changed to warm gas at high pressure.

2. condenser which is a coiled set of pipes normally found outside a refrigeration unit. This
is where the refrigerant releases heat to the surrounding air. The refrigerant passes
through this part as a high pressure, high temperature gas. It loses its heat to the
atmosphere before becoming a high pressure, high temperature liquid.

3. expansion valve which helps to decrease the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant. The refrigerant enters the expansion valve as a warm liquid at high pressure.
When its pressure is decreased, its temperature decreases. It leaves the expansion valve
as a low pressure, low temperature liquid.

4. evaporator is also a coiled set of pipes inside a refrigeration unit. This is the part where
the refrigerant absorbs heat and reduces the surrounding temperature. The refrigerant
passes through this part as a low pressure, low temperature liquid and absorbs heat to
become a low pressure, low temperature gas.

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

3. Evaporator coils
2. Expansion
valve

4. Compressor

1. Condenser
coils

Figure 19 Main parts of the common household refrigerator

The refrigeration cycle

From the parts of the refrigerator above, let’s follow the refrigerant through one cycle.

INSIDE THE REFRIGERATOR OUTSIDE THE REFRIGERATOR

Heat absorbed Heat released
refrigerant gains latent heat of vaporisation refrigerant loses latent heat of vaporisation
A
cool refrigerant (gas) warm refrigerant (gas)

D D
Evaporator Condensor
coil Compressor coil

Expansion valve
cool refrigerant (liquid) warm refrigerant (liquid)
Low pressure side C High pressure side
Figure 20 The refrigeration cycle

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 GR 12 PHYS M2 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

A. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a low pressure, low temperature gas. The
compressor increases the pressure and the temperature of the gas.

B. The refrigerant now continues through the condenser as a low temperature, low
pressure gas and loses heat by convection and radiation. Condenser coils are mostly
made of metal and are painted black to radiate as much heat as possible. At the end of
the condenser coil, the refrigerant loses most of its heat and becomes a high pressure,
high temperature liquid.

C. The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant liquid passes through the expansion
valve which decreases the refrigerant’s pressure and temperature.

D. The refrigerant moves through the evaporator as a low pressure, low temperature
liquid. Any heat in the surrounding area is immediately absorbed by the refrigerant
until it becomes a low pressure, low temperature gas at the end of the evaporator. The
refrigerant then moves on to the compressor and the cycle begin again.

Humidity control
Air conditioners work in much the same way are refrigerators do. They normally cool air by
passing it over evaporator coils which remove heat from the air and transfer it to a
refrigerant which removes the heat out of a building.

Some air conditioning equipment also provides reductions in the humidity of the air
processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil
condenses water vapour from the processed air. This similar to how a cold drink will
condense water on the outside of a glass. The water is drained, removing water vapour from
the cooled space and thereby lowering its relative humidity.

Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from
the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. Most air conditioners are
designed to create 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.

NOW REVISE WELL USING THE MAIN POINTS ON THE NEXT PAGE.

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 GR 12 PHYS M4 SUMMARY

SUMMARY

You will now revise this module before doing ASSESSMENT 2.

Here are the main points to help you revise. Refer to the module topics if you need more
information.

 Common units used when measuring temperature are; degree Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K)
and Degree Fahrenheit (°F). Degree Celsius is also known as degree centigrade.
 The conversion of temperature from degree Celsius to kelvin is TK = T°C + 273.
 The conversion of temperature from degree Celsius to Fahrenheit is T °F = 1.8 × T°C + 32.
 Thermometers are devices used to measure changes in temperature by the changes in
a physical property of the substance. Some of the main properties of substances that
change with temperature are;
o Length of a solid.
o Volume of a liquid and gas.
o Pressure of a gas with constant volume.
o Electrical resistance and conductivity.
o Radiation emitted by substances.
 Formally we define temperature as the average kinetic energy of the particles
contained in an object.
 Thermal equilibrium occurs when two or more objects in thermal contact cannot
transfer thermal energy because they are at the same temperature.
 Thermal contact is the situation where two objects are able to transfer any available
thermal energy between each other.
 Thermal expansion is a feature of many substances. The three main types of thermal
expansion are; Linear, Area (superficial) and volume expansion.
 The change in length (ΔL) of a substance by linear thermal expansion is given by the
formula
ΔL = αL0ΔT.

Where L0 is the original length, α is the linear expansion coefficient and ΔT is the
difference in temperature.
 The change in area (ΔA) of a substance by area (superficial) thermal expansion is given
by the formula

ΔA = 2αA0ΔT

Where A0 is the original area, α is the linear expansion coefficient and ΔT is the
difference in temperature.
 The change in volume (ΔV) of a substance by volume thermal expansion is given by the
formula

ΔV = βV0ΔT

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 GR 12 PHYS M4 SUMMARY

Where V0 is the original volume, β is the volume expansion coefficient and ΔT is the
difference in temperature.
 The relationship between the linear expansion coefficient (α) and the volume
expansion coefficient (β) is; β = 3α.
 Heat is the term given to the form of thermal energy that is exchanged between
objects in thermal contact and at different temperatures.
 Heat is measured in Joules (J). Other units of heat include the Calorie (cal) and British
Thermal unit (BTU).
 Heat Capacity (C) is the amount of energy gained or lost by a substance in changing its
temperature by 1°C. It is related to the total amount heat by the equation; Q = CΔT,
where Q is the amount of energy in Joules (J), C is the heat capacity in Joules per
degree Celsius and ΔT is the change in temperature in degree Celsius. Different
substances have different heat capacities depending on what they are made of and
their mass.
 Specific Heat Capacity (c) is the amount of heat energy gained or lost by 1kg of a
substance in changing its temperature by 1°C. It is related to heat capacity by the
following equation; C = mc, where C is the heat capacity, m is the mass of the
substance and c is the specific heat capacity of the substance. Most substances has
unique values of specific heat capacity. The unit for specific heat capacity is Joule per
kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg°C).
 The heat equation gives a relationship between the total amount of energy absorbed
or lost by an object (Q) and the mass of the object (m), the specific heat capacity of the
object (c) and the change in temperature (ΔT). The heat equation is; Q = mcΔT.
 When two objects are contained in an isolated location, they have the tendency to
reach thermal equilibrium by transferring thermal energy. If no thermal energy is lost
to the surroundings, the amount of energy lost by one object is equal to the amount of
energy gained by the other. This is an illustration of the Law of conservation of energy.
 The latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to change the state of
the substance without a change in temperature. The latent heat of a substance
depends on the specific latent heat of the substance (L) and the mass of the substance
(m).
 The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance (Lf) is the amount of energy gained or
lost by 1kg of a substance in changing from solid to liquid or liquid to solid.
 The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance (Lv) is the amount of energy
gained or lost by 1kg of a substance in changing from liquid to vapour or vapour to
liquid.
 Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from one object to another when
both objects are in thermal contact. Heat transfer continues between both objects
until thermal equilibrium is reached.
 The three (3) main methods of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
 Conduction is the transfer of heat when objects are in physical contact. The rate of
heat transfer by conduction is dependent on cross-sectional area (A), the temperature
difference (T1 – T2) and the thickness of the conductor (l).
 The equation of the rate of heat transfer by conduction is;

66
 GR 12 PHYS M4 SUMMARY

ΔQ T  T1
 kA 2
Δt I

 The constant k stands for the thermal conductivity of a substance which has the units
W/m°C. Thermal conductivity depends on the type of substance.
 Generally, metals are better conductors than non-metals and solids are better
conductors that liquids and gases.
 Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the mass movement of molecules. It is
mostly observed in liquids and gases.
 Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves. Radiation can be
transmitted in three (3) ways; by being absorbed, radiated or reflected.
 In general, dark colored objects are good absorbers and radiators while light colored
and shiny objects are poor absorbers and radiators of thermal radiation.
 The net rate of heat transfer by radiation is given by the equation;

ΔQ
Δt

 εσA T1  T0
4 4

ΔQ
Where is the rate of heat transfer by radiation, ε is the emissivity of the object, σ
Δt
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant with a value of 5.7 × 10-8 W/m°C, A is the cross-
sectional area, T1 and T0 are the final and initial temperatures in Kelvin (K).

 Emissivity (ε) is the comparison of the thermal energy absorbed or emitted by an

object with surface area A with that of the thermal energy absorbed or emitted by a
black body.
 A black body is a perfect absorber and emitter of thermal radiation. It has an emissivity
value of 1.
 The principles of heat and temperature are useful in explaining the many situations
involving thermal energy.

We hope you have enjoyed studying this module. We encourage you to revise well and
complete Assessment 2.

NOW YOU MUST COMPLETE ASSESSMENT TASK 2 AND

RETURN IT TO THE PROVINCIAL CENTRE CO-ORDINATOR

67
 GR 12 PHYS M2 ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Answers to Learning Activities 1 - 7

Learning Activity 1

1. a. 273K b. 310K c. 241K

d. 673K e. 257K

2. T°C = TK - 273

3. a. -76°C b. -22°C c. 192°C

d. 12.6°C e. -244°C

4. a. 32°F b. 98.6°F c. -25.6°F

d. 752°F e. 3.2°F

5. T0 C 
5
9

x T0  32
F

6. a. 36.67°C b. 38.89°C c. 100°C

d. 70°C e. 10°C

Learning Activity 2

1 i. Volume of Liquid

ii. Length of solid

iii. Pressure of gas with constant volume

iv. Electrical Resistance of conductor

v. Radiation emitted by an object

2. Main ones are liquid-in-glass thermometer, constant-volume gas thermometer and

bimetallic strip.

3. a. 9.8cm
68
 GR 12 PHYS M2 ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES

b. 26.3cm

4. a. Generally as temperature increases, resistance increases, current decreases and

voltage increases. On the other, hand as temperature decreases, resistance
decreases, current increases and voltage decreases.

b. 46.67°C
70Ω

5. a. At constant volume, gas pressure increases when temperature increases. Also at

constant volume, gas pressure decreases when temperature decreases.

b. 3376.67 Pa/°C

Learning Activity 3

1. a. initial length

b. the type of material

c. the change in temperature

2. Change in length is 8.12 × 10-3cm, new length is 35.00812cm

3. 11.67°C

4. 3.75 × 10-4/°C

5. 151.51cm2

6. 392.99cm3

7. 1333.33°C

69
 GR 12 PHYS M2 ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Learning Activity 4

1.
Energy (Joules) Energy (Calories) Energy (BTU)

a) 500J 2100cal 0.474BTU

b) 2500J 10500cal 2.37BTU

c) 198000J 831 600cal 187.67BTU

d) 800kJ 3360kcal 758.29BTU

e) 1.2MJ 5.04 Mcal 1137.41BTU

2. Heat capacity is the amount of energy gained or lost in changing the temperature of a
substance by 1°C. Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy gained or lost in
changing the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1°C. The main difference is that
specific heat does not depend on mass, while heat capacity does depend on mass.

3. a. 5031J
b. Amount of energy is doubled.

4. a. 7.5kg
b. 58 500J

5. a. 66000J/kg
b. 880J/kg°C
c. 13200J

6. a. 234J/kg°C
b. Silver

Learning Activity 5

1. 1170J/kg°C

2. 112 seconds

3. 2145J/kg°C

70
 GR 12 PHYS M2 ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Learning Activity 6

1. Latent heat is the energy gained or lost when a substance changes state with no
noticeable change in temperature.

2. 161 000J

3. 109 558J

4. 834 000J

5. 350.4 seconds

6. 31.16°C

Learning Activity 7

1. a. Area of contact

b. Nature of Substance

c. Temperature difference

d. thickness or length of conductor

2. 0.61W

3. a. 375W

b. 0.32Wm/°C

4. Convection is the transfer of heat by mass movement of particles.

5. Shiny vehicles absorb less heat than dull vehicles.

6. 3.35 × 1012W

7. a. Vacuum allows for little or no heat transfer by conduction or convection.

b. silvered surface allows for little or no heat to be absorbed or emitted.

If you have queries regarding the answers, then please visit your nearest FODE provincial
centre and ask a distance tutor to assist you.

71
 GR 12 PHYS M2 REFERENCES

References

http://www.thermoworks.com/emissivity_table.html

Emissivity Table from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/emissivity-coefficients-

d_447.html

GIANCOLI, D.C., (1985), PHYSICS PRINCIPLES WITH APPLICATIONS, 2nd Edition, PRENTICE-HALL,
LONDON, United Kingdom

KORIMAS. M & SOTO. R., (2005), A TEXT FOR FIRST YEAR PHYSICS AT UNIVERSITY OF PAPUA NEW
GUINEA, Revised ed., University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby

POPLE, S, (1982), EXPLAINING GCSE PHYSICS, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD, United Kingdom

“Resistance”, http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

TSOKOS, K.A., (2008) PHYSICS FOR IB DIPLOMA, 5th EDITION, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS,
CAMBRIDGE, United Kingdom

YONG, P.L., (2006), PACIFIC PHYSICS A LEVEL, Volume 2, PANPAC EDUCATION LTD, SINGAPORE

72
 FODE PROVINCIAL CENTRES CONTACTS

PC FODE PROVINCIAL CUG CUG

NO. CENTRE ADDRESS PHONE/FAX PHONES CONTACT PERSON PHONE

1 DARU P. O. Box 68, Daru 6459033 72228146 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229047

2 KEREMA P. O. Box 86, Kerema 6481303 72228124 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229049

3 CENTRAL C/- FODE HQ 3419228 72228110 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229050

4 ALOTAU P. O. Box 822, Alotau 6411343 / 6419195 72228130 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229051

5 POPONDETTA P. O. Box 71, Popondetta 6297160 / 6297678 72228138 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229052

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22 JIWAKA c/- FODE Hagen 72228143 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229085

73
 FODE SUBJECTS AND COURSE PROGRAMMES

GRADE LEVELS SUBJECTS/COURSES

1. English
2. Mathematics
Grades 7 and 8 3. Personal Development
4. Social Science
5. Science
6. Making a Living
1. English
2. Mathematics
3. Personal Development
Grades 9 and 10
4. Science
5. Social Science
6. Business Studies
7. Design and Technology- Computing
1. English – Applied English/Language& Literature
2. Mathematics - Mathematics A / Mathematics B
3. Science – Biology/Chemistry/Physics
Grades 11 and 12
4. Social Science – History/Geography/Economics
5. Personal Development
6. Business Studies
7. Information & Communication Technology

REMEMBER:
 For Grades 7 and 8, you are required to do all six (6) subjects.
 For Grades 9 and 10, you must complete five (5) subjects and one (1) optional to be certified. Business Studies and Design &
Technology – Computing are optional.
 For Grades 11 and 12, you are required to complete seven (7) out of thirteen (13) subjects to be certified.
Your Provincial Coordinator or Supervisor will give you more information regarding each subject and course.

GRADES 11 & 12 COURSE PROGRAMMES

No Science Humanities Business

1 Applied English Language & Literature Language & Literature/Applied English
2 Mathematics A/B Mathematics A/B Mathematics A/B
3 Personal Development Personal Development Personal Development
4 Biology Biology/Physics/Chemistry Biology/Physics/Chemistry
5 Chemistry/ Physics Geography Economics/Geography/History
6 Geography/History/Economics History / Economics Business Studies
7 ICT ICT ICT

Notes: You must seek advice from your Provincial Coordinator regarding the recommended courses in each
stream. Options should be discussed carefully before choosing the stream when enrolling into Grade 11.
FODE will certify for the successful completion of seven subjects in Grade 12.

CERTIFICATE IN MATRICULATION STUDIES

No Compulsory Courses Optional Courses

1 English 1 Science Stream: Biology, Chemistry, Physics

2 English 2 Social Science Stream: Geography, Intro to Economics and Asia and the
Modern World
3 Mathematics 1
4 Mathematics 2
5 History of Science & Technology

REMEMBER:
You must successfully complete 8 courses: 5 compulsory and 3 optional.

74