Digital Load Cells

A Comparative Review of
Performance and Application

WEIGHING PANEL

WP0803 Published 2003

 COMMITTEE RESPONSIBLE FOR THIS DOCUMENT

The Weighing Panel reporting to the Learned Society Board of the Institute has prepared this Document.

The persons listed below served as members of the Weighing Panel in preparing it.

P Zecchin (Chairman) Vishay Nobel Ltd

Professor U Erdem (Deputy Chairman) Consultant
J Anthony UK Weighing Federation
A Bowen AB Measurement and Control Solutions
A Knott National Physical Laboratory
S Maclean Thames Side-Maywood Ltd
D Smith Avery Berkel
A Urwin The Quality Scheme for Ready Mixed Concrete
Professor J Pugh Glasgow Caledonian University
C Whittingham M & C Engineers
B Yarwood Consultant, Dynamic Weighing

This Document is subject to review at any time by the responsible technical group of the Institute. The
Institute welcomes all comments on this Document and requests that these should be addressed the
Institute.

Users of this Institute of Measurement and Control Document shall be responsible for its correct
application.

Publication reference Number WP0803

The Institute of Measurement and Control, 87 Gower Street, London WC1E 6AF

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data.

A catalogue for this book is available from the British Library.
 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. FOREWORD ......................................................................................................................................4

2. SCOPE.................................................................................................................................................4

3. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS...........................................................................................................5

4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.....................................................................................................6
4.1 CALIBRATION................................................................................................................................6
4.1.1 Load Cell Calibration ................................................................................................................6
4.1.2 Rationalisation ...........................................................................................................................7
4.1.3 Load Distribution .......................................................................................................................7
4.2 LOAD CELL PERFORMANCE ......................................................................................................7
4.2.1 Non-Linearity .............................................................................................................................8
4.2.2 Hysteresis ...................................................................................................................................8
4.2.3 Creep ..........................................................................................................................................8
4.2.4 Temperature Compensation .......................................................................................................8
4.2.5 Resolution and Repeatability......................................................................................................9
4.2.6 Reliability ...................................................................................................................................9
4.2.7 Diagnostics.................................................................................................................................9
4.3 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE ..........................................................................................................10
4.3.1 System Combined Error. ..........................................................................................................10
4.3.2 System Temperature Error .......................................................................................................10
4.3.3 Load Distribution Error ...........................................................................................................10
4.3.4 Vibration Induced Error...........................................................................................................11
4.3.5 Synchronisation Error..............................................................................................................11
4.3.6 Diagnostics...............................................................................................................................11
4.4 HUMIDITY.....................................................................................................................................11
4.5 ELECTRICAL STORMS, EARTHING AND ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS. ........................12
4.6 SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE ASPECTS ..............................................................................12
4.6.1 Service replacement..................................................................................................................12
4.6.2 Interchangeability ....................................................................................................................13
4.7 SYSTEM COST..............................................................................................................................13
5. ANNEXES.........................................................................................................................................14
5.1 INHERENTLY DIGITAL LOAD CELLS......................................................................................14
5.1.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................14
5.1.2 Gyroscopic load cells ...............................................................................................................14
5.1.3 Vibrating wire transducer. .......................................................................................................14
5.1.4 Vibrating Beam Transducer .....................................................................................................15
6. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................16

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................16

8. USEFUL ADDRESSES....................................................................................................................16

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

1. FOREWORD

This Institute of Measurement and Control monograph reviews the performance and application of load
cells that output their measuring signal in a digital format as opposed to conventional analogue signals. The
performance of digital load cells is compared to conventional analogue load cells, particularly in the
context of industrial process weighing applications.

It gives recognition to the need for a comprehensive and authoritative document for identifying the benefits
of using this type of load cell in industrial process weighing systems. The incorporation of digital
technology within a load cell may confer benefits to both the user and manufacturer. This document
attempts to separate and identify the benefits of each feature.

This document is a guide for the technical personnel and organisations engaged in specifying and procuring
load cells for industrial process weighing systems, and for those organisations supplying such systems.

2. SCOPE

This Monograph reviews all of the principal features relating to strain gauge load cells that incorporate
signal conditioning electronics to provide measuring output signals in a digital form.

Most load cells which are sold as “digital load cells” are strain gauge based analogue load cells with
built-in electronics to convert the analogue output into a digital output signal. A digital load cell, for the
purposes of this document, therefore, comprises a measurement system illustrated in Figure 2.1. The load
cells are presumed to be of the strain gauge type and the signal conditioning electronics is assumed to be
contained within the envelope of the transducer housing. The signal conditioning electronics may have a
minimum configuration such as an Analogue to Digital Converter to convert the analogue signal into a
digital format for retransmission. It may
incorporate additional electronic
devices to store various load cell
performance characteristics and Power

optimise these by the use of software

algorithms. Load cells that utilise some Typical Strain
Signal
Gauge Bridge Digital Outputs
of the features of the digital load cell Sensor
Conditioning (i.e. weight, status etc.)

Electronics
but whose electronics are separately
Digital Inputs
housed or are not dedicated to a single (i.e. address, setup
parameters etc.)
transducer are not considered here.

A brief description of the load cells Digital Load Cell Envelope

which are purely digital devices in that Figure 2.1 A Schematic representation of a digital load cell.
they do not make use of strain gauge
technology but produce a digital
(frequency) output as a direct function
of load applied to them is given in
Annex 5.1.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

3. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

This Monograph provides recommended terminology and definitions for the terms used herein. No attempt
has been made to define those terms defined elsewhere in the document. Some of the acronyms are also
included.

Where appropriate, these terms and definitions are based on the currently available British, European, or
International standards or authoritative documents published by Learned Societies.

3.1 ADC
Acronym for analogue to digital converter.
3.2 Algorithm
A well-defined set of rules for processing digital signals or solving a problem. Within the
context of this document this may be in the form of a software programme for temperature
compensation of the zero load output and on load output or linearisation of the load cell output.

3.3 DCS
Abbreviation for distributed control system.
3.4 Diagnostics
The set of tests to run through a system that determine whether or not the system is functioning
correctly.

3.5 Digital Filtering

A technique, which passes or rejects frequencies based on processing of digital information.

3.6 EPROM
Acronym for erasable programmable read-only memory. A read-only memory in which stored
data can be erased, by ultraviolet light or other means, and reprogrammed by appropriate
voltage pulses.

3.7 EEPROM
Acronym for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. Sometimes referred as
E2PROM

3.8 Fieldbus
Fieldbus is a method of connecting field instrumentation using a communications network
linking the field instruments rather than connecting each field instrument individually to the
control system. Fieldbus uses digital communication protocols, which allows information to be
communicated between the control system and the field instrument in addition to the process
signal. Instrumentation connected to a fieldbus network is always of the smart instrumentation
type

3.9 Full Scale Deflection

Difference between the load cell or load cell system output at maximum calibration load and the
output at zero load. In this document it is referred as fsd.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

3.10 Load Receiving Element

The element of weighing system intended to receive the load to be measured, such as a hopper,
silo or ladle.

3.11 Non Linearity

Maximum deviation of the measured output of the load cell or the load cell system, obtained for
increasing loads only, from a best fit polynomial, calculated using the method of least squares.
This covers any statistically-supported degree of polynomial, including straight line fits (for a
detailed explanation of this term refer to [3].

3.12 Protocol
A set of formal rules describing how to transmit data, especially across a network. Low level
protocols define the electrical and physical standards to be observed bit- and byte ordering and
the transmission and error detection and correction of the bit stream. High level protocols deal
with the data formatting, including the syntax of messages, the terminal to computer dialogue,
character sets, sequencing of messages etc.

4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
This section addresses the various factors that may inform the choice between a digital and analogue load
cell for a particular process weighing application.

4.1 CALIBRATION
This sub-section considers the calibration of digital load cells and of weighing systems that
incorporate them.

4.1.1 Load Cell Calibration

Much emphasis is placed by manufacturers on claims that digital load cells are pre-calibrated at
source and that this fact makes for simple commissioning and service interchange. The definition of
calibration used throughout this document, insofar as it applies to load cells is based on British
Standard BS 5233:1986, entitled Glossary of terms used in metrology and may be paraphrased as
follows:

“Calibration is a set of operations, which establish under specified conditions the relationship
between the value of load applied and the corresponding value of the measured load cell output.”

Establishing and documenting this relationship in the laboratory at the end of the manufacturing
process is common practise for both digital and analogue load cells.

The fact that the output data from a digital load cell is in numeric form and can be linked to data
identifying the individual device makes recording and data retrieval simpler for the manufacturer.
There can also be benefits for the user in the ease of handling this data for purposes such as quality
control or as a diagnostic tool.

When the load cell is used as a component in an industrial process weighing system there are
several influence factors that can affect the relationship between the force exerted by the material
being weighed and the force been applied to the load cell. These are well-documented [1,2] and
include installation issues such as load cell alignment and piping forces. For this reason, theoretical

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

data on the original manufacturer’s calibration of a digital or analogue load cell is acceptable only in
applications where verification of performance is not critical or is not practical.

4.1.2 Rationalisation
It is an accepted practice to adjust an analogue load cell’s output expressed in mV (output signal)/V
(excitation voltage) and its output resistance to nominal values within a tolerance band. This is
important for applications where these load cells are installed in a multiple load cell application and
their outputs are connected in parallel in a junction box. This is a time consuming and costly
operation especially in the case of high capacity load cells.

Digital load cells have their signal outputs matched utilising the software programmed into their
conditioning electronics and the term rationalisation does not apply to them. The resultant cost
savings in manufacturing may be passed on to the user as a benefit.

4.1.3 Load Distribution

In many weighing systems utilising more than one load cell to support the load receiving element
the distribution of load between the individual load cells can vary considerably. In such applications
the relative contribution of each load cell to the total output is clearly important.

When using analogue load cells, which are not matched sufficiently well during, manufacture there
is sometimes a need to introduce and adjust by testing - compensating circuitry usually located in
the load cell junction box. This procedure can be time consuming, technically difficult and costly.
These however are not relevant to digital load cells and not rationalising may be a cost saving to the
manufacturer.

The rationalisation procedures are less costly for the manufacturer, than with conventional cells and
this cost saving helps to offset other component costs.

This is a particular cost and time advantage to the user in two specific cases:

· High performance platform weighing systems (such as those complying with statutory
requirements for use in trade) - where in almost every installation analogue load cells require
some adjustment during the
commissioning phase of the application.

· High performance vessel weighing

systems, where the loading is
asymmetric and where testing to
establish the system output under such
conditions is impractical.

4.2 LOAD CELL PERFORMANCE

This sub-section review how parameters
describing the performance of the load cell
as a component may be modified by the use
of digital techniques. The definitions used
to quantify performance parameters are Fig. 4.2.1 Performance Parameter Definitions based on the
contained in [1,2,3]. Best Straight Line

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

4.2.1 Non-Linearity
Digital load cells have the capability to allow the signals from the strain gauges to be linearised
before being presented as the final output. This is an advantage to the manufacturer in that the
performance of the basic transducer design can assume a lesser importance. An analogue load cell,
which might meet a given specification for non-linearity, can be tuned to meet a better specification
as a digital device.

The maximum performance in terms of non-linearity that could be achieved from a load cell, based
on strain gauge technology can be improved by the use of digital techniques. Typically an
improvement of the non-linearity by a factor of 30 is possible and a load cell having a non-linearity
of 0.1 % fsd computed against a best fit
straight line can be improved to
0.003 % fsd if a polynomial of a suitable
order is used instead of a straight line. This
is a very attractive facility available to the
load cell manufacturer. The limiting factor
being the repeatability of the device and the
technique used in its calibration.

However it is should be remembered that

the installed weigh system non-linearity is
dependent on the method of applying load
to the load cell and the system mechanical
integrity. The improved non-linearity of a
digital load cell may not always be a useful
benefit to the industrial user. Fig. 4.2.2 Performance Parameter Definitions based on the
Terminal Straight Line.

4.2.2 Hysteresis
The strain gauge load cell exhibits an output the value of which depends on whether the applied
load is increasing or decreasing. Linearisation using digital processing capability of the decreasing
load characteristic as well as the increasing characteristic would be complex. One patent is known
to exist for such compensation but at the time of publication it is not known to have been
commercially implemented.

4.2.3 Creep
The output of a load cell following a change in applied load has a small time dependant element
called creep. As with hysteresis, it is conceivable that this effect could be digitally modelled and this
model can be used to provide compensation but at the time of publication it is not known to have
been commercially implemented.

4.2.4 Temperature Compensation

The bridge configuration of the strain gauges in a load cell provides substantial automatic
temperature compensation for the resistance changes that occur in individual gauges. However the
final output of a strain gauge load cell is temperature dependent due to changes in the elasticity of
the measuring element and other factors. An analogue load cell utilises additional components
within the transducer to compensate for these variations.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

A digital load cell uses the relationship between temperature and output established during
manufacture to compensate the output signals. The power of digital processing can be used to
perform this compensation and the algorithms used can be complex and comprehensive. For
example different compensation models can be adopted for different loads.

These features are primarily an advantage to the manufacturer but may have some benefit to a user
if tighter temperature specifications are achieved. This benefit would need to be evaluated for a
particular load cell type and taken into account in the overall appraisal. There is little evidence that
improved specifications are in fact on offer probably because there is no market demand for them.

4.2.5 Resolution and Repeatability

The discrimination of a load cell is the smallest change of load that can be detected and may be a
very small interval. The repeatability of a load cell is a measure of the agreement between the
resulting outputs of several repeated load applications. Provided that the discrimination is
sufficiently small to allow the repeatability to be determined there is little point in facilitating
resolutions of a much higher level than the repeatability.

The repeatability of a load cell can be determined in the laboratory to very high levels, but the
industrial environment will limit the practical level of repeatability that can be demonstrated to
about 1 part in 10 000. This level of resolution is available from both conventional analogue and
digital systems.

4.2.6 Reliability
There is no evidence to suggest a difference in reliability between digital and analogue load cells
and it is considered that any differences are unlikely to be significant.

4.2.7 Diagnostics
Analogue load cells have no integral diagnostic capability.

Digital load cells lend themselves to extensive diagnostics structure to verify the integrity of the
individual load cell. Although these load cells often work in conjunction with each other and may
be connected together by their power supply and/or communication outputs they are stand-alone
units and can be individually addressed. This feature may be utilised to monitor the following;

· ADC performance
· Excitation voltage applied to the strain gauge bridge circuit
· Power supply to the load cell
· Built in E2PROM containing the set-up parameters
· Temperature sensor

For system diagnostics see 4.3.6

4.2.8 Sampling Time

A digital load cell presents its output as discrete sequence of data, typically 10-40 per second. This
inherently leads to timing issues, which will be affected, by the number of transducers
communicating on a single transmission line as well as the speed and complexity of the data being
transmitted. These factors should be evaluated to ensure that relevant data can be available in a
timely fashion, particularly in applications involving fast processes.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

4.3 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

This sub-section reviews the factors that may inform the choice between a digital and analogue load
cell in terms of the performance of the complete weighing system. . The definitions used to quantify
performance parameters are given elsewhere [1,2].

4.3.1 System Combined Error.

This is an aggregate figure relating to the precision of the measurement that includes non-linearity,
hysteresis and repeatability. Whilst the load cell error characteristic is an important contributor to
the overall system combined error for many if not most industrial process weighing systems the
influence of the mechanical installation and environment are likely to be an equally important
factor. To achieve an overall combined error in such systems better than ±0.02 % of weigh range is
unlikely and to achieve ±0.01 % of weigh range is considered the absolute practical limit. If this is
accepted as reasonable, there is little to choose between digital and analogue load cells from this
performance viewpoint.

Whatever the type of load cell used total system accuracy heavily depends on the mechanical
integrity of the weighing system. Whichever type of load cell is selected, it will not solve the
problems of a badly designed weighing system

4.3.2 System Temperature Error

The arguments relating to temperature induced error is similar to that presented in sub-section 4.2.4.
Temperature induced error is present in a process application and has many diverse causes, most
and almost always dominated by mechanical and indirect factors. Where the mechanical influences
are absent or minimal, such as in weigh scale type systems or free standing tanks or hoppers, there
could be benefit arising from the use of digital load cells with enhanced temperature coefficients.

4.3.3 Load Distribution Error

Applications involving uneven load distribution between the various load cells supporting the load
receiving element are very common. Apart from obvious examples like weigh scales and hoppers
containing solid materials, all weighing systems utilising four or more load cells are statically
indeterminate, i.e. the load supported by each cell cannot be calculated and indeed will vary with
time and the status of the installation mechanics.

Systems that use analogue load cells can deliver high performance in such circumstances but only if
the individual transducers have been matched in relationship to each other during manufacture [1].
Production costs usually dictate the tolerances of this matching procedure and even the best of load
cell production output streams will have some mismatch in the output parameters. It may be
possible to specifically select matched sets of analogue load cells however in all but the simplest
platform situations it is practically impossible to improve these matching characteristics by testing
on site. Even where such testing is possible and compensation is provided, using additional resistors
that are incorporated into the local summation junction box, there are inevitable time and cost
implications.

This is an area where digital load cells can offer some significant advantages. Since their individual
outputs are observed as a value in actual weight units and arithmetically added together, the final
resultant is a function only of the quality of initial calibration. This advantage will be manifest
itself in terms of both the time and cost of field calibration procedures.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

However it must be pointed out that that there remains a requirement to install the cell correctly so
as to be able to reproduce the manufactured calibration result in the field.

4.3.4 Vibration Induced Error

Vibration present in an industrial environment can make observation of weight measurements
difficult. There is the capability to include within the processing circuitry of digital load cells,
advanced filter algorithms that can reduce the effects of vibration significantly. However, the same
techniques can be employed by a weight transmitter connected to conventional analogue devices, so
this is considered a neutral feature.

4.3.5 Synchronisation Error

A weighing system incorporating more than one load cell and subject to any form of dynamic
loading raises issues about how the individual load cell signals are combined.
In an analogue system the cells are almost always summated electrically in a local junction box and
the combined output is available instantaneously. If the load distribution changes with time such as
in the presence of agitation the combined output will remain unaffected providing there is no
change in total load.

In a digital system there is the potential for time delays to occur in the observation and summation
of the individual loads. This need for synchronisation needs to be considered in the final digital
summation processor. The user should satisfy himself that such consideration has been given to all
the data collection components in the system.

4.3.6 Diagnostics
The analogue load cells in a conventional multiple load cell weighing system are connected in
parallel in a junction box. The resultant combined signal output is the arithmetic average of the
output of these load cells. Failure of one load cell in such a system may not be noticed. To
overcome this additional electronics such as an intelligent junction box which can scan the output of
each load cell may have to be installed in place of the conventional junction box.

In weighing systems using digital load cells, additional diagnostics may be built in the system
software where individual load cells are monitored for influence factors such as excessive loads,
rapid changes of loads and excessive temperature changes. The main benefit here is due to the
ability to be able to monitor each load cell performance separately. An example of this would be
raising an alarm if the load distribution on individual load cells changes beyond the accepted weight
distribution when weighing a self-levelling product on a multiple load cell weighing system. The
use of historical data to provide a ‘normal’ reference loading profile against which current
behaviour can be compared has also been suggested as a diagnostic tool.

4.4 HUMIDITY
Strain gauge measurements are based on resistive techniques and as such, are very sensitive to
moisture The load cell itself depends on the integrity of its encapsulation in both the short and long
term for protection and there will be no significant difference between digital and analogue devices
in this respect.

The same is not true for the interconnecting cables. The higher level output signals in digital cables
will be substantially more immune from moisture ingress problems.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

4.5 ELECTRICAL STORMS, EARTHING AND ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS.

This sub-section reviews the effects of electrical storms and other high levels of electrical activity in
the vicinity of the digital load cell.

The energy contained in a lightning strike is at such a high level that any electronic device subjected
to a direct incident will be damaged. In vulnerable digital and analogue load cell applications,
additional protection will be indicated. Similarly, damage caused by electrical welding adjacent to
weighing systems is a potential hazard for digital and analogue load cells alike.

For lower levels of electromagnetic radiation the digital load cell, with its inherently higher voltage
transmission will have greater immunity from corruption. However it must be said that all systems
sold in the European Union are required to comply with the relevant EMC directives and systems
used in trade must comply with the more stringent requirements for errors induced by electrical
fields as stated in EN 45501 [4].

The cost of cabling can be lower for a digital load cell system mostly due to the reduced need for a
high specification cable type. There are some possible savings also available if the digital load cell
outputs become part of a common bus system.

The interfacing aspects of a digital system must also be considered. The ideal concept of a factory
populated by weighing systems all linked to an output device by a single cable carrying standard
fieldbus compatible data may not be realisable or indeed from a reliability point of view - desirable.
Many digital systems require special interfaces to permit the individual load cell signals to be made
usable by an external system. The implications of the cost and maintenance of these interfaces
should not be neglected.

4.6 SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE ASPECTS

This sub-section reviews the consequences on the long-term ownership of a system incorporating
digital load cells.

There are a number of factors that may be listed including:

· ease of service replacement

· digital storage and retrieval of calibration data in a computer
· facilities for initial set-up
· facilities for diagnostics.

4.6.1 Service replacement

The impact of the failure of one digital load cell in a multi load cell application will depend on the
system software. Replacement of a failed digital load cell can be implemented fairly speedily with
the same type of load cell provided that the system software has the facility to store its past
performance in that location. An analogue load cell will often be provided with a manufacturer’s
calibration certificate that may enable the user to compute and input the replacement performance
parameters into the final signal processor. In either case the load cell replacement could be carried
out and the weighing system used, without reverification of the system. The feasibility of this
approach will depend on the performance specification and the quality control procedures in place.
In the case of legal-for-trade weighing system, the system will require reverification in accordance
with the requirements of OIML R76 [5].

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

Weighing systems that provide measurements that have an impact on the quality criteria laid down
for a process should be reverified after service intervention by an accepted calibration procedure [2].

4.6.2 Interchangeability
At the time of publication there is no harmonisation between digital load cells from different
manufacturers. Every digital weighing system is unique due to its communication protocols used,
and algorithms incorporated in the load cell. Any replacement load cell will have to be obtained
from the original supplier. Unlike an analogue weighing system where the load cells and the rest of
the electronics may be provided and maintained by different suppliers.

4.7 SYSTEM COST

The cost of the digital load cell is likely to be higher than its analogue counterpart simply because of
the additional components required for each load cell. However some of these costs may be offset
by reduced machining, instrumentation and calibration costs.

A comparison in the initial capital cost of a digital versus an analogue system will be affected by:

· probable higher cost of the individual load cells

· reduction in cable cost
· cost reduction caused by the omission of a separate transmitter
· costs associated with interfacing the load cell signals to rest of the users system.

Additionally there will be cost of ownership issues. These will usually be more difficult to quantify
and may be subjective, but may be a major contributor to the decision making process. Factors to be
considered are:

· costs associated with initial calibration and commissioning

· production costs relating to performance differences
· cost impact on the process of a fault diagnosis facility
· total cost of after sales support including training, technical support, replacement and
reverification.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

5. ANNEXES

5.1 INHERENTLY DIGITAL LOAD CELLS

5.1.1 Introduction

This annex reviews the type of load cells, which are sometimes considered as true digital load cells since
they convert the applied load directly to digital (frequency) output without the need for analogue-to-digital
conversion.

5.1.2 Gyroscopic load cells

The operation of this load cell relies on the force sensitive property of a gyroscope mounted on a gimbal
system. A commercially manufactured gyroscopic load cell incorporates a heavy rotor mounted in a two-
gimbal system and suspended between two swivel joints. This arrangement has three axis of rotational
freedom mutually at right angles and has the axis of origin on the centre of gravity of the rotor.

When the load to be measured is applied to the gyroscope it

causes the outer gimbal to precess with a defined angular
velocity. The time taken for the outer gimbal to complete
one revolution is a measure of the applied load. There are a
number of refinements built in a commercial gyroscopic
load cell in order to minimise the effects of the precession
set up in the inner gimbal and reduce the effects of the
friction in the swivel joints. Figure 5.1.2 shows a schematic
diagram of a gyroscopic load cell.

This type of load cell is a fast responding device and is

inherently free of hysteresis and drift. It is generally claimed
that a well-produced gyroscopic load cell has a temperature
coefficient of 0.000 1 % fsd in the operating temperature
range of –10 °C to +40 °C with a non-linearity of
0.001 % fsd.

In a typical gyroscopic load cell, the time taken for each

precession varies between 2.4 s for 5 kg tare and 0.5 s for
25 kg load For loads greater than 25 kg, a lever system is
used to reduce the applied load to a suitable level. This
mechanical lever system may limit the ultimate practical
performance obtainable from the device.

Figure 5.1.2 Schematic representation of a gyroscopic load cell.

Source Bibliography [7]

5.1.3 Vibrating wire transducer.

This device is based on the principle that the resonant frequency of a wire changes when a force is applied
to it. It typically consists of a taut ferromagnetic wire excited into transverse vibrations by a drive coil.
These vibrations are detected with a pick up coil. These two coils are connected through an amplifier to
form a self-oscillating system. Each resonant frequency is a measure of the tension load applied to the wire.
14
 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

Another technique is to place the wire in a permanent magnetic field and drive it with alternating current to
set up transverse vibrations. The vibrations are picked up by a detector coil magnetically coupled to the
wire and this signal is fed to the driving oscillator forming a close loop.

The relationship between the

frequency of vibration and the load
applied is in the form of a parabola
but this may be corrected with the
use of well-established techniques.
This may be in the form of a
mechanical arrangement or
electronically with the use of
microprocessor based signal
processor for correcting various
parameters such as non-linearity and
temperature.

A compensated vibrating wire load Figure 5.1.3 Schematic representation of a vibrating wire transducer weighing
cell with its indicating system may system. Source Bibliography [7].

typically have a combined

non-linearity, hysteresis, and repeatability of 0.025 % fsd in the temperature band of -10 °C to +40 °C.

5.1.4 Vibrating Beam Transducer

This is a derivative of the vibrating wire transducer and there are a number of these devices commercially
available as a transducer. There are also a number of complete industrial weighing machines marketed with
these transducer built in.

The vibrating elements, which are strips or plates

as opposed to wires, are made from a material
with good elastic properties such as quartz, piezo
ceramic material or beryllium copper and formed
into a shape similar to a double tuning fork and
generally referred as DETF (Double Ended
Tuning Fork) devices. Each element of the fork is
forced into oscillation, which is maintained at a
specific frequency in a closed loop feedback
system. Change of frequency is a function of the
force applied.

A typical transducer of this type may have a

Figure 5.1.4 Schematic representation of the double-ended tuning fork.
Source Bibliography [5] maximum measuring range of about 30 kg, with
a general performance specification complying
with 6 000 division to OIML R60.

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 Digital Load Cells – A Comparative Review of Performance and Application.

6. REFERENCES
1 A guide to the specification and procurement of industrial process weighing systems.
An Institute of Measurement and Control publication.

2 A code of practice for the calibration of industrial process weighing systems.

An Institute of Measurement and Control publication

3 British Standard BS 8422 Strain gauge load cell systems, calibration method.

4 British Standard BS EN 45 501 : 1994 Metrological aspects of non-automatic weighing

instruments (sometimes referred to as NAWI)

5 OIML R76 Non-Automatic Weighing Instruments, Parts 1 and 2

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Smart Load Cell Systems by Jan Kersten
ISWM-1998
An application report from Revere transducers
2 Plug & WeighTM Systems
Application Note 01-05/99/01
Ian Fellow Ltd
3 Digital Load Cells
An application report from Revere transducers
4 Technical Tips for Scale Manufacturers
http://www.sensortronics.com/technical/digital1.htm
5 Tuning Fork Balance
http://www.vibra.co.jp/EN/TFSENSOR/tfsensor.html
6 Intelligent Load Cell and the Fieldbus by Steve Maclean. Measurement + Control, the Journal of
the Institute of Measurement and Control, pp 13-16, Vol 36/1, February 2003.
7 Force and Weight Measurements by Ural Erdem, Journal of Physics E; Scientific Instruments,
pp 857-872, Vol 15 (1982)
8. USEFUL ADDRESSES
Also refer to the Useful Addresses section in reference [1].
1. British Standards Institution (BSI), 389 Chiswick High Road, London, UK, W4 4AL

2. National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Queens Road, Teddington, Middlesex, UK, TW11 0LW

3. International Organisation of Legal Metrology (Organisation Internationale de Métrologie Légale)

(OIML), 11 rue Turgot – 75009 Paris - France

4. The Institute of Measurement and Control (InstMC), 87 Gower Street, London, UK, WC1E 6AF

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