Introduction to Gender, Sex, and Sexuality
When Harry was born, his parents, Steve and Barb, were delighted to add another boy to
their family. But as their baby boy began to grow and develop, they noticed that Harry
began to express himself in a manner that they viewed as more feminine than
masculine. He gravitated toward dolls and other toys that our culture typically
associates with girls. But Harry’s preference was not simply about liking pink more than
blue or flowers more than fire trucks. He even began to draw himself as a girl, complete
with a dress and high-heeled shoes. In fact, Harry did not just wish to be a girl; he
believed he was a girl.
In kindergarten, Harry often got into arguments with male classmates because he
insisted that he was a girl, not a boy. He even started calling himself “Hailey.” Steve and
Barb met with several psychologists, all of whom told them that Hailey was
transgendered. But Steve and Barb had a hard time understanding that their five-year-
old son could have already developed a gender identity that went against society’s
expectations. Concerned with the social ramifications associated with his child being
transgendered, Steve hoped this was just a phase. But Barb, and eventually Steve,
realized that Harry’s feelings were genuine and unyielding, and they made the decision
to let Harry live as Hailey—a girl. They came to this decision after concluding that the
criticism he would endure from his peers and other members of society would be less
damaging than the confusion he might experience internally if he were forced to live as a
boy.
Many transgendered children grow up hating their bodies, and this population can have
high rates of drug abuse and suicide (Weiss 2011). Fearful of these outcomes and eager
to make their child happy, Steve and Barb now refer to Harry as Hailey and allow her to
dress and behave in manners that are considered feminine. To a stranger, Hailey is
likely to appear just like any other girl and may even be considered extra girly due to
her love of all things pink. But to those who once knew Hailey as Harry, Hailey is likely
to endure more ridicule and rejection as the result of adopting a feminine gender
identity.
Currently, seven-year-old Hailey and her parents are comfortable with her gender
status, but Steve and Barb are concerned about what questions and problems might
arise as she gets older. “Who’s going to love my child?” asks Steve (Ling 2011). This
question isn’t asked because Hailey is unlovable, but because North American society
has yet to fully listen to or understand the personal narratives of the transgendered
population (Hines and Sanger 2010).
In this chapter, we will discuss the differences between sex and gender, along with
issues like gender identity and sexuality. What does it mean to “have” a gender in our
society? What does it mean to “have” a sexuality? We will also explore various
theoretical perspectives on the subjects of gender and sexuality.
The Difference between Sex and Gender
When filling out a document such as a job application or school registration form you
are often asked to provide your name, address, phone number, birth date, and sex or
gender. But have you ever been asked to provide your sex and your gender? As with
most people, it may not have occurred to you that sex and gender are not the same.
However, sociologists and most other social scientists view sex and gender as
conceptually distinct. Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males
and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and
secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. Gender is a term that refers
to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female. Gender
identity is the extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine
(Diamond 2002).
A person’s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with his
or her gender. Therefore, the terms sex and gender are not interchangeable. A baby boy
who is born with male genitalia will be identified as male. As he grows, however, he may
identify with the feminine aspects of his culture. Since the term sex refers to biological
or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex will not vary significantly between
different human societies. For example, all persons of the female sex, in general,
regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate.
Characteristics of gender, on the other hand, may vary greatly between different
societies. For example, in American culture, it is considered feminine (or a trait of the
female gender) to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many Middle Eastern, Asian, and
African cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) can be
considered masculine. The kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear
feminine in his culture.
The dichotomous view of gender (the notion that one is either male or female)
is specific to certain cultures and is not universal. In some cultures, gender is
viewed as fluid. In the past, some anthropologists used the term berdache to
refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as the
opposite gender. The practice has been noted among certain Aboriginal
groups (Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang 1997). Samoan culture accepts what they
refer to as a “third gender.” Fa’afafine, which translates as “the way of the
woman,” is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male
but embody both masculine and feminine traits. Fa’afafines are considered an
important part of Samoan culture. Individuals from other cultures may
mislabel them as homosexuals because fa’afafines have a varied sexual life that
may include men or women (Poasa 1992).
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional and sexual attraction to a particular
sex (male or female). Sexual orientation is typically divided into four
categories: heterosexuality, the attraction to individuals of the opposite
sex; homosexuality, the attraction to individuals of one’s own sex; bisexuality, the
attraction to individuals of either sex; and asexuality, no attraction to either sex.
Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as “straight” and
“gay,” respectively. North America is a heteronormative society, meaning it supports
heterosexuality as the norm. Consider that homosexuals are often asked, “When did you
know you were gay?” but heterosexuals are rarely asked, “When did you know that you
were straight?” (Ryle 2011).
According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their
sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence (American
Psychological Association 2008). They do not have to participate in sexual activity to be
aware of these emotional, romantic, and physical attractions; people can be celibate and
still recognize their sexual orientation. Homosexual women (also referred to as
lesbians), homosexual men (also referred to as gays), and bisexuals of both genders may
have very different experiences of discovering and accepting their sexual orientation. At
the point of puberty, some may be able to claim their sexual orientations while others
may be unready or unwilling to make their homosexuality or bisexuality known since it
goes against North American society’s historical norms (APA 2008).
Alfred Kinsey was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than
a strict dichotomy of gay or straight. To classify this continuum of heterosexuality and
homosexuality, Kinsey created a six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively
heterosexual to exclusively homosexual (see Figure 12.4). In his 1948 work Sexual
Behavior in the Human Male, Kinsey writes, “Males do not represent two discrete
populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The world is not to be divided into sheep
and goats … The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects”
(Kinsey et al 1948).
Later scholarship by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick expanded on Kinsey’s notions. She coined
the term “homosocial” to oppose “homosexual,” describing nonsexual same-sex
relations. Sedgwick recognized that in North American culture, males are subject to a
clear divide between the two sides of this continuum, whereas females enjoy more
fluidity. This can be illustrated by the way women in Canada can express homosocial
feelings (nonsexual regard for people of the same sex) through hugging, handholding,
and physical closeness. In contrast, Canadian males refrain from these expressions since
they violate the heteronormative expectation. While women experience a flexible
norming of variations of behaviour that spans the heterosocial-homosocial spectrum,
male behaviour is subject to strong social sanction if it veers into homosocial territory
because of societal homophobia (Sedgwick 1985).
There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a
heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual orientation. There has been research conducted
to study the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences
on sexual orientation, but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to
one factor (APA 2008). Research, however, does present evidence showing that
homosexuals and bisexuals are treated differently than heterosexuals in schools, the
workplace, and the military. The 2009 Canadian Climate Survey reported that 59
percent of LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered) high school students had
been subject to verbal harassment at school compared to 7 percent of non-LGBT
students, 25 percent had been subject to physical harassment compared to 8 percent of
non-LGBT students, 31 percent had been subject to cyber-bullying (via internet or text
messaging) compared to 8 percent of non-LGBT students, 73 percent felt unsafe at
school compared to 20 percent of non-LGBT students, and 51 percent felt unaccepted at
school compared to 19 percent of non-LGBT students (Taylor and Peter 2011).
Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes, misinformation,
and homophobia, an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals. Major policies to
prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have not come into effect until the
last few years. In 2005 the federal government legalized same-sex marriage. The Civil
Marriage Act now describes marriage in Canada in gender neutral terms: “Marriage, for
civil purposes, is the lawful union of two persons to the exclusion of all others” (Civil
Marriage Act (S.C. 2005, c. 33)). The Canadian Human Rights Act was amended in 1996
to explicitly prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, including the unequal
treatment of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals. Organizations such as Egale Canada
(Equality for Gays And Lesbians Everywhere) advocate for LGBT rights, establish gay
pride organizations in Canadian communities, and promote gay-straight alliance
support groups in schools. Advocacy agencies frequently use the acronym LGBTQ,
which stands for “lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered,” and “queer” or “questioning.”
Gender Roles
As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process,
children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex.
The term gender role refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected
to act and how they should behave. These roles are based on norms, or standards,
created by society. In Canadian culture, masculine roles are usually associated with
strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with
passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Role learning starts with socialization at birth.
Even today, our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even
applying these colour-coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb.
One way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with
trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor
skills, aggression, and solitary play. Girls are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that
foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Studies have shown that children will
most likely choose to play with “gender appropriate” toys (or same-gender toys) even
when cross-gender toys are available because parents give children positive feedback (in
the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender-normative
behaviour (Caldera, Huston, and O’Brien 1998).
The drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life. Men
tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and
politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as child care,
health care, and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical Canadian
male and female behaviour, derived from our culture’s traditions. Adherence to them
demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference
(Diamond 2002).
Gender Identity
Canadian society allows for some level of flexibility when it comes to acting out gender
roles. To a certain extent, men can assume some feminine roles and women can assume
some masculine roles without interfering with their gender identity. Gender identity is
an individual’s self-conception of being male or female based on his or her association
with masculine or feminine gender roles.
Individuals who identify with the role that is the opposite of their biological sex are
called transgendered. Transgendered males, for example, have such a strong
emotional and psychological connection to the feminine aspects of society that they
identify their gender as female. The parallel connection to masculinity exists for
transgendered females. It is difficult to determine the prevalence of transgenderism in
society. Statistics Canada states that they have neither the definitive number of people
whose sexual orientation is lesbian, gay, or bisexual, nor the number of people who are
transgendered (Statistics Canada 2011). However, it is estimated that 2 to 5 percent of
the U.S. population is transgendered (Transgender Law and Policy Institute 2007).
Transgendered individuals who wish to alter their bodies through medical interventions
such as surgery and hormonal therapy—so that their physical being is better aligned
with gender identity—are called transsexuals. They may also be known as male-to-
female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM) transsexuals. Not all transgendered individuals
choose to alter their bodies: many will maintain their original anatomy but may present
themselves to society as the opposite gender. This is typically done by adopting the
dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to the opposite
gender. It is important to note that people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is
traditionally assigned to opposite gender, are not necessarily transgendered. Cross-
dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, not
necessarily an expression against one’s assigned gender (APA 2008).
There is no single, conclusive explanation for why people are transgendered.
Transgendered expressions and experiences are so diverse that it is difficult to identify
their origin. Some hypotheses suggest biological factors such as genetics or prenatal
hormone levels as well as social and cultural factors such as childhood and adulthood
experiences. Most experts believe that all of these factors contribute to a person’s gender
identity (APA 2008).
It is known, however, that transgendered and transsexual individuals experience
discrimination based on their gender identity. People who identify as transgendered are
twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as non-transgendered individuals;
they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (National
Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs 2010). Organizations such as the Canadian
Professional Association for Transgender Health (CPATH), Trans Pulse, and National
Center for Trans Equality work to support and prevent, respond to, and end all types of
violence against transgendered, transsexual, and homosexual individuals. These
organizations hope that by educating the public about gender identity and empowering
transgendered and transsexual individuals, this violence will end.
