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Hydraulic Engineering

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Prof. Mohammad Saud Afzal
Department of Civil Engineering

Introduction
 Viscous Flow in pipes

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• Pipe is completely filled with water

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• Main driving force is usually a pressure gradient along the pipe, though
gravity might be important as well

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Pipe flow
P T open-channel flow
 Laminar or turbulent flow

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well defined streakline, one velocity component
V  ui

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Re  2100

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Re  4000

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velocity along the pipe is unsteady and accompanied
by random component normal to pipe axis
V  ui + vj + wk
 Laminar or turbulent flow

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOLl2KeDiOg
 Laminar or turbulent flow

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• In this experiment water flows through a clear pipe

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with increasing speed. Dye is injected through a small
diameter tube at the left portion of the screen. Initially,
at low speed (Re <2100) the flow is laminar and the dye
stream is stationary. As the speed (Re) increases, the
transitional regime occurs and the dye stream becomes
wavy (unsteady, oscillatory laminar flow). At still higher
speeds (Re>4000) the flow becomes turbulent and the
dye stream is dispersed randomly throughout the flow.
 Class Question

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• Water at a temperature of 10oC flows through a pipe of

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diameter D=1.85 cm. Determine the minimum time taken
to fill a 0.355 L glass with water if the flow in the pipe is

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to be laminar. Determine the maximum time taken to fill

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the glass if the flow is to be turbulent. Repeat the

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calculations if the water temperature is 60oC.

VD   1000 Kg/m3 At 10oC

  983.2 Kg/m3 At 60oC

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number
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dimensionless
entrance length
e

le
D
l
D
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• fluid typically enters pipe with nearly uniform velocity
• the length of entrance region depends on the Reynolds
 0.06 Re

 4.4  Re 
1/ 6
for laminar flow

for turbulent flow

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• As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause

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it to stick to the pipe wall (the no-slip boundary

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condition).
• The boundary layer grows in thickness to completely fill

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the pipe.

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• Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the
boundary layer.
• For fluid outside the boundary layer [within the inviscid
core surrounding the centerline from 1 to 2], viscous
effects are negligible.
• Calculation of velocity profile and pressure distribution
within entrance region is very complex.
Entrance region and fully developed flow

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• As soon as the flow reaches the end of entrance region

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• Flow is simpler
• Velocity dependent upon radial distance r

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• Velocity independent of x
• Flow between section 2 and 3 is called fully developed
flow
 Pressure and shear stress

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no acceleration,
viscous forces balanced
by pressure

pressure balanced
by viscous forces
and acceleration
 Pressure and shear stress

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• The need of the pressure drop can be seen as

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• Force Balance; Pressure force is needed to overcome

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the viscous forces generated

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• Energy Balance; Work done by pressure forces is
needed to overcome the viscous dissipation
throughout the fluid
 Fully developed laminar flow

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• Problems

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• Most flows are turbulent

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• Theoretical analysis is yet not possible

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• Many pipes are not long enough to allow attainment
of fully developed flow

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• Importance
• One of the very few theoretical viscous analysis that
can be carried out ‘exactly’
• Provides a foundation for further complex analysis
• There are many practical situations involving the use
of fully developed laminar pipe flow
 Fully developed laminar flow

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• Equation for fully developed laminar flow in pipe can be

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derived using 3 approaches:

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• from 2nd Newton law directly applied

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• from Navier-Stokes equation

• from dimensional analysis

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fluid element at time t
 Newton’s 2nd law

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• We consider the fluid element at time t as is

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shown in Fig above. It is a circular cylinder of fluid

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of length and radius r centered on the axis of a
horizontal pipe of diameter D. Because the velocity

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is not uniform across the pipe, the initially flat
ends of the cylinder of fluid at time t become
distorted at time when the fluid element has
moved to its new location along the pipe as shown
in the figure. If the flow is fully developed and
steady, the distortion on each end of the fluid
element is the same, and no part of the fluid
experiences any acceleration as it flows.
 Newton’s 2nd law

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• Assumptions

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• Local acceleration is zero since the flow is steady

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• Convective acceleration is zero since the flow is fully

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developed
• Every fluid particle flows along streamline with constant

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velocity. The neighboring particle have slightly different
velocities
• Gravitational effects are neglected for now
• Pressure is constant across any vertical cross section of
the pipe
• Pressure drop Δp>0 pressure decreases in direction of
flow
 Newton’s 2nd law

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p1 r 2  ( p1  p) r 2   2 rl  0

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p 2   Cr , at r  D / 2 stress is maximum  w wall shear stress

l r 2 r 4l
  w and p  w Eq. 3
D D
doesn’t depend on radius

Eq. 1 Eq. 2
 Newton’s 2nd law

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• Discussions

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• Shear stress varies linearly with r (Why ??)

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• If viscosity was zero  no shear stress and pressure

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constant throughout channel
• A small shear stress can produce large Δp if pipe is

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relatively long (l/D>>1) ( See Equation)
• Analysis till now is valid for both laminar and
turbulent flow ( assumptions are common)
• From here onward we assume shear stress
distribution for laminar flow
 Newton’s 2nd law
du  p 

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for Newtonian liquid:       r
dr  2l 

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du  p 
  r

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dr  2l 

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 p  2
u    r  C1
 4l 

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 p  2
boundary condition: u  0 at r  D / 2  C1   D
 16l 
 pD 2    2r  
2

u (r )    1    
 16l    D  
 Newton’s 2nd law

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Flow rate: Q   udA  
0
D/2

Poiseuille’s Law
u (r )2 rdr 
 D 4 p
128l
Eq. 4
 Newton’s 2nd law

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• if gravity is present, it can be added to the pressure:

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p   gl sin  2 Eq. 5

l r

V 
 p   gl sin   D 2 Eq. 6
32  l
  p   gl sin   D 4
Q Eq. 7
128 l
 Class Question

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• An oil with a viscosity of 0.40 N.s/m2 and density of 900 kg/m3 flows

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in a pipe of diameter 0.002 m. What pressure drop, is needed to

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produce a flow rate of 2.0*10-5 m3/s if the pipe is horizontal with and
x1=0 and x2=10 m.

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• How steep a hill, must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through
the pipe at the same rate as above, but with Δp=0.
• For the conditions of part b, if p1=200 kPa what is the pressure at
section x3=5 m where x is measured along the pipe
 Basic mathematics

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• Del Operator:

• Laplacian Operator:

• Gradient:

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• Vector Gradient:

• Divergence:

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• Directional Derivative:
 Navier-Stokes equation applied

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• General motion of an incompressible Newtonian fluid is governed by the continuity
equation conservation of mass, is written as :

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𝜕𝑽 𝛁p
• Momentum equation: + g + ν 𝛁𝟐 V Eq. 8

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+ V .𝛁V=-
𝜕𝒕 𝝆

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For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe, the velocity contains
only an axial component, which is a function of only the radial
coordinate [ V=u(r)Î ] For such conditions, the left-hand side of the
momentum Eqn. becomes zero. This is equivalent to saying that
the fluid experiences no acceleration as it flows along. The same
constraint was used in the previous section when considering
F = ma for the fluid cylinder.
 ෡ the Navier Stokes equations become
Thus, with g = -g𝒌

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𝛁 V= 0

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𝛁 p + 𝝆 g𝑘෠ = μ𝛁𝟐 V

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The flow is governed by a balance of pressure, weight, and viscous forces

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in the flow direction.

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In cylindrical coordinates:
𝝏𝒑 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝒖
+ 𝝆𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝝁 𝒓
𝝏𝒙 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓

The assumptions and the result are exactly the same as

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p  F V , l , D,  

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Dp  l 
 

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V D

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assuming pressure drop proportional to the length:

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Dp Cl p C V
   2
V D l D
( / 4C )pD 4
Q  AV  Eq. 9
l
 Darcy friction factor (f )

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• Rewriting Poiseuille's law

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 D 4 p

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D/2
Q   udA   u (r )2 rdr 
128l

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0

32lV

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p 
D2
Dividing both sides by dynamic pressure
32 lV
p D 2  l 64 l
  64( )( )  ( )
1
V 2
1
V 2 VD D Re D
2 2
 Darcy friction factor (f )

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• Often written as

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l V 2
p  f ( )

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Eq. 10
D 2

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Where f is called Darcy friction factor.

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f for laminar fully developed pipe flow is given by
64
f  Eq. 11
Re
In terms of wall shear 8 w
f  Eq. 12
stress Using Eq. 3 V 2
Energy in fully developed Laminar flow

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• Consider energy flow between two locations

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2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
 1  z1   2  z 2  hL Eq. 13
 

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2g 2g

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• For uniform velocity profile α=1 (α>1 for non-uniform
profile)
• For fully developed flow α1= α2 =1

• hL accounts for energy loss associated with the flow

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•

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Rewriting Eq. 13
p1 p2

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(  z1 )  (  z2 )  hL Eq. 14
 

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p1  p2 p

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
  p p  l sin 
 l sin    hL
z 2  z1  l sin   
Use Eq. 5
2l
4l w 2l
hL   hL r h
D Use Eq. 2
r 
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Eq. 16 Eq. 15
Energy in fully developed Laminar flow

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4l w

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hL  Eq. 16
D

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The above equation is valid for both laminar and turbulent
fluid flow
 Turbulent flow

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• In turbulent flow the axial component of velocity
fluctuates randomly, components perpendicular to
the flow axis appear
• heat and mass transfer are enhanced in turbulent
flow
• In many cases reasonable results on turbulent flow
can be obtained using Bernoulli equation (Re=inf).
 Fluctuation in turbulent flow
• All parameters fluctuate in turbulent flow (velocity, pressure, shear

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stress, temperature etc.) behave chaotically

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• flow parameters can be described as an average value +

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fluctuations (random vortices)
• can be characterized by turbulence intensity and time scale of

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fluctuation 1 t0 T

2

  u  dt 

2


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turbulence intensity T      
2
u  T t0 
u u
 Shear stress in turbulent flow

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• Turbulent flow can often be thought of as a series of random,
3-dimensional eddy motions (swirls) ranging from large eddies down
through very small eddies
• Vortices transfer momentum, so the shear force is higher compared
with laminar flow: du
   lam   turb  
dy
  uv
 Shear stress in turbulent flow

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• Shear stress is a sum of laminar portion and a turbulent portion

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du
    uv   lam   turb , u  u  u

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dy

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positive
shear stress is larger in turbulent flow

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• Alternatively:
du η = eddy viscosity
 turb  
dy
Prandtl suggested that turbulent flow is characterized
by random transfer over certain distance lm:
2
 du 
   lm 2
du  turb   lm 
2

dy  dy 
 Turbulent velocity profile

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• Viscous sub layer: Viscous shear stress dominates, viscosity is
dominant and density unimportant
• Outer Layer: Reynolds stress in dominant viscosity is
unimportant and density dominant
 Turbulent velocity profile

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• In the viscous sublayer
Law of the wall

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u yu *


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u* v
where, y=R-r, u – time averaged x component,

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u*=(τ/ρ)½ friction velocity

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valid near smooth wall: 0  yu */ v  5

5
y   sublayer  Thickness of viscous sublayer
u*
• In the overlap layer: Log law
u yu *
 2.5 ln( )  5.0 Coefficients have been obtained
u *
 experimentally
 Turbulent velocity profile

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• In the turbulent layer: function of Reynolds number

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1/ n
u  r
(Vc  u ) / u*  2.5ln( R / y) or  1  

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Vc  R 

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Velocity Defect Law in outer layer Power law velocity profile

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Velocity defect or retardation of
the flow due to wall effects.
 Class Question

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• Water at 20oC (ρ=998 kg/m3 and ν=1.004*10-6 m2/s) flows through a

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horizontal pipe of 0.1 m diameter with a flow rate of 4*10-2 m3/s and a
pressure gradient of 2.59 kPa/m. Assume 1m pipe length.

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• Determine the approximate thickness of the viscous sub layer

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• Determine the approximate centerline velocity Vc
• Determine the ratio of the turbulent to laminar shear stress, at a point
midway between the centerline and the pipe wall i.e. at r=0.025m
 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

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• major loss in pipes: due to viscous flow in the straight elements

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• minor loss: due to other pipe components (junctions etc.)

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Major loss:

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p  F (V , D, l ,  , ,  )

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roughness

• those 7 variables represent complete set of

p  VD l  
  , , 
2 V   D D
1 2
 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

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p  VD l  

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  , , 
2 V   D D

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1 2

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as pressure drop is proportional to length of the tube:

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2 V
1 2
l 
D 

   Re, 
D
 Dimensional analysis of pipe flow

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p l    pD
   Re,  f 1

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friction factor
2 V D  D 
1 2 2
2 l V

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   l V 2
f    Re, 

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and p  f Valid for horizontal pipes
 D D 2

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• for fully developed laminar flow
f  64 / Re
• for fully developed steady incompressible flow
(from Bernoulli eq.):
p l V2
hL major   f Darcy-Weisbach equation
g D 2g
 Class Problem

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• Water flows through a pipeline whose diameter varies from 20 cm

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to 10 cm in a length of 10m. If Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is
assumed to be constant at 0.02 for the whole pipe, determine the

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head loss in friction when the pipe is flowing full with a discharge of

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50 L/s.
 Class Problem

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In a horizontal pipe of diameter D carrying a steady flow there will be pressure

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drop in a length L of the pipe.
𝟐

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• Prove that if bed shear stress 𝝉𝟎 = 𝝆𝒖∗ then 𝒖∗ =𝒗√𝒇ൗ𝟖 where f is Darcy
Weisbach factor.

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• Water flows in a 2 cm diameter pipe. Taking the kinematic viscosity of water
as 0.0098 stoke, calculate the largest discharge for which the flow will be
definitely laminar. What is the boundary shear stress for this discharge?
 Class Problem

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• Design the diameter of a steel pipe to carry water with a mean

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velocity of 1.0 m/s. The head loss is to be limited to 10 cm per 100

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m length. The effective roughness height can be taken as 0.45 mm.
Use the following empirical formula for the friction factor.

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𝟏ൗ
𝜺𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟑
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 +
𝑫 𝑹𝒆
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