MODULE 1

4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

Part 3 Zeros of Polynomial Functions – The Rational Root Theorem

Objectives: In this module, the student should be able to:

1) apply the Rational Zero Theorem in problems such as finding rational zeros of and
factoring polynomial functions;
2) use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine the number of positive and negative real
zeros of a polynomial function; and
3) utilize the theorems on bounds and the leading coefficient test.

The Factor Theorem tells us that every zero corresponds to a factor of a polynomial
function. For instance if a polynomial function of degree n has zeros r 1 , r 2 , r 3 , … , r n then the
polynomial function can be written as P ( x ) =an ( x−r 1 ) ( x−r 2 ) ( x−r 3 ) …. ( x−r n ) . When
expanded, the polynomial function is of the form
P ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +a n−2 x n−2+ …+a1 x+ a0
Hence, a polynomial with exactly n zeros is a polynomial of degree n .

Theorem 4 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

If P( x ) is a polynomial function of degree n ≥ 1 with the real coefficients, then it has
exactly n zeros which may be real or complex numbers.

If in the equation P ( x ) =an ( x−r 1 ) ( x−r 2 ) ( x−r 3 ) …. ( x−r n ) , a factor x−r i occurs k times, then r i
is called a zero multiplicity k .

Example 7 If P ( x ) =( x−1)2 ( x+ 4)3 then 1 is a zero of multiplicity 2, or we count 1 as two

zeros. Similarly, −4 is a zero of multiplicity 3, and we count −4 as three zeros.

There are instances, these zeros may include imaginary numbers.

Example 8 Consider the polynomial function defined by

4 3 2 2 2
f ( x )=x −2 x +2 x −2 x +1. When factored out the function f, f ( x )=( x−1 ) ( x +1) has four
zeros, 1 of multiplicity 2 and two imaginary numbers, √ −1∧− √−1.

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4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

Theorem 5 (The Rational Root Theorem)

Let P ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +a n−2 x n−2+ …+a1 x+ a0 be an nth-degree polynomial function with
p p
integer coefficients. If is a rational zero of P, where is in lowest terms, then p in
q q
integer factor of a 0 and q is an integer factor of a n .

The Rational Root Theorem is useful in determining the rational roots of a given
polynomial function because it limits the candidates for rational roots.

Example 9 Consider the function defined by

P ( x ) =3 x 4−11 x 3+ 10 x −4
Find all the rational zeros of the polynomial function P .

Solution:

Because the degree of P( x ) is 4, there are 4 zeros. The rational root theorem says that
p
if is a zero of P( x ) then p must be a factor of −4 and q must be a factor of 3.
q
p: The factors of 4: ± 1, ± 2 ,± 4
q: The factors of 3: ± 1, ± 3
p 1 2 4
possibilities for :±1 , ± 2, ± 4 ,± , ± , ±
q 3 3 4

3 −11 0 10 −4
¿ ¿¿
−3 ¿ ¿

This implies −1 is a zero. Using the results of the synthetic division, we can express P( x ) as
follows
P ( x ) =( x +1)(3 x 3−14 x2 +14 x−4)

2
We now use 3 x 3−14 x 2+ 14 x−4 and check for other possible zeros. We try and obtain
3

2 3 −14 14 −4
]
3 2 ¿ ¿
¿

2
Hence, is also a zero. Using the results of synthetic division, we can factor further:
3

2
P ( x ) =( x +1)(x− )3 ( x2 −4 x +2)
3

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4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

Using the quadratic formula, we can determine the zeros of x 2−4 x+2.

4 ± √16−4 (2 ) 4 ± √8
x 2−4 x+2=0 ↔ x= =
2 2

↔ x=2+ √ 2≈ 3.4142∨x=2−√ 2≈ 0.5858

Example 10 Given the following P ( x ) =−2 x 4+ 15 x 3−32 x 2+ 12 x +16. Find all the rational
zeros of the polynomial function P.

Solution:

p: The factors of 16: ± 1, ± 2 ,± 4 ,± 8 , ±16

q: The factors of 2: ± 1, ± 2
p 1
possibilities for :±1 , ± 2, ± 4 ,± 8 , ±16 , ±
r 2

−1
By synthetic division, we determine first zero of P, given by x= as follows:
2

Using the results of the above, the next zero is x=4

Solving the quadratic equation −2 x2 +8 x−8=0 we obtain

−2 x2 +8 x−8=0 ↔−2 ( x 2−4 x+ 4 )=0

↔−2 ( x−2 )2=0

Thus x=2is a zero of multiplicity 2.

−1
The zeros of P are , 4∧2 of multiplicity 2 and the factored form of P is
2

( 12 )( x−4)( x−2 )
P ( x) = x + 2

In finding the zeros of a polynomial function, the process can be shortened if upper and
lower bounds of zeros can be found.

Definition 4.5.2 An upper bound of the real zeros of a polynomial function P is any
number that is greater than or equal to the largest real zero. A lower bound of the real
zeros of P is any number that is less than or equal to the smallest real zero.

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4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

Theorem 6 Suppose that P ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +a n−2 x n−2+ …+a1 x+ a0 and that a n> 0. In the
synthetic division, of P( x ) by x−r .
(1) If r >0 and the numbers in the third row are all nonnegative numbers, then r is an
upper bound for the real zeros of P.
(2) If r <0 and the numbers in the third row are alternately nonnegative and
nonpositive, then r is a lower bound for the real zeros of P.

Illustration 7 Find the upper and lower bounds of the function P ( x ) =3 x3 −x2 + 4 x−2 when
divided it by x−1.

Definition 4.5.3 If the terms of a polynomial function P( x ) are written in decreasing

order according to the powers of x , each pair of successive coefficients with opposite
signs is called a variation of sign.

Theorem 6 Every polynomial equation with complete coefficients and positive degree n
has exactly n complex roots.

Illustration 8 Complete the table below. Make a conjecture by comparing the number of
positive zeros with the number of variations in sign in each polynomial function P ( x ) .

Number of Number of
P( x ) Zeros of P( x )
Positive Roots Variations in Sign
x 3+ 2 x 2−5 x−6 −3 ,−1,2
1
2 x3 +13 x 2+ 17 x−12 −4 ,−3 ,
2
1
2 x 4 +3 x3 −12 x 2−7 x +6 −3 ,−1, , 2
2

x 3−x 2+ 4 x−4 −2 i, 2 i, 1

x 5−3 x 4 +3 x 3−9 x 2+ 2 x−6 ± i, ±i √ 2, 3

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Let P( x ) be a polynomial function with real coefficients, then
(1) The number of positive real zeros or roots of P ( x ) =0 is either equal to the number

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4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

of variations in sign of P( x ) or is less than this number by a positive even integer.

(2) The number negative real zeros or roots of P ( x ) =0 is either equal to the number of
variations in sign of P(−x ) or is less than this number by a positive even integer.

Illustration 9 Determine the possible number of positive and negative real zeros of
P ( x ) =x3 +6 x 2 +11 x+ 6.

Solution: Because all terms are positive, there are no variations in sign. Thus, there are no
positive real zeros.

To find the possibilities for the negative real zeros, count the number of sign changes in
P (−x ) . Replacing x with –x in the given function, we have
3 2
P (−x )=(−x ) + 6 (−x ) +11 (−x ) +6

P(−x )=−x 3 +6 x 2−11 x+ 6.

Comparing the sign changes, P(−x ) has three variations in sign. By Descartes’ Rule of
Signs, y=P( x) has either three negative zeros or 3−2=1 negative real zero.

Positive zeros Negative zeros Imaginary zeros

0 3 0
0 1 2

Note; The zeros of P( x ) are −3 ,−2,∧−1.

Illustration 10 Determine the possible number of positive and negative zeros of

P ( x ) =x5 −3 x 4 +3 x3 −9 x2 +2 x−6.

Solution: P( x ) has five variations in sign. By the Descartes’ Rule of Signs, y=P( x) may
have five positive real zeros or 5−2=3 positive real zeros, or 5−4=1 positive real zero.

But when x is replaced by – x , P (−x )=−x 5−3 x 4−3 x 3−9 x 2−2 x−6 has no variations in sign,
thus, P( x ) has no negative real zeros.

The table below summarizes the possible combinations of the zeros of P ( x ) .

Positive zeros Negative zeros Imaginary zeros

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4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

5 0 0
3 0 2
1 0 4

Note: The zeros of P( x ) are ± i, ±i √ 2,∧3.

4.5.3 Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Graphs of polynomial functions are unbroken and continuous curves. In this section,
we will consider graphs of polynomial functions for which n ≥ 3. As x becomes very
large ( x → ∞ ) or as x becomes very small ( x →−∞ ) , the behaviour of the graph of a
polynomial function would be determined by the leading term. As |x| increases
without bound, |a n x n| increases without bound and will become larger than the sum of
all the other terms in the polynomial. Thus, for large values of x, either positive or
negative, the graph of the polynomial

P ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +a n−2 x n−2+ …+a1 x+ a0resembles the graph of the power function

an xn .

(1) If a n> 0 , the functional values will be increasing for large values of x, so that the graph
goes up to the right.

(a) If n is even the graph comes (b) If n is odd, the graph comes up from
down from the left. the left.

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4.0 Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs PRECALCULUS

n is even , an >0 n is odd ,a n> 0

(2) If a n< 0 ,the functional values will be decreasing for large values of x, so that the graph
goes down to the right.

(a) If n is even, the graph comes (b) If n is odd, the graph comes from
up from the left. the left.

n is even , an <0

n is odd ,a n< 0