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LECTURE NOTES

ON

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

IV B. Tech I semester (JNTUH-R09)

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

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 UNIT 1
Electric Drives

INTRODUCTION

Motor control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications such as
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps,
robots, and washing machines. Systems employed for motion control are calleddrives and may
employ any of the prime movers. Drives employing electric motors are known as electric drives.

Nowadays, in electric power stations generating large amounts of electric energy for
agriculture, industry, domestic needs, and electrified traction facilities and in driving all kinds of
working machines, electric motor is essential, which is the predominant type of drive so the term
electric drive being applied to it.

Electric drive becomes more popular because of its simplicity, reliability, cleanliness,
easiness, and smooth control. Both AC and DC motors are used as electric drives; however, the
AC system is preferred because:

o It is cheaper.
o It can be easily transmitted with low-line losses.
o It can be easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within prescribed limits.
o It is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of power.

In spite of the advantages of AC motor, sometimes DC motor is used because:

o In some processes, such as electrochemical and battery charging, DC is the only type of power that
is suitable.
o The speed control of DC motors is easy rather than AC; thus, for variable speed applications such as lift
and Ward Leonard system, the DC motors are preferred.
o DC series motor is suited for traction work because of high starting torque.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC DRIVE

Source

1-φ and 3-φ, 50-Hz AC supplies are readily available in most locations. Very low power drives
are generally fed from 1-φ source; however, the high power drives are powered from 3-φsource;
some of the drives are powered from a battery
Fig. Block diagram of electric drive

Ex: Fork lifts trucks and milk vans.

Power modulator

Power modulator performs the following functions:

o It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor is impart speed−torque characteristics
required by the load.
o It regulates source and motor currents within permissible values, such as starting, braking, and speed
reversal conditions.
o Selects the mode of operation of motor, i.e., motoring or braking.
o Converts source energy in the form suitable to the motor.

Electrical motors

Motors commonly used in electric drives are DC motors, induction motors, synchronous motors,
blushless DC motors, stepper motors, and switched reluctance motors, etc. In olden days,
induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for constant speed drives but not for
variable speed drives, because of poor efficiency and are too expensive. But in nowadays, AC
motors employed in variable speed drives due to the development of semiconductors employing
SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs, and GTOs.
 Load

It is usually a machinery, such as fans, pumps, robots, and washing machines, designed to
perform a given task, usually load requirements, can be specified in terms of speed and torque
demands.

Control unit

Control unit controls the function of power modulator. The nature of control unit for a particular
drive depends on the type of power modulator used. When semiconductor converters are used,
the control unit will consists of firing circuits. Microprocessors also used when sophisticated
control is required.

Sensing unit

Sensing unit consists of speed sensor or current sensor. The sensing of speed is required for the
implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. Speed is usually sensed using tachometers
coupled to the motor shaft. Current sensing is required for the implementation of current limit
control.

Advantages of electric drives

There are a number of inherent advantages that the electric drive possesses over the other forms
of conventional drives are:

o They have comparatively long life than the mechanical drive.

o It is cleaner, as there are no flue gases, etc.
o It is more economical.
o They have flexible control characteristics.
o There is no need to store fuel or transportation.
o It requires less maintenance.
o Do not pollute environment.
o It is the reliable source of drive.
o The electrical energy can be easily transmitted by using transmission lines over long distances.
o Available in wide range of torque, speed, and power.
o High efficiency.
o Electric braking system is much superior and economical.
o Smooth speed control is easy.
o They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
o They can operate in all the quadrants of speed torque plane.
o Being compactness, they require less space.
o They can be controlled remotely.
 Disadvantages of electric drives

The two inherit disadvantages of the electric drive system are:

o The non-availability of drive on the failure of electrical power supply.

o It cannot be employed in distant places where electric power supply is not available.

TYPES OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

Depending on the type of equipment used to ran the electric motors in industrial purpose, they
may be classified into three types. They are:

1. Group drives.
2. Individual drives.
3. Multi-motor drives.

Group drives

Electric drive that is used to drive one or more than two machines from line shaft through belts
and pulleys is known as group drive. It is also sometimes called the line shaft drive.This drive is
economical in the consideration of the cost of motor and control gear. A single motor of large
capacity cost is less than the total cost of a number of small motors of the same total capacity. In
switch over from non-electric drive to electric drive, the simplest way is to replace the engine by
means of motor and retaining the rest of power transmission system.

Advantages

o The cost of installation is less. For example, if the power requirement of each machine is 10 HP and
there are five machines in the group, then the cost of five motors will be more than one 50-HP motor.
o If it is operated at rated load, the efficiency and power factor of large group drive motor will be high.
o The maintenance cost of single large capacity motor is less than number of small capacity motors.
o It is used for the processes where the stoppage of one operation necessitates the stoppages of
sequence of operations as incase of textile mills.
o It has overload capacity.

Disadvantage

Even though group drive has above advantages, it suffers from the following disadvantages.

o If there is any fault in the main motor, all the machines connected to the motor will fail to
operate; thereby, paralyzing a part of industry until the fault is removed.
o It is not possible to install any machine at a distant place.
o The possibility of the installation of additional machines in an existing industry is limited.
 o The level of noise produced at the work site is quite large.
o The speed control of different machines using belts and pulleys is difficult.
o The flexibility of layout is lost due to line shaft, belts, and pulleys.

Individual drive

In individual drive, a single electric motor is used to drive one individual machine. Such a drive
is very common in most of the industries.

Advantages

o It is more clean and safety.

o Machines can be located at convenient places.
o If there is a fault in one motor, the output and operation of the other motors will not be effected.
o The continuity in the production of the industry is ensured to a higher degree.
o Individual drive is preferred for new factories, as it causes some saving in the cost.

Disadvantage

o Initial cost will be high.

o Power loss is high.

Multi-motor drive

In multi-motor drives, several separate motors are provided for operating different parts of the
same machine.

Ex: In traveling cranes, three motors are used for hoisting, long travel, and cross-travel
motions. Multi-motor drive is used in complicated metal cutting machine tools, rolling mills,
paper making machines, etc.

CHOICE OF MOTORS

The selection of the driving motor for a given service depends upon the conditions under which
it has to operate. Due to the universal adoption of electric drive, it has become necessary for the
manufacturer to manufacture motors of various designs according to the suitability and the use
in various designs according to the suitability and the use in various classes of industry. This has
resulted into numerous types of motors. For this reason, the selection of motor itself has become
an important and tedious process. The conditions under which an electric motor has to operate
and the type of load it has to handle, determine its selection.

While selecting a motor, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
 1. Cost:

1. initial cost and

2. running cost.

Electric characteristics:

1. starting characteristics,
2. running characteristics,
3. speed control characteristics, and
4. braking characteristics.

Mechanical characteristics:

1. type enclosure and bearings,

2. arrangement for the transmission of power,
3. noise, and
4. cooling.

Size and vetting of motors:

0. requirements for continuous, Intermittent, or variable load cycle and

1. overload capacity.

Type of drive:

1. the drive is for one or more machines and

2. the type of transmission through gears, belts, etc.

Nature of supply.

From the above, it is seen that a large number of factors are to be considered in making the
choice of an electric motor for a given drive. The motor selected must fulfill all the necessary
load requirements and at the same time, it should not be very costly if it has to be a commercial
success. The factors motioned above will be individually discussed in the following sections to
bring home to the reader the importance of each. While making the final choice of the motor, a
satisfactory compromise may have to be made in some cases on account of the conflicting
requirements.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTOR

The performance and, therefore, suitability of a DC motor are determined from its
characteristics. The important characteristics of DC motor are:
1. Torque vs. armature current characteristics (T vs. Ia):
This characteristic curve gives relation between torque developed in the armature (T)
and armature current (Ia). This is also known as electrical characteristic.
2. Speed vs. armature current characteristics (N vs. Ia):
This characteristic curve gives relation between speed (N) and armature current (Ia).
This is also known as speed characteristics.
3. Output (HP) vs. armature current characteristics (HP vs. Ia):
The horse power of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque, so its characteristics
follows shaft torque characteristic.
4. Speed vs. characteristics (N vs. T):

This characteristic gives relation between speed (N) and torque (T) developed in the
armature. This curve may be derived from the two characteristics mentioned in
characteristics (i) and (ii) above.
Characteristics (i), (ii), and (iii) are called starting characteristics, and (iv) is known
asrunning characteristics.

While discussing motor characteristics, the following relations should always be kept in mind.

where Ta is the torque developed in the armature in N-m, Ia is the armature current in
ampere, Eb is the back emf in volts, and φ is the flux in weber.

Characteristics of shunt motor

The field winding connected across the armature terminals called as shunt motor as shown in
Fig.. Rated voltage is applied across the field and armature terminals.
Fig. DC shunt motor

Starting characteristics

The study of starting characteristics of a motor is essential to know the starting torque necessary
to accelerate the motor from standstill position is also to require to overcome the static friction
and the standstill load or, to provide load torque.

Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia)

In the expression for the torque of a DC motor, torque is directly proportional to the product of
flux per pole (φ) and armature current (Ia):

Since, in case of a DC shunt motor, the flux per pole (φ) is considered to be constant.

∴ T ∝ Ia .

So, the torque is proportional to armature current and is practically a straight line passing
through the origin as shown if Fig. 1.3.
Fig. 1.3 Torque vs. armature current characteristics

To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of armature current
at starting. This may damage the motor, hence DC shunt motors can develop moderate starting
torque and hence suitable for such applications where starting torque requirement is moderate.

Speed vs. armature current (N Vs Ia)

In shunt motor, the applied voltage ‘ V' is kept constant, the field current will remain constant,
and hence the flux will have maximum value on no load due to the armature reaction; if load on
the motor increases, the flux will be slightly decrease. By neglecting the armature reaction, the
flux is almost constant.

From the speed equation of DC shunt motor:

where Eb = V − IaRa

Since, for DC shunt motor, the flux per pole is considered to be constant.

So, as the load on the motor increases, the armature current increases and hence IaRa drop also
increases. For constant supply, the voltage (V-IaRa) decreases and hence the speed reduces.
Hence, as armature current increases, the speed of the DC motor decreases. The variation of
speed with armature current is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Speed vs. armature current characteristics

Output vs. armature current

The output of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque. If the armature current increases, the
output of the motor gradually increases. The variation of output with the armature current is
shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5 Armature current and HP characteristics

 Running characteristics

Speed-torque characteristics (N vs. T)

These characteristics can be derived from its staring characteristics of (i) and (ii). During the
steady-state operation of the motor, the voltage equation of the armature circuit is given by:

where V is the applied voltage, Eb is the back emf of motor, Ia is the armature current, and Rais
the armature resistance.

The back emf of motor can be expressed as:

Eb ∝φ N

∴Eb = K φ N,

where K is the constant,

Substituting Eb from Equation (8.3) in above equation:

The torque of the motor is directly proportional to product of flux and armature current.
Substitute Equation (8.6) in Equation (8.4), we get:

Since, the shunt motor flux is constant, the speed of the motor is:

where K1 = Kφ.

When V and Ra are kept constant, the speed torque characteristic is a straight line.

If the load on the motor increases, thus the torque increases and hence the speed of the motor
decreases. The characteristic curve can be drawn from the
Fig. 1.6 Speed and torque characteristics

Characteristics of DC series motor

In case of series motor, the field windings are connected in series with armature terminals as
shown in Fig. 1.7. Since, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding, the
load current (IL) is equals to the armature current (Ia) or the series field current (Ise).

Fig. 1.7 DC series motor

∴ IL = Ia = Ise.
 Starting characteristics

Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia)

In case of DC motors, torque is directly proportional to the product of flux per pole (φ) and
armature current (Ia).

∴ T ∝ φ Ia.

Up to the saturation point, the flux is proportional to the field current and hence the armature
current:

i.e., φ ∝ Ise ∝ Ia.

Therefore, the torque is proportional to the square of the armature current.

Hence, the curve drawn in Fig. 8.8; the torque and the armature currents are parabolas, up to
saturation point. After saturation, the flux (φ) is almost independent of the excitation current and
so the torque is proportional to the armature current, i.e., T ∝ Ia. Hence the characteristics
become a straight line. The variation of torque with the armature current is shown in Fig. 8.8.
Fig. 1.8 Torque and armature current

Speed vs. armature current

From the speed equation of DC series motor, the speed is directly proportional to the back emf
and is inversely proportional to flux:

i.e.,
where Eb = V − IaRse.

When the armature current increases, the voltage drop in the armature resistance and the field
resistance increases, but under the normal conditions, the voltage drop is small and it is
negligible. Hence, V = Eb and it is constant:
This relation shows the variation of speed with the armature current and it will be
arectangular hyperbola, which is shown in Fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9 Speed and armature current

Running characteristics

Speed-torque characteristics

These characteristics can be derived its starting characteristics. It is also known

asmechanical characteristic.

In case of series motors:

T ∝ ϕIa ∝Ia2

and

As the torque of a DC machine is directly proportional to armature current and flux, the speed
will be inversely proportional to the square root of the torque, i.e., from the above two relations:
But at higher loads, the flux becomes saturated and the torque will be proportional to armature
current, so the speed can be represented as:

The speed–torque characteristics of a DC series motor is shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Speed–torque characteristics

Hence, the series motors are best suited for services where the motor is directly coupled to the
load such as whose speed falls with the increase in load torque.
 Characteristics of DC compound wound motors

Compound motors have both series. If the series field excitation aids with the shunt excitation,
then the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. If the series field opposes the shunt field
excitation, it is known as differential compound motor.

The characteristics of such motors lie in between shunt and series motors.

Cumulative-compound motor

Since, the series field aids with the shunt field winding, the flux is increased, as load is applied to
the motor, and due to this reason, the motor speed slightly decreases. Such machines are used
where series characteristics are required. Due to the shunt field, the winding speed will not
become excessively high, but due to the series field winding, it will be able to take heavy loads.

Compound wound motors have the greatest application with loads that require high starting
torques or pulsating load.

Differential-compound motors

In this motor, the series field opposes the shunt field and the flux is decreased, as load is applied
to the motor. This results in the motor speed that is almost constant or even increasing with
increase in load.

The speed-armature current and the torque–armature current characteristics of both the
cumulative and the differential compound motors are shown in Figs. 1.11 and 1.12.
Fig. 1.11 Speed and armature current characteristics

Fig. 1.12 Torque and armature current characteristics

THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Three-phase induction motors are simple in design, rugged in construction with the absence of
commentator, and reliable in service. Besides this, they have low initial cost, simple
maintenance, easy operation, and simple control gear for starting and speed control.

The speed–torque characteristics of the induction motor are quite important in the selection of
the induction motor drive. These characteristics can be effectively determined by means of the
equivalent circuit of the induction motor. The simplified equivalent circuit of induction motor is
shown in Fig. 1.13.
Fig. 1.13 Equivalent circuit of induction motor

In Fig. 1.13, V is the applied voltage per phase, R1 and X1 are the stator resistance and leakage
reactance per phase, are the rotor resistance and leakage reactance per
phase, R0and X0 are the resistance and reactance per phase of the magnetizing branch, and is
the rotor current per phase.

From the equivalent circuit of induction motor, as shown in Fig. 1.13, the rotor current
referred to the stator is given by:

If the induction motor is rotating at slip is then:

Induced emf of rotor = SE2.

Rotor resistance = R2.

Rotor reactance = SX2.

Rotor current /phase, .

8.6.1 Torque equation

The torque produced in the induction motor is mainly depends on the magnitude of rotor current,
the power factor of the rotor circuit, and the part of rotating magnetic field that interacts with the
rotor.
Substituting the values of I2 and cos φ2 in Equation (8.13):

where ‘K’ is proportionality constant and is proved to be for the three-phase

induction motor.

where Ns is synchronous speed in rps at standstill slip S = 1; therefore, the expression for starting
torque may be obtained by putting S = 1

Condition for maximum torque

The torque developed by the motor under running condition mainly depends on slip at which
motor is running.

Therefore, the torque will be maximum when:

By differentiating torque w.r.t. ‘S' we get:

Equation (8.17) reveals that the slip ‘Sm’ at which maximum torque will be developed by the
induction motor.

From Eq. (8.14), the maximum torque corresponding to slip Sm = R2/X2 is given by:

Torque ratios

The performance of motor is estimated in terms of the ratios of different torques such as full-
load, starting, and maximum torques.

Ratio of full-load torque to maximum torque

Let,

Sf = full-load slip of the motor

 Sm = slip corresponding to maximum torque .

According to the torque, the equation of motor is:

Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque

From Equations (8.16) and (8.18):

 Torque–speed and torque–slip characteristics

The torque–speed and torque–slip characteristics are shown in Fig. 8.14 (a) and (b). According to
the torque equation of motor:

Fig. 8.14 (a) Torque-speed characteristics and (b) torque–slip characteristics

But for constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant:

From the above expression, it is evident that, when torque is zero, slip S = 0 in low-slip region,
slip is very very small, so that (SX2) is so small compared to R2; hence, it can be neglected.
Therefore, torque T is proportional to slip ‘S’ if rotor resistance R2 is constant. That is speeds
nearer to synchronous speeds, the torque–speed, and torque–slip curves are approximately
straight lines.

In high-slip region, the slip value approaches to unity. Here, it can be assumed that is very
very small as compared to (SX2)2; hence, it can be neglected.

When slip increases, the torque increases to its maximum value when S = R2/X2. The maximum
torque is also known as pullout or breakdown torque. Beyond this, if slip further increases torque
is inversely proportional to slip if R2 and X2 are constant.

This means that the torque–speed and the torque–slip curves are approximately straight
lines. Figure 8.14 (a) and (b) shows the torque speed and the torque–slip curves for the different
values of rotor resistance.

Example 1.1: A 3-φ induction motor has a ratio of maximum torque to full-load torque as 2:1.
Determine the ratio of actual starting torque to full-load torque for Y - ∆ starting. GivenR2 = 0.2
Ω and X2 = 2Ω.

Solution:

Given data:
 The slip at maximum torque is .

∴ Full-load current per phase:

Short-circuit rotor current per phase:

∴ Starting torque with star–delta starter:

Example 1.2: The supply voltage to a cage rotor motor is 70% instead of 100%. Determine the
reduction in starting torque and starting current.

Solution:

Let ‘Isc’ be the starting current with normal voltage.

The starting current with 70% of supply voltage = 0.7 Isc.

The reduction in the starting current

where Tf, If, Sf, and Isc are the full-load torque, full-load current, full-load slip, and short-circuit
current, respectively.

Reduction in starting torque = (1 - 49) × 100

= 51%.
Example: Determine the ratio of actual starting torque to full-load torque for star-delta starting.
If a 3-φ induction motor has a ratio of maximum torque to full-load torque as 3:1 and the
resistance and the reactance are 0.4 Ω and 5 Ω, respectively.

Solution:

The ratio of maximum torque to full-load torque:

Sf = 0.013, neglecting higher values.

Starting torque with star−delta starter:

Example: Determine the new value of stator current if a 3-φ, 440-V and 1,200-rpm slip ring
induction motor is operating with 3% slip and taking a stator current of 50-A speed of the motor
is reduced at constant torque to 600 rpm using stator voltage control.

Solution:

Slip at the reduced speed:

Torque developed by the induction motor T ∝ SV2 for the constant torque:

Stator current I1 ∝ SV.

The new stator current:

Example: A 9.5-kW, 240-V, three-phase, star-connected, 50-Hz, and four-pole squirrel cage
induction has its full-load internal torque at a slip of 0.05. The parameters of the motor are

Rl = 0.4Ω/phase, R2 = 0.3Ω/phase

X1 = X2 = 0.5Ω/phase, Xm = 16Ω/phase.

Assume that the shunt branch is connected across the supply terminals. Determine (a) maximum
internal torque at rated voltage and frequency, (b) slip at maximum torque, and (c) internal
starting torque at rated, voltage, and frequency.

Solution:

At maximum torque:

At maximum slip, the equivalent impedance of the motor is:

At standstill:

At standstill, the slip S = 1.0.

Equivalent motor impedance, Z = (R1+R2) + j(Xl +X2)

= (0.3 + 0.4) + j (0.5 + 0.5)

= 0.7 +j1

= 1.22 ∠55Ω.
 Power input to rotor P2 = total rotor copper losses

= 3 × (113.57)2 × (0.3)

= 11,608.33 synchronous W.

Example: A 30-HP, six-pole, 50-Hz, and three-phase induction motor has stator/rotor phase
voltage ratio of 7/5. The stator and rotor impedances per phase are (0.35 + j0.65) Ω and (0.15 +
j0.65) Ω, respectively. Find the starting torque exerted by the motor when an external resistance
of 1.5 Ω is inserted in each phase; the motor being started directly on the 440-V supply system.
Assume Y/Y connection.

Solution:

Supply voltage per phase .

Rotor to stator phase voltage ration K = 5/7 = 0.714.

Equivalent resistance of motor as referred to rotor:

Similarly, the equivalent reactance referred to rotor:

 X02 = X2 + K2X1

= 0.65 + (0.714)2 (0.65)

= 0.98 Ω.

When the external resistance is inserted then, the equivalent motor impedance referred to rotor
is:

At standstill, the induced emf in the rotor:

E2 = V1 × K

= 254.714

= 181.356 V.

At standstill, rotor power input:

P2 = 3,699.47 W (∴ slip S = 1).

Example: For a three-phase induction motor, maximum torque is thrice the full-load torque and
starting torque is 1.9 times the full-load torque. In order to get a full-load slip of 6%, calculate
the percentage reduction in rotor circuit resistance neglect stator impedance.

Solution:

The ratio of starting torque to maximum torque is given by:

For a full-load slip of 0.06, the ratio of full-load torque to maximum torque is given by:
Example: The rotor of a three-phase induction motor has 0.05-Ω resistance per phase and 0.3-
standstill reactance per phase. What external resistance is required in the rotor circuit in order to
get half of the maximum torque at starting? Neglect stator impedance by what percentage will
this external resistance change the current and power factor at starting?

Solution:

The ratio of starting torque to the maximum torque is given by:

We know that:

Without external resistance:

With external resistance:

Percentage reduction in the starting current:

Percentage improvement in the power factor:

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

In practical applications, a motor may be required to perform a number of desirable jobs

conforming different load conditions and speed requirements. The availability of DC motors to
adjustment of their operating speed over wide ranges and by a variety of methods is one of the
important reasons for the strong competitive position of DC machinery in the industrial
applications.

The natures of speed control required by different industrial drives are:

o Some drives require a continuously variable speed over the range from zero to full speed, such drives
are known as variable-speed drives.
o Some drives require only two to three fixed speeds over a region, such drives are known asmulti-
speed drives.
o In some cases, speed is needed for adjusting or setting up the work on driven machine only for a
few revolutions per minute. Such a speed is known as creeping speed.
 For example, crane or hoist requires same torque at all speeds, while a fan or centrifugal pump
requires a torque proportional to the square of the speed. For most of the drives, however, a
control of speed within ±25% of the normal speed is required.

The speed and torque of a DC motor can be expressed by the following relationships.

T ∝ ϕ Ia ,

where V is the terminal voltage in volts, Ia is th armature current in ampere, Ra is the armature
resistance in ohm, φ is the flux per pole in wb, TV is the speed of DC motor in rpm, and T is the
torque in N-m.

Therefore, the speed of DC motors can be regulated by varying φ, R, or V. The speed of DC

motors can be controlled by the following methods:

1. Field control or flux control method.

2. Armature control method.
3. Applied voltage control.

Speed control of DC shunt motors

Speed of DC shunt motor can be controlled by varying the flux, armature resistance, and applied
voltage to the armature terminals.

Various methods of controlling the speed of the shunt motor is given as follows.

Field control method

The speed adjustment of the DC shunt motors by field control may be obtained by one of the
following methods.

1. Field rehostatic control method.

2. Reluctance control method.
3. Field voltage control.
 Field-rehostatic control method

In this method, speed control is obtained by controlling the field current or flux by means of a
variable resistance inserted in series with the shunt filed winding. The external resistance (Re)
connected in series with the field winding is shown as shunt field regulator. The method of
regulating the speed by varying the flux or field current in the shunt field winding is known as
flux control method. Circuit diagram illustrating the speed control of a shunt motor is shown
in Fig. 1.15.

Fig. 1.15 Field-rehostatic control of shunt motor

The variation of external resistance 'Re’ in the filed reduces the field current and hence the
flux 'φ' also reduces. The reduction in flux will also results in an increase in the speed. For DC
shunt motor, speed is inversely proportional to field flux (φ). Since in this method of speed
control, flux can be only reduced. Consequently, the motor runs at a speed higher than the
normal speed. For this reason, this method of speed control is used to give motor speeds above
normal or to correct for a fall in speed due to load.

Reluctance control

In this method of speed control, the motor must be constructed with special mechanical features
so that the reluctance of the magnetic circuit can be changed, which makes the motor more
expensive. Hence, the variable reluctance type of motor is seldom used.

Field voltage control

This method requires a variable voltage for the field circuit; such a variable supply can be
obtained by means of an adjustable electronic rectifier.
 Armature control method of DC shunt motor

The speed adjustment of the DC shunt motors by armature control may be obtained by one of the
following methods.

1. Armature rehostatic control method.

2. Armature diverter method or potential devider method.

Armature rheostat control method

In armature or rehostatic control method of speed, a variable rehostatic or resistance connected in

series with the armature is known as controller resistance. The circuit diagram of the armature
control method is shown in Fig. 8.16.

Fig. 1.16 Armature rheostatic control of shunt motor

The speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the armature. Voltage across
the armature can be controlled by changing resistance connected in series with it. As the
controller resistance is increased, the potential difference across the armature is decreased
thereby decreasing the armature speed. There is a particular load current at which the speed
would be zero is called stating current. The main disadvantage of this method is speed up to zero
is not possible, as it requires large rehostat in series with the armature that is practically
impossible.
 Armature diverter method or potential devider method

The main disadvantage of the above method can be overcome by connecting a rheostat in a
potential devider arrangement as shown in Fig. 1.17.

Fig. 1.17 Potential divider method of shunt motor

When the variable rehostat is at minimum position, the voltage across the armature is zero. If
rehostat is moved toward maximum position, the voltage across the armature increases then
speed also increases. The variation of speed with the armature voltage is shown in Fig. 8.18.
Fig. 1.18 Speed-voltage characteristics

Example: A DC shunt motor rated at 220 V, 15 kW, and 1,500 rpm has a Ml-load efficiency of
90%. Its field and armature resistances are 110 Ω and 0.25 Ω, respectively. Determine the value
of the resistance to be inserted in series with the armature and the power lost in the armature
circuit to reduce the speed to 1,000 rpm when:

1. The load torque is independent of the speed,

2. The load torque is directly proportional to the square of the speed.

Solution:

Given data:

V = 200V

P = 15,000 W

N1 = 1,500 rpm

N2 = 1,000 rpm

Rsh = 110 Ω

Ra = 0.25 Ω

η = 0.9.

1. Motor output = 10 × 103 W.

From Fig. P.8.1:

Fig. P.8.1 DC shunt motor

Now, back emf corresponding to 1,000 rpm will be:

2. Given T ∝ N: (i)

But for shunt motor:

T ∝ Ia (ϕ is constant). (ii)

From Equations (i) and (ii):

Ia ∝ N. (iii)

Ia corresponding to 15,000 rpm is 50.50 A, then Ia’ corresponding to 1,000 rpm is:

The power loss in the armature = Ia2R

= (33.66)2 × (0.25 + 2.168)
= 2.739 kW.
3. Given T ∝ N2:

i.e., for shunt motor, T ∝ Ia ∝ N2

Ia ∝ N 2 .
 The armature current corresponding to 1,000 rpm is:

∴ The power loss in the armature = Ia2 (Ra + RExt)

= (22.44)2 × (0.25 + 3.378)
= 1.827 kW.

Example 8.12: The armature and the field resistances of a 260-V DC shunt motor 0.25 Ω and
160 Ω, respectively. When driving a load of constant torque at 500 rpm, the an ture current is 20
A. If it is desired to raise the speed from 500 to 1,000 rpm, what resista should be inserted in the
field circuit? Assume that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated.

Solution:

Given data:

V = 200 V

Ra = 0.25 Ω

Rsh = 160Ω

Ia = 20 A

N1 = 500 rpm

N2 = 1,000 rpm.

We know that, for shunt motor:

 Eb ∝ Nϕ

Given that magnetic circuit is unsaturated and torque remains constant:

i.e., φ ∝ Ish and T ∝ φ Ia.

From the two reaction:

Now, by substituting Ish1 and Ish2 in Equation (ii), we get:

By substituting Eb1 and Eb2 in Equation (i):
Example 8.13: A 220-V DC shunt motor, having an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω, draws from
the main current of 30 A on half-full load. The speed is to be increased to twice half-full-load
speed. If the torque of the motor is of constant magnitude, determine the percentage change in
flux required.

Solution:

Given data:

V = 220V

Ra = 0.5 Ω

Ia1 = 30 A.

Given that speed (N2) at full load is twice the speed at half-full load

back emf, Eb1 = V – 1a1Ra

= 220 − 30 × 0.5

= 205 V.

Eb2 = V − Ia2 Ra = 220 − Ia2 × 0.5.

We know that, for shunt motor:

Given that the torque remains constant so that:

Subsisting Equation (ii) in Equation (i):

Example 8.16: A 200-V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω it takes a current of
16 A on full load and runs at 600 rpm. If a resistance of 0.5 Ω is placed in the armature circuit,
find the ratio of the stalling torque to the full-load torque.

Solution:

Given data:
 V = 200 volts.

Ra = 0.5 Ω.

If = Ia = 16 A.

N = 600 rpm.

Rɛxt = 0.5Ω.

Total full-load current = 16 A.

∴ For shunt motor ‘ϕ’ is constant, so that:

T ∝ Ia

Example 8.17: A100-HP and 500-rpm DC shunt motor is driving a grinding mill through gears.
The moment of inertia of the mill is 1,265 kg-m2. If the current taken by the motor must not to
exceed twice full-load current during starting, estimate the minimum timetaken to run the mill up
to full speed.

Solution:

Given data:

Motor rating (P) = 100 HP.

Motor output power = 100 × 735.5 W

= 73,550 W.

The speed of motor (N) = 500 rpm.

 The moment of inertia (J) = 1,265 kg-m2.

Given that motor takes twice the [∴ 1 kg = 9.81N] full-load current; hence, it exerts twice the
full-load torque.

= 2 × TFL.

∴ Accelerating torque = 2 × 143.19

= 286.38 kg-m.

We know that:

Angular speed (ω) = angular acceleration × time

 Speed control of DC series motor

The speed control of DC series motor can be obtained by changing the series field current, flux,
or voltage applied across the armature. The methods of the speed control of the series motor are:

1. Field control method.

2. Armature control method.

Field control method

In the series motor, the variation of flux can be brought about by diverting the current flowing
through the series field winding by any one of the following methods.

Field diverter's method

In this method, the series field winding is shunted by a variable resistor ‘R’ known as series field
divertor. Any desired amount of current can be passed through the divertor by adjusting its
resistance. Hence, the flux can be controlled, i.e., decreased, and consequently the speed of the
motor is increased.

The arrangement of field diverter and the speed-armature current characteristics with change
in resistance ‘R’ is shown in Figs. 8.19 (a) and (b).

Fig. 8.19 (a) Field diverter method of speed control and (b) Speed-current characteristics
 Armature diverter method

In this method, the armature of the motor is shunted with an external variable resistance (R) as
shown in Fig. 8.20 is known as armature diverter.

Fig. 8.20 Armature diverter method of speed control

For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced due to armature divertor then
flux (φ) must increase (∴ T ∝ Ia). So that, the motor reacts by drawing more current from the
supply. So, the current through field winding increase, so the flux increases and the speed of the
motor reduces.

This method of speed control is used to have the speed below the normal value.

Tapped filed method

In this method, the flux change is achieved by providing a number of tapings from the field
winding, which are brought out side as shown in Fig. 8.21.
Fig. 8.21 Tapped field speed control

As shown in Fig. 8.21, the selector switch ‘SW’ is provided to select number of turns. So, the
net mmf will change. This will cause the change in the speed of DC series motor.

This method is used in electric traction.

Series-parallel connection of field coils

In this method of speed control, several speeds can be obtained by grouping the several field
coils as shown in Figs. 8.22 (a) and (b). This method is used generally in case of fan motors.
Fig. 8.22 Series–parallel connection of field winding

If the field coils are arranged in series, or parallel, the mmf produced by the coils changes;
hence, the flux produced also changes. Hence, the speed is controlled.

Armature control method

Armature resistance control method is the most common method employed for DC series
motor. The arrangement and speed-current characteristics of series motor is shown in Figs. 8.23
(a) and (b).

Fig. 8.23 (a) Armature control method and (b) Speed-current characteristics

By increasing the resistance in series with the armature, voltage drop across this resistance
occurs. So that, the voltage applied across the armature terminals can be decreased. As the speed
is directly proportional to the voltage across the armature, the speed reduces.

Example 8.18: A 400-V series motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and a series field
resistance of 0.5 Ω. It takes a current of 160 A at a speed of 800 rpm. Find the speed of the motor
if a diverter of resistance 0.4 Ω is connected across the field, the load torque being kept constant.

Neglect armature reaction and assume that flux is proportional to the current.

Solution:

Given data:
 V = 400V

Ra = 0.2 Ω

Rse = 0.5

Rdiv = 0.4Ω

Ia1 = 160 A

N1 = 800 rpm.

For the series motor Ia1 = I11 = Ise1 = 160 A.

Back emf corresponding to the speed 800 rpm is:

Eb1 = V - Ia1(Ra + Rse1)

= 400 – 160(0.2 + 0.5)

= 288V.

Let, when a diverter of resistance 0.4 Ω is connected across field winding current flowing
through the armature be Ia2.

Given that the torque remains constant, then:

φ1Ia1 = φ2Ia2.

But for the series motor φ α Ise:

∴ Ia12 = φ I2 .a2

Now, from the Fig. P.8.2, the current flowing through the diverter is:
We know that:
Fig. P.8.2 DC Series motor

Example 8.19: A 220-V and 10-HP (metric) shunt motor has field and armature resistances as
of 120 Ω and 0.25 Ω respectively. Calculate the resistance to be inserted in the armature circuit
to reduce the speed to 700 rpm from 950 rpm, if the full-load efficiency is 80% and the torque
varied as the square of the speed.

Solution:

Given data:

V = 220V

Motor rating = 10 HP

Rsh = 120 Ω

Ra = 0.25 Ω

N1 = 950 rpm

N2 = 700 rpm

η = 80% = 0.8.

Motor output power = (P0) = 10 HP

= 10 × 735.5 [∴1HP = 735.5 W]

 = 7,355 W.

We know that, motor electric input = VI = Pi

∴ 9,194 = 220 × I

I = 41.78 A.

We know that T α φ Ia.

For shunt motor ‘φ' is constant.

Given that T∝N2

From Equations (8.19.1) and (8.19.2):

From Fig. P.8.3,

Fig. P.8.3 DC shunt motor

From Equation (8.19.3):

We know that:
For the shunt motor N∝Eb:

From the data:

Substitute Eb1 and Eb2 in Equation (8.19.4):

Example 8.20: A DC series motor drives a load, the torque of which varies as the square of the
speed. The motor takes a current of 30 A, when the speed is 600 rpm. Determine tl speed and
current when the field winding is shunted by a diverter; the resistance of whic is 1.5 times that of
the field winding. The losses may be neglected.

Solution:

Given data (Fig. P.8.4):

Fig. P.8.4 DC series motor

I = Ia1= Ise1 = IL1 = 30 A

N1 = 600 rpm

Rdiv =1.5 Rse.

After connecting the diverter:

Total resistance = Rdiv + Rse.

Line current = IL2 = Ia2.

Speed = N2
We know that:

Since the losses are negligible Eb = V = constant:

We know that:

Given that T ∝ N2:

Substitute IL2 in Equation (i):

Example 8.21: A 500-V DC series motor runs at 500 rpm and takes 60 A; the resistances of the
field and the armature are 0.3 and 0.2 Ω, respectively. Calculate the value of the resistance to be
shunted with series field winding in order that the speed may be increased to, 600 rpm, if the
torque were to remain constant. Saturation may be neglected.

Solution:

Given that:

V = 500 V

N1 = 500 rpm

Ia1 = 60 A

Ra = 0.2 Ω

Rse = 0.3 Ω

N2 = 600 rpm
 IL1 = Ia1 = Ise1 = 60 A.

After connecting resistance across field winding, let Ia2 be the armature current (Fig. P.8.5).

Fig. P.8.5 DC series motor

Given that the load torque is constant:

T1 = T 2 .

We know that:

T ∝ ϕ Ia and N ∝ Eb/ϕ

∴ Ia1ϕ1 = Ia2ϕ2. (ii)

For series motor φ ∝ Ise:

And from the circuit:
From Equation (iii):

Substitute Equation (v) in Equation (iv):

Substitute Ia2 in Equation (iii):

Example 8.22: A 440-V series motor takes a line current of 60 A and runs at a speed of 750
rpm. What resistance should be connected in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 500
rpm. The load torque at this new speed is 75% of its previous value. The resistance of the
armature and the series field are 0.05 Cl and 0.015 Ω, respectively. Assume that flux is
proportional to load.

Solution:

Given data:

V = 440 V

IL = 60 A

N1 = 750 rpm

N2 = 500 rpm

Torque at 500 rpm = T1

Torque at 750 rpm= T2= 0.75T1

Ra = 0.05 Ω

Rse = 0.015 Ω.

We know that:
But Eb ∝ N φ
From Equations (i) and (ii):

∴ 251.77 = 440 − 51.96 (0.065+ Rɛxt)

0.065 + Rɛxt = 3.622

Rɛxt = 3.55 Ω.

Example 8.23: A series motor with series field and armature resistance of 0.06 Ω and 0.02 Ω,
respectively, is connected across 440-V mains. The armature takes 60 A and its speed is 850
rpm. Determine its speed when it takes 85 A from this very and the excitation is increased by
20%.

Solution:

Given data (Fig. P.8.6):

Fig. P.8.6 DC series motor

V = 440 V
 N1 = 850 rpm

Ia1 = 60 A

Ia2 = 85 A

Ra = 0.02 Ω

Rse = 0.06 Ω

φ2 = 1.15 φ1.

From the speed equation:

Ward–Leonard method of speed control

The speed control of DC motor accomplished by means of an adjustable voltage generator is

called the Ward−Leonard system. If it is desired to have wide and very sensitive speed control,
then this system is more generally used. The system is as shown in Fig. 8.24.
Fig. 8.24 Ward−Leonard speed control system

In Fig. 8.24, R is the potential devider, M1 is the main motor whose speed is to be
controlled,G is the separately excited generator that feeds the armature of the motor M1, M2 is the
driving motor that drive generator and main motor, and S is a double-throw switch.

As shown in Fig. 8.24, M1 is the main motor whose speed control is required. The field
winding of this motor is permanently connected to DC supply and armature is fed from variable
voltage so that the motor can run at any desired speed. To provide this variable, the voltage
motor generator set is used, in which the generator is directly coupled to a constant speed motor.
The field circuit of this generator is separately excited from the available DC supply through a
reversing switch and a potential divider ‘R’ so that its excitation can be varied from zero to
maximum in both the directions. Thus, the generator output voltage can be varied from zero to
maximum value. The polarity of generating voltage will be reversed with the help of reversing
switch; thus, the change of the direction of the motor M1 can be achieved.

This system is commonly employed for elevators, hoists, and main drive in steel mills, as this
method can give unlimited speed control in either direction. Since the generator voltage can be
varied gradually from zero, no extra starting equipment is required to start up the main motor
smoothly. The important feature of the Ward–Leonard system is its regenerative action. The
modified Ward–Leonard is called Ward–Leonard–Ilgner system in which a flywheel is used in
addition to motor-generator set, whose function is to reduce fluctuations in the power demand
from the supply circuit. When the main motor M1 becomes suddenly overloaded, the driving
motor M2 slows down, thus allowing the inertia of the flywheel to supply a part of the overload.
However, when the load is suddenly thrown of the main motorM1, then M2 speeds up thereby
again stores energy in the flywheel.
 Advantages of Ward–Leonard system

o A wide range of speed from standstill to high speed in either direction.

o Starting without any extra starting equipment.
o Extremely good speed regulation at any speed.

Disadvantages

o High capital cost due to the motor generator set.

o The efficiency of this method is not so high.

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

A three-phase induction motor is practically a constant-speed motor as the DC shunt motor. The
speed control of DC shunt motor can be achieved easily, but it is difficult to achieve the smooth
speed control of the induction motor because the performance of the induction motor in terms of
its power factor, efficiency, etc. gets adversely effected.

We know that for the induction motor:

The speed of motor N = Ns (1−S). (8.20)

From the above two relations:

The speed of the induction motor can be changed either by changing its synchronous speed
(Ns) or by changing the slip and also the parameters R2 and E2 are changed then to keep torque
constant for constant load condition, slip will change, then its speed gets effected.

Thus, the following methods are used for controlling the speed of the three-phase induction
motors.

From stator side

1. Supply frequency control.

2. Supply voltage control.
 3. Controlling the number of stator poles.

From rotor side

1. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.

2. Cascade control.

Stator side control

Thus, following any one method is used for controlling the speed of the three-phase induction
motors on stator side.

Speed control by varying the supply frequency

This method is impractical for most applications because the frequency of the supply system
must remain fixed. The synchronous speed is given by:

Thus, by controlling the supply frequency, the synchronous speed can be controlled over a wide
range that gives the smooth speed control of the induction motor. Hence, in this method, variable
voltage and frequency is achieved by using converter and inverter circuit as shown in Fig. 8.25.

Fig. 8.25 Electronic circuit for variable frequency

Rectifier converts normal AC supply to constant DC voltage. This DC supply is then given to
inverter that converts constant DC to variable AC voltage and frequency.
 Supply voltage control

This is a slip-control method with constant frequency variable supply voltage. In this method, the
voltage applied to the stator is varied.

We know that:

But, at standstill, rotor-induced emf depends on the supply voltage.

i.e., E2 ∝ V.

In the operating region of an induction motor or for low-slip region (SX2) << R2.

Rotor resistance is constant; therefore:

From the above relation, if the supply voltage ‘V ’ is reduced below the rated value torque
developed by the induction motor reduce. But, so as to maintain the torque constant for constant
load, it is necessary to increase the slip thereby decreasing the speed of induction motor.

This method of speed control is simple, low initial cost, and has low maintenance cost, but it
has limited use because, the operation at voltage is restricted by magnetic saturation and also
large change in voltage is required for relatively for small change in speed.
 Speed control by changing the number of poles

In this method, it is possible to have one or two speeds, one double of the other which is
generally obtained by changing the number of poles. It is also called as pole-changing method.
Changing the number of poles is simply affected by changing the connections of stator winding
with the help of simple switches. Due to this number of stator poles gets changed, in the ratio
2:1. Hence, either of the two speeds can be selected.

Consider the single phase of a certain three-phase winding when the supply is across the two
terminals and the third is kept open, as shown in Fig. 8.26

Fig. 8.26 Eight-pole winding

Let the conductors which are carrying current in upward direction from South Pole, while the
conductors which carry current in downward direction from north polarity. The distribution of
current is as shown in Fig. 8.26 due to these eight poles get formed.

Now, the two terminals 1 and 2 which the supply was given earlier are joined together and
supply is given to the common point of the first two terminals and the third terminal, on
observing the direction of current, it will be found that total eight poles are changed to four poles
only as shown in Fig. 8.27; so that, the speed now will be double of the previous value.
Fig. 8.27 Four-pole winding

8.8.4 Control on rotor side

The following method is used for controlling the speed of three-phase induction motors on rotor
side.

Cascade control

Multiple speeds are derived and motors are sometimes operated in tandem or cascade. If two
motors are to be mechanically coupled together, one of the machines must be phase-wound
motor while the other can be a squirrel-cage motor. The first is connected to the mains in the
usual way, while that of the second stator is fed from the rotor winding of the first, as shown
in Fig. 8.28.

Fig. 8.28 Cascade control of induction motor

 When two motors are operated in tandem, they may be running in the same direction, or the
phase rotation of one motor may be reversed, thus tending to make it in reverse direction. In
both the cases, the set will run after it is started, but in the later case, no starting torque is
developed so that this connection is rarely used.

If P1 and P2 be the number poles of both the machines, then the synchronous speed of the set is
depending on total number of poles P1 + P2 in the first case and P1 − P2 in the second. If the
number of poles of the two motors is not equal; four speeds possible: two for tandem operation
and one for each motor separately.

Let ‘P1’ be the poles of main motor and ‘P2’ be the poles of the auxiliary motor.

If ‘S’ is the slip, the actual rotating speed of the motor is:

But, for the induction motor, the frequency of the rotor current is ‘S’ times of supply frequency.

Frequency fr = Sf. (8.25)

Let, fr1 be the frequency of the rotor current of the main motor and the frequency of the rotor
current of the auxiliary motor is fr2 then:

The speed of the main motor

The speed of the auxiliary

motor .
As fr1 is so small, so fr2 will be very small; so that, it can be neglected.
 Since, the two motors are coupled together:

Substituting fr1 from above equation in Equation (8.27), we get:

Equation (8.28) relation shows that the speed of the set is that of a single machine having the
number of poles equal to the sum of the numbers of poles of the two machines. Hence, the set
can give four different speeds. If it is required to have the speeds above the normal, the torque of
the second motor is reversed by simply changing two of the leads of the second. This is known
as differential cascading.

Example 8.25: A six-pole and 50-Hz slip ring induction motor with a rotor resistance per phase
of 0.2 Ω and a stand-still reactance of 1.0 Ω per phase runs at 960 rpm at full load. Calculate the
resistance to be inserted in the rotor circuit to reduce the speed to 800 rpm, if the torque remains
unaltered.
Solution:

Given data:

P=6

F = 50 Hz

R/ph = 0.2 Ω

N1 = 960 rpm

N2 = 800 rpm.

Synchronous speed

The slip of the motor

when N running at 960 rpm is:

Let the motor input = P.

Full-load current = I2.

For the induction motor:

Rotor copper loss = S × Rotor input.

Slip at N2 = 800 rpm is:

Let new rotor resistance be R1 in rotor circuit:

New copper loss =

The external resistance to be added in the rotor circuit is:

Rɛxt = R1 – R

= 2 – 0.4 = 1.6 Ω.

Example 8.26: The rotor resistance and the reactance at stand-still condition of a 3-φ, six-pole,
and 440-V induction motor are. 0.2 Ω and 1.0 Ω, respectively, per phase. Calculate the starting
current, and when the speed is 960 rpm, the frequency of the supply is 50 Hz.

Solution:

Rotor resistance per phase = 0.2 Ω.

Rotor reactance per phase = 1.0 Ω.

Synchronous speed
 The slip of the induction motor

At the time of starting S = 1.

At a speed of 960 rpm, the rotor resistance per phase is:

Example 8.28: The open circuit voltage across the slip rings of a 100-HP induction motor is
280 volts at standstill. What resistance in rotor circuit will reduce its full-load speed by 20%. The
full-load slip is 3% with no additional rotor resistance. Assume rotor to be star-connected. And
full-load sip S1 = 0.03.

Solution:

The mechanical power developed by the rotor:

Pmech = 100 × 735.5

= 73,550 W.

The standstill induced emf per phase in rotor:

The mechanical power developed by the rotor is:
The load torque is assumed to be constant.

S ∝ rotor resistance

Example 8.29: A eight-pole, 50-Hz, and 3-φ induction motor is running at 4% slip when
delivering full-load torque. It has a standstill rotor resistance of 0.3 Ω and a reactance of 0.8 Ω
per phase. Calculate the speed of the motor if an additional resistance of 0.3 Ω per phase is
inserted in the rotor circuit. The full-load torque remains constant.

Solution:
 Full-load slip S1 = 0.04.

The motor torqu

At full load, the new slip is S1 then:

The two torques are remains same i.e., T1 = T2:

 S2 = 0.079 neglecting higher values.

Example 8.31: The rotor of a six-pole, 50-Hz, and 3-φ induction motor has a resistance of 0.3
Ω per phase and sums at 960 rpm. If the load torque remains unchanged, calculate the additional
rotor resistance that will reduce the speed by 20%.

Solution:

Full-load speed = 960 rpm.

For the constant load torque:

Example 8.32: A cascade it consists of two motors A and B with four and six poles,
respectively. The motor is connected to a 50-Hz supply. Find (i) the speed of the set and (ii) the
electric power transferred to motor B when the input to motor A is 30-kW neglect losses.

Solution:

∴ The outputs of the two motors are proportional to the number of their poles.
 RATING OF MOTOR

The selection of motor for particular drive application based on the size of motor depends upon
the following two factors:

1. Maximum temperature raise for a given load.

2. Maximum torque required.

The size of motor and its rating are mainly dependent upon the raise in temperature. The
temperature raise in turn depends upon the type of insulation used.

Temperature raise of motor

The various losses takes place in any motor will be converted into heat. The heat thus produced
will increase the temperature of various parts of the motor. The increase in temperature is mainly
dependent on the following two factors:

1. Amount of heat developed internally at uniform rate.

2. The amount of heat dissipated from the surface of the motor.

In fact, the continuous rating of a machine is that rating for which the final temperature raise is
equal to or just below the permissible value of the temperature raise for the insulating material
used in protection of motor windings. When the machine is overloaded for such a long time that
its final temperature raise exceeds the permissible limit, it is likely to be damaged. Sometimes, it
will results immediate breakdown of insulating material which will cause a sudden short circuit
in the motor, which may also lead to a fire. Since temperature raise is one of the chief features in
fixing the size of motor. The temperature raise will be high in the beginning and will decrease
gradually with the passage of time and finally the temperature of the motor attains a steady-state
value. At this point, the heat produced and dissipated will be equal.

The above circumstances make the heating calculations very complex and practically
impossible unless certain assumptions are made as:

1. Heat developed, i.e., losses remains constant during temperature raise.

2. The heat dissipation is directly proportional to the difference in the temperature of motor and cooling
medium, i.e., Newton's law of cooling hold's good.
3. The temperature of cooling medium remains unchanged.
4. The motor is assumed to be a homogeneous mass having the same and uniform temperature in all
parts. It implies high thermal conductivity.
5. For the determination of an expression for the temperature raise of an electrical machine after time
‘t’ seconds from the instance of switching it on.

Let P is the electrical power converted into heat (W or J/sec), M is the mass of active parts of
motor (kg), S is the specific heat of material (J/kg/°C), O is the temperature raise above the
cooling medium or ambient temperature (°C), A is the surface area of cooling, (m2), θf is the final
temperature raise with constant load (°C), and λ is the coefficient of cooling or the rate of heat
dissipation (W/m2/°C raise).

Now, let us assume that the machine attains a temperature raise of θ°C above ambient
temperature after ‘t’ seconds of switching on the machine and further raise of temperature by
dθ in very small time ‘dt’ seconds.

The rate at which the loss takes place or the heat is absorbed by the motor

The rate at which heat is dissipated = Aθλ J/sec.

But, the rate at which the electrical power converted into heat = the rate at which the heat is
absorbed + the rate at which the heat dissipated by the motor.

Integrating the Equation (8.30):

where K is the integration constant.

Initially, at time t = 0 sec, temperature raise θ = 0°C.

 By substituting t = 0 and θ = 0 in Equation (8.31), we get the integration constant (K):

Substituting the value of ‘K’ in Equation (8.31), we get:

By applying exponential on both side, we get:

When ‘t’ is infinity, ‘θ’ approaches to its final steady-state temperature ‘θf’. So, by
substitutingt = ∞ and θ = θf in Equation (8.33), we get:

Substituting in Equation (8.33), we get:

where is known as heating time constant of motor.

The above relation is the equation of temperature rise with time. The temperature raise time
curve or heating curve is exponential in nature as shown in Fig. 8.29.

From the equation of temperature raise:

Fig. 8.29 Heating curve

At t = Th, θ = θf [1 − e−1]

∴ θ = 0.632 θf.

Thus, heating time constant can be defined as follows:

The heating time constant is the time taken by the machine to attain 63.2% of its final steady
temperature raise (θf).

The heating time constant of the conventional electrical machines is usually within the range
of 0.5–3 for 4 h.

Cooling of motor

Let us assume, if the supply to the motor is switched off, after attaining the final steady
temperature raise of ‘θf”, the motor starts cooling. When the machine is switched off, no heat is
produced, therefore:

Heat absorbed + heat dissipated = 0

where λ = heat dissipation during cooling of motor.

Integrating the Equation (8.37):

where K1 is the integration constant.

The value of K1 is obtained by using the initial conditions, when t = 0 and θ = θf, we get:

Substituting Equation (8.39) in Equation (8.38):

Applying exponentials on both side λ:

where is know as cooling time constant.

The above relation is the equation of cooling of motor. The cooling curve is exponentially
decaying in nature as shown in Fig. 8.30.
Fig. 8.30 Cooling curve

From the cooling equation, at time t = Tc:

We have θ = θf (e−1)

∴ θ = 0.368θf.

Thus, we can define the cooling time constant as:

The cooling time constant is defined as the time required cooling the machine down to 36.8%
of the initial temperature raise above the ambient temperature.

The heating and cooling curves follows an exponential law. Heating time constant and cooling
time constant may be different for the same machine and also the cooling time constant of
rotating machine is larger than its heating time constant, due to poorer ventilation conditions
when the machine cools.

Figure 8.31 (a) and (b) shows the heating and cooling curves of a motor for short-time and
intermittent loads.
Fig. 8.31 (a) Short-time load motor (b) intermittent-time load motor

Example 8.33: An induction motor has a final steady-state temperature raise of 50°C when
running at its rated output. Calculate its half-hour rating for the same temperature raise if the
copper losses at the rated output are 1.5 times its constant losses. The heating time constant is 60
min.

Solution:

Given data:

Final steady temperature (θf) = 50°C.

Time constant (τh) = 60 min.

Rating(t) = hour = 30 min.

And, the copper loss = 1.5 × constant loss

i.e., Wcu = 1.5 × Wi

let ‘P’ be the rated output,

Total loss at full load = Wcu +Wi.

But, the temperature raise is proportional to the losses.

∴ θ ∝ Wloss.

Let, θf be the temperature raise at full load.

be the temperature raise with short-time rating.

The temperature raise after 30 min of operation should not exceed θf = 50°C.

Now, from the equation of temperature raise of motor:

Substitute ‘ ’ in Equation (i):

1.5x2 = 6.3537

x2 = 4.235

∴ x = 2.058.
∴ Hence, the half-hour rating of machine is 2.058 times its continuous rating.

Example 8.34: A 10-kW motor has a heating time constant and cooling time constant of 45 and
70 min, respectively. The final temperature attained is 60°C. Find the temperature of motor after
45 min full-load run and then switched of for 30 min.

Solution:

Given data:

τh = 45min

τc = 70 min

θf = 60°C

t = 45 min.

We know that:

When the motor is switched off for 30 min, the temperature is:

Example 8.35: The heating time constant of a 80-kW motor is 60 min. The temperature raise is
65°C when runs continuously on full load. Find the half-hour rating of motor for the same