CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
In recent times, the world has been confronted with the energy crisis due to
depletion of natural resources and increased environmental problems. The situation has
led to the search for an alternative fuel, which should be not only sustainable but also
environment friendly. For developing countries, fuels of bi-origin, such as alcohol,
vegetable oils, biomass, biogas, synthetic fuels, etc. are becoming important. Such fuels
can be used directly, while others need some sort of modification before they are
substituted for conventional fuels. With an expected growth rate of diesel consumption of
more than 14% per annum, shrinking crude oil reserves and limited refining capacity,
India will have to depend heavily on imports of crude.
Fuels derived from renewable biological resources for use in diesel engines are
known as biodiesel fuels. Animal fats, virgin and recycled vegetable oils derived from
crops such as soybeans, canola, neem, corn and sunflowers can be used in the production
of biodiesel fuel. Tall oil, produced from wood pulp waste, is another feedstock source.
Biodiesel can either be used in its pure state (or) can be blended with conventional diesel
fuel derived from petroleum. India currently imports about 70% of its petroleum products
by paying 1,27,000 crores of rupees every year. Import of crude oil and petroleum
products was 57.8 and 16.6 million tons respectively during 1999-2000. The demand
target may be 120.4 million tons for 2006-07. Our domestic production of crude oil and
natural gas will remain around 33.97 mt during 2006-07. The current consumption of
diesel in India is approximately 40 mt forming about 40% of the total petroleum product
consumption.

1.1 History of Biodiesel

The usage of vegetable oil started in 1893 when Dr.Rudolf diesel developed the
first diesel engine to run on vegetable oil. Diesel demonstrated his engine at the world
exhibition in Paris in 1900 using peanut oil as fuel. The engine stood as an example of
diesel's vision because it was powered by peanut oil - a biofuel, though not biodiesel,
since it was not transesterified. He believed that the utilization of biomass fuel was the
real future of his engine. But during 1920's, diesel engine manufacturers altered their
engines to utilize the lower viscosity of petro diesel (a fossil fuel), rather than vegetable
oil. The petroleum industries were able to make inroads in fuel markets because their fuel

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was much cheaper to produce than biomass alternatives at that time. The result for many
years was a near elimination of the biomass fuel production infrastructure. But the supply
of petroleum derive diesel fuel is limited. The depletion in world petroleum reserves and
uncertainty in petroleum supply due to political and economical reasons stimulated the
search again alternative sources for petroleum based fuels especially for diesel fuels.
The research was conducted in various universities and research organizations by
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). The general conclusion is that
biodiesel is technically acceptable blending stock for conventional petroleum diesel. In
1979 the Transesterification of vegetable oil and refining it to diesel standards was
initiated in South Africa. In 1989 the first industrial scale plant is established in Austria.
Throughout the 1990's plants were opened in many European countries. Throughout the
2000's number of plants were opened world wide.

1.2 Basic definitions of Biodiesel

Very often, a broad, general description is used to define biodiesel in a way that is easy to
understand by the general public.

1.3 Definition of Biodiesel

“Biodiesel is a domestic, renewable fuel for diesel engines derived from natural oils like
soybean, neem, jatropha, pongamia, rapeseed, jajoba, etc.”

1.3.1Explanation
Biodiesel can be used in any concentration with petroleum based diesel fuel in
existing diesel engines with little or no modification. Biodiesel is not the same
thing as raw vegetable oil. It is produced by a chemical process which removes
the glycerin from the oil.

1.4 Technical definition for Biodiesel

“Biodiesel is a fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from
vegetable oils or animal fats, designated B100, and meeting the requirements of ASTM”.
“Biodiesel Blend is a blend of biodiesel fuel meeting ASTM requirements with petroleum-
based diesel fuel, designated BXX, where XX represents the volume percentage of
biodiesel fuel in the blend”.

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“Biodiesel is typically produced by a reaction of a vegetable oil or animal fat with an
alcohol such as methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield mono-alkyl
esters and glycerin, which is removed”.
Bio-diesel is a light to dark yellow liquid. It is particularly immiscible with water,
has a high boiling point and low vapour pressure. Typical methyl ester biodiesel has a
flash point of 150°c, making it rather non-flammable. Biodiesel has a density of 0.86
g/cm³, less than that of water. Biodiesel uncontaminated with starting material can be
regarded as non-toxic. Biodiesel has high viscosity than petro diesel, the industry term for
diesel produced from petroleum. It can be used as additives in formulations of diesel to
increase the lubricity of pure Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel (ULSD) fuel, although care must
be taken to ensure that the biodiesel used does not increase the sulphur content of the
mixture above ppm. Much of the world uses a system known as the 'B'factor to state the
amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix, in contrast to the 'BA' or 'E' system used for ethanol
mixes. For example, fuel containing 20% biodiesel is labelled B20. Pure biodiesel is
referred to as B100.
Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum
diesel at any concentration in most modern diesel engines. Biodiesel will degrade natural
rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (mostly found in vehicles manufactured before
1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been
replaced with Viton, which is non-reactive biodiesel.
There is much debate about the extent to which biodiesel can safely be used in
conventional diesel engine without modification. Using biodiesel in unmodified engines
may lead to problems, since biodiesel is a better solvent than standard diesel; it cleans the
engine, removing deposits in the fuel lines, and thus may cause blockages in the fuel in
the fuel injectors.
Many vehicle manufacturers are very positive about the use of biodiesel, citing
lower engine wear as one of the benefits of this fuel. When switching from normal diesel
to biodiesel, it may be necessary to replace the fuel filter, however most manufacturers
lease list of the cars will run on 100% biodiesel. Some vehicle manufacturers remain
cautious over the use of biodiesel. In the UK many only maintain their engine warranties
for use with maximum 5% biodiesel blended in with 95% conventional diesel, although
this position is generally considered to be overly cautious.

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1.5 India biodiesel scenario
India is a huge importer of crude oil and spends about Rs. 1,200 billion of foreign
exchange every year to meet 75% of its oil needs. This has affected its balance of
payment adversely, especially after the unprecedented rise in crude oil prices. Being an
agricultural country endowed with varied climates, nutrient-rich soil and ability to grow
many different crops, India offers a great promise as a producer of surplus raw material
for biodiesel and bioethanol production. Though presently it meets around 30-40% of its
vegetable oil requirements through imports, India has a potential and capability to
produce enough vegetable oil not only to meet its edible oil requirements but also for
biodiesel production.
At present India is short of petroleum reserve, it has vast amount of land as well as
good climatic conditions (tropical) with adequate rainfall in large parts of the area to
account for large biomass production each year. Since edible oil demand is higher than its
domestic production, there is no possibility of diverting this oil for production of
biodiesel. Fortunately there is a large junk of degraded forest land and unutilized public
land, field boundaries and fallow lands of farmers where non-edible oil-seeds can be
grown. Of these some promising tree species have been evaluated and it has been found
that there are a number of them such as Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot) and Pongamia
Pinnata (‘Honge’ or ‘Karanja’) which would be very suitable in our conditions. However,
Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot) has been found most suitable for the purpose.
Many developed countries have active biodiesel program. Currently biodiesel is
produced mainly from field crop oils like rapeseed, sunflower etc., in Europe and soybean
in US. Malaysia utilizes palm oil for biodiesel production while in Nicaragua it is
jatropha oil. India has also developing the biodiesel programs. The focus is main made on
the non-edible oils because of rise in demand and prices of edible oils.

1.6 Need of biodiesel

 Many alternative biodiesel fuels have been shown to have better exhaust
emissions than traditional diesel holds promised as fuel alternatives for diesel
engine.
 Depletion of the primary fuels
 Biodiesel is agriculture oriented.
 A number of researches have shown that biodiesel has fuel properties and
provides engine performance that is very similar to diesel fuel.

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  Biodiesel are non toxic, biodegradable and renewable fuel.
 The severe emission regulations in the world have placed design limitation on
heavy duty diesel engines. The trend towards cleaner burning fuel is growing
world wide and it is possible through biodiesel.
 Biodiesel includes a high cetane number, low sulphur, low volatility and the
presence of oxygen atoms in the fuel molecule.
 Expected efficiency is achieved through biodiesel. Biodiesel performs better than
petroleum diesel.
 Reduces serious air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxides,
hydrocarbons and air toxic. A mutagen city study shows that biodiesel
dramatically reduces potential risks of cancer and birth defects.

1.7 Vegetable Oils

The use of vegetables oils, such as palm, soya bean, sunflower, peanut, and olive
oil, as alternative fuels for diesel engines dates back almost nine decades, but due to the
rapid decline in crude oil reserves, it is again being promoted in many countries.
Depending upon the climate and soil conditions, different countries are looking for
different types of vegetable oils as substitutes for diesel fuels. For example, Soya bean
oil in the US, Rapeseed and sunflower oils in Europe, palm oil in South-east Asia (mainly
Malaysia and Indonesia) and coconut oil in the Philippines are being considered. The
production of oil seeds, percentage oil recovery and their respective cost are given in
above Table, which indicates that the use of vegetable oils as sources of diesel would
require more efforts to increase the production of oil seeds and to develop new and more
productive plant species with high yield of oil.
Besides, some species of plants yielding non-edible oils, e.g. jatropha, karanji and
pongamia may play a significant role in providing resources. Both these plants may be
grown on a massive scale on agricultural/degraded/waste lands, so that the chief resource
may be available to produce biodiesel on ‘farm scale’.

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 Table.1.1.Production of oilseeds in 2002-2003 in India
Production Total
(million tons) oil
Oil Cost
Oilseed availability % Recovery
(Rs. Per ton)
World India (million
tons)
Soya been 123.2 4.30 0.63 17 4300
Cottonseed 34.3 4.60 0.39 11 3200
Groundnut 19.3 4.60 0.73 40 6200
Sunflower 25.2 1.32 0.46 35 5360
Rapeseed 34.7 4.30 1.37 33 5167
Sesame 2.5 0.62 -- -- 6800
Palm kernels 4.8 -- -- -- --
Copra 4.9 0.65 0.42 65 3035
Linseed 2.6 0.20 0.09 43 --
Castor 1.3 0.51 0.21 42 --
Niger 0.8 0.08 0.02 30 --
Rice bran -- -- 0.60 15 2000
Total 253.6 21.18 4.92 --

1.8 Chemical compositions

Vegetable oils, also known as triglycerides, have the chemical structure given in
Fig.1.1 comprise of 98% triglycerides and small amounts of mono- and diglycerides.
Triglycerides are esters of three molecules of fatty acids and one of glycerol and contain
substantial amounts of oxygen in their structure. The fatty acids vary in their carbon
chain length and in the number of double bonds.

Fig. 1.1 Structure of a typical triglyceride

1.9 Use of vegetable oils as diesel fuelmolecule.

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 It has been found that this neat vegetable oils can be used as diesel fuels in
conventional diesel engines, but this leads to a number of problems related to the type and
grade of oil and local climatic conditions. The injection, atomization and combustion
characteristics of vegetable oil in diesel engines are significantly different from those of
diesel. The high viscosity of vegetable oils interferes with the injection process and leads
to poor fuel atomization. The inefficient mixing of oil with air contributes to incomplete
combustion, leading to heavy smoke emission, and the high flash point attributes to lower
volatility characteristics. These disadvantages, coupled with the reactivity of unsaturated
vegetable oils, do not allow the engine to operate trouble free for longer period of time.
These problems can be solved, if the vegetable oils are chemically modified to Biodiesel,
which is similar in characteristics to diesel.

1.10 Advantages of vegetable oils as diesel fuel

 Liquid nature-portability
 Ready availability
 Renewability
 Higher heat content
 Lower aromatic content
 Biodegradability

1.11 Disadvantages of vegetable oils as diesel fuel

 Higher viscosity
 Lower volatility
 The reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains.

1.12 Problems with the use of Crude Vegetable Oils in Conventional Engine
Though with minor modifications these vegetable oils can be used in CI engine,
but there are certain problems associated with their high viscosity and high carbon
residue. The high viscosity of the oil causes problems in pumping and atomization,
leading to poor performance of the engine.
Vegetable oils lack the low flammability needed for spark ignition engines, while
these are similar to diesel in cetane rating and heat value. Some of the problems caused
by these oils include slightly lowered power, poor spray, distorted combustion, wear
problem, high smoke during combustion plus filter plugging, excessive deposits. Noise,

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cold start and odour are the other problems associated with them. Due to higher
molecular weights, vegetable oils have low volatility and because of their un saturation,
these are inherently more reactive than diesel fuels. As a result, they are much more
susceptible to oxidation and thermal polymerization reactions as reported in the literature.
After a thorough review of the literature it is observed that there are operational,
durability problems with the vegetable oil engines. Starting ability, ignition and
combustion and performance come under operational problems where as the problems
like deposit formation, carbonization of injector tip, ring sticking and lubricating oil
dilution come under durability problems. Durability problems appear to be a very strong
function of the engine type, with direct injection engines being more susceptible than the
indirect injection engines.
Many researchers have observed that the crude vegetable oils, when used for long
hours, choke the fuel filter because of high viscosity and insoluble in crude oil. Viscosity
of vegetable oils exerts a strong influence on the fuel spray pattern. High viscosity causes
poor atomization, large droplets and high spray jet penetration. As a result, the mixing of
fuel and air mixture may be improper and affects burning. This may further lead to poor
combustion, accompanied by loss of power and economy. In small engines, the fuel
spray may impinge upon the cylinder walls, washing away the lubricating oil film and
causing dilution, of the crank case oil. Most of the oils have kinematic viscosity in the
range of 30 to 50 centistokes where as for diesel oil is 1.9 to 4.1 centistokes.

1.13 Vegetable Oil Fuel Blends

Vegetable oils can also be used as a diesel fuel alternative by supplementing with
diesel oil. Vegetable oils offer the advantage of freely mixing with diesel oil and can be
used as supplement with diesel oil in existing engines without any modifications.
Vegetable oils in varying proportions in the fuel blend were tried by a number of
investigators. Significant reductions in viscosity and improved performance were
reported with blending vegetable oils and diesel oil. The performance was comparable to
that of diesel oil.
The filter clogging problems were not encountered with peanut oil as observed by
Barsic and Humke, however with the sun flower oil the clogging problems were
observed. Heating the sun flower oil to 70 to 90 0C eliminated the clogging problems by
causing the waxes to dissolve. It was also reported that sunflower oil, peanut oil, and
their blends with Diesel fuel exhibited greater nozzle deposits compared to diesel fuel

8
alone. The work has also revealed that exhaust temperature increased as the percentage
of vegetable oil in the blends were increased. The vegetable oil fuel blends were found
to have a lower mass-based heating value than that of diesel fuel.
1.14 Preheated Vegetable Oils
Vegetable oil heating is one of the techniques to reduce its viscosity. The fuel
viscosity at the fuel injector is important for good atomization and combustion. With a
high fuel viscosity, fuel spray can impinge upon the walls of the combustion chamber
resulting in delayed combustion and burning. If heated to very high temperatures, low
viscosity of the fuel can result in poor fuel droplet penetration and poor combustion.
1.15 Handling and storage
The properties of diesel fuel, which control safety and convenience in handling,
are flash and fire points, viscosity.
1.16 Flash point
Flash point is the temperature at which a flammable liquid will produce, with a
standardized apparatus and procedure, a mixture of its vapour and air which will ignite to
give a flash by contact with an open flame
1.17 Fire point
Fire point is the temperature at which the flash will sustain itself as a steady flame
for at least five seconds.
The flash and fire points indicate the temperature below which oil can be handled
without danger of fire, otherwise are of little consequence. Specifically, flash point is
used in safety regulations to define “flammable” and “combustible” materials.
1.18 Viscosity
Viscosity of a fuel is a measure of its resistance to flow. Viscosity is important in
lubrication and in pumping flow and spaying of liquids. Hence it is significant for diesel
fuels. Kinematic viscosity is an important measure of the biodiesel’s flow properties.
Kinematic Viscosity measures the flow resistance of the fuel, e.g., the time for a volume
of liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary viscometer. Viscosity
is important to diesels and biodiesels because it impacts the operation of components such
as the fuel pump. Higher viscosity interferes with injector operation, resulting in poorer
atomization of the fuel spray, and has been associated with increased engine deposits. If
engines are expected to use higher fractions of biodiesel (instead of the 20% in B-20),
they would benefit from redesigned injectors that would accommodate the higher
viscosity to improve spray patterns and atomization. All the biodiesels have viscosities

9
significantly higher than diesel. Because of the high values, biodiesels would be expected
to have problems in this area on diesel engines, if measures (such as blending with diesel)
are not taken. Acceptable values in D 975 are from a minimum of 1.9 to a maximum of
4.1; biodiesels would not be able to meet these requirements.

1.19 Ignition quality

For a diesel fuel smooth spontaneous ignition at relatively low temperature is
essential. Ignition delay, the time period between the start of injection and start of
combustion, has a great influence on the correct optimization of a diesel engine. If it is
too long the rate of pressure rise, once it starts, can become so rapid that severe diesel
knock and engine damage can occur. If it is too short then there is not sufficient time for
complete mixing and smoking can result.

1.20 Cetane number

The cetane raring of a diesel fuel is a measure of its ability to autoignite quickly
when it is injected into the compressed and heated air in the engine. The cetane number
is a numerical measure of the influence the diesel fuel has in determining the ignition
delay. Higher the cetane rating of the fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock.
Cetane Number of Diesel Fuel Oil is a measure of the fuel’s ignition delay. Higher
Cetane numbers indicate shorter times between the injection of the fuel and its ignition.
Higher numbers have been associated with reduced engine roughness and with lower
starting temperatures for engines 2D diesel’s Cetane numbers are in the range of 40-50;
the biodiesels all have higher values, so they would tend to improve operation of the
engine with respect to pure diesel (based on this value alone). The minimum acceptable
Cetane of 40 from D975 is met by the biodiesels.

CHAPTER - 2

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 LITERATURE REVIEW
Ritica Ramakrishnan et al [1] used vegetable oil as an important feedstock for
biodiesel production. Biodiesel has been produced from used vegetable oil collected from
shops selling fritters in Kolkata. Transesterification is affected by factors like oil to
alcohol ratio, concentration of catalyst used, temperature, stirring rate and reaction time.
The process parameters were optimized and a maximum biodiesel yield of 94% has been
achieved. Important properties of the biodiesel like density, flash point, calorific value
and viscosity have also been estimated.
Sonia Castellucci et al [2] carried experimental work to investigate the operating
conditions that maximize the biodiesel production from WCO. The conversion of waste
cooking oil from domestic dwelling by transesterification reaction is useful in order to
obtain a biodiesel. The tests carried out on WCO samples coming from domestic dwelling
and characterized by a FFA content equal to 3%, have shown that NaOH concentration of
0.5% w/w oil and 100% of methanol surplus represent the best operating conditions,
indeed they permit to obtain a reaction yield of 94.3% and a biodiesel density of 0.875
g/cm3.
Wail M. Adaileh et al [3] measured the combustion characteristics and emissions
of compression ignition diesel engine using a biodiesel as an alternative fuel. The tests
were performed in Chemical and Mechanical Engineering department laboratories at
steady state conditions for a four stroke single cylinder diesel engine loaded at variable
engine speed between 1200-2600 rpm. The waste vegetable oil (cooking oil) used in this
investigation transferred from Tafila Technical University restaurant collected and
disposed in a suitable way. The testing results show without any modification to diesel
engine, under all conditions dynamical performance kept normal, and the B20, B5 blend
fuels (include 20%, 5% biodiesel respectively) led to satisfactory emissions at variable
load. The experimental results compared with standard diesel show that biodiesel
provided significant reductions in CO, and unburned HC, but the NO x was increased.
Biodiesel has a 5.95 % increasing in brake-specific fuel consumption due to its lower
heating value. However, using B20 and B5 diesel fuel gave better emission results, NO x
and brake specific fuel consumption.The experimental results show that the fuel
consumption rate, brake thermal efficiency, and exhaust gas temperature increased while
the BSFC, emission indices of CO2, CO decreased with an increase of engine speed.
Moreover, the engine power increased when increasing the biodiesel percentage varied

11
from 1.23 to 3.2 for standard diesel while for B20 between 1.5 to 3.47.while brake
specific energy consumption varied between 16.8 to 13.81 MJ/kW.kg for standard diesel,
but for B5 found to be between 16.3 to 13 MJ/kW.kg. In particular, biodiesel produced
with the addition of the peroxidation process had the lowest equivalence ratio and
emission indices of CO2, CO. The emission of NOx among all of the test fuels found to be
increased when using B5 and B20 instead of standard diesel and these results validate the
data recorded by other previous work. Therefore, the peroxidation process can be used
effectively to improve the fuel properties and reduce emissions when biodiesel is used.
A.M. Liaquat et al [4] carried out experimental work to analyze engine
performance and emissions characteristics for diesel engine using different blend fuels
without any engine modifications. A total of four fuel samples, such as DF (100% diesel
fuel), JB5 (5% jatropha biodiesel and 95% DF), JB10 (10% JB and 90% DF) and J5W5
(5% JB, 5% waste cooking oil and 90% DF) respectively were used in this study. Engine
performance test was carried out at 100% load keeping throttle 100% wide open with
variable speeds of 1500 to 2400 rpm at an interval of 100 rpm. Whereas, emission tests
were carried out at 2300 rpm at 100% and 80% throttle position. As results of
investigations, the average torque reduction compared to DF for JB5, JB10 and J5W5 was
found as 0.63%, 1.63% and 1.44% and average power reduction was found as 0.67%,
1.66% and 1.54% respectively. Average increase in BSFC compared to DF was observed
as 0.54%, 1.0% JB10 and 1.14% for JB5, JB10 and J5W5 respectively. In case of engine
exhaust gas emissions, compared to DF average reduction in HC for JB5, JB10 and J5W5
at 2300 rpm and 100% throttle position found as 8.96%, 11.25% and 12.50%, whereas, at
2300 and 80% throttle position, reduction was as 16.28%, 30.23% and 31.98%
respectively. Average reduction in CO at 2300 rpm and 100% throttle position for JB5,
JB10 and J5W5 was found as 17.26%, 25.92% and 26.87%, whereas, at 80% throttle
position, reduction was observed as 20.70%, 33.24% and 35.57%. Similarly, the
reduction in CO2 compared to DF for JB5, JB10 and J5W5 at 2300 rpm and 100%
throttle position was as 12.10%, 20.51% and 24.91%, whereas, at 80% throttle position,
reductions was observed as 5.98%, 10.38% and 18.49% respectively. However, some
NOx emissions were increased for all blend fuels compared to DF. In case of noise
emission, sound level for all blend fuels was reduced compared to DF. It can be
concluded that JB5, JB10 and J5W5 can be used in diesel engines without any engine
modifications. However, W5B5 produced some better results when compared to JB10.

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 Mohammed EL Kassaby et al [5] used wasted cooking oil from restaurants to
produce neat (pure) biodiesel through transesterification, and then used to prepare
biodiesel/diesel blends. The effect of blending ratio and compression ratio on a diesel
engine performance has been investigated. Emission and combustion characteristics was
studded when the engine operated using the different blends (B10, B20, B30, and B50)
and normal diesel fuel (B0) as well as when varying the compression ratio from 14 to 16
to 18. The result shows that the engine torque for all blends increases as the compression
ratio increases. The BSFC for all blends decreases as the compression ratio increases and
at all compression ratios BSFC remains higher for the higher blends as the biodiesel
percent increase. The change of compression ratio from 14 to 18 resulted in, 18.39%,
27.48%, 18.5%, and 19.82% increase in brake thermal efficiency in case of B10, B20,
B30, and B50 respectively. On an average, the CO 2 emission increased by 14.28%, the
HC emission reduced by 52%, CO emission reduced by 37.5% and NO x emission
increased by 36.84% when compression ratio was increased from 14 to 18. In spite of the
slightly higher viscosity and lower volatility of biodiesel, the ignition delay seems to be
lower for biodiesel than for diesel. On average, the delay period decreased by 13.95%
when compression ratio was increased from 14 to 18. From this study, increasing the
compression ratio had more benefits with biodiesel than that with pure diesel.
Yasutumi yoshimot et al [6] took up the experimental work of operating a single
cylinder diesel engine with emulsified frying oil. To reduce the viscosity, equal
proportions of used frying oil and gas oil were mixed and emulsions of this blended fuel
and water were prepared. The BSFC of neat biodiesel was lower than with gas oil of high
loads and retarded injection timings, while the smoke density was reduced at all operating
conditions. It was concluded that using biodiesel emulsions at a rated output, the trade –
off relation NOx Vs BSFC and NOx Vs smoke density have improved slightly over the gas
oil emulsion. It was considered that reduction in smoke, emissions, air - fuel ratio is
because of the oxygen included in the fuel.
K.F.Haigh et al [7] investigated the pre-treatment of used cooking oil (UCO) for
the preparation of biodiesel using Novozyme435, Candida antarctica Lipase B
immobilised on acrylic resin, as the catalyst. The reactions in UCO were carried out using
a jacketed batch reactor with a reflux condenser. The liquid chromatography–mass
spectrometry (LC–MS) method was developed to monitor the mono-, di- and triglyceride
concentrations and it was found that the method was sensitive enough to separate isomers,
including diglyceride isomers. It was found that the 1,3 diglyceride isomer reacted more

13
readily than the 1,2 isomer indicating stereo selectivity of the catalyst. This work showed
that Novozyme435 will catalyse the esterification of free fatty acids (FFAs) and the
transesterification of mono- and diglycerides typically found in UCO when Novozyme
435 is used to catalyse the pre-treatment of UCO for the formation of biodiesel. A kinetic
model was used to investigate the mechanism and indicated that the reaction progressed
withthe sequential hydrolysis esterification reactions in parallel with transesterification.
Wanodya Asri Kawentar et al [8] carried out research to study the kinetic reaction
of second-used cooking oil transesterification into biodiesel and find the optimum
condition of its process. This research was done by transesterification reaction in batch
reactor. The feedstock was collected from the street sellers in Yogyakarta. Methanol was
used as a reactant and KOH was used as a base catalyst. The study parameters were
temperature, alcohol to oil molar ratio, and catalyst concentration. Several types of
analysis used were free glycerol analysis, total glycerol analysis, free fatty acid (FFA)
analysis, and saponification analysis. These analyses were used to calculate the yield of
conversion and ester content of biodiesel sample. From this research, it is found that the
kinetic reaction of second-used cooking oil transesterification can be expressed by k=
0.0251exp (-15.29/RT) cm3/(mol.min). The optimum condition (the ester content 92.76
%) of biodiesel production were obtained at temperature 66.5oC, molar ratio of methanol
to oil 6.18:1, and 1 wt.% KOH.
Yu C.W. et al [9] made investigations to determine engine performance and
combustion analysis for waste cooking oil and diesel. It was observed that due to shorter
ignition delay the premixed combustion phase of waste cooking oil was less intense than
that of diesel. For waste cooking oil the peak pressures were 1.5 bar higher and occurred
1.1-3.8o C earlier than diesel. He concluded that the energy released at the late
combustion phase is higher due to heavier molecular weight material present in waste
cooking oil. Due to carbon deposition the engine performance may deteriorate after
prolonged use. The emissions are higher for waste cooking oil compared to diesel.

Ramadhas A.S et al [10] has done experimental work on characterization and

effect of using rubber seed oil as fuel in the C.I engines. Initially problems like high
viscosity, poor atomization, carbon deposits were encountered. In order to overcome
these problems rubber seed oil was blended with diesel in various proportions. It was
concluded that acceptable brake thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption were
noticed with blends containing upto 80% rubber seed oil. It was considered that the

14
carbon deposits in the combustion chamber of engine are higher in the case of rubber seed
oil blends because of incomplete combustion of fuel.
Tahir et al [11] tested sunflower oil as a replacement for diesel fuel in agricultural
tractors. Sunflower oil viscosity was 14% higher than diesel fuel at 37oC. Engine
performance using the sunflower oil was similar to that of diesel fuel, but with a slight
decrease in fuel economy. Oxidation of the sunflower oil left heavy gum and wax
deposits on test equipment, which could lead to engine failure.
Schoedder [12] used rapeseed oils as a diesel fuel replacement in Germany
showed mixed results. Short-term engine tests indicated rapeseed oil has similar energy
outputs when compared to diesel fuel. Initial long-term engine tests showed that
difficulties arose in engine operation after 100 hours due to deposits on piston rings,
valves, and injectors. The investigators indicated that further a long-term testing was
needed to determine if these difficulties could be averted. Over 30 different vegetable oils
have been used to operate compression ignition engines since the 1900’s. Initial engine
performance suggests that these oil-based fuels have great potential as fuel substitutes.
Extended operation indicated that carbonization of critical engine components resulted
from the use of raw vegetable oil fuels, which can lead to premature engine failure.
Blending vegetable oil with diesel fuel was found to be a method to reduce coking and
extended engine life.

15
 CHAPTER - 3
PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL

There are ways to run a diesel engine on bio-power, using vegetable oils, animal
fats or both. All three work with both fresh and used oils.

 Use the oil just as it is usually called SVO fuel (straight vegetable oil).
 Mix it with diesel fuel.
 Convert it to biodiesel.

3.1 Straight Vegetable oil

To use straight vegetable oil (SVO), first the engine has to be started with
ordinary petroleum diesel or biodiesel to warm it up, then switch to the straight vegetable
oil, and switch back to biodiesel before stopping the engine. If it is not done the engine
and the injectors will coke up. This means having two fuel tanks. SVO can also be used
by preheating the oil before entering in to the engine to reduce the viscosity of the oil.

3.2 Blending of SVO with diesel

Raw oil can be directly mixed with diesel in required proportions and this can be
used in diesel engines. Most people use a mix of up to 20% diesel and 80% vegetable oil,
some use 50/50 mixes. It needs at least pre-heating and probably two-tank systems too,
like SVO. One tank is used for starting and stopping of the engine and the other tank is
used for SVO blended diesel. This method is also not preferable because this also causes
coking in injectors and preheating is also required. To get good results the proportion of
vegetable oil should be low in the blends.

3.3 Preparing raw oil into biodiesel

Biodiesel has some clear advantages over SVO, it works in any diesel, without
any conversion or modifications to the engine or the fuel system -- just put it in and go. It
also has better cold weather properties than SVO (but not as good as petro-diesel). And,
unlike SVO, it is backed by many long-term tests in many countries, including millions of
miles on the road. Biodiesel is a clean, safe, ready-to-use, alternative fuel, whereas it is
fair to say that SVO systems are mostly still experimental and need further development.
On the other hand, biodiesel can be more expensive, depending on the type of oil used.

16
And, unlike SVO, it has to be processed. But the large and rapidly growing worldwide
band of home brewers don't seem to mind. Many have been doing it for years. Various
advantages of using Biodiesel rather than SVO are shown in table 3.1.

Table - 3.1 Comparison of biodiesel with SVO

GUARANTEED
TYPE OF NEEDS ENGINE
TROUBLE- CHEAPER
FUEL PROCESSING CONVERSION
FREE

BIODIESEL YES YES NO SOMETIMES

SVO/WVO LESS NO YES USUALLY

3.4 Process of producing biodiesel

Vegetable oils and animal fats are triglycerides, contains glycerine. The biodiesel
process turns the oils into esters, separating out the glycerine. The glycerine sinks to the
bottom and the biodiesel floats on top and can be syphoned off. The process is called
ESTERIFICATION, which substitutes alcohol for the glycerine in a chemical reaction,
using lye as a catalyst. Methanol is used to make methyl esters. Methanol is also called
methyl alcohol. Methylated spirits (denatured alcohol) doesn't work, isopropyl alcohol
also doesn't work. The lye catalyst can be either sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium
hydroxide (KOH), which is easier to use. Sodium hydroxide is often easier to get and it's
cheaper to use. The process is same when potassium hydroxide is used, but it requires 1.4
times as much than sodium hydroxide.

3.5 Blend levels for biodiesel

Biodiesel has become a valuable blending component with diesel fuel at low
percentage blends because of biodiesel’s “premium” aspects. Pure biodiesel has high
lubricity, high cetane, and a high flash point. Several commercial “premium diesel”
products have incorporated the positive benefits of biodiesel as a component of their
multi-functional additive packages. These products typically claim that biodiesel serves
as the carrier for the additive and delivers the lubricity properties. However, as blend

17
concentrations increase there is a higher chance for distortion. Hence, all biodiesel (B100)
should meet ASTM’s biodiesel standard, prior to blending with diesel fuel at any level.

Neat vegetable oils pose some problems when subjected to prolonged usage in CI
engine. These problems are attributed to high viscosity, low volatility and polyunsaturated
character of the neat vegetable oils. These problems are reduced to minimum by
subjecting the vegetable oils to the process of esterification. Various properties of the
biodiesel blends thus developed are evaluated and compared in relation to that of
conventional diesel oil. These tests for biodiesel and diesel oil include density, viscosity,
flash point, calorific value, etc. The prepared blends of biodiesel were then subjected to
performance and emission tests in order to evaluate its actual performance, when used as
a diesel engine fuel. The data generated for various concentrations of biodiesel blends
were compared with base line data generated for neat diesel oil. It was found that 20
percent blend of biodiesel gave the best performance amongst all blends. It gave net
advantage of 2.5% in peak thermal efficiency and there was substantial reduction in
smoke capacity values. This blend was chosen for long term endurance test. The engine
operating on optimum biodiesel blend showed substantially improved behaviour. A series
of engine tests provided adequate and relevant information that the biodiesel can be used
as an alternative, environment friendly fuel in existing diesel engines without substantial
hardware modification.

3.6 Simple Esterification reactions

Esterification of vegetable oils with simple alcohol has long been the preferred
method for producing biodiesel. In general, there are two methods of esterification. One
method is using the catalyst and the other is without a catalyst. The former method has a
long history of development and the biodiesel produced by this method is now available
in various countries.
3.7 Chemistry of Esterification reaction
The overall esterification reaction involves the following three reversible reactions.
Triglyceride + ROH Diglyceride + RICOOR

Diglyceride + ROH Monoglyceride + RIICOOR

Monoglyceride + ROH Glycerol + RIIICOOR

18
The first step is conversion of triglycerides in to diglycerides, followed by the conversion
of diglycerides in to monoglycerides, and of monoglycerides to glycerol, yielding one
methyl ester molecule per mole of glycerides at each step.
CH-COORI CATALYST CH2OH RICOOR
I + 3ROH I +
CH-COORII CHOH RIICOOR
I I +
CH3-COORIII CH2OH RIIICOOR
Triglyceride Methanol Glycerol BIODIESEL
where RI, RII, & RIII are long chain hydrocarbons

During methanolysis, two distinct phases are present. As the solubility of the oil in
methanol is low and the reaction mixture needs vigorous stirring. Glycerol phase
separation will not occur when less than 67% of theoretical amount of methanol is used.

Fig. 3.1. Steps involved in preparation of bio diesel

The excess methanol is however removed by distillation. Traces of methanol,
NAOH, free fatty acids, chlorophyll, etc go in to glycerine phase, which can be processed

19
in to two stages. Glycerine of 90-95% purity is obtained in the first stage and of 98%
purity is obtained in the second stage.
As seen in the figure.3.1 esterification reaction is an equilibrium reaction in which
excess alcohol is required to drive the reaction close to completion. Several catalysts were
tried for the purpose of esterification by several workers. E.g. magnesium, calcium
oxides, alkaline alumina, sulphuric acids, p-toluene sulphonic acid, and dehydrating
agents as co catalysts. The catalysts reported to be effective at room temperature were
alkoxides & hydroxides.

3.8 Process variables

The most important variables that influence the esterification reaction are
 Ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil
 Catalyst
 Mixing intensity
 Purity of reactants
 Reaction temperture

3.9 Reaction temperature

The literature had revealed that the rate of reaction is strongly influenced by the
reaction temperature. However the reaction is conducted close to the boiling point of
methanol (60-70oC) at atmospheric pressure at a given time.

3.10 Ratio of alcohol to oil

Another important variable is the molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil. Up to
15% of methanol should be used on mass basis for an effective reaction between alcohol
and vegetable oil.

3.11 Catalysts
Alkali metal alkoxides are found to be more effective esterification catalysts
compared to acidic catalysts. Sodium alkoxides are the most efficient catalysts, although
KOH or NaOH can also be used. Methylation occurs in the presence of both alkaline &
acidic catalysts. As they are less corrosive to industrial equipment, alkaline catalysts are
preferred in industrial processes. Increase in catalyst concentration does not affect the

20
conversion but adds to extra cost, as the catalyst needs to be removed from the reaction
mixture after completion of the reaction.

3.12 Mixing intensity

It has been observed that during the esterification reaction, the reactants initially
form a two phase liquid system. The mixing effect has been found to play a significant
role in the slow rate of the reaction. As phase separation ceases mixing becomes
insignificant. The effect of mixing on the kinetics of the esterification process forms the
basis for process scale up and design.

3.13 Purity of reactants

Impurities in the oil affect the conversion level considerably. The free fatty acids
in the crude oils have been found to interfere with the catalyst. This problem can be
solved if the reaction is carried out under high temperature and pressure conditions.

21
 CHAPTER - 4
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE TO PREPARE BIO DIESEL

Bio-Diesel is an alternate fuel i.e. usually obtained from vegetable oils. These
vegetable oils have high fat content and are more viscous as such they can’t directly
injected in engine. Basically Bio-Diesel is prepared from trans-esterification process.
Before carrying the esterification process the free fatty acid (FFA) content in the oil is to
be calculated.

4.1 Free Fatty Acid Test

Fats and oils from a major component in every oil. Free fatty acids (FFAs) which
present in the crude oils determine the oil quality . Knowing the FFA content is an
important parameter in edible oil refining and biodiesel production. It necessary it
because as it helps to know whether acidic esterification process is required or not.
FFA was calculated by
FFA% = (v - b) x N x 28.2 / w
where: v is the volume in ml of titration solution

b is the volume in ml of the blank

N is the normality of the titration solution

w is the weight of the sample of oil in grams

FFA% = 0.766t    -  for NaOH titrations

Fig. 4.1. Free fatty acids test for biodiesel

22
 The main apparatus required are (a) round bottomed flask,(b) heating mantle
(c)Thermometer (d) Separating funnel (e) Beakers and different chemicals required are
(a) Methanol (CH3OH), (b) Sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH) (c) conc. Sulphuric acid
The procedure is as follows.

4.2 Transestrification of BioDiesel

4.2.1 Raw material for Reaction

1. Collected waste cooking oil.
2. Methanol (CH3OH) 99%+ pure
3. Potassium hydroxide (or) Sodium hydroxide (must be dry)

4.2.2 Materials for Titration

1. Isopropyl alcohol 99%+ pure
2. Distilled water
3. Phenolphthalein solution (not more than a year old, kept protected from strong
light)

4.2.3. Materials for Washing

1. Vinegar
2. Water

4.3 Process of Waste cooking oil to biodiesel in detail

4.3.1 Filtering

Filter the oil to remove solid particles. You may have to warm it up a bit
first to get it to run freely, 35 oC should be enough. A Cartridge filter is used
for the same.

4.3.2 Removing the water

Heat the oil first to remove any water content. Waste oil will probably
contain water, which can slow down the reaction and cause saponification. The
less water in the oil the better. Raise the temperature to 100 oC, hold it there and
allow any water to boil off. Run the agitator to avoid steam pockets forming
below the oil and exploding, splashing hot oil. Or drain water puddles out from

23
the bottom as they form, you can save any oil that comes out with the water later.
When boiling slows, raise the temperature to 130oC for 10 minutes. Remove heat
and allow to cool. Regular source of oil does not need to have the water boiled
off, in which case do not do it, boiling means extra energy and time.

4.3.3 Basic titration

Dissolve 1 gram of NaOH in 1 litre of distilled or de-ionized water (0.1%

NaOH solution). You can use phenolphthalein solution to get end point. In a
smaller beaker, dissolve 1 ml of dewatered oil in 10 ml of pure isopropyl alcohol.
Warm the beaker gently by standing it in some hot water, stir until all the oil
dissolves in the alcohol and the mixture turns clear. Add 2 drops of
phenolphthalein solution. Using a burette, add 0.1% NaOH solution drop by drop
to the oil alcohol phenolphthalein solution, stirring all the time, until the solution
stays pink (magenta) for 10 seconds. Take the number of ml of 0.1% NaOH
solution you used and add 5.0. This is the number of grams of NaOH you will
need per liter of oil.

FFA content in the collected waste cooking oil is less than 3%. So it is
required to undergo alkaline transesterification process, to derive methyl ester &
glycerine. If it is greater than 3% we will go for acidic transesterfication
afterwards we will perform base transesterification.

4.3.4 Acidic transesterification

The purpose of this stage is to reduce the FFA content of the crude oil
to less than 3%. Experiments are conducted with methanol to oil ratio 0.75
v/v. Reaction temperature and time of 600C & 90 minutes.
In the first stage, 135ml of Methanol & 15ml of conc. Sulphuric acid is
prepared and mixed with 400ml of Waste Cooking oil (pre-heated to about 50-
550C). The mixture is kept on the magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes and poured in
separating funnel. After 90 minutes the top layer is separated off and bottom layer
is transferred for the next step.

24
4.3.5 Alkaline transesterification

The product from the first stage consisting oil with FFA less than 3%
is subjected to transesterification using KOH or NaOH, a base catalyst. The oil
is taken in standard flask and heated to temperature between 50 - 55oC.
Methanol in the required quantity is taken and measured quantity of KOH or
NaOH is dissolved in it i.e., for 100ml of oil (derived from the acidic
transesterification) to 20ml of methanol and 0.5 to 1 gm of KOH or NaOH.
The catalyst is dissolved in methanol prior to addition to the oil to avoid
problems of moisture absorption by the catalyst. The potassium methoxide or
Sodium methoxide prepared is added to the preheated oil. The mixture is
continuously stirred at constant speed keeping temperature constant at 60 oC
and is not allowed to go above 60oC to avoid methanol loss. The mixture after
heating and stirring for required time is transferred to a separating funnel and
kept for settling. On settling, the biodiesel forms as the top layer and glycerin
and any impurities remain as the bottom layer. The bottom layer is removed
and biodiesel is collected. It is washed to remove the presence of any excess
methanol and soap. The biodiesel is further dried to remove any moisture present
in it. The oil used in the different set of experiments in the second stage is then
produced by conducting the first stage with the optimum conditions of different
parameters already established. Reaction temperature of 60oC is used in all
experiments.

CAUTION : Treat pottasium methoxide(KOH) with extreme caution! Do not

inhale any vapors! If any pottasium methoxide gets splashed on your skin, it
will burn you without your feeling it (killing the nerves). Wash immediately
with lots of water. Always have a hose running when working with pottasium
methoxide. Pottasium methoxide is also very corrosive to paints. KOH reacts
with aluminium, tin and zinc. Use glass, enamel or stainless steel containers,
stainless steel is best.

4.3.6 Settling and separation

25
 Allow the solution to settle and cool for at least eight hours, preferably
longer. The methyl esters (biodiesel) will be floating on top while the denser
glycerine will have congealed on the bottom of the container forming a hard
gelatinous mass (the mixing pump must be mounted above this level). An
alternative method is to allow the reactants to settle for at least an hour after
mixing while keeping the mixture above 38oC, which keeps the glycerine semi
liquid (it solidifies below 38oC). Then carefully decant the biodiesel. This can be
done by draining the reactants out of the bottom of the container through a
transparent hose. Keep a watch on what flows through the sight tube. When the
lighter-colored biodiesel appears divert it to a separate container. If any biodiesel
stays with the glycerine it is easy to retrieve it later once the glycerine has
solidified.

If you left the mixture in the tank until it is gelled, reheat the tank just
enough to liquefy the glycerine again. Do not stir it! Then decant it out as above.

4.3.7 Glycerine

The glycerine from oil is brown and usually turns to a solid below about
38oC. Glycerine from fresh oil often stays a liquid at lower temperatures.
Reclaimed glycerine is composted after being vented for three weeks to allow
residual methanol to evaporate off or after heating it to 66 oC to boil off any
methanol content (the boiling point of methanol is 64.7 oC). The excess
methanol can be recovered for re-use when boiled off if you run the vapors
through a condenser. Another way of disposing of the glycerine, though a great bit
more complicated, would be to separate its components, mostly methanol, pure
glycerine (a valuable product for medicines, tinctures, hand lotions, dried plant
arrangements and many other uses) and wax. This is often accomplished by
distilling it, but glycerine has a high boiling point even under high vacuum
so this method is difficult. Other idea for disposing of the glycerine is breaking it
down to usable methane gas, with a Bio Gas methane digester.

4.3.8 Soap residue

26
 Suspended in the biodiesel will also be some soapy residues. These are
the result of Na+ ions from the NaOH reacting with water created when the
methanol bonds with the ester chains along with any other water that was
suspended in the oil. If the reaction produces more than the usual amount of
soap, this happens when NaOH comes into contact with water before it has a
chance to react with the oil. In this case the excess water should have been
boiled off first. The part of the process where it is vital to keep all water out of
the reaction is when making the Sodium methoxide. Keep the vessels NaOH
comes in contact with as dry as possible. The chances of a good clean splitting
of ester from glycerine with little soap by-product are much better on a warm
dry summer day than on a damp winter day.

4.4 Washing, Preheating and drying

The biodiesel from this stage can be used to the fuel tanks of vehicles. It is to let it
settle for a while (about 2 days), allowing the majority of the soap residues to settle
before running the biodiesel through a filtration system then into the vehicle fuel tank.
Another method is to wash the soaps out of the fuel with water, one or more times. When
washing biodiesel the first time it is best to add a small amount of dilute acetic acid
before adding the water. The acetic acid brings the pH of the solution closer to neutral
because it neutralizes and drops out any NaOH suspended in the biodiesel. A simple way
of washing uses a PVC container with a valve 100 mm from bottom as shown in the
fig.4.2. Fill with water until it is halfway between the container's bottom and the valve,
then fill up with the biodiesel to be washed. After a gentle stirring (keep it gentle, do not
agitate up soaps) followed by 12-24 hours of settling, the oil and water will separate, the
cleaned oil can be decanted out the valve, leaving the denser soapy water to be drained
out the bottom. This process might have to be repeated two or three times to remove close
to 100% of soaps. The second and third washings can be done with water alone. After the
third washing any remaining water gets removed by re-heating the oil slowly, the water
and other impurities sink to bottom.

27
 Fig. 4.2. Preheating

The finished product should have a pH of 7, checked with litmus paper or with a
digital pH tester. The water from the third wash can be used for the first or second washes
for the next batch. Preheat it to remove water particles. The impurities can be left in the
pre-heater for the next batch and removed when it accumulates. Transesterified and
washed biodiesel will become clearer over time as any remaining soaps drop out of the
solution.

4.5 Quantity of methanol to be used

The stoichiometric quantity of methanol is the amount needed to convert

triglycerides (oils) into esters (biodiesel), the methyl portion of methyl esters. You also
need an excess of methanol to push the conversion process towards completion, without
the excess the process runs out (reaches equilibrium) before all the triglycerides are
converted to esters, resulting in poor fuel that does not combust well and can be
corrosive. The excess methanol acts more like a catalyst. It encourages the process but
does not become a part of the final product and can be recovered afterwards.

1. Stoichiometric quantity : The stoichiometric quantity is usually said to be 12.5%

methanol by volume, that is, 125 ml of methanol per litre of oil. In fact it depends
on the amounts of the various fatty acids in the oil, and varies from one oil to
another. Calculate the average proportions of the different fatty acids in each of

28
 the more common oils, calculate their total molecular weights, and from this
calculate the stoichiometric amount of methanol required to convert them. The
amount varies from 11.3% for rapeseed oil (canola) to 16.3% for coconut oil.
These figures are averages, fatty acid quantities vary somewhat when oil crops are
grown in different conditions in different parts of the world. But they are close
enough for our purposes, and a lot more accurate than the general figure of 12.5%.
If you have an analysis of the fatty acid content of your oil, you can calculate the
correct stoichiometric ratio.
2. Excess : How much excess is needed depends on several different factors: the
type of oil, its condition, the type, size and shape of the processor, the type and
duration of agitation, the temperature of the process, and it does not make much
sense anyway if the stoichiometric ratio is wrong in the first place. However,
excess is usually between 60% and 100% of the stoichiometric amount. The
stoichiometric ratio of Calophyllum inophyllum L. oil is 12.5%, that is 125 ml of
methanol per litre of oil, the excess would range between 75 ml and 125 ml, for a
total amount of methanol of 200-250 ml per litre of oil. oils with higher
stoichiometric ratios seem to need higher excesses. So, for fresh soya or canola,
you can try 60%, though 67% or more would be better. For palm kernel or
coconut, closer to 100% excess would be better. If you do not know what kind of
oil it is, try using 25% methanol, 250 ml methanol to 1 litre of oil. If you've taken
care with the titration, used accurate measurements and followed the instructions
carefully, you should get a good, clean split, with esters on top and the glycerine
and free fatty acids cleanly separated at the bottom. If you have trouble washing it,
with a lot of frothing, that could be because the process did not go far enough and
unconverted material is forming emulsions, try using more methanol next time. If
everything works well, try using less methanol. You will soon figure out what's
best for you.

4.6 Glycerine

Glycerine (glycerin, glycerol) is the main by-product of making biodiesel. The

rule of thumb is 79 ml of glycerine per liter of oil used, 7.9%. The glycerine by-product
burns well, but unless it's properly combusted at high temperatures it will release acrolein,
which is toxic. What sinks to the bottom of the biodiesel processor during the settling

29
stage is a mixture of glycerine, methanol, soaps and the NaOH catalyst. Most of the
excess methanol and most of the catalyst remains in this layer. Once separated from the
biodiesel, adding phosphoric acid to the glycerine layer precipitates the catalyst out and
also converts the soaps back to free fatty acids (FFAs), which float on top. You are left
with a light-colored precipitate on the bottom, glycerine/methanol/water in the middle,
and FFA on top. The glycerine will be approx. 95% pure, a much more attractive product
to sell to refiners

Fig. 4.3. Separating funnel

4.7 Handling of biodiesel
As a general rule blends of biodiesel and petroleum diesel should be treated like
petroleum diesel. Biodiesel, vegetable methyl esters, contain no volatile organic
compounds that can give rise to poisonous. There is no aromatic hydrocarbon (benzene,
toluene, and xylene) or chlorinated hydrocarbons. There is no lead or sulphur to react and
release any harmful or corrosive gases. However, in case of biodiesel blends significant
fumes released by benzene and other aromatics present in the base diesel fuel can
continue. On contact with eye, biodiesel may cause irritation to eye. Safety glasses or face
shields should be used to avoid mist or splash on face and eyes. Fire fighting measures to

30
be followed as per its fire hazard classification. Hot fuel may cause burn. Biodiesel
should be handled with gloves as it may cause soft skin. Mild irritation on skin can occur.
There is no risk of explosions from vapours of biodiesel as the flash point is high and the
vapour pressure is less than 1 mm Hg. Large biodiesel spills can be harmful.
Biodiesel methyl esters have very low solubility in water (saturation concentration
of 7 ppm in sea water and 14 ppm in fresh water at 17 oC) compared to petroleum diesel
that contain benzene, toluene, xylene and other more water soluble, highly toxic
compounds. Any accidental discharge / spill of small amounts of biodiesel should have
little impact on the environment compared to petroleum diesel, which contain more toxic
and more water-soluble aromatics. Nonetheless, the methyl esters could still cause harm.
Biodiesel need to be handled like any other petroleum fuels. When biocides are used in
the fuel tank to kill bacteria, suitable handling precautions like use of gloves and eye
protection is must. Nevertheless, extreme discharges of animal fats, vegetable oils and
biodiesel can cause negative impact on aquatic life. Biodiesel spills compare more
favourably to petroleum oil spills.

4.8 Safety precautions while preparing Biodiesel

(1) Wear proper protective gloves, apron, and eye protection.

(2) Do not inhale any vapors.

(3) Be cautious while using methanol. Methanol can cause blindness and death, it is
absorbed through the skin.

(4) Sodium hydroxide can cause severe burns and death. Together these two
chemicals form sodium methoxide. This is an extremely caustic chemical. These
are dangerous chemicals.

(5) Gloves should be chemical-proof with cuffs that can be pulled up over long
sleeves.

(6) Always have running water handy when working with them.

(7) The workspace must be thoroughly ventilated. No children or pets allowed.

31
(8) All methanol containers should be kept tightly closed anyway to prevent water
absorption from the air.

Table 4.1 Blends and their Calorific Values

OIL CALORIFIC VALUE

(kJ/kg)
Pure Diesel 44,000
B10 (5% Methanol, 5% WCO, 90% Diesel) 39,985.50
B15 (5% Methanol, 10% WCO, 85% Diesel) 42,237.25
B25 (5% Methanol, 20% WCO, 75% Diesel) 41,681.11
B35(5% Methanol, 30% WCO, 65% Diesel) 38,660.43

CHAPTER -5
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

32
5.1 Experimental Setup
A single cylinder 4-stroke water-cooled diesel engine having 5 HP as rated
power at 1500 rpm was used for the research work as shown in figure 6. The engine was
coupled to an electrical dynamometer for loading it. A photo sensor along with a digital
rpm indicator was used to measure the speed of the engine. The fuel flow rate was
measured on volumetric basis using burette and a stopwatch. Thermocouples in
conjunction with a digital temperature indicator were used for measuring the engine and
exhaust gas temperatures.
A digital data acquisition system in conjunction with a piezoelectric transducer was
used for the measurement of cylinder pressure data.

Fig. 5.1. Experimental set up of 5 HP diesel engine

33
Fig. 5.2. Schematic Diagram

Fig. 5.3. Fuel Injector parts

34
 Fig.5.4. Fuel pump
5.2 Engine specifications
o Bore - 80 mm
o Stroke - 110 mm
o BHP - 5HP
o C.R - 16.5:1
o Radius of dynamometer - 215mm
o Dynamometer efficiency - 80%
o Ammeter voltage - 220v
o No. of cylinders -1
o Model - ETR 004
5.3 Experimental procedure
1) After carefully going through the preliminaries the decompression lever is pressed
on so that there will not be any air trapping in between the cylinder head and piston.
2) Then the engine is started by rotating the crank by means of hand crank lever by
throwing of the decompression lever at sufficient speed.
3) The engine is allowed and adjusted to pick up the speed and run at rated speed,
smoothly for few seconds at rated speed using the tachometer.

35
 4) Record the time taken for 20cc fuel consumption at no load and the manometer
reading on the panel board.
5) Then the engine is loaded by slowly lowering the copper plate in the water rheostat,
and care should be taken to see that the voltage developed should be always at
220/230 volts by adjusting the field current.
6) After setting the load on the engine at fixed point the time required for 10cc of fuel
is measured and also the difference of manometer reading on the panel board.
7) The pollution values are recorded from Automotive Emission Analyzer setup.
8) The same procedure repeated for the oil blends of 25%, 50% and 75% of coconut
oil with diesel and also for the same proportion of cotton seed oil.

5.4 Preliminaries
 The fuel level in the tank is checked.
 Lubricating oil level with the help of oil stick is checked.
 The three way cock is Open so that the fuel flows to the engine as well to the
burette.
 The cooling water valve is adjusted, so that the water flows continuously.
 The water level is checked and tank is filled water is not up to the level in the
water rheostat.

5.5 Formulae used

1. Brake power (BP) = (V*I)/ (Eff.of gen* 1000)

where V = voltage in volts

I = load on the engine in amps.

Efficiency of D.C generator = 0.8

Measured fuel (10cc)*Sp.gravity*60*60

2. Fuel consumption (FC) = -------------------------------------------------

Time taken in second *1000

36
 3. FP is calculated from the graph in between FC and BP by using Willian’s line
method

Evaluation of Friction Power

In this method total fuel consumption (FC) vs. B.P at constant speed is plotted and
the graph is extrapolated back fuel consumption the point where the graph cuts the BP
axis is an indication of the FP of the engine at the speed. This negative work represent the
combined loss due to mechanical friction, pumping and blow by. This test is only
applicable to compression ignition engines.

4. Indicated power (IP) = BP+FP

where BP = Brake power
FP = Friction power
5. Actual discharge (Qact) = Cd * A *(2gH)1/2
where Cd=coefficient of discharge=0.62
A=Area of section of orifice=∏d2/4
d=Diameter of orifice==0.02m
H=Manometer reading in meters of air = (10 * hw) / (density of air)
hw=water column in meters.
Density of air (ρ a) = Atmospheric pressure / (R x T)
ρ a = Pa * 10/ (29.27 *(273+T))
Actual mass(ma) = Qact*density*3600

6. Theoretical discharge (Q the) = (∏/4 * D2* L * N)/60

where D = Diameter of the cylinder in meters. =0.08m

L = stroke length=0.11m
N = Speed in R.P.M=1500 rpm

7. Mechanical Efficiency (ŋmech) = BP/IP

8. Volumetric efficiency (ŋvol) = Qact/Qthe

9. Brake thermal Efficiency (ŋbthe) = IP / (FC * C.V)

37
 10. Indicate thermal Efficiency (ŋbthe) = BP / (FC * C.V)

11. Air Fuel ratio (A/F) = (mact)/ FC

5.6 Sample calculations (Pure Diesel)

1. Brake power (BP) = (V*I)/(Eff.of gen * 1000)

= (254x1.9)/ (0.8x1000)
= 0.6032 kW

where V = voltage in volts = 254 volts

I = load on the engine in amps = 1.9 amperes.
Efficiency of D.C generator = 80%

2. Total fuel consumption/hr (FC) =

(Measured fuel (10 cc)*Sp.Gravity *60*60)

= …………………………………………
Time taken in seconds* 1000

10x0.8527x60x60
= ………………………
56x1000

= 0.5481 kg/hr

3. FP is calculated from the graph in between FC and BP by Willian’s line method

FP = 0.7 kW
4. Indicate Power (IP) = BP + FP
= 0.6030+0.7
=1.303 kW
where BP = Brake Power = 0.603kW

38
 FP = Friction Power =0.7 kW

5. Actual discharge (Qact ) = C d * A * (2gH)½

= (0.62 * 3.14 * 10-4 ) * ( 2*9.81*18.29)½

= 3.733x10-3 m3/sec

where, C d = coefficient of discharge =0.62

A = Area of section of orifice = ∏ d2 /4

= ∏ * 0.022 /4
= 3.14 * 10-4 m2
where, d=Diameter of orifice=0.02m

(10 *hw)
H= Manometer reading in meters of air = ------------------------
(Density of air)

Density of air (ρ a) = Atmosphere pressure / (R x T)

= (Pa)/(0.287 *( 273+T))
= 1.164 kg/m3
6. Theoretical discharge (Q the) = (∏/4 D²* L * N)/ 60

= (∏/4x 0.08² x 0.11 x 15 1500) /60

= 13.82 x10-3 m3 /sec

where, D = Diameter of the cylinder in meters. =0.08m

L = stroke length= 0.11m

N = Speed in R.P.M=1500rpm

39
 7. Mechanical Efficiency (ŋmech) = BP/IP

= 0.620/2.27 = 27.31%

8. Volumetric efficiency (ŋvol) = mact/mthe

28.039
= -----------------
28.961

= 96.78%
9. Indicate thermal efficiency (ŋithe) = IP / (FC * C.V)
= 1.303/((0.5481x3600)x44000)
= 33.91%
10. Break Thermal efficiency (ŋbthe) = BP / (FC * C.V)
= 0.60320/((0.5481/3600) x 44000
= 12.26%
Air fuel ratio(A/F) = (ma/FC)
= 56.63%

5.7 Viscosity (Pure Diesel)

To determine Relative Viscosity
Time for 50ml of oil = 29 sec
Time for collecting 50ml of water = 30 sec
Relative viscosity = 29/30 = 0.9666
Kinematic viscosity = (At-B/t) centi-stoke
= (0.26*29-(179/29))
= 1.367 centi-stoke
Density = ρ-0.00657(T-15.5) gm/cm³
=0.83-0.000657(30-15.5)=0.8204 gm/cm³
Absolute viscosity =K.v*ρ
=1.367*0.8204
=1.1214 centi poise

40
 CHAPTER - 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The experiment is carried out for different blends of Waste cooking oil (Palm oil),
Methanol and diesel and the performance is evaluated for all the blends. Considering the
readings obtained in this chapter the properties and different efficiencies of blends were
compared with diesel and are shown graphically.

6.1 Engine performance

6.1.1 Mechanical Efficiency

Fig.6.1. Load Vs Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency at various loads of the engine is shown in the Figure 6.1. It
can be seen that for diesel at partial loads and maximum load Mechanical efficiency is
higher than that of other blends. This may be due to better lubricating property of the oil,
which reduces frictional losses.

41
6.1.2 Fuel consumption

1.5
Fuel consumption

1 Diesel
B10
(kg/h)

0.5
B15
0
B25
5 10 15 20 25 30
B35
Load (kg)

Fig. 6.2. Load Vs Fuel consumption

From the figure 6.2 we can see that Fuel consumption is increased for all
blends and diesel as load is increased. Diesel has higher values when compared to that of
diesel and other blends.

6.1.3 Brake Thermal Efficiency

40
30
Diesel
ηbth
(%)

20
B10
10
B15
0
B25
5 10 15 20 25 30
B35
Load (kg)

Fig. 6.3. Load Vs Brake Thermal Efficiency

42
 The above figure 6.3. shows the variation of Brake thermal efficiency with
variation of loads. It can be seen from graph that Brake thermal efficiency in all cases it
increased with increased in load. This is due to reduction in heat loss and increase in
power with increase in load. The maximum Brake thermal efficiency was obtained for
diesel, which is higher than that other blends.

6.1.4 Brake specific Fuel consumption

Fig. 6.4. Load Vs Brake specific Fuel consumption

From the figure 6.4. we can see that the brake specific fuel consumption is almost
similar for all fuels. On keen observation it is clear that for B10 it is more and for B15 it
is less. We know that fuel consumption increases with load. From the marked graph we
can see that as load increases fuel consumption also increases.

43
 CHAPTER -7
CONCLUSION
The energy consumption is ever on the rise increasing global warming too. This
has brought renewable energy source and alternate fuels into focus. Using biodiesel is
another new option but it’s cost is more. Thus a viable option is to blend biodiesel with
other fuels to make it environment friendly and reduce the pressure on mineral fuels.
Here in this project we used Methanol and Waste cooking oil (Palm oil) as
blended fuels. By keeping methanol at constant proportion and by varying waste cooking
oil and diesel in different proportions we prepared this blended fuel. The cost of
production of this fuel is also less compared to conventional fuels.
The experimental investigation was carried out for different blends of Waste
cooking oil and Methanol and the performance was evaluated and compared with diesel.
Waste cooking oil and Methanol blends(Biodiesel) can be directly used in Diesel engines
without any modifications. Brake Thermal Efficiency of these blends is better than
Diesel. Properties of different blends are very close to diesel and giving good results.
Good mixture formation is the key factor for the good CI engine performance.
This is highly influenced by viscosity, density, and volatility of the fuel. For bio-diesels,
these factors are mainly decided by the effectiveness of the transesterification process.
With properties close to diesel fuel, bio-diesel from Waste cooking oil and Methanol can
provide a useful substitute for diesel thereby promoting our economy.
The engine has been tested with two different oils blended simultaneously with
diesel. Overall performance is good for B10 blend.

7.1 Scope of future work

The past studies reveal that variety of vegetable oils are investigated in CI engines
with little or no modification. The blends of vegetable oils with diesel, pure vegetable
oils were tried and the performance and emissions of these engines are reported. Since
vegetable oils have high viscosity and low volatility, these have shown poor performance
in the conventional CI engines. Engine starting, nozzle clogging, increased smoke, piston
seizure due to deposit formation, lubricating oil deterioration are the problems reported.
All these problems are persisting even with use of esterified oils in engines. Though the

44
researchers have recommended the use of some of the vegetable oils in diesel engines
there is no evidence of any practical oil engines.
Considering the above, the future work is planned carefully. Tested various
vegetable oils such as waste cooking oil and methanol in a single cylinder 4-stroke diesel
engine. It is reported that performance of the engine is good. However the results are not
encouraging and as such the problems like starting ability, nozzle clogging, higher smoke
levels, engine seizure due to deposit formations, lubricating oil degradation etc. are still
persisting. The concept of use of vegetable oils in a single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine
is yet to be investigated thoroughly to develop a feasible vegetable oil based engine.
Different levels of insulation are employed on a conventional CI engine as a first
phase of the experimental work. It is planned to study the effects of various insulation
levels and to identify the best method of insulation. In the best performed a single
cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine, vegetable oils are tried to study the performance. For
solving the problems associated with these oils, next phase of the work is planned with
one of the oils which gives better performance.

45
 REFERENCES
[1] Nabanita Banerjeea, Ritica Ramakrishnana, and Tushar Jash, (2013), "Biodiesel
production from used vegetable oil collected from shops selling fritters in Kolkata", 4th
International Conference on Advances in Energy Research, In Proc.ICAER 2013,
Elsevier, Energy Procedia 54, 161 – 165.
[2] Maurizio Carlinia, Sonia Castellucci and Silvia Cocchia, (2013), "A Pilot-Scale Study
of Waste Vegetable Oil Transesterification with Alkaline and Acidic Catalysts",
Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering Association, Elsevier, In Proc.
ATI 2013. Energy Procedia, 45, 198 – 206.
[3] Wail M. Adaileh and Khaled S. AlQdah, (2012), "Performance of Diesel Engine
Fuelled by a Biodiesel Extracted From A Waste Cooking Oil", Elsevier, SciVerse Science
Direct, 18, 1317 – 1334.
[4] A.M. Liaquat, H.H. Masjukia, M.A.Kalama, M.Varmana, M.A. Hazrata, M.
Shahabuddin and M. Mofijur, (2011), International Conference on Advances in Energy
Engineering (ICAEE 2011), Elsevier, SciVerse Science Direct, Energy Procedia, 14,
1124 – 1133.
[5] Mohammed EL Kassaby and Medhat A. Nemit allah, (2013), "Studying the effect of
compression ratio on an engine fueled with waste oil produced biodiesel/diesel fuel",
Alexandria University, Alexandria Engineering Journal, 1110-0168.
[6] Yasutumi Yoshimoto, Masayuki onodera and Tomaki, H." Reducation of NOx smoke,
and BSFC in a Diesel Engine Fueled by Bio-diesel Emulsion with used Frying oil", SAE
01-3598, 999.
[7] K.F. Haigh, Goran T. Vladisavljevi, James C. Reynolds, Zoltan Nagy and Basudeb Saha,
(2012), " Kinetics of the pre-treatment of used cooking oil using Novozyme 435 for
biodiesel production", International Congress of Chemical and Process Engineering,
Elsevier, CHISA 2012.
[8] Wanodya Asri Kawentar and Arief Budimanm, (2013), " Synthesis of biodiesel from
second-used cooking oil", International Conference on Sustainable Energy Engineering
and Application [ICSEEA 2012], Elsevier, Energy Procedia 32, 190 – 199.
[9] YU, C.W. Bari’s ad Ameen. A, (2004), " A comparison of combustion characteristics
of waste cooling oil with diesel as fuel in a direct injection diesel engine", In Proc. Instn
Mech, Engrs Vol. 216 part D. J.Automobile Engineering.

46
[10] Ramadhas, A.S., Jayaraj. S. and Muraleedharan, C., (2005), " Characterization and
effect of using rubber seed oil as fuel in the compression ignition engines", Renewable
Energy.
[11] Tahir, A.R., H.M. Lapp and L.C. Buchanan, (1982), “Sunflower Oil as a Fuel for CI
Engines”, Vegetable Oil Fuels: Proceedings of the International Conference on Plant and
Vegetable Oils as Fuels, August 2-4, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St.
Joseph, Mich.
[12] Schoedder, C., (1982), “Rapeseed Oil as an Alternative Fuel for Agriculture …
Beyond Energy Crisis Opportunity and Challenge”, Volume III, Third International
Conference on Energy use and Management, Berlin (West), 1982, P. 1815-22.

47
 APPENDIX
Table.A.1. B10 (5% Methanol, 5% WCO, 90% Diesel)

Sl.No Current Voltage Manometer reading(cm) Time BP IP FP

for10cc
(Amps) (Volts) L1 L2 L1-L2 (sec) (kW) (kW) (kW)

1 1.9 244 17 10 7 64 0.5795 1.5295 0.95

2 5.1 232 17 10 7 53 1.479 2.429 0.95
3 8.1 224 17 10 7 45 2.268 3.218 0.95
4 10.7 213 17 10 7 35 2.848 3.798 0.95
5 13.2 204 17 10 7 31 3.366 4.316 0.95
6 15.6 197 17 10 7 25 3.841 4.7915 0.95
ηbth ηmech FC BSFC A/F ratio ηith mact mthe
(%) (%) (kg/hr) (kg/kWh) ηvol (%) (kg/s) (kg/s)
(%)

11.08 21.34 0.4707 0.812 59.561 96.7 29.25 28.039 28.961

19.44 48.88 0.5683 0.386 49.320 96.7 38.48 28.039 28.961
23.50 60.47 0.6694 0.295 41.870 96.7 43.28 28.039 28.961
27.81 65.98 0.860 0.302 32.590 96.7 39.765 28.039 28.961
31.18 70.98 0.9717 0.288 28.846 96.7 39.98 28.039 28.961
28.70 73.17 1.2049 0.313 23.263 96.7 35.80 28.039 28.961

48
 Table A.2. B15 (5% Methanol, 10% WCO, 85% Diesel)

Sl.No Current Voltage Manometer reading(cm) Time for10cc BP IP FP

(Amps) (Volts) L1 L2 L1-L2 (sec) (kW) (kW) (kW)

1 1.9 244 17 10 7 64 0.5795 1.379 0.8

2 5.0 230 17 10 7 53 1.437 2.237 0.8
3 8.1 222 17 10 7 43 2.247 3.047 0.8
4 10.9 215 17 10 7 36 2.929 3.729 0.8
5 13.3 205 17 10 7 32 3.408 4.208 0.8
6 15.6 198 17 10 7 29 3.861 4.668 0.8
ηbth ηmech FC BSFC A/F ratio ηith mact mthe
(%) (%) (kg/hr) (kg/kWhr) ηvol (%) (kg/s) (kg/s)
(%)

9.54 24.12 0.4725 0.815 59.32 96.7 22.73 28.039 28.961

19.6 41.263 0.5706 0.397 49.12 96.7 30.52 28.039 28.961
24.88 58.254 0.703 0.312 39.87 96.7 33.74 28.039 28.961
27.14 69.154 0.8401 0.286 33.36 96.7 34.55 28.039 28.961
28.07 74.98 0.945 0.277 29.66 96.7 34.67 28.039 28.961
28.82 75.2671 1.0428 0.270 26.87 96.7 34.85 28.039 28.961

49
 Table A.3. B25 (5% Methanol, 20% WCO, 75% Diesel)

Sl.No Current Voltage Manometer reading(cm) Time for10cc BP IP FP

(Amps) (Volts) L1 L2 L1-L2 (sec) (kW) (kW) (kW)

1 1.9 242 17 10 7 64 0.5747 2.67 2.1

2 5.1 230 17 10 7 50 1.466 3.566 2.1
3 8.0 221 17 10 7 42 2.21 4.31 2.1
4 10.6 212 17 10 7 37 2.809 4.909 2.1
5 13.2 204 17 10 7 29 3.366 5.466 2.1
6 15.4 195 17 10 7 25 3.753 5.8537 2.1
ηbth ηmech FC BSFC A/F ratio ηith mact mthe
ηvol
(%) (%) (kg/hr) (Kg/kW hr) (%) (kg/sec) (kg/s)
(%)
10.42 21.48 0.4762 0.828 58.88 96.7 48.51 28.039 28.961
20.77 41.11 0.6096 0.415 45.99 96.7 50.52 28.039 28.961
26.30 51.27 0.7257 0.328 38.63 96.7 51.29 28.039 28.961
29.45 57.22 0.8238 0.293 34.036 96.7 51.46 28.039 28.961
27.68 64.58 1.05 0.311 26.70 96.7 44.96 28.039 28.961
26.59 69.12 1.219 0.324 23.00 96.7 41.47 28.039 28.961

Table A.4. B35 (5% Methanol, 30% WCO, 65% Diesel)

50
Sl.No Current Voltage Manometer reading(cm) Time BP IP FP
for10cc
(Amps) (Volts) L1 L2 L1-L2 (sec) (kW) (kW) (kW)

1 1.9 240 17 10 7 59 0.57 1.97 1.4

2 4.9 225 17 10 7 49 1.37 2.778 1.4

3 7.8 217 17 10 7 42 2.11 3.515 1.4
4 10.6 210 17 10 7 35.5 2.78 4.182 1.4
5 13.1 203 17 10 7 31 3.324 4.7241 1.4
6 15.4 195 17 10 7 28 3.753 5.153 1.4
ηbth ηmech FC BSFC A/F ratio ηith mact mthe
ηvol
(%) (%) (kg/hr) (kg/kW hr) (%) (kg/s) (kg/s)
(%)
12.708 28.93 0.4799 0.841 58.42 96.7 43.90 28.039 28.961
21.42 49.60 0.5796 0.420 48.376 96.7 51.26 28.039 28.961
26.70 60.17 0.7143 0.337 39.253 96.7 52.62 28.039 28.961
29.86 66.52 0.8533 0.306 32.859 96.7 52.41 28.039 28.961
31.03 70.36 0.9599 0.288 29.2103 96.7 52.63 28.039 28.961
34.90 72.83 1.0592 0.282 26.471 96.7 52.03 28.039 28.961

51
 Table A.5. Pure Diesel

Sl.No Current Voltage Manometer reading(cm) Time for10cc BP IP FP

(Amps) (Volts) L1 L2 L1-L2 (sec) (kW) (kW) (kW)

1 1.9 254 17 10 7 56 0.603 1.303 0.7

2 5.3 240 17 10 7 50 1.479 2.179 0.7
3 8.3 227 17 10 7 43 2.268 2.968 0.7
4 11.1 218 17 10 7 37 2.848 3.548 0.7
5 13.7 213 17 10 7 32 3.366 4.066 0.7
6 16.2 205 17 10 7 29 3.841 4.541 0.7
ηbth ηmech FC BSFC A/F ratio ηith mact mthe
ηvol
(%) (%) (kg/hr) (kg/kW hr) (%) (kg/s) (kg/s)
(%)
12.26 27.31 0.5481 0.767 56.63 96.7 33.91 28.039 28.961
21.84 42.34 0.6139 0.393 42.85 96.7 31.09 28.039 28.961
27.01 59.6 0.7138 0.297 35.23 96.7 39.612 28.039 28.961
29.55 69.6 0.829 0.305 29.23 96.7 43.8 28.039 28.961
31.68 74.62 0.9592 0.296 24.92 96.7 45.67 28.039 28.961
35.55 77.6 1.258 0.314 22.81 96.7 47.05 28.039 28.961

52
 PROPERTIES OF OIL

Table A.6. Pure Diesel

Flash Point : 42ºC
Fire Point : 46ºC

S.No Temperature Time(t) Kinematic Absolute Density(ρ)

(T) ºC Sec viscosity viscosity gm/cc
(K.V) (A.V)
1 30 29 1.367 1.121 0.8204
2 35 29 1.367 1.117 0.81718
3 40 29 1.367 1.112 0.8139
4 45 29 1.367 1.108 0.8106
5 50 29 1.367 1.097 0.80733

Table.A.7. B10 (5% Methanol, 5% WCO, 90% Diesel)

Flash Point : 45ºC
Fire Point : 50.33ºC

Sl.No Temperature Time(t) Kinematic Absolute Density

(T) ºC Sec viscosity viscosity (ρ)
(K.V) (A.V) gm/cc
1 27 59 11.679 9.785 0.8379
2 35 57 12.610 10.52 0.8346
3 40 52 12.306 10.23 0.8314
4 45 49 9.7220 6.394 0.8281
5 50 48 7.7310 6.079 0.8248
Table A.8. B15 (5% Methanol, 10% WCO, 85% Diesel)
Flash Point : 46ºC
Fire Point : 54ºC

Sl.No Temperature Time(t) Kinematic Absolute Density

(T) ºC Sec viscosity viscosity (ρ)
(K.V) (A.V) gm/cc
1 40 57.2 13.61 10.71 0.8474
2 42 57 12.45 9.85 0.8425
3 47 56.5 11.640 8.62 0.8421
4 52 55 10.48 7.877 0.8401
5 57 44 8.411 7.1955 0.8379

Table.A.9. B25 (5% Methanol, 20% WCO, 75% Diesel)

Flash Point : 48ºC

53
 Fire Point : 53ºC

Sl.No Temperature Time(t) Kinematic Absolute Density

(T) ºC Sec viscosity viscosity (ρ)
(K.V) (A.V) gm/cc
1 50 56.8 15.75 12.6421 0.84589
2 55 55.4 14.23 11.4908 0.84567
3 60 53.6 13.64 9.57223 0.83527
4 65 53.3 12.41 9.60803 0.83944
5 70 52.5 11.80 8.49645 0.83614

Table.A.10. B35 (5% Methanol, 30% WCO, 65% Diesel)

Flash Point : 39ºC
Fire Point : 52ºC

Sl.No Temperature Time(t) Kinematic Absolute Density

(T) ºC Sec viscosity viscosity (ρ)
(A.V) (A.V) gm/cc
1 47 56 19.062 16.126 0.8644
2 52 54 17.076 14.325 0.8639
3 57 52 17.87 14.542 0.8561
4 62 51.5 15.25 12.519 0.8533
5 67 50.8 13.56 9.9592 0.8512

54