UNIT 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Structure
2.1 Introduction 32
Objectives
2.2 Limits 32
Algebra of Limits
Limits as x -+
-(or - -)
One-sided Limits
2.3 Continuity 43
Definitions and Examples
Algebra of Continuous Functions
2.4 Summary 48
2.5 Solutions and Answers 48

The last unit has helped you in recalling some fundamentals that will be needed in this
course. We will now begin the study of calculus, starting with the concept of 'limit'. As you
read the later units, you will realise that the seeds of calculus were sown as early as the third
century B.C. But it was only in the nineteenth century that a rigorous definition of a limit
- was given by Weierstrass. Before him, Newton, d' Alemben and Cauchy had a clear idea
about limits, but none of them had given a formal and precise definition. They had
depended,%moreor less, pn intuition or geometry.
The introduction of limits revolutionised the study of calculus. The cumbersome proofs
which were used by the Greek mathematicians have given way to neat, simpler ones.
You may already have an intuitive idea of limits. In Sec.2 of this unit, we shall give you a
precise definition of this concept. This will lead to the study of continuous functions in
Sec.3. ~ o ' sof
t the functions that you will come across in this course will be continuous. We
shall also give you some examples of discontinuous functions.

Objectives
After ieading this unit you should be able to:
calculate the limits of functions whenever they exist,
identify points of continuity and discontinuity of a function.

2.2 LIMITS
In this section we will introduce you to the notion of 'limit'. We start with considering a
situation which a lot of us are familiar with, such as train travel. Suppose we are travelling
from Delhi to Agra by a train which will reach Agra at 10,00 a.m. As the time gets closer
and closer to 10.00 a.m., the distance of the train from Agra gets closer and closer to zero
(assuming that the train is running on time!). Here, if we consider time as our independent
variable, denoted by t and distance as a function of time, say f(t), then we see that f(t)
approaches zero as t approaches 10. In this case we say that the limit of f(t) is zero as t tends
to 10.
Now consider the function f : R + R defined by f(x) = x2 + 1. Let us consider Tables liij
and l(b) in which we give the values of f(x) as x takes values nearer and nearer to 1.
In Table l(a) we see ;dues of x which are greater than 1. w e can also express this by saying
that x approaches 1 from the right. Similarly, we can say that x approaches 1 from the left in
Tahla 1 fhl
 Table l(a) Limits and iontinulty

Table l(b)

We find that, as x gets closer and closer to 1, f(x) gets closer and closer to 2. Alternatively,
we express this by saying that as x approaches 1 (or tends to I), the limit of f(x) is 2. Let us
now gi.ve a precise meaning of 'limit'.
Definition 1 Let f be a function defined at all points near p (except possibly at p). ~ ebe t ~ definition of limit was fust
This
a real number. We say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches p if, for each real stated by Karl Weierstrass, around
1850.
number E >O, we can find a real number 6 > 0 such that

As youknowfromunit l , I x - p l < 6 m e a r . s t h a t x ~ ] p - 6 , p + 6 [ a n d O < I x - p I means (E epsilon) and 6 (delta) are Greek

that x # p. That is, 0 < I x - p I < 6 means that x can take any value lying between p - 6 and leners used to denote real numbers.
p + 6 except p.
t

The limit L is denoted by lim f (x ), We also write f(x) +L as x + p.. '-+ ' denotes 'rends to'
x -'P
Note that, in the above definition, we take any real number E >O and then choose some
6 > 0, so that L - E < f(x) < L + E , whenever I x - p I < 6, that is, p - 6 < x < p + 6.
' -
The E G definition do& not give
In Unit 1 we have also mentioned that Ix - p I can be thought of as the distance between x us the value of Lilt just helps us
check whether a given number L is'
and p. In the light of this the definition of the limit of a function can also be interpreted as:
the limit of f(x).
Given E > 0, we can choose 6 > 0 such that if we choose x whose distance from p is less than
6, then the distance of its image from L must be less than E. The pictures in Fig. 1 may help
you absorb the definition.

for each & >0 3 a 6 > 0 s.t. O.<lx-cks

Remember, the number & is given' first and the number 6 is to be produced.
An important point to note here is that while taking the limit of f(x) as x + p, we are
concerned only with the values of f(x) as x takes va!ues closer and closer to p, but not when
x'- 1 .
x = p. For example, consider the function f(x) = -. This function is not defined for
x-1
x = 1, but is defined ford1 other x G R. However, we can still talk about its limit as x + 1.
This is because for taking the limit we will have to look at the values of f(x) as x tends to 1,
but not when x = I .
Now let us take the following examples:
Example 1Consider the function f : R + R defined by f(x) = x3 How can we find
lim f (x ) ?
x -ro
Ekments of Mfferential
Calculus

Look at the graph off in Fig.2. You will see that when x is small, x3is also small. As x
comes closer and closer to 0,x3also comes closer and closer to zero. It is reasonable to
expect that lirn f(x) = 0 as x 0.
Let us prove that this is what happens. Take any real number E > 0.Then,I f(x) - 0 1 < E e
1 x3 I <E w I x I < & I n . Therefore, if we choose 6 = &'I3 we get I f(x) - 0 I< E whenever
0 < I x - 0 I < 6. This gives us lim f(x) = 0.
..-
x+O

A useful general rule to prove lirn f (x ) = Lis to write down f(x) - L and then express it in
x+a
terms of (x - a) as much as possible.
Let us now see how to use this rule to calculate the limit in the following examples.
x2- 1
Example 2 Let us calculate lirn
x+, X-1
-
x2- 1
We know that division by zero is not defined. Thus, the function f ( x ) = ---- - is not
x-1
defined at x = 1. But, as we have mentioned earlier, when we calculate the limit as x
approaches 1, we do not take the value of the function at x = 1. Now, to obtain ,
x2- 1 x2-1 -
lirn --- , we first note that x2- 1 = (X- 1) (X + I), SO that, - -x+ 1 for x # 1.
X+l x -1 . --1 x- 1
Therefore lim
X+l
-
ILL

x-1
= lirn (x + 1)
x-t,

As x approaches 1, we can intuitively see that this limit approaches 2. To prove that the limit
is 2, we first write f(x) - L = x + 1 - 2 = x - 1, which is itself in the form x - a, since a = 1
in this case. Let us take any number E > 0.Now,
I(x+~)-~~<E&Ix-~~<E
Thus, if we choose 6 = E, in our definition of limit, we see that

Example 3 Let us prove that lirn (x + 4) = 13.

x-t 3

~ 0, 36 > 0 such that I x2+ 4 -13 1 < E whenever

That is, we shall prove that $ c >
Ix-3L<6.
Here,f(x)- L = ( x Z + 4 ) - 13 =x2-9, a n d x - a = x - 3.
 Now we writeIx2-91 in termsoflx-3 1 I ;wit\ .ind Continuity

Thus, apart from I x - 3 1, we have a factor, namely I x + 3 1. To decide the limits of I x + 3 1,

let us put a restriction on 6. Remember, we have to choose 6. So let us say we choose a
6 5 1. What does this imply?
Ix-31<6aIx-31<1a3-1<~<3+1
2 < x < 4 a 5 < x + 3 <7. RecallSec.4, Unit 1.

For this we shall try to make 7 1 x - 3 1 < E. Now when will this be true? It will be true when
I x - 3 1 < ED. So this &/7is the value of 6 we were looking for. But we have already chosen
6 5 1. This means that given E > 0, the 6 we choose should satisfy

r
In other words, 6 = min ( 1, ~ / 1,7 should serve our purpose. Let us verify this:
I i x - 3 1 < 6 a I x - 3 1 < 1 and Ix-31< & / 7 a I ~ ~ - 9 1 = I ~ + 3 1 I ~ - 3 1 < 7 . ~ / 7 = & .
r Remark 1:Iff is a constant function on R,that is, if f(x) = k +x E R,where k is some
fixed real number, then lim f (x ) = k .
X
-
'
P
Now please try the following exercises.
E E 1) show that
1
a) lim g = 1
x+ 1

x3- 1
b) lim ---- =3
x-,, x-1

Before we go further, let us ask, 'Can a function f(x) tend to two diffixent l i d as x tends
to p'?
I The answer 15 NO, as you can see from the following :
Eiements ot Differential Theorem 1 If lim f (x ) = L and lim f(x) = M, then L = M.
Calculus X+P x-t P
IL-MI
Proof : Suppose L # M, then I L - M I > 0. Since lirn f(x) = L , if we take&= -
x+ P 2 '
,
then 3 6 > 0 such that
Ix-~I<~,*I~(x)-LI<&
Similarly, since lim f (x ) = M , 3 6, > 0 such that
x -+P
Ix-pI<6,~lf(x)-MI<~.
If we choose 6 = min {a,,a,}, then Ix - pl < 6 will mean that Ix-pl < 6 and lx - pi < 6,. ,
In this case we will have both I f(x) - L I < &, as well as, I f(x) - M I < &.
So that I L - M I = I L - f(x) + f(x) - M I 5 I f(x) - L I + I f(x) - M I <& + &
la+blSI al+lbl =2&=lL-MI.
That is, we get I L - M I < I L - M I, which is a contradiction. Therefore, our supposition is
wrong. Hence L =M.
We now state and prove a theorem whose usefulness will-be clear to you in Unit 4.
Theorem 2 Let f, g and h be functions defined on an interval I containing a, except
possibly at a. Suppose
i) f(x)lg(x)Ih(x)+x E I\{a}
ii) lim f(x) = L = lim h (x )
x+ a x +a

Then lim g (x) exists and is equal to L.

x+ a

Proof: By the definition of limit, given e > 0 , 3 6, > 0 and 6, > 0 such that
I f ( x ) - L I < & for O < l x - a I < 6 , a n d
I h ( x ) - L I < E #or O < I x - a I < 6 ,
Let 6 = min {a,,6,}. Then,
O<lx-al<6*lf(x)-LI<& andlh(x)-LI<E

L-&Ih(x)lL+&
We also have f(x) Ig(x) I h(x) +X E I \ {a)
Thus,wegetO<Ix-aI<6*L-&< C(x)Sg(x)Ih(x)IL+&
In other words, 0 < I x - a I < 6 3 I g(x) - L I < &
Therefore lim g (x) = L .
x+ a
Theorem 2 is also called the sandwich theorem (or the squeeze theorem), because g is
being sandwiched between f and h. Let us see how this theorem can be used.
Example 4 Given that I f(x) - 1 I S 3(x + 1)' + X E R, can we calculatelim f (x ) ?
x+-1
We know that -3(x +I), I f(x) - 1 I3(x + +%.This means that
-3(x + 1 I f(x) 1 3 ( x +1), + 1 +x. Using the sandwich theorem and the fact that
lim [-3 (x + 1) + 1 ] = 1 = lim [3(x + 1) + 11, we get lim f ( x ) = 1, ,
2 2
x+-1 x+-1 x-+-1
In the next section we will look at the limits of the sum, product and quotient of functions.

2.2.1 Algebra of limits

Now that you are familiar with limits. Let us state some basic of limits. (Their
proofs are beyond the scope of this course.)
Theorem 3 Let f and g be two functions such that
lim f(x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
x+ P x+ P
lirn [f(x)+ g(x)] = lim f ( x ) + lim g(x) Sum rule
i) x-+p x+ P x+ P

ii) lirn [f(x)g(x)]= Product rule

x+ P

iii) 1 =
lim ---- , provided lim g (x ) + 0 ~ e c i ~ & arule
l
X+P g ( x ) lilipg(x) P'-X
 We can easily prove two more rules in addition to the thsee rules given in' Theorem 3. Limib nnd Continuity
These are:
iv) lirn k = k Constant function rule
x+ P
V) lim x = p Identity function rule
x+ P
We shall only indicate the method of proving iv) and v):
iv) Here I f(x) - L I = I k - k I = 0 < E, whatever be the value of 6.

Using the properties that we have just stated, we will calculate the limit in the following
example.
Example 5 Let us evaluate lim 3 x 2 + 4x
x+ 2 2x + 1
Now lim 2 x + 1 = lirn 2 x + lirn 1 by using i)
x+ 2 x+ 2 x+2

= lirn 2 lim x + lirn 1 by using ii)

,x+2 x-2 x+2

= 2 x 2 + 1 = 5 # 0 by using iv) and v)

-'. We can use (iii) of Theorem 3. Then the required limit is
lim ( 3 x 2 + 4 x ) lirn 3 x 2 + lim 4x
x +2
- x+ 2 x+2
by using i )
lim ( 2 x + 1) lirn 2x + lim 1

lirn 3 lim x lim x + lim 4 lim x

- x+2 x+2 x+2 x-i2 x+2 .
by using ii)
lim 2 lim x + lim 1

You can similarly calculate the limits in the following exercises.

3'
E E 2) Show that lim
x-11
=3

E E 3) Calculate lim 2x + 5
x-11
2.2.2 Limits as x + (or - 00 )
1,
Take a look at the graph of the function f ( ) ~= T > o in Fig.3. This is a decreasing
function of x. In fact, we see from Fig. 3 that f(x) comes closer and closer to zero as x gets
larger and larger. This situation is similar to the one where we have a function g(x) gett~ng
closer and closer to a value L as x comes nearer and nearer to,some number p, that is when
lim g ( x ) = L.
X-iP

The only difference is that in the case of f(x), x is not approaching any finite value, and is

-
just becoming larger and larger. We express this by saying that f(x) + 0 as x,+ m, or
lim f(x) = 0. Note that, is not a real number. We write x + w merely to indicate that
x-i-
x becomes larger and larger.
We now formalise this discussion in the following definition.
Oefinition 2 A function f is said to tend to a limit L as x tends to m if, for each C > 0 it is
possible to choose K > 0 such that I f(x) - L I < E whenever x > K.
In this case, as x gets larger and larger, f(x) gets nearer and nearer to L. We now give
another example of this situation.
Example 6 Let f be defined by setting f(x) = 1/x2for all x E R \ ( 0 ) .Here f is defined for
all real values of x other than zero. Let us substitute larger and larger values of x in
f(x) = 1/x2and see what happens (see Table 2).
Table 2

We see that as x becomes larger and larger, f(x) comes closer and-closer tozero. Now, let us
choose any E > 0. If x >I/&, then 1/x2< E. Therefore, by choosing K = I/&, we find that
x>K~If(x)l<~.Thus,lim f(x)=O.
X+=-

Fig.4 gives us a graphic idea of how this function behaves as x + -.

Fig. 4

Sometimes we also need to study the behaviour of a function f(x3, as x takes smaller and
smaller negative values. This can be examined by the following definition.
Definition 3 A function f is said to tend to a limit L as x + - m if, for each E > 0, it is
possible to choose K > 0, such that I f(x) - L I < E whenever x < -K,
The following example will help you ir, understanding this idea.
Example 7 Consider the function f: R + R defined by

The graph off is as shown in Fig.5.

 Limits and Continuity

What happens to f(x) as x takes smaller and smaller negative values? Let us make a table
(Table 3) to get some idea.

Table 3

L _ _ _ _ - - J - I I I

We see that as x takes smaller and smaller negative values, f(x) comes closer and closer to
zero. In fact 1/(1 + x2)< E whenever 1 + x2> l/&,.thatis, whenever x2 > (I/&)- 1, that is,
whenever either x < - 1; - '12
11 or x > :1 '12
- 11. Thus, we find that if we take
I. /
I
K = -- 1
1'12
,then x < - K=, I f(x) I< E. Consequently, lim f (x ) = 0 .
x-+-00

In the above example we also find that lim f(x) = 0.

x-+-
Let us see how lirn f (x)can be interpreted geometrically.
x -+-
In the above example we have the function f(x) = 1/(1+ x2),and as x + =,,or x+ -.
f(x) + 0. From Fig. 5 you can see that, as x + = or x + - =, the curve y = f(x) comes
nearer and nearer the straight line y = 0,which is the x-axis.

X+ -
Siyilarly, if we say that lirn g(x) = L, then it means that, as x + = the curve y =g(x)
comes closer and closer to the straight line v = L.
x2
Example 8 Let us show that lim = 1.
X+oo (1 + x2)
Now, I x2/(1+ x2)- 1 I = 1/(1 + x2).In the previous example we have shown that
I 1/(1 + x2)1< E for x > K, where K = ( 1 / -~ 1 I'D. Thus, given E > 0, we choose
K = I 1 / -~ 1 Ill2,SO that
x
x>K+ -- 1 1 < & T h i s m e a n s t h a txlim
-$- =1 + x2I .

We show this geometrically in Fig.6.

Y t
Elements of Differential You must be wondering ifall the properties given in Theorem 3 also hold when we take
Calculus limits as x + m. Yes,they do.
You can use them to solve this exercise.
E 4) Show that a) lirn I/x = 0
x+-

b) lirn ( l / x + 3 / x 2 + 5 ) = 5
x+-

Sometimes we cannot use Theorem 2 directly, as is clear in the following example. Let us .
see how to overcome this problem.
3x + 1
Example 9 Suppose, we want to find lirn
x-t-
-
2x+5'
We cannot apply Theorem 3 directly since the limits of the numerator and the denominator,
as x + =, cannot be found.'
Instead, we rewrite the quotient by multiplying the numerator and denominator by l/r,
for x # 0.

Then, --------
3x
2x+5
+ '
= -3t ( I h ) , f o r x +O.NOW we use
2+(5/x) '

Theorem 3 and the fact that:L% I h = 0 (see E 4 a)), to get

lirn (3 + l / x )
?c
. .x+-lirn (2+5/x)
=
-. 3+0
2+0
-3
2
X +-
By now you must be used to the various definitions of limits, so can try this exercise.
E 5 ) a) If for some E > 0, and for every K, 3 x > K s.t.
I f(x) - L I > E , what will you infer?
b) H lirn f (x ) # L ,how can you express it in the E - 6 form?
X+P
1
 We end this section with the following important remark. Limits and Continuity

Remark 2 In case we have to show that a'function f does not tend to a limit L as x
approaches p, we shall have to negate the definition of limit (also see E5(b)). Let us see what
this means. Suppose we want to prove that lim f (x ) # L. Then, we should find some
X-t P
E > 0 such that for every 6 > 0, there is some x E ]p - 6, p + 6[ for which I f(x) - L I > E.
Through our next example we shall illustrate the negation of the definition of the limit of
f(x) as x -+ rn.
Example YO To show that lirn I/x # > 0 such that for any K
I , we have to find some E
x+m
(howsoever large) we can always find an x > K such that I l/x - 1 I > E
Take E = 114. Now, for any K > 0, if we take x = m a (2, K + 1 ), we find that x > K and
I Ilx - 1 I > 114. This clearly .shows that lirn l l x # 1.
x+-

b 2.2.3 One-sided Limits

If we consider the graph of the function f(x) = [x], shown in Fig. 7, we see that f(x) does not
seem to approach any fixed value as x approaches 2. But from the graph we can say that if x
I approaches 2 from the left then f(x) seems to tend to 1. At the same time, if x approaches 2
from the right, then f(x) seems to tend to 2. This means that the limit o f f exists if x
approaches 2 from only one side (left or right) at a time. This example suggests that we
Fig. 7
introduce the idea of a one-sided limit.
Definition 4 Let f be a function defined for all x in the interval ]p, q[. f is said to approach a
limit L as x approaches p from right if, given any E > 0, there exists a number 6 > 0 such
thatp<x<p+ 6+lf(x)-11~6.
In symbols we denote this limit by lirn f (x ) = L
x +p+
Similarly, the function f : ]a, p[ -+ R is said to approach a limit L as x approaches p from
the left if, given any E > 0, 3 6 > 0 such that p - 6 < x < p a I f(x) - L I < E.
This limit is denoted by lirn f (x ) .
x + p-
e in computing these limits the values of f(x) for x lying on only one side of p are
N ~ t that
taken into account.
Let us apply this definition to the function f(x) = [XI.We know that for x E [I, 2[, [x] = 1.
That is, [XIis a constant func!ion on [I, 2[. Hence lirn [ x ] = 1 .Arguing similarly, we find '
x+ 2-
that since [x] = 2 for all x E [2,3[, [x] is, again, a constant functidn on [2,3[, and'
lim, [x] = 2.
x -2

Let us improve our understanding of the definition of one-sided limits by looking at some
more examples.
Example 11 Let f be defined on R by setting

f(x)= y, when x'#O

f(0) = 0
We will show that lim- f ( x ) equals - 1.
x +o
When x < 0, I x I = - x, and therefore, f(x) = (- x)/x = - 1. In order to show thatx!?- f(x)
exists and equals -1, we have to start with any E > 0 and then find a 6 > 0 such that+if.
.- 6,s:x < 0, then I f(x)- (-1) I < E.
Since f(x) = -1 for all x < 0, I f(x) - (- 1) I = 0 and, hence, any number 6 > 0 will work.
.Therefore, whatever 6 > 0 we may choose, if - 6 < x < 0, then I f(k) - (-1) I = 0 < E . Hence,
lim- f ( x ) = -1.
x+ 0

Example 12 f is a function defined on R by setting

'
f(x) = x - [x], for all x E R.
Let us examine whether lim- f ( x ) exists.
x-1

Recall (Unit 1) that this function is given by f(x) = x, if 0 S x < 1.

f(x) = x -1 if 1 -< x < 2, and, in general
f(x) = x - n if n Ix < n + 1 (see Fig.8)
 Llements of Dit'feranlinl
Calculus

A
Y

Fig. 8

Since f(x) = x for values of x less than 1 but close to 1, it is reasonable to expect that
lim f(x) = I .Let us prove this by taking any E > 0 and choosing 5 = min ( 1, €1. We find
x41-
1- 6 < x < 1 * f(x)=xandIf(x)-1 I = I x - 1 I<65&.
Therefore, lim f(x) = 1.
x-11
Proceeding exactly as above, and notlng that f(x) = x - 1 if 1 I x < 2, we can similarly prove
that lim,
+ I f (x)= 0.
-
E E 6 ) Rovathat a) i5y-X- [ X I =1

1x1 = 1
lim -
b) ,40+ x
(x + 2)lx(
C) lim- = -2
x4 0

Before going further, let us see how the concepts of one-sided l~mitand li.t~itare connected.
 Theorem 4 The following statements are equivalent. Limiti and Continuity

i) lirn f (x) exists

X+P
ii) lirn f (x ) and lim f (x ) exist and are equal.
x+ 'p X+ F

Proof :To show that i) and ii) are equivalent, we have to show that i) + ii) and ii) 3 i).
We first prove that i) 3 ii). For this we assume that lirn f(x) = L. Then given E > 0,
x +P
36>OsuchthatIf(x)-LI<&forO< I x - p I < 6 .
Now,O< I x - p I < 6 3 p < x < p + 6 a n d p - 6 < x < p . T h u s , w e h a v e I f ( x ) - L I < ~ f o r
p < x < p + 6 a n d f o r p - 6 < x < p . T h i s m e a n s t h a t l i m f ( x ) = L = lim f(x).
x+ p- x+ p+
We now prove the converse, that is, ii) 3 i). For this, we assume that
lirn f (x ) = lirn f (x ) .= L. Then, given E > 0 , 3 6,, 6, >O
x-3 p- x+ p+
such that

This means that I f(x)- L I < E whenever 0 < I x - p I < 6.

Hence lirn f(x) = L.
x -'P
Thus, we have shown that i) ii) and ii) +
i), proving that they are equivalent.
From Theorem 4, we can conclude that if lirn f(x) exists, then lim f (x ) and lirn f (x )
X-'P x+ p+ x+ F
also exist and further
lirn f ( x ) = lirn f(x) = lirn f (x )
X+P x -rp+ x + p-

Remark 3 If you apply Theorem 4 to the function f(x) = x - [x] (see Example 12), you will
see thatljm (x-- [x] ] does not exist as lim+ ( x 7 [x] } ?t lim- ( x - [x] ),
x+ 1 x+l x+l

We shall use this concept of one-sided limits to define continuous functions in the next
section.

2.3 CONTINUITY
A continuous process is one that goes on smoothly without any abrupt change. Continuity of
a function can also be interpreted in a similar way. Look at Fig. 9. The graph of the function
f i n Fig.9 (a) has an abrupt cut at the point x = 3, whereas the graph of the function g in
Fig.9 (b) proceeds smoothly. We say that the function g is continuous, while f is not.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9 :(a) Graph o f f (b) Graph of g
Continuous functions play a very important role in calculus. As you proceed, you will be
able to see that many theorems which we have stateqin this course are true only for
continuous functions. You will also see that continuity is a necessary ~onditionfor the
derivability of a function, and that it is a sufficient condition for the integrability of a
function. But l h usgive a precise meaning to "a continuous function" now.
I
 2.3.1 Deflnitlons and Examplcs
In this section we shall mive you the definition and some examples of a continuous functiur~.
We shall also give you a short list of conditions which a function must satisfy in order to be
continuous at a point.
kflnltlon S k t f be a function defined on a domain D, and let r be a positive real number
-
such that the interval ]p r, p t r [ c D. Pis said to be ~ntinuousat x = p if lirn f (x ) = f (p) .
X--) 1)
By the definition of limit this means that f is continuous 'at p if given E > 0, 3 6 > 0 such
- -
that I f(x) f(p) I < € whenever I x p I < 6. To clarify this concept let us look at an
example,
Example 13 k t us check the continuity of the function
f :R -+ R such that f(x) = x atthe point x = 0. .
Now, f(0) = 0. Thus we want to know if lirn f (x ) = 0 .
x -0
This is aue because given e z 0,we can choose 6 = E and verify that I x I < 6 3 I f(x) I < E
Thus f is continuous at x = 0.
Remark 4 f is continuous at x s p provided the following two criteria are met:
i) lirn f (x ) exists.
*-+ P
ii) lirn f(x )= f @ ) .
I-+ P

Fil. 10 : (a) Graph d f @I *rph dl/@

Fig. 10 shows two discontinuous functions f and g. Criterion i) is not met by f, whereas g
.fails to meet criterion ii). If you read Remark 3 again, you will find.that f(x) = x - [XI
is not
continuous at x =l. But we have seen that we can calculate one-sided limit8 of f(x) = x - [XI
at x = 1. This leads us to the following definition.
Definition 6 A function f : ]p, q[& R is said to be continuous from the right at x =p if
lim+f(x )= f @). We say that f is continuous from the left at q if lirn f(x) = f(q) .
x-9 P x-9 q-
Thus, f(x) =x - [x] is continuous from the right but not from the left at x =1 since
lim- f(x)# f(1) and lim+ f(x) = f(1) = 0.
X-rl x+ 1

E E 7) Give E - 6 definition of continuity at a point from the right as well as from the left.
 E 8) Show that a function f: ]p - r, p + r[ + R is continuous at x = p if and only i f f is
continuous from the right as well as from the left at x = p (Use Theorem 4).

1
Now that you know how to test the continuity of a function at a potnt, let us go a step
further, and define continuity of a function on a set.
Definition 7 A function f defined on a domain D is said to be continuous on D, if it is
continuous at every point of D.
Let us see some more examples.
Example 14 Let f(x) = xn for an x 6 R and any n E ZC.Show that f(x) is continuovs at &I\ttw set 0 , IIO~I~IVLIntegers.
x = p f o r a l l p ~ R.
:
We know that lirn x = p for any p E R. Then, by F e product rule in Theorem 3, we get
x+a
lim x " = (lim x) (lim x ). .
x+ P x+p x+p
... (lim
*+ P
x) (n times)

= pp . . . . . p (n times) = d . Therefore , lim f(x] exists and equals f(p). Hence f is

X +D
continuous at x = p. Since p was any arbitrary number in R, we can say that f is continuous
on R.
Remark 5 Using Example 14 and Theorem 3, we can also. probe that polynomial
a, + a,x + . . . . . . + anxn,where a,, a, . . . . . . an E R, is continuous on R, that is,
lirn (a, + a,x + . . . . . . + anxn)= a, + alp + . . . . . . + anpnfor all p E R.
x+ P
Example 15 The greatest integer fu~ctionf : R + R : f(x) = [x] is discontinuous at x = 2.
To prove this we recall our discussion in Sec. 2 in which we have proved that lime f(x) = I
x+ 2
and lirn f (x ) = 2. Thus, since these two limits are not equal, lim f (x ) does not exist.
x+2+ x+ 2
Therefore, f is not continuous at x = 2 because the first criterion laid down in Remark 4 is
not met.
Example 16 Let f(x) = I x I for all x e R. This f is continuous at x = 0.
Here f(x) = x, if x 2 0, and f(x) = - x if x < 0. YOU can sm that
lirn f ( x ) = lirn x = O=f(O)and
r+g+ x + ~ +
'lim- f(x ) = lim- (- x ) = 0 = f(0). Thusr lirn f (x ) exists and equals f(0). Hence f is
0 x+ 0
-x+ x+ 0
continuous at x = 0 . - - -
Note :f is also continuous at every other point of R. (Check this statement).
Example 17 Suppose we want to find whether f(x) =
x2- I
x-1
- is continuous at.x = 0.
In Fig. 11 you see the graph of f. It is the line y = x + 1 except for the pointi(l,2). We can write fix) a x + I for all
x + 1.
Elements of Uiflewntial
Calculus f(O) = (02- l)/(O - I) = 1 and
lirn f ( x ) = lirn ( x 2 - 1)/(x - I ) = lirn ( x + I ) = 1
x 4 0 x +o x-i 0

lirn f (x )= f (0), so that f is continuous at x = 0.

x 4 0

The exponential function f(x) = exand the logarithmic function f(x) = In x are continuous
functions. You can check this by looking at their graphs in Unit 1. Similarly, x -+ sinx and
x -+ cosx are continuous. x -+ tanx is continuous in 1- p/2, n/2[. This fact is quite obvious
from the graphs of these functions (We have given their graphs in Unit 1). We shall not
attempt a rigorous proof of their continuity here.

Caution :Checking the continuity of a function from the smoothness of its graph is not a
fool-proof method. If you look at the graph (Fig. 12) of the function x + x sin (l/x), you
will find that it has no breaks in the neighbourhood of x = 0. But this function is not
continuous. Observe that the graph oscillates wildly near zero.

Fig.12

E E 9) Show that the function f :R .+ R given by f(x) -. l/(xz - 9) is continuous at all points
of R except at x = 3 and x = -3.
 Now that we know how to check whether a function is continuous or not, let us go further, Limits and Continuity
and talk about'the continuity of some combinations of functions.

2.3.2 Algebra of Contihuous Functions

Let f and g be functions defined and continuous on a common domain D E R, and let k be
any real number. In Unit 1, we defined the functions f + g, fg, f/g (provided g(x) + 0 any
where in D), kf and I f t The following theorem tells us about the continuity of these
functions.
Theorem 5 Let f and g be functions defined and continuous on a common domain D, and let
k be any real number. The functions f + g, kf, I f I and fg are all continuous on D. If g(x) # 0
anywhere in D, then the function f/g is also continuous on D.

rl We shall not prove this theorem here.

In Unit 1, you have studied the important concept of composite functions. In Theorem 6, we
will talk about the continuity of the composite of two continuous functions. Here again, we
shall state the theorem without giving proof as it is beyond the level of this course.
Theorem 6 Let f : Dl + D, and g : D, + D, be continuous on their domains. Then gof is
continuous on D,. (Dl, D,, D, C R).
Example 18 To prove that f : R + R : f(x) = (x2 + is continuous at x = 0, we'consider
the functions g : R + R: g(x) = x' and h : R -+ R :h(x) = x2 + 1. You can check that
f(x) = goh (x). Further. by Remark 5, h is continuous on R, and g is also continuous on R.
Thus, goh = f is continuous on R.
Let us see if the converse of the above theorems are true. For example, iff and g are defined
on an interval la, b] and iff + g is continuous on [a, b], does that mean that f and g are
continuous on [a. b] ?
No. Consider the functions f and g over the interval [0,1] given by

Then nelther f nor g is continuous at x F 112. (Why?) But (f + g) (x) = 1+x E [O, I].
Therefore, f + g is continuous on [0, I].
Now. if I f I is continuous at a point p, must f alsp be continuous at p? Again, the answer is
NQ.'Take, for example, the function f :R + R given by

Then I f(x) I = 1 in R and hence I f I is continuous.

But f is not continuous at x = 0 (Why?)
E E10) I f f : . R + R i s d e f i n e d b y f ( x ) =

is f continuous at a) x = 1 b) x = - 3/2?
Element#of DUlemtlal Before we end this unit. we shall state an important theorem concerning continuous
Clleuhfi functions. Once again, we won't prove this theorem here. But try to understand its statement
because we shdll be using it in subsequent units.
Theorem 7 (Intermediate Value Theorem) Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a,b].
Suppose c is a real number lying between f(a) and f(b). (That is, f(a) < c < f(b) or
f(a) > c > f(b)). Then there exists some xo E ]a.h[, such that f(x0)= C.
How can we interpret this geometrically? We have already seen that the graph of a
continuous function is smooth. It does not have any breaks or jumps. This theorem says that,
if the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) lie on two opposite sides of a line y = c (see Fig.13). then
the graph off must cross the line y = c.

Note that this theorem guarantees only the existence of the number x,. It does not tell us how
to find it.'Another thing to note is that this xo need not be unique.
That brings us to the end of this unit.

2.4 SUMMARY
We end this unit by summarising what we have covered in it.
I Tlw limi: of a function f a t a point p of its domain is L if given E > 0,36 > 0, such that
-
I f(x) I, I < e whenever ! x - p I < 6.
2 One-sided limits
3 lirn f (x )exists if and only if
X+P
lim f (x ) and x rim
-+:-
f (x ) h t h exist and are equal.
X4P
4 A function f is continuous at a point x = p if
lim f(x) = f(p)
X+P
#
5 If the function f and p are continuous on D. then so are the functions f + g, fg, ! f I, kf
(where k E R)flg (where g(x) ;t 0 in D)
6 The Intermediate Value Theorem : If f is continuous on [a, b] and if f(a) < c < f(b) (or
f(a) > c > f(b) ), then
3x, E la, 'b[ such that f(x,) = c.

2.5 SOLUTrONS AND ANSWERS

E 1) a) Given any E > 0, if we choose S = min ( ~ 1 2112).
, then
Ix-lI<6$1/2~~>112
 Llmlts and Contlnultj3

Ix-1 I<l/2 -
Given E > 0, if we choose 6 = min ((2/7)~,1/21, then
x<3/2 -x+2<7/2and

Thatis.1~-1IcG : : : 1-- Ice

3

Hence, lirn
x+l
-
xJ- 1
X - 1
= 3.
lirn 3
E 2) lirn 3/x =
x-31
-
x+l
lim x
= 311 = 3
x-31 .

5 lirn x 2
x+ 1
x-3 1
x +1

E 4) a) Given E > 0 if we choose K = I/&,then

x > K a I l/x-OI=I l/xI<I/K=&.
Thus, lirn l/x = 0
x+

b) Given E > 0, if we choose K = 11 fi, then

x > K * I 1 / ~ ~ - 0 1 11/x1l<
= 1/K2=E
Hence. lirn l/x = 0
x+
Now, lirn (1 /x
- + 3/x2 + 5)
x+-
= lim l / x + 3 lirn l / x 2 + lirn 5 = 0 + 3 x 0 + 5 = 5
X +- x+- x.+-
E 5 ) a). lirn f(x) # L
X-+"

b) 3 e > 0, s.r. 4 6 > 0 3 x s.t. I x - p I c 6 and I f(x) - L I > e.

E. Ii .I) Since x - [x] = x - 2, 2 5; x < 3,

" +3
-
l i m x [ X I = lirn x - 2 = 1
x -3-
h) .lim (x(/x = lirn x/x = 1,
K+ o+ x+p+
]XI= x for x > 0.

( x 2 + 2)Ixl (x2 + 2)(-x)

C, x+o-
lim
x
= lim
x+o- X
- sincelxl=-x forx<O

= lim
x-0-
- (x2 + 2 ) ~ -s 2
I

E 7) f is continuous from the right at x = p if +be 5 0 there exists a 6 > 0 set.

p c x c p + 6 *lf(x)-f(p)l<e
f is continuous from the left at x = p if +E > 0 there exists a 6 0 s.t.

E f is continuous at x = p a lim f(x) = f(p)

x -'P
3 lim+ f (x ) = f @) and lirn f (x ) = f @) by Theorem 4
x-hp-
X+P
+ f is continuous from right and from left at x = p.
I f f is continuous from right and left,
a lim f ( x ) = f @ ) = lirn f(x)
x+p+ x-' p-

a lim f (x ) exists and = f (p)

x-' P
 Elements of Differential 1 - = ---- -
I Calculus E9) lim f ( x ) = -
K+ a lim x 2 - 9 a2 - 9 - f ( a ) f o r a l l a e x c e p t a = + 3
x+ a

Hence f is continuous at all points except at f 3, f is not defined at f 3.

E 10) a) f is not continuous at x = 1. For E = 1 and any 6 > 0, if x is any non-integer
E 11- 6, 1 + 61,then
I f(x) - f(1) I = I -1 -1 I = 2 > E.
b) f is continuous at -312. Since given E > 0, if we choose 6 < 112, then
I x - (-312) 1 < 112 3 - 2 < x < - 1 x e Z and hence I f(x) - f(- 3/2)1= 0 < E.