1.

INTRODUCTION

Wireless is the one of the fastest growing segments of communication industry. A principle
goal of currents communication research and development is the creation of integrated network
with shared resources to convey all type of information to all desired locations. Although abundant
technology exists today for economically transporting the necessary volumes of information
between intermediate network nodes, the connections of user terminals to network remains costly
and restrictive. A major portion of the cost of LAN's is in interconnecting the user devices, which
expert acknowledge can sometime exceed the cost of the terminals and associated software, labor
and material costs for wiring are always significant, whether, the medium is twisted pair, coaxial
cable or fiber optics and whether it is for the initial installation or subsequent rewiring due to move
add or changes.

The widespread strategic reliance on networking among competitive business and the
meteoric growth of the Internet and online services are strong testimonies to the benefits of shared
data and resources. With wireless technology, users can access shared information without looking
for a place to plug in, and network managers can set up or augment networks without installing or
moving wires. Using IR devices it is possible to transmit and receive data without the need for
wired connections. Thus, Infrared wireless systems combine data connectivity with user mobility.

The following project aims to enable PC-to-PC communication using Infrared beam by
designing the prototype for the IR module. To achieve serial communication between two PCs we
make use of the IR module. Two such modules are made use of here by connecting them to the
COM ports of the two PCs between which data transfer has to be achieved. One of them works as a
transmitter while the other works as a receiver and vice versa. The data signals from the
transmitting PC are converted from the RS-232C compatible levels at the COM port to TTL levels
which power the Infrared LEDs. In the circuit for the IR module we make use of IC MAX 232 for
this particular level conversion (i.e. from RS-232C to TTL and vice versa). This light is directed
onto the IR module of the receiver where this light beam is detected by the photodiode. The
photodiode breaks down when IR light falls on its junction. The optical signals received by the
photodiode are converted back to electrical pulses corresponding to the RS-232 level. Thus data
communication takes place between the PCs as if there is virtually a modem cable connected
between them.

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 2. COMPONENTS

2.1 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs):

LED is an opto-electronic device. opto-electronics is the technology that combines optics

and electronics. This field includes many devices based on the p-n junction. Examples of opto-
electronic devices are photodiodes, opto-couplers, etc.

OPERATION:

In a forward biased diode, free electrons cross the junction and fall in holes. As these
electrons fall from a higher to lower energy level, they radiate energy. In ordinary diodes this
energy goes off in the form of heat. But in LED, energy radiates as light. LEDs have replaced
incandescent lamps in many applications because of their low voltage, long life and fast on-off
switching. Ordinary diodes are made up of silicon and an opaque material that blocks the passage of
light. LEDs are different. By using elements like gallium, arsenic and phosphor, LEDs radiating
red, green, yellow, blue and infrared (invisible) are manufactured. LEDs that produce visible
radiation are useful with instruments, calculators, etc. The IR LEDs finds applications in burglar
alarm systems and other areas requiring invisible radiation.

VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS:

LEDs have atypical drop from 1.5 to 2.5volts for currents between 10 to 50milliamps. The
exact voltage drop depends on the LED current, color, tolerance, etc. The schematic symbol for
LED is shown below. The outward arrow symbolizes the radiated light. Allowing 2volts for LED
drop, we can calculate an LED current using,
I = (10v-2v)/680ohm =11.8mA.

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DESIGN GUIDELINES:

The brightness of the LED depends on the current. Ideally the best way to control brightness
is by driving the LED with a current source. The next best thing to a current source is a large supply
voltage and a large series resistance.

2.2 CAPACITORS

A capacitor is basically a device, which store an electric charge. Physically it consists of two
metal plates or electrodes separated by an insulating material or dielectric. Application of a dc
voltage across the capacitor will produce a deficiency of electrons on the positive plate and excess o
electrons on the negative plate. This differential accumulation of electron represents an electric
charge, which builds up to a certain level and then remains at that level. The insulator acts as a
locking device for current flow in dc. In the case of ac being applied to the capacitor, the charge
built up during one half cycles becomes reserved on the second half of the cycle, so that effectively
the capacitor conducts current through it as if the dielectric did not exist. Thus as far as ac is
concerned, a capacitor is a coupling device.

Like resistors, capacitors may be designed to have fixed values or be variable in capacity.
Fixed capacitors are the main building blocks of a circuit. Variable capacitors are mainly used for
adjusting tuned circuits. The dielectric material used determines the type of the capacitor. Fixed
capacitors are classified into two types. They are:
1. Non-polarized capacitors
2. Polarized or Electrolytic capacitors.

Non-polarized capacitors consist of metallic foil interleaved with sheets of solid dielectric
material or equivalent construction. The important thing is that, the dielectric is readily available
before assembly. As a consequence it does not matter which plate is made positive or negative. The
capacitor will work in just the same way: whichever may round it is connected in a circuit. Hence
the description ‘non-polarized’. But this form of construction does not limit the amount of
capacitance, which can be accommodated in a single ‘package’ of reasonable physical size. Up to
about 0.1microfarad, the physical size of a non-polarized capacitor tends to become excessively
large in comparison with other components likely to be used in the same circuit. This limitation
does not apply in the case of an electrolytic capacitor. Hence initial construction consists of two

3
electrodes separated by a thin film of electrolyte. As final stage of manufacture a voltage is applied
across the electrodes, which has the effect of producing a very thin film of non-conducting metallic
oxide on the surface of one plate to form the dielectric.

The fact that capacitance of a capacitor increases, as thinner the dielectric is made. It means
that, very much higher capacities can be produced in smaller physical sizes. The only disadvantage
is that an electrolytic capacitor made in this way will have a polarity corresponding to the original
polarity with which the dielectric was formed. This correct polarity is marked on the body of the
capacitor. If it is connected the other way, the reversed polarity can destroy the dielectric film and
permanently ruin the capacitor.

NON-POLARIZED CAPACITORS:

 PAPER DIELECTRIC CAPACITORS:

They are generally recognizable by their tabular form, are the least expensive but generally
bulky and are very useful when compared with modern types. Their other main limitation is that
they are not suitable for use at frequencies much above 1MHz, which virtually restricts their
application to circuits. They are generally available in capacities from 0.05microfarad up to 1 or
2microfarad, with working voltages from 200 to 1000volts. Plastic impregnated paper dielectric
capacitors may have much higher working voltages.

 CERAMIC CAPACITORS:
They are now widely in miniaturizing AF and RF circuits. They are relatively inexpensive
and are available in a wide range of capacities from 1picofarad to 1microfarad with high working
voltages and also characterized by high leakage resistance. They are produced in both disc and
tabular shapes, also as metallized ceramic plates.

 SILVER-MICA CAPACITORS:
They are more expensive than ceramic capacitors but have excellent high frequency
response and smaller tolerance, so are generally regarded as superior for critical RF applications.
They can be made with very high working voltages.

4
  POLYSTYRENE CAPACITORS:
They are made from metallic foil interleaved with polystyrene film, usually with a fused
polystyrene enclosure to ensure high insulation resistance. They are noted for their low losses at
high frequencies, good stability. Values may range from 10picofarad to 0.1microfarad, but working
voltage generally falls substantially with increasing capacity.

POLARIZED CAPACITORS:
The original material used for electrolytic capacitors was aluminum foil, together with a
paste electrolyte, wound into a tabular form with an aluminum outer cover, characterized by
‘dimpled’ rings at one or both ends.

TOLERANCE OF FIXED CAPACITORS:

Only silver-mica capacitors are made to close tolerance. The tolerance on other types of
capacitors is usually between 10 and 20percent and may be even higher in the case of aluminum foil
electrolyte. Because of the wide tolerances normally with electrolytic, choice of actual value is
seldom critical.

VARIABLE CAPACITORS:
Variable capacitors are based on interleaved sets of metal plates, one set being fixed and
other movable. The plates are separated by a dielectric, which may be air, or a solid dielectric.
Movement of one set of plates alters the effective area of the plates, and thus the value of
capacitance presents. Tuning capacitors are larger, more robust in construction are generally of air-
dielectric type. Trimmer capacitors are usually based on a mica or film dielectric with a smaller
number of plates, capacity being adjusted by trying a central screw to vary the pressure between
plates and mica. Because they are smaller in size, a trimmer capacitor may sometimes be used as a
tuning capacitor on a sub-miniature circuit, although special miniature turning capacitors are made
for radio designed to mount directly on a PCB. In turning capacitors, the shape of the vanes
determines the manner in which capacitance changes with spindle movement.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 LINEAR:
Each degree of spindle rotation produces an equal change in capacitance. This is the most
usual type chosen for radio receivers.

5
  LOGARITHMIC:
Each degree of spindle movement produces a constant percentage change in frequency of
tuned circuits.

 EVEN FREQUENCY:
Each degree of spindle movement produces an equal change in frequency of tuned circuits.

 SQUARE LAW:
The change in capacitance is proportional to the square of the angle of spindle movement.

2.3 TRANSISTORS
When a third doped element is added to a crystal diode in such a way that two PN junctions
are formed. The resulting device is known as a transistor. The transistor, an entirely new type of
electronic device, is capable of achieving amplification of weak signals in a fashion comparable and
often superior to that realized by vacuum tubes. Transistors are far smaller than vacuum tubes, have
no filament and hence need no heating power and may be operated in any position. Though
transistor is only slightly more than 45 years old, yet it is fast replacing vacuum tubes in almost all
applications.

TRANSISTOR:
A transistor consists of two PN junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there are two types of transistors,
namely
I. n-p-n transistor
II. p-n-p transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of

p-type as shown in figure. However, a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a
thin section of n-type as shown in figure. In each type of transistor, the following points are
considered:

a) These are two PN junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a combination of

two diodes connected back to back.

6
 b) There are three terminals, taken from each type of semiconductor.
c) The middle section is a very thin layer. This is most important factor in the function of a
transistor.

NAMING THE TRANSISTOR TERMINALS:

A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one
side is the emitter and the section on the opposite side is the collector. The middle section is called
the base and forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.

 EMITTER:
The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes) is called the
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so that it can supply a large
number of majority carriers. In figure, the emitter (p-type) of pnp transistor is forward biased and
supplies hole charges to its junction with the base. Similarly, in figure the emitter (n-type) of npn
transistor has a forward bias and supplies free electrons to its junction with the base.

 COLLECTOR:
The section on the other side that collects the charges is called the collector. The collector
is always reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction with the base. In figure
the collector (p-type) of pnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the
output circuit. Similarly, in figure the collector (n-type) of npn transistor has reverse bias and
receives electrons.

 BASE:
The middle section, which forms two PN junctions between the emitter and collector, is
called the base. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for the emitter
circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased, which provides high resistance in the collector
circuit.

1. The resistance of emitter diode is very small as compared to collector diode. Therefore,
forward biased applied to the emitter diode is generally very small whereas reverse bias on the
collector diode is much higher.

7
TRANSISTOR ACTION:
The emitter-base junction is always forward biased whereas collector-base junction is
always reverse biased. If for a moment, we ignore the presence of emitter-base junction, and then
practically no current would flow in the collector circuit because of the reverse bias. However, if the
emitter-base junction is also present, then forward bias on it causes the emitter current to flow. It is
seen that this emitter current almost entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, the collector in
the collector circuit depends upon the emitter current. If the emitter current is zero, then collector
current is nearly zero. However, if the emitter current is 1mA, then collector current is also about
1mA. This is precisely what happens in a transistor.

WORKING OF NPN TRANSISTOR:

An npn transistor with forward bias to emitter-base junction and reverse biased collector-
base junction is in the figure. The forward causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards
the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the p-type base,
they tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few
electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes to constitute base current I B. The remainder (more than
95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the
entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that the emitter current is the sum of
collector and base currents i.e. IE=IB+IC.

WORKING OF PNP TRANSISTOR:

The basic connection of pnp transistor is shown in the figure. The emitter-base junction is
forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. The forward bias causes the hole in
the p-type emitter to flow towards the bias. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these holes
cross into the n-types base, they tend to combine with the electrons. As the base is lightly doped and
very thin, therefore, only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with electrons. The remainder (more
than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute collector current I C. In this way, almost
the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It may be noted that current condition within
pnp transistor is by holes. However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still by
electrons.

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IMPORTANCE OF TRANSISTOR ACTION:
The input circuit (i.e. emitter-base junction) has low resistance because of forward bias
whereas output circuit (i.e. collector-base junction) has high resistance due to reverse bias. The
input emitter current almost entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, a transistor transfers
the input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit. This is the key
factor responsible for the amplifying capability of the transistor.

TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS:
The transistor is represented by schematic diagrams .The symbols used for npn and pnp
transistors are shown in the figure.

BASE
EMITTER COLLECTOR

EMITTER P N P COLLECTOR
E C

B BASE

Fig 2.1 SCHEMATIC SYMBOL OF PNP TRANSISTOR

BASE
EMITTER COLLECTOR

EMITTER N P N COLLECTOR
E C

B BASE

Fig 2.2 SCHEMATIC SYMBOL OF PNP TRANSISTOR

In the above figure the emitter is shown by an arrow, which indicates the direction of
conventional current flow with forward bias. For the npn connection, it is clear that electrons flow
9
into the emitter. This means that conventional current flow out of the emitter as indicated by the
outgoing arrow in figure. Similarly, it can be seen that for pnp connection, the conventional current
flows into the emitter as indicated by the inward arrow.

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER:
A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The basic
circuit of a transistor is shown in the figure. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base
junction and output is taken across the load RC connected in the collector circuit. In order to achieve
faithful amplification, the input circuit should always remain forward biased. To do so d.c. voltage
VEE is applied in the input circuit in addition to the signal. This d.c. voltage is known as bias voltage
and its magnitude is such that it always keeps the input circuit forward biased regardless of the
polarity of the signal.

As the input circuit has low resistance therefore a small change in signal voltage causes an
appreciable change in emitter current. This causes almost the same change in collector current due
to transistor action. The collector current flowing through a high load resistance R C produces a large
voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the
collector circuit. It is in this way that a transistor acts as an amplifier.

IE IC

SIGNAL
IB RC 5k

VEE VCB

Fig. 2.3 Transistor as an amplifier

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2.4 RESISTORS
Resistors are designed to provide some desirable or necessary amount of resistance to
current flow in a circuit and also to drop voltages. Resistors do not generate electrical energy but
merely absorb energy, which the resistor dissipates in the form of heat. It behaves in the same way
in both ac and dc circuits. Resistance of any material is given by, R=I/A where, R is resistance (in
ohms), is resistivity (in ohmmeter), l is length of material (in meter) and A is the cross
sectional area of the material m. Power dissipated by a resistor is given by, P=IR where, P is power
dissipated (in watts), I is the value of current and R is the value of resistance.

RESISTOR SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Resistance value in ohms.
2. Tolerance as a percentage of nominal value.
3. Power ratings in watts.
4. Voltage rating in volts.

POWER RATING:
The physical size of a resistor is no clue to its resistance value but it is enough guide to it
power rating. Physical size range from about 4mm long by 1mm diameter up to about 50mm long
by 6mm or more diameters with power rating 1/20th watt to 10 watts respectively. The power
rating is related to the types as well as size. Power rating indicates a safe maximum, which the
resistor can tolerate without damage.

VOLTAGE RATING:
Voltage ranging is the maximum operating voltage for a resistor. This is usually in the order
of 240 volts or more. Voltage rating is not important for resistors used in battery circuits. Resistors
used in main circuits must have a suitable voltage rating.

TOLERANCE:
Tolerance is percentage on either side of the nominal value of resistance. For example, 10%
tolerance on 1kilo ohms is anything between 900 and 1100ohm.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS BASED ON CONSTRUCTION:

 CARBON:
It is also called carbon -composition, molded-carbon and carbon rod. These are in the form
of a small rod moulded from carbon and a binder, with wire connected at each end. The rod is
protected with a paper or ceramic sleeve or a lacquer coating. These are generally available in
values from 10 ohm to 22 mega ohms. Standard types are available in 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1 and 2 watt
rating. Carbon resistors above 60 degree Celsius change their resistance.
 CARBON FILM RESISTORS:
These are also known as high stability carbon resistors. These are manufactured by depositing
a thin film of carbon on a small ceramic rod. The rod is fitted with metal end caps, to which wire
leads are attached. A varnish, paint or silicon resin coating usually protects the body of the resistor.
Some types may be encased in a ceramic, plastic or glass outer coating.

ADVANTAGES:
Carbon film resistors are little affected by temperature changes and have low noise.
POWER RATINGS:
They are available in sizes of 1/20 and 1/10 watt power rating and larger sizes up to 1 watt
power rating.
APPLICATIONS:
They are used in radio circuits as they have excellent high frequency characteristics.

METAL FILM RESISTOR:

These are made by depositing a metallic film (usually nickel chromium) on a glass of
ceramic rod. A helical track is cut in the film to produce the required resistance value. Metallic ends
caps as then fitted carrying the wire leads. A lacquer, paint or plastic coating protects the body.

ADVANTAGES:
Stable to variations in temperature and low noise but they are very costly.

POWER RATINGS:
They are produced in miniature sizes with power rating from1/10 watts upwards.

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EFFECT OF HIGH FREQUENCIES:
The general effect of increasing frequency in ac circuit is to decrease the apparent value of
the resistor and higher the resistor values the greater this change is likely to be. This effect is more
in carbon composition and wire wound resistors. Carbon film and metal film resistors all have
stable high frequency characteristics

PRESET OR VARIABLE RESISTOR:

Variable resistor consists of a resistive track swept by wipes arm. The position of the wire
arm determines the length of track in circuit and thus the actual resistance present. The track may be
circular or in a straight line. The carbon track potentiometers are the cheapest but are available only
with moderate power rating. Tolerances are usually of the order of 10% or 20% but may be much
closer with precision potentiometers. Connections should be as shown in the figure:

2
1 3

RESISTANCE TRACK

WIRES
KNOB (used for turning wires)

1 3

Fig. 2.4 Preset representation

With connection to end 1 of the track and the wipes, length 1 to 3 of the resistive track is in
circuit. Actual resistance in the circuit can be varied by moving the wipes towards 3 (increasing
resistance in the circuit) or towards (decreasing the resistance in the circuit). If the change in
13
resistance occurs proportionally to the actual length of the track involved, it is known as a linear
potentiometer and if the change in logarithmic then it is called log potentiometers.

3. RS-232

RS-232 stands for ‘Recommend standard number 232’ and ‘C’ is the latest revision of the
standard. According to the RS-232 standard the terminal or computer is named the DTE device
(Data Terminal Equipment) and the modem is named as the DCE device (Data Circuit-terminating
Equipment). These terms are used to indicate the pin-out for the connectors on a device and the
direction of the signals on the pins.

DESCRIPTION:

The MAX232 contains the following sections:

 Dual charge-pump DC-DC voltage converters,
 RS-232 drivers,
 RS-232 receivers.

 DUAL CHARGE-PUMP VOLTAGE CONVERTER:

The MAX220–MAX249 have two internal charge-pumps that convert +5V to ±10V
(unloaded) for RS-232 driver operation. The first converter uses capacitor C1 to double the +5V
input to +10V on C3 at the V+ output. The second converter uses capacitor C2 to invert +10V to
-10V on C4 at the V- output.
A small amount of power may be drawn from the +10V (V+) and -10V (V-) outputs to
power external circuitry. V+ and V- are not regulated, so the output voltage drops with increasing
load current. Do not load V+ and V- to a point that violates the minimum ±5V EIA/TIA-232E
driver output voltage when sourcing current from V+ and V- to external circuitry. For applications
where a +10V external supply is applied to the V+ pin (instead of using the internal charge pump to

14
generate +10V), the C1 capacitor must not be installed and the SHDN pin must be tied to VCC.
This is because V+ is internally connected to VCC in shutdown mode.

 RS-232 DRIVERS:
The typical driver output voltage swing is ±8V when loaded with a nominal 5kΩ RS-232
receiver and VCC = +5V. Output swing is guaranteed to meet the EIA/TIA- 232E and V.28
specification, which calls for ±5V minimum driver output levels under worst-case conditions. These
include a minimum 3kΩ load, VCC = +4.5V, and maximum operating temperature. Unloaded
driver output voltage ranges from (V+ -1.3V) to (V- +0.5V). Input thresholds are both TTL and
CMOS compatible. The inputs of unused drivers can be left unconnected since 400kΩ input pull-up
resistors to VCC are built in. The pull-up resistors force the outputs of unused drivers low because all
drivers invert. The internal input pull-up resistors typically source 12µA, except in shutdown mode
where the pull-ups are disabled. Driver outputs turn off and enter a high-impedance state—where
leakage current is typically microamperes (maximum 25µA)—when in shutdown mode, in three-
state mode, or when device power is removed. Outputs can be driven to ±15V. The power supply
current typically drops to 8µA in shutdown mode. When in low-power shutdown mode, the driver
outputs are turned off and their leakage current is less than 1µA with the driver output pulled to
ground. The driver output leakage remains less than 1µA, even if the transmitter output is back
driven between 0V and (VCC + 6V). Below -0.5V, the transmitter is diode clamped to ground with
1kΩ series impedance. The transmitter is also zener clamped to approximately VCC + 6V, with a
series impedance of 1kΩ. The driver output slew rate is limited to less than 30V/µs as required by
the EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 specifications. Typical slew rates are 24V/µs unloaded and 10V/µs
loaded with 3Ω and 2500pF.

 RS-232 RECEIVERS:
EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 specifications define a voltage level greater than 3V as logic ‘0’, so
all receivers invert. Input thresholds are set at 0.8V and 2.4V, so receivers respond to TTL level
inputs as well as EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 levels. The receiver inputs withstand an input over
voltage up to ±25V and provide input terminating resistors with nominal 5kΩ values. The receivers
implement Type 1 interpretation of the fault conditions of V.28 and EIA/TIA-232E. The receiver
input hysteresis is typically 0.5V with a guaranteed minimum of 0.2V. This produces clear output
transitions with slow-moving input signals, even with moderate amounts of noise and ringing. The
receiver propagation delay is typically 600ns and is independent of input swing direction.

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ELECTRICAL STANDARDS:
The EIA232 standard uses negative bipolar logic in which a negative voltage signal
represents logic’1’, and positive voltage represents logic’0’.Voltages of +3v To +25v indicates an
“ON” or 0-state (MARK) condition. The range of voltages between –3v and +3v is considered a
transition region for which a signal state is not assigned. The “dead area” between +3vand –3v is
designed to absorb line noise. The commonly used voltages are +12v and –12v. The Rs232 standard
states that DTE devices have a male DB25 connector, and utilize 22 of the 25 available pins for
signals or ground and DCE devices use a female DB25 connector, and utilize the same 22 of the 25
available pins for signals or ground. For this reason in many modem PCs a DB-9 male connector is
used. Hence one or more of these connectors are found in the rear panel of the pc.
Modern computer equipment ignores the negative level and accepts a zero voltage level as
the “OFF” state. In fact, the “ON” state may be achieved with lesser positive potential. This means
circuits powered by 5v DC are capable of driving RS232 circuits directly; however, the overall
range that the RS232 signal may be transmitted and/or received may be dramatically reduced.

Voltage

+25v
Logic ‘0’ Space Space
+3v
Transition region -3v
Mark
Logic ‘1’
-25v
Fig. 3.1 Signal state voltage assignment

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RS-232 PIN DESCRIPTIONS:

PIN NO. PIN DESCRIPTION & SIGNAL DIRECTION

1 Carrier Detect (CD) (from DCE) Incoming signal from a modem.

DB 9 PIN CONNECTOR ON A DTE DEVICE (PC CONNECTION)
2 Received Data (RD) Incoming Data from a DCE.

3 Transmitted Data (TD) Outgoing Data to a DCE.

4 Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Outgoing handshaking signal.

5 Signal Ground Common reference voltage.

6 Data Set Ready (DSR) Incoming handshaking signal.

7 Request To Send (RTS) Outgoing flow control signal.

8 Clear To Send (CTS) Incoming flow control signal.

9 Ring Indicator (RI) (from DCE) Incoming signal from a modem.

TABLE 3.1 DB 9 PIN CONNECTOR ON A DTE DEVICE (PC CONNECTION)

PIN NO. PIN DESCRIPTION

DB 25 PIN CONNECTOR ON A& SIGNAL
DTE DIRECTION
DEVICE (PC CONNECTION)
2 Transmitted Data (TD) Outgoing Data (from a DTE to a DCE).

3 Received Data (RD) Incoming Data (from a DCE to a DTE).

4 Request To Send (RTS) Outgoing flow control signal controlled by

DTE.
5
Clear To Send (CTS) Incoming flow control signal controlled by DCE.
6
Data Set Ready (DSR) Incoming handshaking signal controlled by DCE.
7
Signal Ground Common reference voltage.
8 DB 25 PIN CONNECTOR ON A DTE DEVICE (PC CONNECTION)
Carrier Detect (CD) Incoming signal from a modem.
20
TABLE 3.2 DB 25 PIN CONNECTOR ON A DTE DEVICE (PC CONNECTION)

17
 4. IC MAX 232

An RS-232 port can supply only limited power to another device. The number of output
lines, the type of interface driver IC, and the state of the output lines are important considerations.
Almost all digital devices that we use require either TTL or CMOS logic levels. Therefore the first
step to connecting a device to the RS-232 port is to transform the RS-232 levels back into 0 and 5
volts This is done by RS-232 Level Converters.

The types of driver ICs used in serial ports can be divided into three general categories:
1. Drivers, which require plus (+) and (-) voltage power supplies such as the 1488 series of
interface integrated circuits. (Most desktop and tower PCS use this type of driver.)
2. Low power drivers, which require one +5 volt power, supply. This type of driver has an
internal charge pump for voltage conversion.(Many industrial microprocessor controls use this
type of driver)
3. Low voltage (3.3v) and low power drivers which meet the EIA-562 Standard. (Used on
notebooks and laptops.)

Two common RS-232 Level Converters are the 1488 RS-232 Driver and the 1489 RS-232
Receiver. Each package contains 4 inverters of the one type, either Drivers or Receivers. The driver
requires two supply rails +7.5 to +15v and –7.5 to –15v. As you could imagine, this may pose a
problem in many instances where only a single supply of +5v is present. However the advantages of
these ICS are they are cheap. Another device is the MAX-232 .It includes a charge pump, which
generates +10v and –10v from a single 5v supply. This IC also includes two receivers and two
transmitters in the same package. This is handy in many cases when you only want to use the
Transmit and Receive data lines. You don’t need to use two chips, one for the receive line and one
for the transmit. However all this convenience comes at a price, but compared with the price of
designing a new power supply it is very cheap. There are also many variations of these devices. The
large values of capacitors are not only bulky, but also expensive. Therefore other devices are
available which use smaller capacitors and even some with inbuilt capacitors. However the MAX-
232 is the most common, and thus this RS-232 Level Converter is used here.

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 1 16
C1+ VCC
V+ GND
C1- TR1OUT
C2+ RE1IN
MAX 232
C2- RE1OUT
V- TR1IN
TR2OUT TR2IN
RE2IN 8 9 RE2OUT

fig. 4.1 The pinsout for max-232

VCC

10F 1
+ 2 V+ C1+ +
4 3 10F
C2+ C1-
+ V- 6
10F 10F
C2-
5 MAX 232 +

13 12

8 9

7 10

14 11

Fig. 4.2 Typical MAX 232 circuit

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 5. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

A wireless data network must satisfied a number as expectations and requirements regarding
its functionality, capacity, performance and availability. Reliability and accuracy is the key to the
installation. The wireless interface should be transparent to the existing network operating systems
and applications software. It must also confirms to network management standard and be
compatible with network management products, thereby providing automated methods for reporting
problems and controlling network devices. The high preferences requirement is more than jus high
bit rates and low delay. Wireless system must be able to compensate for intermittent signal fading.

HARDWARE:

The function of the hardware circuit is to transmit the information to another PC as well as
to receive the information from that PC. The communication over the short distance of 2 to 3 meters
is established using infrared diode. This range can be increase up to few kilometers using FM
transmitter and receiver. Also LASER diode module can be used for few kilometers range. MAXIM
Corporation’s IC Max232 is used for level conversion. This IC needs only a single power supply of
5 volt for level conversion. It converts TTL +5v to -9v RS232 and TTL 0v to =9v RS232 and vice
versa.

RS232 COM-PORT:

Data signal send from the computer is transmitted through Pin-3 of 9 pin (or 2 of 25pin) D-
connecter. 9 pin D-connecter is connected at Com-1 or Com-2 port of system. These ports are used
for serial communication. Voltage level at the port is +9 or -9 volt corresponding to ‘1’ and ‘0’ data.

Function of various pins of 9 pin D-connecter and 25 pin D-connecter (in bracket it is given
pins of 25 D-connecter) are as follows;

Pin-1(8): At this pin data carrier is detected, this pin is called DCD (data carrier detect) pin.

Pin-2(3): Data is received at this pin, this pin is kwon as RX (receiver data) pin.

Pin-3(2): Data is transmitted through this pin, called TX (transmit data) pin.

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Pin-4(20): At this pin, ‘data terminal ready for transmission’ signal is provided.

Pin-5(7): This is ground (GND) pin.

Pin-6(6): This is ‘data set ready’ pin, called DSR (data set ready) pin.

Pin-7(4): At this pin request signal for sending the data is transmitted.

Pin-8(5): At this pin data carrier is detected, this pin is called DCD (data carrier detect) pin.
Data is received at this pin, this pin is kwon as RX (receiver data) pin.
At this pin, ‘data terminal ready for transmission’ signal is provided.

Data is transmitted through this pin, called TX (transmit data) pin.

This is ground (GND) pin.
s is ‘data set ready’ pin, called DSR (data set ready) pin.
At this pin request signal for sending the data is transmitted.
his is clear to send pin (CTS).
This is clear to send pin (CTS).

Pin-9(22): This is ring indicator pin (RI).

In this project pins 1, 4 and 6 are shorted together. Pin 7 and 8 is also shorted. Pin-5 is ground pin
and pin-3 is used as transmitter while pin-2 as receiver pin.

NEED FOR MODULATION:

While testing the circuit I faced problem with red plastic – encapsulated diode as well as
clear Darlington detectors probably because of various light souse in the room causing corruption of
the data. To avoid this problem, modulation of the signal is done with the help of timer IC-555. It
includes 30 kHz modulator in the transmitter and used IR receiver modules, which include a band,
pass filter and demodulator for 38 kHz carrier.

 DESCRIPTION OF THE PINS OF TIMER IC 555:

Basically, it consists of two comparators, a flip-flop, discharge transistor, an output stage

and a potential divider arrangement that sets the comparators reference levels at +Vcc/3and
+2Vcc/3 as the three resistances are identical. The comparators’ output decides the fate of the flip-
21
flop and subsequently the output. In the astable mode of operation, pins 2 and 6 are joined together
and a capacitor connected from the ground. There are two external resistance’s connected between
pins (7) and (8) and between pins (7) and (2, 6). Initially, comparator (2) sets the flip-flop and the
output is HIGH. The output goes LOW when capacitor charges to +2Vcc/3 driving comparator (1)
output HIGH and resetting the flip-flop. The capacitor also discharges through the now turned on
discharge transistor and the cycle repeats. In the monostable mode, trigger terminal is kept high and
a negative trigger (from VCC to ground) will initiate a pulse whose width is determined by external
RC timing circuit.

Pin - 1: of 555 is the ground terminal.

Pin - 2: of 555 is the trigger terminal. If the voltage at this terminal is held greater than one-third
of VCC, the output remains LOW. A negative going pulse from VCC to less than Vcc/3 triggers the
output to go HIGH. The amplitude of the pulse should be able to make the comparator (inside the
IC) change its state. However, the width of the negative going pulse must not be greater than the
width of the expected output pulse.

Pin – 3: is the output terminal of IC 555. There are two possible output states. In the LOW output
state, the output resistance appearing at pin (3) is very low (approximately 10 ohm).As a result, the
output will source zero current if the load is connected from pin (3) to ground and sink a current
ISINK ( depending upon load ) if the load is connected from +V CC to pin (3). In the high output state,
there appears a resistance of approximately 10 ohm between (V CC) and pin (3). As a result, the
output sources a current (depending upon load) if the load is connected from pin (3) to ground and
sinks zero current if the load is connected between +VCC and pin (3).

Pin - 4: is the reset terminal. When unused, it is connected to +VCC. Whenever the potential of pin
(4) is driven below 0.4 V, the output is immediately forced to LOW state. The reset terminal
enables the timer over-ride command signals at pin (2) of the IC.

Pin – 5: is the control voltage terminal. This can be used to alter the reference levels at which the
timer comparators change state. A resistor connected from pin (5) to ground can do the job.
Normally, 0.01F capacitor is connected from pin (5) to ground. This capacitor bypasses any supply
noise and does not allow it to affect the threshold voltages.

Pin - 6: is the threshold terminal. In both astable as well as monostable modes, a capacitor is
connected from pin (6) to ground. Pin (6) monitors the voltage across the capacitor when it charges
22
from the supply and forces the already HIGH output to go LOW when the capacitor reaches
+2Vcc/3.

Pin – 7: is the discharge terminal. It presents an almost open circuit when the output is HIGH and
allows the capacitor charge from the supply through an external resistor or resistors and presents an
almost short circuit when the output is LOW and allows the capacitor to discharge through it and an
external resistor if any.

Pin – 8: is the +VCC terminal. 555 can operate from any supply voltage from +3 to +18V and is the
compatible with both TTL logic and op-amps.

 OPERATION OF TIMER IC IN MONOSTABLE MODE:

Pin (2) of 555 is initially HIGH which keeps the output held LOW. There can be charging of
the capacitor under these output conditions. When Pin (2) is triggered by a negative going pulse
(VCC to ground), the output goes HIGH for reasons already explained. The capacitor starts charging
with the positive transition of the output from LOW to HIGH. The charging occurs through R. At
that moment capacitor C attains a voltage equal to 2Vcc/3; the output goes to LOW state forcing the
capacitor to discharge through internal discharge transistor. Now, the output stays LOW state. So,
there will always be a pulse at the output for every trigger (negative) at Pin (2). The output pulse
shall have width determined by R1, R2 and C. The width of the pulse  shall be the time taken by
the capacitor to charge from zero to 2Vcc/3. This time can be found out from the expression for
instantaneous voltage across C during a charging process.

VC=VCC (1- e–t/ (R1+R2)C)

Or 2Vcc/3 = VCC (1- e–t/(R1+R2)C)

‘t’ will now be the time in which ‘c’ would charge to 2Vcc/3 from zero.

Now,

e–t/(R1+R2)C = 1/3

or -t/(R1+R2)C log10e=log(1/3)

23
or t=(R1+R2)C log103/log10e

In general, if R is the total charging resistance, then pulse width () shall be given by

t= 1.1RC

if the frequency of the trigger pulse is f Hz, output frequency will also be f Hz only as one trigger
gives one output pulse.

IR Rx MODULE:

I have used Siemens SFH-506-38, IR Rx module. It can be also replaced by TK 19-907

(TSOP 1838) or any other equivalent. IR Rx module includes a band pass filter and demodulator for
38 KHz carrier. It modulates the received signal.

OTHER COMPONENTS:

 NPN Transistor BC-547

 Infrared LEDs

 Diode IN 4148

 Resistances of value: 47Ω, 330Ω, 1k, 1.2k, 2.2k, 4.7k, 10k

 Capacitances of value: 470µf/25v, 1µf/25v, 0.01µf

24
 6. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

Software for data transmission is developed in ‘C’ language. For better understanding of
software program, I have included certain additional information along with the function
declarations. The base addresses for the serial communication ports are shown in table. The offset
addresses used for serial communication is shown in table IV. Various registers are:

THR (Transmitter holding register) – when written to port.

RDR (Received data register) – when read from the port.

IER (Interrupt enable register)

LCR (Line control register)

MCR (Modes control register)

LSR (Line status register) – read only

MSR (Mode status register) – read only

For serial port initialization, the program makes use of BIOS interrupt 14H service 00H.It
initializes the serial port pointed to the contents of dX register (0 for com-1 and 1 for com-2 port).
The content of "al" register initialize the specific communication port for the baud rate, parity, stop
bit, code, and character size code as per table V.

The transmitter holding resister (THR) and receiver dada resister (RDR) both at address
base +0 (the former being write (only) and latter being (read) only act as buffer during transmission
and reception, respectively, of a character. The other most important register, which is referred in
the software program frequently, is the Line status register (LSR). The Line status register (LSR) at
base + 5 (i.e. 03 FDH for com-1 port or 02 FDH for com-2 port). Meaning of each of the bit of
status register is as follows:

Bit

1= Data ready

1= Overrun Error
25
 1= Parity Error

1= Framing Error

1= Break interrupt

1= Transmitted holding register empty

1= Transmitter shift register empty

1= 16550 PE/FE/Break in FIFO queue

Its bit 0 is set when a byte is logged in the receiver buffer register and cleared when the byte is read
by the CPU. Its bit 6 is set when both the transmitter holding register and transmitter shift register is
empty.

PROGRAM ANALYSIS:

Software program is written in ‘C’ language for COM-1 port initialized for 600 baud’s. It
can be changed 1200, 2400, 4800, etc by changing the content of "al" register in the initialization
function to 83H, or A3H, etc in place of 63H. Similarly for using COM-2 port, change all addresses
starting with OX3f…. to OX2f……. etc in the program. With the information included in table and
some knowledge of "C" programming, we would be able to understand program with the help of
comments already included at various places in program. Function of the software programs are as
fallows:

 FUNCTION FOR RECEIVE (FOR DEVICE ALIGNMENT):

Alignment of both PC is necessary, otherwise data will be lost. Alignment is check by this
function. In this function data at Com Port-1 is check, if there is data then device is properly aligned
otherwise not.

 FUNCTION FOR FILE RECEIVES:

This function is used for file reception. It ask for file name, show device is ready for
receiving the file data .Expected time for receiving the file data is calculated by this function. It
checks the data at Com Port-1 by counting the byte. This function also show received file status. If
transmission is terminated abnormally, it indicates that and saved the received data.

26
  FUNCTION FOR SEND (FOR DEVICE ALIGNMENT):

This function checks the device alignment during transmitting the data. A sentence is typed
and sends at Com Port-1 for check.

 FUNCTION FOR FILE TRANSFER:

This function transfers the file from one system to another system. If incorrect file name is
given then it show that, that file dos not exists. File length is calculated and shown how many bytes
has been sand.

 INITIALIZATION FUNCTION:

This function set the baud rate, parity bit, data bits, stop bits, Com Port address and
complete communication interrupts.

 FUNCTION FOR SPLASHED SCREEN:

This function is used for splashed of screen. It gives structure for palettes colors,
combination of RGB colors etc.

27
 7. CIRCUIT DESIGNING AND WORKING

In this project two set of hardware requires for the two PC’s. A single circuit works both as
transmitter and receiver. Maxim Corporation’s IC Max 232 is used as voltage converter. IC-555,
which is a timer IC, is used for modulation of transmitted signal. Data is serially transmitted one by
one bit.

TRANSMITTER:
Data signals transmitted through pin 3 of 9-pin (or pin 2 of 25 pin) ‘D’ connector of RS232
COM port are sent to pin 8 of MAX232 and it converts these ELA (Electronic Industry Association)
RS232 compatible levels of +/-9V to +/-5V TTL levels as given in table1.The output pin 9 of
MAX232 IC drives the pnp transistor SK100 and powers the IRLEDS. Output pin9 also drives an
LED indicator (LED2) goes off, but drives the pnp transistor through a bias resistor of 1Kilo-ohm
(R5), to switch ‘on’ IRLED1 and IRLED2 and also a visible LED3. Since very low drive current is
used use of high efficiency visible LEDs, which light up at 1mA, is needed. The electrical pulses
sent by the COM port are now converted into corresponding modulated pulses of IR light.

RECEIVER:
The IR signals are detected by a photodiode(D1) (A Photodiode is reverse biased and breaks
down when IR light falls on its junction).The detected TTL level (0/5v) signals are coupled to pin
10 of MAX-232 IC. These TTL levels are converted to +/-9V levels internally (as per table1) and
output at pin 7. A visible LED1 at pin 7 of MAX-232 IC indicates that the signals are being
received. Pin 7 is also connected to pin 2 (receiver pin) of 9-pin (or pin 3 of 25-pin) ’D’ connector
used for the serial port in the PC, so that the data may be read. The optical signals received by the
photodiodes are in fact converted to electrical pulses and both PCS ‘think’ that there is a null
modem cable connected between them.Table2 shows the correspondence between some PCS the
serial port is terminated into a 9-pin connector and in some others into a 25-pin ‘D’ connector.

28
29
 8. CONCLUSION

The project is based on unique IR wireless communication between two PC’s. With the help
of the above work we can efficiently transfer the file or character from one PC to another using IR
medium.

The advantage of using this technique is that the transmission is secure since IR radiation
cannot cross the obstacle, thus the information can not be tapped from outside the building. Also the
transfer occurring in one room does not interfere with the transfer in another room.

The disadvantages are that universal transmission is not possible since any obstacle in the
way of IR will abruptly abort the transfer. Also sometime the light of the environment could
interfere in transmission, but this problem could be resolved using LASER. Also by using laser
range can be increased from 3 meter to 10 meter.

9. BIBLOGRAPHY

 Dale Buch Holz, Paul odlyzko, Mark Taylor, Richard white "Wireless Network Architecture
& Protocols" , IEEE Network Magazine, vol-5, No-6, pp 31-38, Nov-1991.

 D. J. Goodman, R. A. Valenzala "Packet reservation multiple access for local wireless",

IEEE Network Magazine, vol-37, No-8, pp 885-890, Aug-1991.

 Computer networks, Tanenbaum A. S., Prentice hall of India Pvt Ltd., 1994.

 Electronics For You, March-1999.

 Electronics For You, November-2000.

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