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HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Module V: Radiation: Nature of thermal radiation-definitions and concepts- monochromatic and total emissive power-
Intensity of radiation- solid angle- absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity-Concept of black body- Planck’ law- Kirchoff’s
law- Wein’s displacement law-Stefan Boltzmann’s law- black, gray and real surfaces-Configuration factor (derivation for
simple geometries only)- Electrical analogy- Heat exchange between black/gray surfaces- infinite parallel plates, equal and
parallel opposite plates-perpendicular rectangles having common edge- parallel discs (simple problems using charts and
tables). Radiation shields (no derivation).
RADIATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Radiation heat transfer is defined as “the transfer of energy across a system boundary by means of
an electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference. Whereas the heat,
transfer by conduction and convection takes place only in the presence of a medium, radiation heat
transfer does not require a medium. Radiation exchange, in fact, occurs most effectively in vacuum.
Further, the rate of heat transfer by conduction and convection varies as the temperature difference to the
first power. Whereas the radiant heat exchange between two bodies depends on the difference between
their temperature to the 'forth power'. Both the amount of radiation and the quality of radiation depend
upon temperature.
Examples: The dissipation from the filament of a vacuum tube or the heat leakage through the
evacuated walls of a thermos flask are some familiar examples of heat transfer by radiation. The
contribution of radiation to heat transfer is very significant at high absolute temperature levels such as
those prevailing in furnaces, combustion chambers, nuclear explosions and in space applications. The
solar energy incident upon the earth is also governed by the laws of radiation.
The energy which a radiating surface releases is not continuous but is in the form of successive
and separate (discrete) packet or quanta of energy called photons. The photons are propagated through
space as rays; the movement of groups of photons is described as electromagnetic waves. All types of
electromagnetic waves are classified in terms of wavelength and are propagated at the speed of light (c)
i.e.3 × 108 m/s. The electromagnetic spectrum in shown in Fig. 1.1 The distinction between one form of
radiation and another lies only in its frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) which are related by,
c = λ× f (1 . 1)
The emission of thermal radiation (range
lies between wavelength of 10 -7 m and 10 -4 m)
depends upon the nature, temperature and state of
the emitting surface; however, with gases the
dependence is also upon the thickness of the
emitting layer and the gas pressure. Thermal
radiations exhibit characteristics similar to those of
visible light, and follow optical laws. These can
reflect, refracted and are subject to scattering and Fig. 1.1. Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
absorption when they pass through a media. They get polarized and weakened in strength with Inverse
Square of radial distance from the radiating surface.
1.2 SURFACE EMISSION PROPERTIES
The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon (i) The temperature of the surface, (ii)
The nature of the surface and (iii) The wavelength or frequency of radiation.
1.1.1. The parameters which deal with the surface emission properties:
(i) Total emissive power (E): The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted
by a body per unit area and time. It is expressed in W/m2. The emissive power of a black body,
according to Stefan-Boltzmann, is proportional to absolute temperature to the fourth power.
Eb = σ T 4 W / m2 or E b = σ AT 4 W (1 . 2)
Where σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10-8W/m2K4

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(ii) Monochromatic (spectral) emissive power (Eλ): It is often necessary to determine the spectral
distribution of the energy radiated by a surface. At any given temperature the amount of radiation
emitted per unit wavelength varies at different wavelengths. For this purpose the monochromatic
emissive power of the surface is used. It is defined as the rate of energy radiated per unit area of
the surface per unit wavelength.
∞
The total emissive power, E = ∫ E dλ W / m2 (1 . 3)
0 λ

(iii) Emission from real surface-emissivity: The emissive power from a real surface is given by,
E = ε σ AT 4 W (1 . 4)
Where ε = Emissivity of the material.
Emissivity (ε): It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also defined
as the ratio of the emissive power of anybody to the emissive power of a black body of equal
temperature (i.e., ε = E/Eb). Its values vary for different substances ranging from 0 to 1. For a
black body ε = 1, for a white body surface ε = 0 and for gray bodies it lies between 0 and 1. It
may vary with temperature or wavelength.
(iv) Intensity of radiation or Irradiation (G): it is defined as the total incident radiation on a surface
from all directions per unit time and per unit area of surface: expressed W/m2.
(v) Radiation density and pressure.
(vi) Radiosity (J).It refers to all of the radiant energy leaving a surface.
(vii) Interrelationship between surface emission and irradiation properties.
1.3ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY AND TRANSMISSIVITY
When incident radiation Impinges on a surface, three things happens; a part is reflected back (Gr)
apart a transmitted through (Gt) and the remainder is absorbed (Ga), depending upon the characteristics
of the body, as shown in Fig. 1.2.

By the conservation of energy principle,

Ga + Gr + Gt = G
Dividing both sides by G, we get
Ga Gr Gt G
+ + =
G G G G
α + ρ +τ = 1 (1 . 5)
Where α = absorptivity (or fraction of incident
radiation absorbed), ρ = reflectivity (or fraction of Fig. 1.2.Absorption, reflection & transmission of
incident radiation reflected), and τ = transmissivity (or radiation

fraction of incident radiation transmitted). When the incident radiation is absorbed, it is converted into
internal energy.
1.2.1. Black body
For perfectly absorbing body, α=1, ρ = 0, τ =0. Such a body is called a ‘black body’. Black body
is one which neither reflects nor transmits any part of the incident radiation but absorbs all of it. In
practice, a perfect black body (α = 1) does not exists. However its concept is very important.
1.2.2. Opaque body:
When no incident radiation is transmitted through the body, it is called an opaque body. For the
opaque body τ = 0, and Eqn (1.4) reduces to
α + ρ = 1 (1 . 6)

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Solids generally do not transmit unless the material is of very thin section. Metals absorb
radiation within a fraction of a micrometer, and insulators within a fraction of a millimeter. Glasses and
liquids are, therefore, generally considered as non-opaque.
1.2.3. White body: If all the incident radiation falling on the body are reflected, it is called a white body.
For a white body, α = 0, ρ = 1, τ =0. Reflections are of two types (i) Regular reflection, (ii). Diffuse
reflection: Fig. 1.3.
(i) Regular or specular reflection: It implies that
angle between the reflected beam and the normal
to the surface equals the angle made by the
incident radiation with the same normal.
Reflection from highly polished and smooth
surfaces approaches specular characteristics.
(ii) Diffused reflection: In a diffused reflection, the
incident beam is reflected in all directions. Most of
the engineering materials have rough surfaces and
these rough surfaces have diffused reflections. Fig. 1.3. Regular and diffuse reflections
Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (and their mixtures such as air) have a
transmissivity of practically unity.
1.2.4 Gray Body: If the radiative properties, α, ρ, τ of a body are assumed to be uniform over the entire
wavelength spectrum, then such a body is called gray body. A gray body is also defined as one whose
absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the incident radiation [α =
(α)λ = constant.]
1.2.5: Coloured body: A coloured body is one whose absorptivity of a surface varies with the
wavelength of radiation [α≠ (α)λ]
1.4CONCEPT OF A BLACK BODY
A black body is an object that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching its surface (for a blackbody
α = 1, ρ = 0, τ =0). No actual body is perfectly black; the concept of a black body is an idealization with
which the radiation characteristics of real bodies can be conveniently compared. Properties of a black
body are as follows,
(i) It absorbs all the incident radiation falling on it and does not transmit or reflect regardless of
wavelength and direction.
(ii) It emits maximum amount of thermal radiations at all wavelengths at any specified temperature.
(iii) It is a diffuse emitter (i.e., the radiation emitted by a black body is independent of direction).
Consider a hollow enclosure with a very small hole for
the passage of incident radiation as shown in Fig. 1.4. Incident
radiant energy passes through the small opening; some of this
energy is absorbed by the inside surface and some is reflected.
However, most of this energy is absorbed on a second incidence.
Again, a small fraction is reflected. After a number of such
reflections the amount unabsorbed is exceedingly small and very
little of the original incident energy is reflected back out of the
opening. A small hole leading into a cavity (Hohlraum) thus acts
very nearly as a black body because all the radiant energy
entering through it gets absorbed. Isothermal furnaces, with Fig. 1.4. Concept of a black body.
small apertures, approximate a black body and are frequently used to calibrate heat flux gauges,
thermometers and other radiometric devices.
1.4 THE STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
The law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature.

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E b =σ T 4 (1 . 7)
Where, Eb= Emissive power of a black body, and σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 ×10×10-8
W/m2K4
4
Equation (1.7) can be rewritten as: E b = 5 . 6 7 (T 1 0 0 ) (1 . 8)

1.6 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

The law states that at any temperature the ratio of total emissive power E to the total absorptivity
α is a constant for all substances which are in thermal equilibrium with their environment.

Let us consider a large radiating body of surface area A which

encloses a small body (1) of surface area A1(as shown in Fig. 1.5). Let
the energy fall on the unit surface of the body: at the rate Eb. Of this
energy generally, a fraction, α will be absorbed by the small body.
The energy absorbed by the small body (1) = α1A1Eb,
Where, α1- is the absorptivity of the body.
When thermal equilibrium is attained, the energy absorbed by
the body (1) must be equal to the energy emitted, say, E1 per unit
surface. Thus, at equilibrium, we may write. Fig. 1.5

A1E1=α 1 A1E b (1 . 9)
Now we remove body (1) and replace it by body (2) having absorptivity α2. The radiative energy
impinging on the surface of this body is again Eb. In this case, we may write

A2 E 2=α 2 A2 E b (1 . 1 0)
By considering generality of bodies, we obtain
A1E1 A2 E 2 A E E1 E2 E
Eb = = = or Eb = = = (1 . 1 1)
α 1 A1 α 2 A2 α A α1 α2 α
Also, as per definition of emissivity ε,
E1 E1
ε= r Eb = (1 . 1 2)
Eb ε
By comparing Eqns. (1.11) and (1.12), ε = α (1 . 1 3)
α is always smaller than 1. Therefore, the emissive power E is always smaller than the emissive
power of a black body at equal temperature).
Thus, Kirchhoff’s law also states that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity when the
body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings
1.7 PLANCK’S LAW
In 1900 Max Planck showed by quantum arguments that the spectral distribution of the radiation
intensity of a black body is given by
2π c 2 hλ − 5
( Eλ )b = (1 . 1 4)
 ch 
e x p  −1
 λk T 
Where (Eλ)b = monochromatic (single wavelength) emissive power of a black body in
W/m2.µm
c = velocity of light is vacuum, 2.998 × 108≈ 3 × 108m/s
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h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 × 10-34j.s

λ = wavelength, µm [1 µm (micro meter) = 10-6 m]
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3805 × 10-23J/K
T = absolute temperature, K
Hence the unit of (Eλ)b is W/m2.µm
Quite often the Planck’s law is written as
C1λ − 5
( Eλ )b = (1 . 1 5)
C 
e x p  2  −1
 λT 
Where, C1 = 2π c 2 h = 3 . 7 4 2 ×1 0 8 W .µ m 4 / m 2
ch
and C2 = = 1 . 4 3 8 8 ×1 0 4 µ m K
k
Equation (1.14) is of great importance as it provides from a black body. The quantity (Eλ)b,
monochromatic emissive power, is defined as the energy emitted by the black surface in all directions at a
given wavelength λ per unit wavelength interval around λ; that is, the rate of energy emission in the
interval dλ is equal to (Eλ)b dλ. The total emissive power and monochromatic emissive power are related
by the equation,
∞
Eb = ∫ ( E λ ) bd λ (1 . 1 6)
0

A plot of (Eλ)b as a function of temperature and

wavelength is given in Fig. 1.6.The plot shows the
following distinct characteristics of black body
radiations.
1. The energy emitted at all wavelengths increases
with rise in temperature. K
2. The peak spectral emissive power shifts towards a
smaller wavelength at higher temperatures. This
shift signifies that at elevated temperature, much
of the energy is emitted in an arrow band ranging
on both sides of wavelength at which the
monochromatic power is maximum.
3. The area under the monochromatic emissive
power versus wavelength, at any temperature,
gives the rate of radiant energy emitted within the Fig. 1.6. Variation of emissive power with wavelength
wavelength interval dλ. Thus,
∞
d Eb = ( E λ )b dλ or Eb = ∫ ( E λ ) bd λ …...over the entire range of length
0

This integral represents the total emissive power per unit area radiated from a black body.
1.8 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
In 1893 Wien’s established a relationship between the temperature of a black body and the
wavelength at which the maximum value of monochromatic emissive power occurs. A peak
monochromatic emissive power occurs at a particular wavelength. Wien’s displacement law states that
the product of λmax and T is constant, i.e.,
λ m a xT = C o n s t a n t (1 . 1 7)

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C1λ − 5
( Eλ )b = (1 . 1 5)
C 
e x p  2  −1
 λT 
d ( Eλ )b
( Eλ )b b e c o m e s m a x i m u m ( i f T r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t ) w h e n, =0
dλ
 
d ( Eλ )b
=
d 

C 1λ −5
( 
 =0
)
dλ dλ   C2  

e x p  −1
 λT  
  C2    C  C 2  1 
e x p  λT
   
(
 − 1 − 5C1λ
−6
) (
− C1λ − 5 e x p  2
  λT
)  T  − 2 
  λ 
Or 2
=0
  C2  
e x p  λT  − 1
   
C  −5 1 C 
Or − 5C1λ − 6 e x p  2 −6
 + 5C1λ + C1C 2 λ 2
e x p 2  = 0
 λT  λ T  λT 
Dividing both sides by 5C1λ-6, we get
C  1 1 C 
−e x p 2  +1+ C2 e x p 2  = 0
 λT  5 λT  λT 
Solving this equation by trial and error method, we get
C2 C2
= = 4.965
λT λ m a x T
C2 1 . 4 3 8 8 ×1 0 4
∴ λ m a xT = = µ mK = 28 98µ mK (1 . 1 8)
4.965 4.965
This law holds true for more real substances; there is however some deviation in the case of a
metallic conductor where the product (λmaxT) is found to vary with absolute temperature. It is used in
predicting a very high temperature through measurement of wavelength.
A combination of Planck’s law and Wien's displacement law yields the condition for the
maximum monochromatic emissive power for a black body.
−5
 2898
−5 3 . 7 4 2 ×1 0 8  
C1 ( λ m a x )  T 
( E λb ) m a x = =
 C2   1 . 4 3 8 8 ×1 0 4 
e x p  −1 e x p   −1
 λ m a xT   2898 
−5
C1 ( λ m a x )
( E λb ) m a x = = 1 . 2 8 5 ×1 0 − 5 T 5 W/m per meter wave length (1.19)
 C2 
e x p  −1
 λ m a xT 
1.9 INTENSITY OF RADIATION AND LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW
1.9.1. Intensity of Radiation
When a surface element emits radiation, all of it will be intercepted by a hemispherical surface
placed over the element. The intensity of radiation (I) is defined as the rate of energy leaving a surface in
a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in
space. A solid angle is defined as a portion of the space inside a sphere enclosed by a conical surface with

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the vertex of the cone at the centre of the sphere. It is measured by the ratio of the spherical surface
enclosed by the cone to the square of the radius of the sphere; its unit is steradian (sr). The solid angle
subtended by the complete hemisphere is given by:
2π r 2
= 2π
r2

Fig. 1.7 Radiation from an elemetary surface

Fig. 1.7 (a) shows a small black surface of area dA (emitter) emitting radiation in different
directions. A black body radiation collector through which the radiation pass is located at an angular
position characterised by zenith angle θ towards the surface normal and angle φ of a spherical coordinate
system. Further the collector subtends a solid angle dω when viewed from a point on the emitter.
Let us now consider radiation from the elementary area dA1at the centre of a sphere as shown in
fig 1.7 (b). Suppose this radiation is absorbed by a second element area dA2, a portion of the
hemispherical surface.
The projected area of dA1on a plane perpendicular to the line joining dA1and dA2= dA1cosθ.
d A2
T h e s o l i d a n g l e s u b t e n d e d b y d A2 =
r2
d Q1−2
The intensity of radiation, I = (1 . 2 0)
dA
d A1 c o s θ × 22
r
WheredQ1-2is the rate of radiation heat transfer from dA1todA2.
It is evident from the Fig. 1.7 (b) that,
d A2 = r dθ (r s i n θ dφ ) = r 2 s i n θ .dθ .dφ (1 . 2 1)
From Eqns. (1.20) and (1.21), we obtain
r 2 s i n θ .dθ .dφ
d Q1− 2 = I d A1 c o s θ × = I d A1.s i n θ .c o s θ .dθ .dφ
r2
The total radiation through the hemisphere is given by
θ =π 2 φ = 2π
Q = I d A1 ∫ ∫φ =0 s i n θ .c o s θ .dθ .dφ
θ =0

θ =π 2 θ =π 2
Q = 2π I d A1 ∫ s i n θ .c o s θ .dθ = π I d A1 ∫ 2s i n θ .c o s θ .dθ
θ =0 θ =0
θ =π 2
Q = π I d A1 ∫ s i n 2θ .dθ = π I d A1 (1 . 2 2)
θ =0

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Also Q = E . d A1 ∴ E . d A1 = π I d A1 Or E = πI
The total emissive power of a diffuse surface is equal to π times its intensity of radiation
1.9.2. Lambert’s Cosine Law
The law states that the total emissive power Eθ from a radiating plane surface in any direction is
directly proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission. The angle of emission θ is the angle
subtended by the normal to the radiating surface and the direction vector of emission of the receiving
surface. If En be the total emissive power of the radiating surface in the direction of its normal, then,
Eθ = E n c o s θ (1 . 2 4)
The above equation is true only for diffuse radiation surface. The radiation emanating from a
point on a surface is termed diffused if the intensity, I, is constant. This law is also known as Lambert’s
law of diffuse radiation.
2 RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The actual process of relative heat exchange between different surfaces takes place in the
presence of either a non-participation of medium (one where the surfaces exchanging heat are separated
by vacuum or by a medium that 'does not interfere with the propagation of radiation) or a participating
medium (one which tends to interfere with the propagation of radiation because it may absorb, emit or
scatter radiation). Most of the gases meet the requirements of non-participating medium to an excellent
approximation; exceptions are carbon dioxide and water vapours which have high absorptivity at certain
wavelength of infrared radiation. In the radiation heat transfer between different types of surfaces both in
non-participating and participating media, the assumptions are,
(i) All surfaces have uniform properties over their whole extent
(ii) Each surface is considered to be either gray or black.
(iii) The absorptivity of surface is independent of the temperature of the source of the incident
radiation and equals its emissivity
(iv) Radiation and reflection processes are diffuse.
2.2 RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN BLACK BODIES
Let us consider (Fig 2.1) heat exchange between elementary areas
dA1and dA2of two black radiating bodies, separated by a non-absorbing
medium, and having areas A1 and A2and temperatures T1and
T2respectively. The elementary areas are at a distance r apart and the
normal to these areas make angles θ1 and θ2 with the line joining them.
Each elemental area subtends a solid angle at the centre of the other. Let
dω1be subtended at dA1by dA2and dω2subtended at dA2by dA1. Then
d A2 .c o s θ 2 d A1.c o s θ 1
dω1 = and dω 2 = (2 . 1)
r2 r2
Energy leaving from dA1 per unit solid angle = I b1.d A1.c o s θ 1
Where, Ib= black body intensity of radiation, and
dA1 cosθ1 = projection of dA1on the line between the centers. Fig. 12.1 Radiation heat
exchange between two black
Rate of radiant energy leaving dA1 and striking on dA2 is given by surfaces
d Q1− 2 = I b1.d A1.c o s θ 1.d ω1

d A2 .c o s θ 2
d Q1− 2 = I b1.d A1.c o s θ 1.
r2
I c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2 .
d Q1−2 = b1 (2 . 2)
r2
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This energy is absorbed by the elementary area dA2, since both the surfaces are black. The
quantity of energy radiated by dA2and absorbed by dA1is given by,
d A1.c o s θ 1
d Q 2−1 = I b 2 .d A2 .c o s θ 2 .d ω 2 = I b 2 .d A2 .c o s θ 2 .
r2
I b 2 .c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2
d Q 2−1 = (2 . 3)
r2
Net heat exchange between dA1 and dA2
d Q1 2 = d Q1− 2 − d Q 2−1
I b1.c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2 . I b 2 .c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2 .
d Q1 2 = −
r2 r2
d A .d A2 .c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2
= ( I b1 − I b 2 ) 1
r2
σ .T14
E b1 σ .T 24
E b2
But, I b1 = = and I b2 = = (2 . 4)
π π π π

(
d Q1 2 = σ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) d A .d A .cπor s θ .c o s θ
1 2
2
1 2
(2 . 5)

The net heat transfer is between the Area A1 and A2 is given by,

(
Q1 2 = ∫ d Q1 2 = σ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) ∫ ∫ c o sθ .c oπsrθ
1
2
2 .d A1.d A2
(2 . 6)
A1 A2

The rate of radiant energy emitted by A1 that falls on A2, from Eqn. (12.2), is given by
c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2 c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2
Q1− 2 = ∫ d Q1− 2 = I b1 ∫ ∫ 2
= σ T1 4 ∫ ∫ (2 . 7)
A1 A2 r A 1 A2
πr2

The rate of total energy radiated byA1 is given by Q1 = σ . A1.T14

Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A1 and impinging on area A2is given by
Q1−2 σ T1 4 c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2
Q1
=
σ . A1.T14 ∫∫ πr2
A1 A2

Q1− 2 1 c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2

Q1
=
A1 ∫∫ πr2
(2 . 8)
A1 A2

Q1− 2
= F1− 2 (2 . 8 a )
Q1
F1-2 is known as ‘configuration factor or surface factor or ‘view factor between the two radiating
surfaces and is a function of geometry only. Thus, the shape factor may be defined as “The fraction of
radiative energy that is diffused from one surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no
intervening reflections.”
Q1 2 = Q1F1 2 or Q1 2 = F1 2σ . A1.T14 (2 . 9)
Similarly, the rate of radiant energy by A2 that falls on A1from Eqn. (12.3), is given by
c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2 c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2
Q 2−1 = ∫ d Q 2−1 = I b 2 ∫ ∫ 2
= σ T2 4 ∫ ∫
A1 A2 r A 1 A2
πr2

The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by Q 2 = σ . A2 .T24

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Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A2and impinging on area A1 is given by
Q 2−1 σ T2 4 c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2 1 c o s θ 1.c o s θ 2 .d A1.d A2
Q2
=
σ . A2 .T 24 ∫∫ πr 2
=
A2 ∫∫ πr 2
(2 . 1 0)
A1 A2 A1 A2

Q 2−1
= F2−1 and Q 2−1 = F2−1.Q 2 = F2−1. A2 .σ .T2 4 (2 . 1 1)
Q2
F2-1is the shape factor of A2with respect to A1
From (2.8) and (2.10),
A1.Q1−2 A .Q A1.F1− 2 .Q1 A2 .F2−1.Q 2
= 2 2−1 or =
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
A1.F1− 2 = A2 .F2−1 (2 . 1 2)
The above result is known as reciprocity theorem. It indicates that the net radiant interchange may
be evaluated by computing one way configuration factor from either surface to the other. Thus the net
rate of heat transfer between two surfaces A1 and A2is given by

( ) (
Q1 2 = A1.F1−2 .σ . T1 4 − T2 4 = A2 .F2−1.σ . T1 4 − T2 4 ) (2 . 1 3)

It may be noted that Eqn. (12.13) is applicable to black surfaces only and must not be used for
surfaces having emissivities very different from unity. The evaluation of the integral equation (12.8) for
determining the shape factor is rather complex and cumbersome. Therefore, results have been obtained
and presented in graphical form for the geometries normally encountered in engineering practice.
Geometrical factors for parallel planes (discs and rectangles) directly opposed and those for radiation
between perpendicular rectangles with a common edge are shown in Figs. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2. Shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge.
2.3 SHAPE FACTOR ALGEBRA AND SALIENT FEATURES OF THE SHAPE FACTOR
In order to compute the shape factor for certain geometric arrangements for which shape factors
or equations are not available, the concept of shape factor as fraction of intercepted energy, and
reciprocity theorem can be used. The shape factors for these geometries can be derived in term of known
shape factors of other geometries. The interrelation between various factors is called shape factor
algebra.
For the calculation of shape factors for specific geometries and for the analysis of radiant heat
exchange between surfaces, the following facts and properties will the useful:
1. The shape factor is purely a function of geometric parameters only.

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2. When two bodies are exchanging radiant energy with each other, the shape factor relation is
given by the Eqn. 12.12 i.e.,
A1.F1− 2 = A2 .F2−1 (2 . 1 4)

In general, Ai .Fi − j = A j .F j −i
This reciprocal relation is particularly useful when one of the shape factors is unity.
3. When all the radiation emanating from a convex surface 1 is intercepted by the enclosing surface
2, the shape factor of convex surface with respect to the enclosure F1-2 is unity. Then in
conformity with reciprocity theorem, the shape factor F2-1is merely the ratio of areas.
ie. When surface A1is entirely convex, say a sphere, completely enclosed by A2, then according
to reciprocity relation, we have
A1.F1−2 = A2 .F2−1 and A1 = A2 .F2−1

[∵ F1−2 = 1, a s s u r f a c e1 c o m p l e t e l y s e e s s u r f a c e 2]

A1
Or F2−1 = (i e. , r a t i o o f a r e a s ) , a n d F2−1 + F1− 2 = 1
A2

(
I n t h i s c a s e , t h e b l a c k b o d y r a d i a t i o n e x c h a n g e i s , Q1 2 = A1.σ . T1 4 − T2 4 )
4. A concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant energy coming out from one
part of the surface is intercepted by another part of the same surface. The shape factor of a
surface with respect to itself is F1-1
5. For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself is zero (i.e., F1-1= 0).This is
due to the fact that for any part of flat or convex surface, one cannot see/view any other part of
the same surface.

Fig. 2.3 Relation between shape factors

6. If two surfaces A1and A2are parallel and large, radiation occurs across the gap between them so
that A1 = A2 and all radiation emitted by one falls on the other; then
F1− 2 = F2−1 = 1
7. If one of the two surfaces (say Ai) is divided into sub-areas Ai1, Ai2, ... Ai3, then
Ai Fi − j = ∑ Ai n Fi n − j (2 . 1 5)
Refer Fig. 2.3 (a) : Radiating surface A1has been split up into areas A3 and A4; we have
A1F1−2 = A3 F3− 2 + A4 F4−2
E v i d e n t l y , F1− 2 ≠ F3−2 + F4− 2

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Thus if the radiant surface is subdivided, the shape factor for that surface with respect to
the receiving surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.
Refer Fig. 2.3 (b): Receiving surface A2 has been divided into subareas A3 and A4; we have,
A1F1− 2 = A1F1−3 + A1F1−4
Or, F1− 2 = F1−3 + F1− 4
Obviously the shape factor from a radiating surface to a subdivided receiving surface is simply
the sum of individual shape factors.
8. Let us now take the case of an enclosure in which one surface is exchanging radiation with all
the other surfaces in the enclosure including itself if it happens to be a concave surface; this is
because a concave surface can see/view another part of it (the shape factor of a convex surface
with its enclosure is always unity because all the heat radiated from a convex surface is
intercepted by its enclosure but not vice versa).
If the enclosure comprises n surfaces, then the energy radiated from one intercepted by the
other (n - 1) surfaces, and the surface itself if it is a concave one. This is called principle of
conservation.
n
F1−1 + F1−2 + F1−3 + . . . . . + F1−n = 1 = ∑ F1− j (2 . 1 6)
i =1

F2−1 + F2− 2 + F2−3 + . . . . . + F2− n = 1

Fn −1 + Fn− 2 + Fn−3 + . . . . . + Fn− n = 1
n
Ingeneral, ∑ F1− j = 1 f o r i = 1, 2,3,. . . . . . . . , n (2 . 1 7)
j =1

2.4 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN NON-BLACK BODIES

The black body concept is an idealization
which serves as a standard for the performance of
a real body. In engineering applications, most
surfaces encountered do not behave like
blackbodies which absorb the entire incident
radiation. The real surfaces (non-black) do not
absorb the whole of the incident radiation; a part
is reflected back to the radiating surface and this
back and forth reflections between the surfaces
may go on several times. As the emissivities and
absorptivities are not uniform in all directions and
for all wavelengths, it is worthwhile to simplify Fig. 2.4. Heat exchange (radiant) between two non-black
the problem to some extent by considering the parallel surfaces.
bodies to be gray for which the emissivities and absorptivities are constant over the whole wavelength
spectrum. Now we shall discuss exchange of heat for simple cases involving opaque gray bodies.
2.4.1 Infinite Parallel Planes
The following assumptions are made for the analysis of radiant heat exchange between two non-
black parallel surfaces:
1. The configuration factor of either surface is unity.
2. There is non-absorbing medium (such as air) in between the surfaces.
3. The emissive and reflective properties are constant over all the surfaces.
As depicted in Fig. 2.4, the surface (plane) 1 emits radiant energy E1which strikes the surface (plane)
2. Here a part α2E1is absorbed (by the surface 2) and (1 - α2) E1 (remainder)is reflected back to surface 1.
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Here a part α1 (1 - α2) E1is absorbed (by the surface) and the remainder (1 –α1) (1 -α2) E1is reflected and
so on. The amount of energy that has left surface1 per unit time (Q1) is given by:
Q1 = E1 − [α 1 (1 − α 2 ) E1 + α 1 (1 − α 1 ) (1 − α 2 ) 2 E1 + α 1 (1 − α 1 ) 2 (1 − α 2 ) 3 E1 + . . . . ]

Q1 = E1 − α 1 (1 − α 2 ) E1[1 + (1 − α 1 ) (1 − α 2 ) + (1 − α 1 ) 2 (1 − α 2 ) 2 + . . . . ]

Q1 = E1 − α 1 (1 − α 2 ) E1[1 + Z + Z 2 + . . . . ]
W h e r e , Z = (1 − α 1 ) (1 − α 2 )

As Z ˂ 1, the series 1+Z+Z2+…, when extended to infinity gives 1/(1-Z)

E1 − α 1 (1 − α 2 ) E1  α 1 (1 − α 2 ) 
Q1 = Or Q1 = E1 1 − 
1− Z  1 − (1 − α 1 ) (1 − α 2 ) 
As per Kirchhoff’s law, emissivity and absorptivity of a surface are equal and so α1 = ε1 and α2 = ε2
 ε 1 (1 − ε 2 ) 
∴ Q1 = E1 1 − 
 1 − (1 − ε 1 ) (1 − ε 2 ) 
1 − (1 − ε 1 ) (1 − ε 2 ) − ε 1 (1 − ε 2 ) 
Q1 = E1  
 1 − (1 − ε 1 ) (1 − ε 2 ) 
1 − (1 − ε 2 − ε 1 + ε 1ε 2 ) − (ε 1 − ε 1ε 2 ) 
Q1 = E1  
 1 − (1 − ε 2 − ε 1 + ε 1ε 2 ) 
1 − 1 + ε 2 + ε 1 − ε 1ε 2 − ε 1 + ε 1ε 2 
Q1 = E1  
 1 − 1 + ε 2 + ε 1 − ε 1ε 2 
E1 ε 2
Q1 = (2 . 1 8)
ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2
Similarly the surface 2 emits radiant energy E2. A part α1E2is absorbed by the surface 1and the
remainder (1 –α1) E2is reflected back to surface 2. A part α2 (1 –α1) E2is absorbed rest (1 –α1) (1 -α2) E2is
reflected and so on. Proceeding as done earlier, we can determine that the amount of radiant energy
which leaves surface 2 per unit time is given by
E2 ε1
Q2 = (2 . 1 9)
ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2
The net flow of heat/energy form surface 1 to surface 2 per unit time is given by
E1 ε 2 E2 ε1 E1 ε 2 − E 2 ε 1
Q1 2 = Q1 − Q 2 = − ⇒ Q1 2 = (2 . 2 0)
ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2 ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2 ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2

For non-black surfaces E1 = ε 1σ T1 4 and E 2 = ε 2σ T 2 4

By Stefan-Boltzmann law
ε 1σ T1 4 ε 2 − ε 2σ T2 4 ε 1 ε1 ε 2
Q1 2 =
ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2
or Q1 2 =
ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2
(
σ T1 4 − T2 4 )
(
Q1 2 = f 1− 2 σ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) (2 . 2 1)

ε1 ε 2 1
W h e r e , f 1−2 = Or f 1− 2 =
ε 1 + ε 2 − ε 1ε 2 (1 ε 1 ) + (1 ε 2 ) − 1

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f1-2 is called interchange factor for the radiation from surface 1 to surface 2
2.4.2 Radiation between concentric cylinders
Heat lost by the inner cylinder per unit area
is given by
E1ε 2
Q1 = (2 . 2 2)
( A1 A2 ) ε 1 + ε 2 − ( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2
Heat lost by the outer cylinder per unit area is given
by
E 2ε 1. ( A1 A2 ) Fig. 2.5 Heat exchange (radiant) between two infinite long
Q2 = (2 . 2 3) concentric cylinders
( A1 A2 ) ε 1 + ε 2 − ( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2
The net radiation heat transfer between the inner and outer concentric cylinders is given by,
Q1 2 = Q1 − Q 2

 E1ε 2   E 2ε 1. ( A1 A2 ) 
Q1 2 = A1   − A2  
 ( A1 A2 ) ε 1 + ε 2 − ( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2   ( A1 A2 ) ε 1 + ε 2 − ( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2 
A1E1ε 2 − A1E 2ε 1
Q1 2 =
( A1 A2 ) ε 1 + ε 2 − ( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2

Also for non-black bodies

E1 = ε 1σ T1 4 and E 2 = ε 2σ T 2 4
By Stefan-Boltzmann law

Q1 2 =
A1ε 1ε 2σ T1 4 − A1ε 1ε 2σ T 2 4
or Q1 2 =
(
ε 1ε 2 A1σ T1 4 − T 2 4 )
( A1 A2 ) ε 1 + ε 2 − ( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2  1 
( A1 A2 ) ε 1ε 2  − 1 + ε 2
ε2 

Q1 2 =
(
A1σ T1 4 − T2 4 ) (2 . 2 4)
1 A  1 
+ 1  − 1
ε 1 A2  ε 2 

(
Q1 2 = f 1− 2 A1σ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) (2 . 2 4 a)
1
W h e r e , f 1− 2 =
1 A1  1 
+  − 1
ε 1 A2  ε 2 

f1-2 is called interchange factor for the radiant heat exchange between infinite long concentric
cylinders. The equation (2.24) is equally applicable to concentric spheres except that for concentric
cylinders of equal length.
2.4.3 Small Gray Bodies
Consider two small gray bodies (the gray bodies are said to be small if their size is very small as
compared to the distance between them) 1 and 2 having emissivities ε1andε2, or absorptivities α1and α2.
The radiant energy emitted by body 1 is absorbed by body 2. The portion of radiation unabsorbed and
thus reflected on the first incidence is considered to be lost in space (due to surface being small) ie.
Nothing is return back to surface 1. Similar in this case with surface 2,

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The Energy emitted by body 1 = A1ε 1σ T1 4

The Energy incident on body 2 = f 1− 2 A1ε 1σ T1 4

The Energy absorbed by body 2 = α 2 F1−2 A1ε 1σ T1 4

The Energy transfer from body 1 to body 2, Q1 = ε 1ε 2 F1− 2 A1σ T1 4

The Energy transfer from body 2 to body 1, Q 2 = ε 1ε 2 F2−1 A2σ T 2 4

The net heat energy transfer between two bodies, Q1 2 = ε 1ε 2 F1− 2 A1σ T1 4 − ε 1ε 2 F2−1 A2σ T 2 4
But A1F1− 2 = A2 F2−1 ……..By reciprocal theorem
(
Q1 2 = ε 1ε 2 A1F1− 2σ T1 4 − T2 4 ) or (
Q1 2 = f 1− 2 A1F1−2σ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) (2 . 2 5)

Where, f1-2 is called equivalent emissivity or interchange factor for the radiant heat exchange
between two small gray bodies.

2.4.4 Radiation between small bodies inside a large enclosure

Consider a small body placed in a large enclosure. The large
enclosure acts like a black body, absorbing all the incident radiation
upon it and reflecting negligibly small energy back to the small gray
body. In this case F1-2 = 1 since all the radiation emitted by the small
body would be intercepted by the outer large enclosure. Thus, Fig 2.6 Small body inside a large
enclosure
T heen er gy emi t t ed by s m al l b o dy 1 a nd ab s or b ed b y t he ou t er l a r ge
enclosure 2 = A1ε 1σ T1 4
T h e e n e r g y e m i t t e d b y e n c l o s u r e 2 = A2ε 2σ T2 4
T h e e n e r g y i n c i d e n t u p o n t h e s m a l l b a d y 1 = F2−1 A2ε 2σ T2 4
T h e e n e r g y a b s o r b e d b y t h e s m a l l b a d y 1 =α 1F2−1 A2ε 2σ T 2 4 = ε 1F2−1 A2ε 2σ T2 4
(∵ α 1=ε 1 )

The net radiant heat exchange between the small body 1 and the outer large enclosure 2,
Q1− 2 =ε 1 A1σ T1 4 − ε 1ε 2 A2 F2−1σ T 2 4

I f T1 = T 2 a n d Q1 2 = 0, t h e n A1 = A2ε 2 F2−1

(
Q1− 2 =ε 1 A1σ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) or (
Q1− 2 = f 1-2 A1σ T1 4 − T2 4 ) (2 . 2 6)

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Where, f1-2 (= ε1) is called equivalent emissivity or interchange factor for the radiant heat
between small body and a large enclosure. Net radiation between two gray surfaces,
exchange
considering both the interchange factor f1-2 and geometric factor F1-2, is given by,

(
Q n e t = f 1-2 F1− 2 A1σ T1 4 − T2 4 ) (2 . 2 7)
2.5 ELECTRICAL NETWORK ANALOGY FOR THERMAL RADIATION SYSTEMS
An electrical network analogy is an alternative approach for analysing radiation heat exchange
between gray or black surfaces. In this approach the two terms commonly used are irradiation and
radiosity.
2.5.1 Irradiation (G)
It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area; it is
expressed in W/m2.
2.5.2Radiosity (J)
This term is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area. It is
also expressed in W/m2.
The radiosity comprises the original emittance φ from the surface plus the reflected portion of
any radiation incident upon it [Refer Fig. 2.7(a)].

i e . J = E + ρG
Or J = ε E b + ρG (2 . 2 8)
WhereEb= emissive power of a perfect blackbody at
the same temperature.
Also α +ρ+τ = 1
Or α +ρ = 1 (τ = 0, t h e s u r f a c eb e i n g o p a q u e)
Or ρ = 1 −α
∴ J = ε E b + (1 − α )G
But α =ε . . . .B y K i r c h h o f f ' s l a w
∴ J = ε E b + (1 − ε )G (2 . 2 9)
Fig. 2.7. Irradiation and radiosity
Or J − ε E b = (1 − ε )G

J − ε Eb
Or G= (2 . 3 0)
(1 − ε )
The net energy leaving a surface is the difference between its radiosity and irradiation. Thus,
Qn e t Qn e t J − ε Eb
= J −G T h e n, =J− (2 . 3 1)
A A (1 − ε )
Q n e t J (1 − ε ) − ( J − ε E b ) Qn e t J − ε J − J + ε Eb ε ( E b − J )
= Or = =
A (1 − ε ) A 1− ε 1− ε
Qn e t J − ε J − J + ε Eb ε ( E b − J )
Or = =
A 1− ε 1− ε
Aε ( E b − J )
∴ Qn e t = (2 . 3 2)
1− ε

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The representation of this equation in the form of electric network is shown in Fig. 2.7 (b).The
1− ε
quantity is known as surface resistance, as it is related to surface properties of the radiating body.
Aε
Now consider the exchange of radiant energy between the two surfaces (non-black) 1 and2. Of the
total radiation which leaves surface 1, the amount that reaches surface 2 is J1 A1 F1-2. Similarly, the heat
radiated by surface 2 and received by surface 1 is J2 A2 F2-1. The net interchange of heat between the
surfaces (Q12) is given by
Q1 2 = J 1 A1F1− 2 − J 2 A2 F2−1 (2 . 3 3)
B u t, A1F1− 2 = A2 F2−1 . . . . .B y r e c i p r o c a l t h e o r e m

∴ Q1 2 =
( J1 − J 2 ) (2 . 3 4)
1 A1F1−2

Fig. 2.8 Fig 2.9

This eqn. (2.34) can be represented in the form of electric network as shown in Fig. 2.8. The
quantity 1 A1F1−2 is called the space resistance because it is due to the distance and geometry of the
radiating bodies.
If the surface resistances of the two bodies and spaceresistance between them are considered then
the net heat flow can be represented by an electric circuit as shown in Fig. 2.9. The net heat exchange
between the two gray surfaces is given by,

E b1 − E b 2 A1 σ (T1 4 − T 2 4 )
( Q1 2 ) n e t =
1− ε1 1 1− ε 2
or ( Q1 2 ) n e t =
1− ε1 1 1 − ε 2 A1
+ + + + .
A1ε 1 A1F1−2 A2ε 2 ε1 F1−2 ε 2 A2

or ( Q1 2 ) n e t = ( Fg ) 1−2 A1 σ (T1 4 − T2 4 ) (2 . 3 5)

1
Where, ( Fg )1−2 = 1 − ε 1 1 1 − ε 2 A1
+ + .
ε1 F1− 2 ε 2 A2
(Fg)1-2is known as gray body factor. When exchange of heat takes place between two black
surfaces, the surface resistance becomes zero as ε1 = ε2 = 1; (Fg)1-2changes to F1-2(i.e., the configuration
factor) and the eqn.(2.35) reduces to
Q n e t = F1− 2 A1 σ (T1 4 − T 2 4 ) . . . . .F o r b l a c k s u r f a c e s

Let us consider the following cases:

1. When the radiating bodies are infinite parallel planes:
1 1
In this case A1 = A2 and F1-2 = 1 F g ( )1−2 = 1 − ε 1 1− ε 2
=
1 1
(2 . 3 6)
+1+ + −1
ε1 ε2 ε1 ε2
2. When the radiating bodies are concentric cylinders or spheres:
In this caseF1-2 = 1

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1
( Fg )1−2 = 1 − ε 1 1 − ε 2 A1
(2 . 3 7)
+1+ .
ε1 ε 2 A2
A1 π d 1l d 1 r1
In the case of concentric cylinders, = = =
A2 π d 2l d 2 r2
A1 4π r1 2 r1 2
In the case of concentric spheres, = = (2 . 3 9)
A2 4π r2 2 r2 2
3. When a small body lies inside a large enclosure:
In this case A1<< A2 so that A1/ A2 = 0 and F1-2 = 1

( Fg )1−2 = 1 − ε11 (2 . 3 7)
+1
ε1
Examples: (i) A pipe carrying steam in a large room, and (ii) A thermocouple bead located inside
a duct to measure temperature of the fluid.

2.6 RADIATION SHIELDS

In certain situations it is required to reduce the
overall heat transfer between two radiating surfaces.
This is done by either using materials which are highly
reflective or by using radiation shields between the
heat exchanging surfaces. The radiation shields reduce
the radiation heat transfer by effectively increasing the
surface resistances without actually removing any heat
from the overall system. Thin sheets of plastic coated
with highly reflecting metallic films on both sides
serve as very effective radiation shields. These are
used for the insulation of cryogenic storage tanks. A
familiar application of radiation shields is in the
measurement of the temperature of a fluid by a
thermometer or a thermocouple which is shielded to
reduce the effects of radiation.
Fig. 2.10. Radiation network for two parallel infinite planes
Let us consider two parallel planes, 1 and 2, separated by one shield
each of area A (A1 = A2 = A) at temperatures T1and
T2respectively with a radiation shield placed between
them as shown in Fig. 2.10.

With no radiation shields, the net heat exchange between the parallel planes is given by:
A σ (T1 4 − T2 4 )
( Q1 2 ) n e t =
1 1
(2 . 2 1)
+ −1
ε1 ε2
If the emissivity of the radiation shield is ε3, the equation is to find heat exchange between
surfaces 1, 3 and 3, 2.
A σ (T1 4 − T3 4 )
( Q1 3 ) n e t =
1 1
(2 . 3 8)
+ −1
ε1 ε3

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A σ (T3 4 − T2 4 )
And ( Q3 2 ) n e t = 1 1
(2 . 3 9)
+ −1
ε3 ε2
Since the radiation shield does not deliver or remove heat from the system, therefore,
( Q1 3 ) n e t = ( Q 3 2 ) n e t
A σ (T1 4 − T3 4 ) A σ (T3 4 − T 2 4 )
= (2 . 4 0)
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
ε1 ε3 ε3 ε2
Simplification of eqn. (2.40) yields

 1 1  1 1 
T1 4  + − 1 + T 2 4  + − 1
T3 4 = ε3 ε2   ε1 ε 3  (2 . 4 1)
 1 1  1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
 ε 3 ε 2   ε1 ε 3 
Substituting the value of T3in the left hand side of eqn. (2.40), we get
A σ (T1 4 − T 2 4 )
( Q1 2 ) n e t = (2 . 4 2)
1 1   1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
 ε1 ε 3   ε 3 ε 2 
Dividing eqn. 2.42 by eqn2.21, we get
1 1
( Q1 2 )  + −1
 net  withshield ε1 ε 2
= (2 . 4 3)
( Q1 2 )  1 1   1 1 
 net  withoutshield
 + − 1 +  + − 1
 ε1 ε 3   ε 3 ε 2 

If ε1 = ε2 = ε3 ,then the right side of the equ. 2.43 reduses to,

1 1
or ( Q1 3 ) n e t = ( Q3 2 ) n e t = ( Q1 2 ) n e t (2 . 4 4)
2 2
Thus when one shield is inserted between two parallel surfaces, the direct radiation heat transfer
between them is halved. The corresponding value of T3of the shield attains the value
1 4
T3 4 =
2
(
T1 + T 2 4 ) (2 . 4 5)

In the general case where there are n shields, all the surface resistances would be the same, since
the emissivities are equal. There will be two surface resistances for each shield and one for each heat
transfer surface. There will also be (n + 1) ‘space resistances' but the configuration factor is unity for each
infinite parallel plane.
 1− ε  
T o t a l R e s i s t a n c e ( R ) n - s h i e l d = ( 2 n + 2 )   + ( n + 1)(1)  A (2 . 4 6)
  ε  
 2  
= ( n + 1)  − 1 + ( n + 1)(1)  A (2 . 4 7)
 ε  
The radiant heat transfer rate between two infinitely large parallel plates separated by n-shields is,
therefore,

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1
( Q ) n- s h i e l d = (
Aσ T1 4 − T 2 4 ) (2 . 4 8)
( n + 1)  − 1
2
ε 
Where n = 0 (i.e., with no shields), the resistance is given by
2 
( R) w i t h o u t s h ie ld =  − 1 A (2 . 4 9)
ε 

Then ( Q ) w i t h o u t s h i e l d =
(
Aσ T1 4 − T2 4 ) (2 . 5 0)
( ( 2 ε ) − 1)
From eqns. 2.48 to 2.50,
( Q ) n− s h i e l d ( R) w i t h o u t s h i e l d 1
= = (2 . 5 1)
( R) w i t h o u t s h i e l d ( R ) n− s h i e l d n +1

From this provided that the reduction in heat flow does not affect the wall temperatures.
Arranging the eqn. (2.43) in a slightly different form,
A σ (T1 4 − T2 4 )
( Q1 2 ) n e t = (2 . 4 3)
1 1  1 
+ + 2  − 2
ε1 ε 2 ε3 
This equation can be generalized for a system of two parallel plates separated by n-shields of
emissivity εs1, εs2….εsn as
Aσ (T1 4 − T2 4 )
( Q1 2 ) n e t = n
(2 . 4 4)
1 1 1
+ + 2∑ − ( n + 1)
ε1 ε2 i =1 ε si

Cylindrical radiation shields: The heat transfer rate between two

long concentric cylindrical surfaces separated by a cylindrical
shield can be easily shown to be given by
2π r1L σ (T1 4 − T2 4 )
Q1 =
1 r1  1  r  1 1 
+  − 1 + 1  + − 1
ε 1 r2  ε 2  rs  ε s1 ε s 2 
Where εs1 and εs2are the surface emissivities of the shield and L
is the length of the cylinders.
If the surfaces and the shield have the same emissivity
then,
2π r1L σ (T1 4 − T 2 4 )
Q1 = Fig. 2.11. Cylindrical radiation shield
1 r1  1  r1  2 
+ −1 + −1
ε r2  ε  rs  ε 

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering S.N.M.I.M.T. Page | 20