Müller et al.

EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and

Networking (2018) 2018:227
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13638-018-1238-7

RESEARCH Open Access

Flexible multi-node simulation of cellular

mobile communications: the Vienna 5G
System Level Simulator
Martin Klaus Müller1,2* , Fjolla Ademaj1,2 , Thomas Dittrich2 , Agnes Fastenbauer2 ,
Blanca Ramos Elbal1,2 , Armand Nabavi2 , Lukas Nagel2 , Stefan Schwarz1,2 and Markus Rupp2

Abstract
The investigation and prediction of new trends and technologies for mobile cellular networks is of utmost importance
for researchers and network providers to quickly identify promising developments. With the verge of the fifth
generation of mobile communications (5G), networks become more and more heterogeneous and dynamic while
the amount of active users within a cell keeps ever increasing. Therefore, the search for more efficient network layouts
and configurations attracts massive attention while on the other hand becomes more and more complex. In this
contribution, we present the Vienna 5G system level simulator, which allows to perform numerical performance
evaluation of large-scale multi-tier networks, with numerous types of network nodes. The simulator is based on MATLAB
and is implemented in a modular fashion, to conveniently investigate arbitrary network and parameter constellations,
which can be enhanced effortlessly. We first discuss the distinguishing aspects of our simulator platform, describe
its structure, and then showcase its functionality by demonstrating the key aspects in more detail.
Keywords: Mobile communications, 5G, System level simulations, Cellular networks, Heterogeneous networks,
Propagation models

1 Introduction and simulations is sometimes undervalued in scientific lit-

System level (SL) simulations have become indispens- erature, since such methods can only provide numerical
able for investigating and predicting the performance and insights into the performance of the system. Yet, mathe-
behavior of wireless cellular systems [1–3]. The main matically tractable analytic methods, such as those based
interest of SL simulations thereby lies in network-related on stochastic geometric tools [8, 9], often require appli-
aspects, such as performance evaluation of key network cation of restrictive assumptions and simplifications with
parameters (e.g., capacity, latency, coverage, efficiency), respect to transceiver architectures, coordination capabil-
rapid prototyping of novel methods and features (e.g., ities of network nodes and modeling of the propagation
resource allocation, mobility management, multi-point environment. Furthermore, stochastic geometry is not
coordination), and network planning [4–7]. SL simula- able to represent network dynamics caused, for example,
tions are unchallenged for understanding the potential by the movement of users or the burstiness of data traf-
of novel technologies in highly complex systems, such as fic and can therefore not address questions relating to
cellular networks, with relatively modest implementation mobility management and transmission latency. Despite
overhead and are therefore extensively utilized by both, analytic methods, the second main contender to SL sim-
academia and industry. The importance of SL modeling ulations is field trials; yet, those are neither well suited
to early stages of the development process of novel tech-
*Correspondence: [email protected]
nologies, due to the cost and time effort required, nor can
1
Christian Doppler Laboratory for Dependable Wireless Connectivity for the they easily be performed on a large scale without signifi-
Society in Motion, Vienna, Austria cantly impairing the performance of live operating mobile
2
Institute of Telecommunications, TU Wien, Gusshausstraße 25/389, 1040
Vienna, Austria
networks.

© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 2 of 17

SL simulations encompass a large number of net- the implementation of the complete protocol stack. These
work elements and thus require the consideration of abstractions and the generally efficient object-oriented
many interconnecting (desired and interfering) trans- programming (OOP)-based implementation allow to sim-
mission links. Correspondingly, handling computational ulate large-scale networks with several thousands of active
complexity becomes a major concern. A widely accepted network nodes.
solution is the application of link abstraction models The Vienna 5G SL simulator is implemented in M AT-
that specify the interaction between LL and SL simu- LAB and is available for download under an academic use
lators [1]. As the fifth generation of mobile communi- license [22]. This allows on the one hand reproducibility
cations (5G) introduces a multitude of novel concepts of research results and on the other hand it provides a
and contender technologies, such as full-dimensional unified tool for academic researchers to pursue their own
(FD)/massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) research ideas. This is facilitated by the modular, OOP-
beamforming [10–12], mixed numerology multicarrier based structure that allows to adapt parameters freely and
transmission [13, 14], non-orthogonal multiple access by exchange and enhance functionality also by, e.g., adding
superposition transmission [15, 16], and transmission in new propagation models.
the millimeter wave (mmWave) band [17, 18], there is a
need to revise and enhance existing modeling and sim- 2 Scientific contribution
ulation approaches. Our research group at the Institute In this chapter, we discuss the novelty of our simulator
of Telecommunications at TU Wien has been active in and state its unique abilities. Therefore, we first compare
the field of LL and SL simulation of cellular networks it to already existing simulation tools and then highlight
already since the introduction of Long-Term Evolution the scientific contribution and novelty of our simulator.
(LTE) in late 2008. We developed in the past a whole Most of these highlights will be showcased in more detail
suite of LTE compliant LL and SL simulators [19–21], in Section 4.
known as the Vienna LTE simulators, which we suc-
cessfully share with other researchers to facilitate repro- 2.1 Related work—existing simulation tools
ducibility in wireless communications academic research Since SL simulators are convenient tools to investigate
[22, 23]. Evolving these simulators, however to support the network performance, naturally, there is a multitude
the increased heterogeneity and the emerging use cases of them available. The popularity of SL simulators can
of 5G, is not straightforward due to a lack of flexibility already be seen from the amount of existing simula-
of the simulation platform in terms of implementation tors for Long-Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A). Next
structure and functionality. This was the reason for us to to the Vienna LTE-A SL simulator exists LTE-Sim [24]
develop the two newest members of the Vienna Cellu- or SimuLTE [25] to name two examples with an aca-
lar Communications Simulator (VCCS) suite [22], namely demic background. Both simulators however only provide
the Vienna 5G LL simulator and the Vienna 5G SL sim- LTE-A functionality and do not offer extensions for 5G.
ulator. The description of the latter is the scope of this Generally, we distinguish between simulators with an aca-
publication. demic background on the one side and from industry
The Vienna SL simulator (Vienna 5G SL simulator) on the other side. The former usually includes more fea-
explicitly models the network geometry and thereby tures than defined in the standard to support research
allows, in combination with several propagation models and are mostly freely available to other researcher (under
for various propagation effects, to simulate the network an academic-use license). Simulators from industry, on
performance based on signal strength and accumulated the other hand, are commonly only available for paying
interference, combined in the signal to interference and customers and mostly restricted to standardized features.
noise ratio (SINR). Thus, the scope is on flexible gen- For this reason, we compare our Vienna 5G SL simulator
eration of networks with arbitrary geometry and sev- only to other freely available simulators and tools with an
eral types of base stations (BSs) and users, which also academic background.
enables to simulate multi-tier networks. Since also com- Popular simulation tools are discrete-event network
plex and sophisticated channel models are available, simulators, such as OMNeT++ or ns-3. While these
advanced transmission modes, such as FD MIMO, can be are basically generic network simulators, there exist
investigated. dedicated modules for the simulation of LTE and
Several abstraction steps are necessary to actually per- 5G-based networks [25, 26]. Due to the event-driven
form system level simulations. The physical (PHY) layer nature of these simulators, they are packet oriented and
transmission is abstracted via input from the Vienna model large parts of the protocol stack. This, however,
SL simulator (Vienna 5G LL simulator) (cf. Section 3). makes it prohibitive to simulate very large networks
While the medium access control (MAC) layer is rep- with many network nodes in terms of computational
resented by scheduling and feedback functions, we omit complexity.
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 3 of 17

The OpenAirInterface [27] is an open source platform from different standards, as well as supporting
for the simulation of wireless networks. As of this writ- flexible numerology use cases as defined in 5G [33].
ing, it implements the 3rd Generation Partnership Project • Propagation models : We support numerous
(3GPP) LTE Rel. 8 and parts of later releases. It imple- propagation models for path loss, shadowing, or
ments the full protocol stack and provides an interface to antenna patterns. Large efforts have been made for
hardware platforms. Additionally, also the core network 5G to define new, appropriate channel models, which
is integrated in this platform, which allows to investigate we support directly, such as the 3GPP 3D channel
aspects of future radio access network (RAN) technolo- model [34], the extended 3GPP 3D channel model for
gies. Even though the realism of simulation results is mmWave and carrier frequencies up to 100 GHz
improved by integrating the core network, the increased [35], and the recently published 3GPP 3D channel
complexity limits the number of network nodes in one model for aerial devices [36]. Furthermore, by
simulation. Thus, it is rather to be categorized as a network providing a channel interface it is possible to
simulator than a SL simulator. incorporate different outsourced channel models as
There are several publications that claim to describe a for example the Quasi Deterministic Radio Channel
5G SL simulator. However, the corresponding simulators Generator (QuaDRiGa) channel model [37].
are either not available to others [28] or they are simple • Heterogeneous networks and geometry : A huge
derivations of the Vienna LTE-A SL simulator that include emphasis in 5G is on the increased heterogeneity of
some 5G aspects [29, 30]. The simulator described in [31] networks. We therefore provide an arbitrary amount
is again event driven and only combines LTE-A and wire- of individually defined BS and user types. These can
less local area network (WLAN) protocol stacks as a 5G be placed freely in the region of interest (ROI) and
feature. can also change their location over time, according to
One drawback of network simulators, which implement a predefined route or a random movement pattern.
the entire protocol stack, is their large computational Additionally, the path loss model is adapted to the
complexity, which makes it difficult if not impossible state of the corresponding link, according to
to utilize them for large-scale SL simulations. By focus- line-of-sight (LOS)/non line-of-sight (NLOS)
ing our efforts on highly adjustable network genera- conditions or BS type. This can also be influenced by
tion, including multi-tier networks and arbitrary network blockage objects, such as buildings or walls, which
geometry, and by providing a large spectrum of propaga- can freely be placed in the simulation area.
tion models with the possibility of effortless inclusion of • D2D and IoT scenarios : Our simulator allows the
further methods, the Vienna 5G SL simulator constitutes evaluation of up-, down- and side-link in one
a powerful tool for SL simulations for 5G and beyond. simulation. Thus, device-to-device (D2D) as well as
vehicle-to-everything (V2X) or relay scenarios can be
2.2 Scientific contribution and novelty investigated in our simulator. In the context of
The need for a successor of the Vienna LTE-A SL simu- Internet of things (IoT), many (active or inactive)
lator stems from the new requirements for the simulation network nodes have to be considered in the same
of 5G networks [3, 32]. During the implementation of our scenario at the same time. Thanks to our efficient
simulator, we made sure that the code structure grants implementation, our simulator can handle several
flexibility and scalability for defining new simulation sce- thousand users in a multi-tier network.
narios by combining and adding new functions (e.g., prop-
agation models, scheduling algorithms) and expanding General simulation features:
them (e.g., new user types, multi tier networks). Thanks
to the modular code structure, the Vienna 5G SL simula- • LTE-A functionality : Regarding timing,
tor is prepared for emerging scenarios and applications, frame-structure, and transmit modes, the Vienna 5G
even beyond the scope of 5G. In the following, we detail SL Simulator provides backwards compatibility to its
the features that make our simulator fit for the simulation LTE-A-based predecessor, the Vienna LTE-A SL
of 5G networks and we discuss the general advantages of simulator.
our simulator. • Efficient implementation : In order to minimize the
simulation time, we took several measures to reduce
5G features: the simulation overhead and to increase the general
efficiency of the code. We investigated means of
• Flexible implementation : The timing and frame optimizing the aggregate interference, such that
structure can be adapted arbitrarily. This allows for results are not flawed at the border of the ROI.
defining resource grids for different subcarrier Additionally, we pregenerate all possible variables
spacings, making it possible to adapt to requirements before the actual simulation loop, e.g., the whole
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 4 of 17

network geometry and the channel traces. This is As already mentioned, the main focus of the Vienna
done in such a way that individual chunks of the 5G SL simulator is on investigating large-scale networks
simulation remain independent of each other, which based on their geometry and including defining propaga-
allows for running these chunks in parallel on a tion effects by appropriate models. The most important
multi-core system or even a simulation cluster. metric is the SINR, which accumulates the attenuated sig-
• Precise geometry : A common approach for the nal from the desired transmitter and all interferers at the
calculation of macroscopic fading (MF) values in receiver location. This metric depends on the noise level
system level simulations is to use maps with finite and more importantly on the user and BS constellation
resolution (see, e.g., Claussen maps [38]) and to and the utilized propagation models for each link. Average
assign always the closest available value to the actual performance results are obtained through Monte-Carlo
user or BS position. This is, on the one hand, simulations, by averaging over spatial and temporal real-
convenient for precalculating these values for a finite izations. The former are represented by variations in the
number of positions; on the other hand, it creates a network geometry and the modeling of MF values; the
large overhead and leads to imprecise results due to latter are included through the variations of channel coef-
the finite spatial resolution. We completely avoid the ficients over time. Based on the individual SINR results,
calculations of maps and only utilize precise locations. scheduling decisions are made, and further metrics can be
Especially, the generation method for correlated deducted, such as average user throughput or cell load.
shadow fading had to be enhanced for this approach, The simulator structure is designed for flexibility and
for which we use a new generation method that grants this through modular architecture, where individ-
allows to calculate values for arbitrary positions [39]. ual functions can be exchanged independently. Coarsely,
• Input from Vienna 5G LL simulator : Due to the the simulator is partitioned into four parts: initialization,
abstraction of the actual transmission by signal to pregeneration, the main simulation loop, and postpro-
noise ratio (SNR)-to-block error ratio (BLER) cessing. This is also shown in Fig. 1 including the most
mapping curves for specific modulation and coding important steps performed in each individual block.
schemes (MCSs), our simulator benefits from the
input provided by the Vienna 5G LL simulator. For 3.1 Initialization
different modulation orders or coding schemes with Before beginning a simulation, all necessary parameters
variable blocklength, these curves can be produced in have to be defined. We provide a number of predefined
the LL simulator and are then directly used for SL scenarios that showcase the capabilities of our simulator
simulations. and demonstrate the existing feature choices. Based on
these, first initializations in a next step so-called depen-
3 Simulator structure dent parameters are set, most importantly the time line of
To better understand how the aforementioned features are the simulator. This is an integral concept of our simulator,
represented in our simulator structure, we provide here to divide the timeline into time slots (TSs), segments, and
an overview thereof. The scope of this document is to give chunks (cf. Fig. 2).
an idea of the simulator’s capabilities but not to explain its A TS is the time unit based on which scheduling is
functionality in all details. For a more thorough explana- performed (and therefore is the time unit spent in one
tion, please refer to the user manual and detailed feature iteration of the inner simulation loop). It is a fixed value,
list, which can be found on our simulator homepage [22]. e.g., 1 ms to represent LTE-A subframes, but can be freely

Fig. 1 Structure overview of the Vienna 5G SL simulator. The simulator is divided into four major blocks. In the figure, the main tasks that are
performed per block are displayed
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 5 of 17

the selected scenario, in a first step, walls and buildings

are placed within the network area (cf. Section 4.1.2).
Afterwards, BSs and users are generated according to
the previously defined parameters. BS objects themselves
do not have a geometric location, but contain one or more
antenna elements. This allows to simulate distributed
antenna systems (DASs) and remote radio heads (RRHs).
While it is in general possible to allow movement for all
network nodes, we assume for now that BS positions are
constant over time. Users, on the other hand, can change
their position in each segment according to their prede-
fined trajectory. At this point, along with the network
Fig. 2 The timeline structure of the Vienna 5G SL simulator. The elements within the ROI, an interference region is created,
simulation time in the simulator is divided into chunks, segments, and which emulates interference from outside the actual ROI
TSs. Chunks are processed independently and do not need any input
(cf. Section 4.2.1).
of results from other chunks. At the beginning of each segment, MF
values are updated, but are constant within one segment. A TS is the When the pregeneration step is finished, the necessary
basis for scheduling and feedback calculation information for each chunk is combined. Only the corre-
sponding values are bundled here, such as the user posi-
tions valid for the individual chunks. Thus, we reduce the
overhead of data to hand over to the main simulation loop,
specified. A segment is defined as the time span for which but still provide all information that is required to perform
the values of the MF are assumed to be (approximately) the simulation within each chunk, thus separating them
constant—they are only updated once per segment. Thus, and enabling parallel simulation.
also the BS assignment (based on received signal power
or SINR) is unchanged for the length of a segment. In the 3.3 Main simulation loop
initialization phase of the simulation, the length of a seg- After distributing the configuration to the individual
ment is determined based on the speed and trajectory of chunks, they are processed individually—consecutively or
the users and the specified decorrelation distance. This in parallel, dependent on the simulation configuration.
implies that for stationary users, only one segment is cre- Each chunk contains a loop over TSs. Before every iter-
ated and MF values are only calculated once. A chunk ation of this inner loop, it is checked if the current TS
is a sequence of consecutive segments. As indicated in marks the beginning of a new segment. If that is the case,
Fig. 2, a considerable amount of time (that is not simu- the positions of all users are updated, as well as the cor-
lated, but used for trajectory generation) passes between responding MF values with respect to the desired trans-
chunks, such that the position of mobile users changes mitter and all interferers. Respective values are distance-
significantly between chunks. Irrespective of mobility, it dependent path loss, antenna gain, BS assignment, and
is assumed that the scattering environment changes sig- link condition (cf. Section 4.1.2). For a simulation with
nificantly between chunks, and thus, channel coefficients uplink and downlink, these steps are performed once per
are uncorrelated. Since the input into each chunk is suffi- TS (for frequency division duplex (FDD)) or only in alter-
cient to perform all computations and no generated result nating TSs for time division duplex (TDD). In Fig. 3, we
from another chunk is needed in any chunk, it is possible present an overview of this main simulation loop.
to separate them and process them in parallel. Due to this The inner loop over TSs contains five major steps. First,
preparation step, distributing individual chunks to parallel the channel is updated for all links, according to the chan-
threads is possible without further effort, since all chunks nel model. Which channel model types are supported and
can be processed independently from each other. how they are implemented is described in more detail in
At the end of this stage, the specified parameters are Section 4.1.1.
checked for compatibility in order to avoid any issues or Then, the scheduling is performed. Also for the sched-
inconsistencies during the simulation. uler several types are available, such as a classic round
robin scheduler or a best channel quality indicator (CQI)
3.2 Pregeneration scheduler, but also user-defined functions can com-
In the next part of the program, all elements with geo- fortably be added here. According to the respective
metric location are created. All positions are specified in scheduling metric, users are assigned to transmit on the
R3 , but there is the option to discard the third dimen- available elements in the resource grid. Once this is done
sion in order to perform two-dimensional simulations, for all BSs, the link quality model (LQM) is called. This is
thereby saving computational complexity. If specified by one of the major abstractions for our SL simulator, since
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 6 of 17

to save, in order not to bloat the finally stored file. This

can again be adapted freely, such that only the results of
interest are further processed.
From the individual results per TS and per BS and user,
such as throughput or scheduling decisions, average val-
ues are calculated. These values range from average user
throughput to average cell load or BLER, but also further
metrics can easily be defined.
After this postprocessing step, the obtained results are
displayed and stored in a file, together with the unpro-
cessed, direct output for the individual TSs of the main
simulation loop, if so desired.

4 Detailed feature description

In this section, we demonstrate the strengths of our simu-
lator by discussing several implemented features in more
detail. We split this section into two parts, namely features
Fig. 3 Main simulation loop of the simulator. The main loop consists that are explicitly designed for simulation 5G networks
of an outer loop over chunks that are processed independently. At and generally improved features that make the simulations
the beginning of the inner loop over TSs, the MF values are updated if more efficient and allow for more flexibility.
a new segment begins. For each iteration, five steps are performed,
which are updating the channel (i.e., the small-scale fading),
4.1 Features for simulation of 5G networks
distribution of the available resources to users by the scheduler,
calculation of the postequalization SINR in the LQM, calculation of 4.1.1 Propagation models
feedback, and finally mapping of SINR to BLER in the LPM For SL simulations, propagation models are a key com-
ponent, since they relate the geometry of the scenario
coding, modulation, channel, and equalizer are combined to received signal strength and thus SINR, which is
into a postequalization SINR value, which represents the the main metric for further performance investigation.
combined performance of the physical layer transmission Within these models also lies the potential to acquire
(cf. [40]). the necessary degree of abstraction; thus, including the
In the next step of the main simulation loop, the feed- relevant effects significantly impacts the value and accu-
back is calculated. There is a built-in, adaptable feedback racy of the obtained results [43]. There exists a multitude
delay, which is accounted for here. It is possible to utilize of models for various effects (see, e.g., [44]); addition-
classical LTE-A-compliant implicit channel state infor- ally, appropriate models to account for novel develop-
mation (CSI) feedback, consisting of CQI, rank indicator ments within 5G standardization, such as transmission
(RI) and precoding matrix indicator (PMI), or to utilize in the mmWave band and new BS types, are already
the unquantized channel coefficients as feedback, which being created.
is imperative for MIMO precoding schemes that require Consequently, the Vienna 5G SL simulator provides a
explicit CSI, such as zero forcing (ZF) multi user MIMO variety of options for macroscopic propagation effects
(MU-MIMO) transmission [41, 42]. Here, it is important (location dependent), such as path loss models, antenna
that the scheduler can handle the generated feedback, i.e., patterns, or attenuation by blockages. Further models can
the pair of scheduler and feedback function has to be be added conveniently, due to the modular structure of
aligned. the simulator. The same is true for microscopic propa-
The second half of the abstracted transmitter-receiver gation effects, i.e., small-scale fading, which is generated
chain, namely demapping and decoding, is combined according to a channel model. There has been consider-
together in the link performance model (LPM). The for- able progress in defining more realistic models not only by
merly calculated postequalization SINR is mapped to adding temporal but also spatial correlation and by con-
BLER and throughput, dependent on the MCS cho- sidering the third dimension for signal propagation. Due
sen for transmission. This is also the connecting point to the relatively complex procedure for these advanced
between the Vienna 5G LL simulator and SL simulator (cf. channel models, we dedicate this section to explain in
Section 4.2.3). detail how different types of channel models are inte-
grated in our simulator.
3.4 Postprocessing Realistic performance evaluation of advanced 5G tech-
When all chunks are processed, the individual results are niques, such as FD-MIMO and three-dimensional (3D)
combined. Here, a choice can be made on which values beamforming, requires the use of a channel model that
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 7 of 17

encompasses the main characteristics of large antenna

arrays. In this regard, a channel model that makes use
of geometric information, such as the angular spread in PDP Container 2D Channel
azimuth and elevation as well as physical location and ori-
entation of antenna arrays at transmitter and receiver, is
essential. This channel model type is known as geometry-
Large Scale
based stochastic channel (GSC) model and is adopted by
standardization bodies such as the 3GPP. The GSC model
Parameters 3GPP
can be regarded as a balance between the two extremes of 3D Channel
Spatialy correlated (SSPs)
purely deterministic and purely stochastic channel mod-
random variables
eling. While for purely deterministic modeling, i.e., ray
tracing approaches, the simulated environment is com-
pletely deterministic, the GSC model reflects the statistics QuaDRiGa
of a typical (urban, sub-urban, rural, etc.) environment. Channel interface
Channel
In contrast to purely stochastic modeling, which requires
only the power delay profile (PDP) of the channel, the GSC
model introduces a larger set of parameters dependent on Fig. 4 Channel generation procedure. The channel generation
process contains three different types of channel models: 2D channel
both spatial- and time domain characteristics and deter- models, 3D channel models, and a generic interface capable of
mines the effective PDP based on positions of random incorporating outsourced channel models
scattering objects.
The Vienna 5G SL simulator provides a large variety of
channel models that are classified in three basic types:
exponential correlation functions in order to describe dis-
1. Stochastic two-dimensional (2D) channel models tance dependency of LSPs. The spatial correlation is site-
such as Rayleigh and Ricean fading, additive white specific, meaning that it only accounts for links directed
Gaussian noise (AWGN), and classical PDP-based towards the same BS (uplink) or originating at the same
channel models such as Vehicular-A [45] or Typical BS (downlink). In the case of a sectorized BS, the corre-
Urban (TU) [46]. lation holds also for links of co-sited sectors. Correlated
2. Geometry-based stochastic 3D channel models, such LSPs are generated in the main simulation loop after
as 3GPP 3D channel model TR 36.873 [34], used for the user-to-BS assignment. The LSP correlation is per-
frequency ranges below 6 GHz and 3GPP 3D formed independently for each chunk, while each of the
mmWave channel model TR 38.901 [35] for parameters are updated on a segment basis. In this way,
frequency ranges up to 100 GHz. a segment is considered as a quasi-stationary region. This
3. Interface for outsourced channel models. We select is in agreement with the parametrization of the decorre-
QuaDRiGa channel model [37] as an example to show lation distance (see [48], Sec. 3.3.1), the only parameter
the simulator’s flexibility and ease of integration. used in the exponential correlation function. An example
The procedure to generate the actual channel coeffi- of spatially correlated LSPs is shown in Fig. 5. For each
cients is different for each of the three channel model LSP, a map is generated only for the geometrical area of the
types, as illustrated in Fig. 4. links with a common BS, then correlated LSPs, denoted by
For the first type, channel traces are generated in σi , are extracted and saved for each link.
the PDP container, according to the appropriate channel The generation of SSPs, as provided by 3GPP, con-
model. We ensure that the temporal correlation of the sists of a step-wise procedure which includes several
generated channel traces matches the desired statistics probability distributions that determine cluster- and ray-
of the channel model by applying the method proposed specific parameters as shown in Table 1. An impor-
in [47]. The generation procedure of the second type of tant issue that arises at this step is the lack of spatial
channel models and the channel interface are discussed consistency since cluster- and ray-specific parameters
below in more detail. (Dn , Sn , Xn , Yn , Zn,m , n,m ) are generated for every user
independently. We therefore extend the 3GPP compliant
The 3GPP 3D channel model: This channel model con- step-wise SSP generation (see [49] for a more detailed
sists of large-scale parameters (LSPs) and small-scale description) by including a new step to generate spatially
parameters (SSPs). The LSPs (e.g., shadow fading, Ricean correlated random variables based on the method pro-
K-factor, delay spread, and angular spreads in azimuth and posed in [50]. This step is denoted as spatially correlated
elevation) are position dependent and characterize each random variables and is applied before starting the actual
user location. These parameters are correlated based on generation of SSPs, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 8 of 17

Fig. 5 Spatially correlated LSP maps. For each of the LSPs, a spatially
correlated log normally distributed map is generated, as indicated in
the figure

The spatially correlated random variables procedure Fig. 6 Spatially correlated SSPs. To generate spatially correlated SSPs,
starts by first generating one grid of independent and independent and randomly distributed variables are generated only
on the grid points, which are denoted by blue dots in the figure. For
identically distributed (iid) random variables for each
the user positions within this grid, the corresponding values are
of the cluster- and ray-specific parameters. This grid is determined by using bilinear interpolation
created for each chunk independently, and its size cor-
responds to the entire simulation area where the users
are located. The resolution of the grid is determined by
a defined parameter, d, representing decorrelation dis- are deleted afterwards. Only the interpolated values are
tance in meters. Afterwards, using bilinear interpolation, saved for every time slot. This is very important, as for
the corresponding values for each parameter and for every large scenarios saving such grids can have huge impact
user location are calculated. This method will ensure on the memory efficiency of the simulator, a limitation
that closely located users will experience similar angles that exists in our Vienna LTE-A SL simulator. More details
of arrival/departure and other channel characteristics. about such precise geometry methods are discussed in
Figure 6 shows an example of the parameter interpolation Section 4.2.2.
for two closely located users that lie within one grid.
An advantage of this method is the ability to obtain the Channel interface: The channel interface allows the
interpolated value for a specific user location with high usage of third party implementations of channel models.
accuracy. Another aspect of this procedure is that no maps Currently, this interface is used to support the QuaDRiGa
are stored, grids are only generated for the purpose of channel model. The QuaDRiGa source code itself is avail-
obtaining the necessary values at the user positions and able at the website of the Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz
Institute (HHI). The QuaDRiGa channel model is cali-
brated according to TR 36.873 [34] and TR 36.901 [35]
Table 1 Probability distributions of random variables used to
and supports carrier frequencies of up to 100 GHz. Addi-
generate small-scale parameters as specified by 3GPP [34, 35]
tionally, the QuaDRiGa channel model is backed up by
Cluster (n) and ray (m) Distribution extensive measurement campaigns by the Fraunhofer HHI
Step 5: Delay Dn = U (0, 1) according to [35].
 
Step 6: Shadowing term Sn = N 0, ζ 2 Simulation setups can be specified by using either the
Step 7: Angle sign Xn = U ({−1, 1}) Vienna 5G SL simulator’s syntax or QuaDRiGa’s syntax.
  This makes the interface easy to use while at the same
Step 7: Angular variation Yn = N 0, (σAS /7)2
  time allowing the user direct access to all of QuaDRiGa’s
Step 9: XPR Zn,m = N μXPR , σXPR
2
features, such as antenna macros, that provide a set of
Step 10: Initial phase n,m = U (−π, π) predefined antenna arrays, ranging from simple omni or
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 9 of 17

dipole antennas to more complex types as defined in [34] either on predefined trajectories or random trajectories
for the 3D model or in [35] for mmWave. The interface and depends on the velocity of the user.
creates QuaDRiGa layout objects which are used to com- The flexible definition of arbitrary BS and user types
pute the channel coefficients. These coefficients are then also prepares the simulator for important future concepts
properly rearranged and returned to the Vienna 5G SL such as V2X, railway, or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
simulator. A V2X scenario is already included in Fig. 7 with a high-
Further models can be supported in a similar fashion way supplied by pico cells and a specific user type for
with some initial implementation effort. Therefore, the car users. A railway can be defined in a similar manner,
input from the simulator and the output of the model have but with users confined in a defined space (potentially
to be processed appropriately for the specific model. with an additional penetration loss into the train carriage)
and with a predefined trajectory that corresponds to the
4.1.2 Heterogeneous networks train tracks. In order to model UAV scenarios, mostly the
The flexibility and versatility of the Vienna 5G SL simula- antenna pattern of the BS has to be adjusted. Therefore,
tor especially shows in the broad variety of networks that also 3D antenna patterns are supported by the simulator.
can be created. BS and user types can freely be specified
and placed within the scenario, which allows to simulate
multi-tier networks that become more and more reality Blockage modeling: The basic building block to repre-
for actual deployments. This heterogeneity, which is a cor- sent signal blocking objects, is a rectangular wall with
nerstone of future 5G networks, is also reflected in the arbitrary dimensions and orientation in 3D. Buildings are
adaptive choice of path loss models, dependent on the link created by combining five walls (four walls on the sides
conditions.

BS and user types: The simulator supports various BS

and user types in one simulation simultaneously. In the
initialization phase of a simulation, properties that deter-
mine each BS and user type are specified. The BS types
can be distinguished by different transmit powers such as
macro, pico, and femto BSs. Furthermore, BSs can have
different antenna types with specific antenna element
patterns and different antenna array sizes.
Similarly, the simulator allows for different user types,
e.g., pedestrians, cars, and machine-type users. User types
are distinguished by several parameters, e.g., the move-
ment pattern, the speed or the number of antennas.
Figure 7 illustrates the BS association based on the max-
imum received power for a heterogeneous network con-
sisting of macro, pico, and femto BSs as well as pedestrian
and car users.

BS and user placement: Each BS is connected with one

or more antennas for transmission and reception of sig-
nals, where each antenna has its own location in 3D
space and represents a concentrated antenna array with
potentially more than one antenna element. This enables
simulation of DASs and RRHs and cloud RANs. Sev-
eral predefined placement methods are available, ranging
from random placement, e.g., according to a Poisson point
process (PPP), or placement in a hexagonal grid with
sectorized BSs; other methods can easily be integrated. Fig. 7 BS-user association based on the maximum received power.
Equivalently for users, as the other endpoint of the con- This figure shows an example of a heterogeneous network consisting
nection, various spatial distributions can be applied, such of various BS and user types. Colored lines denote the BS-user
as random placement following different random proba- association, each color denoting a BS type. The implemented
bility distributions, or predefined set of positions. Addi- scenario represents an urban environment with one main highway
going through the center, with dedicated pico cells for this region
tionally, user positions can evolve over time. This happens
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 10 of 17

and a ceiling). With these basic elements, arbitrary city probability such as the one specified in the 3GPP 3D chan-
layouts can be generated, such as a Manhattan grid with nel model for predefined scenarios. In order to account
streets and building blocks. Another option is incorpo- for spatial consistency, e.g., for avoiding that the condi-
rating real-world maps by extracting street and building tion for a group of user positions closely located, randomly
data and importing them into the simulator to create jump from LOS to NLOS state, the indoor and LOS prob-
appropriate blockage objects, similarly to [51, 52]. These ability generation approach described in ([50], Sec. 2) and
blockages are then used to determine the LOS or NLOS ([50], Sec. 3) can be used.
state of every link; additionally, blockages are used to
switch between indoor and outdoor propagation models. 4.1.3 Device to device communication
Also investigations of the actual influence of blockages in a D2D communications started to gather strength in the
scenario can be performed, similar to [53]. To do so, block- fourth generation of mobile communications with the
ages are assigned a penetration loss value, which can be development of safety critical applications and connected
the same for all walls, stem from a distribution of loss val- in-vehicle infotainment systems, and it is envisioned to
ues, or can be predefined, which then allows to calculate keep growing in the fifth generation towards the direction
the accumulated penetration loss along the link. of autonomous driving [54].
In this section we utilize D2D communication to enable
Situation aware path loss models: Since the simulated relaying between users in order to improve the coverage
network can be highly heterogeneous, i.e., using differ- in a microcellular urban network. We compute the per-
ent BS and user types and propagation environments, formance of the direct link and the relay-assisted link in
several situation-specific path loss models are in general terms of SINR values, which are obtained with the lite sim-
utilized within one single simulation. The path loss mod- ulation mode of the Vienna 5G SL simulator explained in
els are specifically determined per link condition, i.e., BS Section 4.2.1. Our simulator is able to carry out uplink,
type, indoor/outdoor user location, and LOS state, which downlink and sidelink transmission in one single simula-
requires to perform a large number of checks for every tion. Since most traffic and control signaling takes place
link in order to choose the appropriate path loss model. in the downlink band, we consider the sidelink to be
In order to avoid such overhead, we predefine a look-up integrated into the uplink.
table providing combinations of propagation conditions We create a 2D Manhattan grid scenario as shown
and scenarios, each related to a specific path loss model. A in Fig. 9, where streets are distributed according to a
possible setup for link state and path loss models is shown Poisson line process with density λs . BSs and users are
in Table 2. In this example, the simulated network consists placed according to a PPP in every street with density
of macro BSs operating in low-frequency bands and femto λb and λu respectively. The path loss is modeled as a
BSs operating in the mmWave frequency band. distance-dependent function similar to [55], where the
The look-up table can be extended without increasing path between transmitter and receiver is split into dif-
the simulation complexity. This approach ensures a very ferent segments depending whether the receiver is in the
flexible and situation aware selection of path loss models, same street as the transmitter, in a crossing or in a par-
which is well suited for the requirements of heterogeneous allel street. Users are attached to the BS BS that gives
networks in 5G and beyond, since the heterogeneity not the minimum pathloss and are equally divided into two
only stems from the actual network geometry, but also groups: relays and transmitters. Relays are idle users that
from the distinct behavior of the propagation for different have no data to send and therefore are available to con-
situations within the scenario. vey the signal from the BS to other users. For that reason,
In order to identify the link status, the individual link
condition has to be determined. While this is given for Table 2 An example of the look-up table used to determine
the BS type, there has to be a check for the LOS condi- situation aware path loss
tion and for indoor or outdoor location of a user. For both BS type In-/Outdoor LOS/NLOS Path loss type
conditions, there are three options available to determine
Macro O LOS 3D-UMa LOS-O
the status. It can directly be inferred from the geometry of
the scenario, when blockages are explicitly modeled. For Macro O NLOS 3D-UMa NLOS-O
LOS condition, it is simply checked, if any wall obstructs Macro I LOS 3D-UMa LOS-I
the link (cf. Fig. 8), while building information is used to Macro I NLOS 3D-UMa NLOS-I
identify if a user is located indoors or outdoors. Addition- Femto O LOS mmWave LOS-O
ally, the two conditions can be modeled by considering a
Femto O NLOS mmWave NLOS-O
simple probability check for either case—representing the
Femto I LOS mmWave LOS-I
percentage of simulated area covered by buildings for the
indoor decision or considering a distance-dependent LOS Femto I NLOS mmWave NLOS-I
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 11 of 17

Fig. 9 Manhattan Poisson line process scenario. Example for a

realization of streets, BSs, and users

λb increases since the interference from other BSs grows

Fig. 8 Deterministic LOS link decision in a Manhattan grid scenario.
rapidly. Regarding the assisted link, for low user density
This figure shows an example of deterministic LOS link condition in
3D where the BS is placed on top of a building. The connection lines λu , the improvement is almost negligible since the num-
denote the users in LOS associated to the BS ber of relays in the cell is very low or even zero. For
high λu , the relay-assisted communication can improve
the coverage probability of direct communication by
almost 30%.
we consider that the selected relay should be within the
same cell as the user. The communication between relays 4.1.4 Internet of things
and BSs takes place in the downlink and uplink bands of With the introduction of the IoT paradigm and the trend
the network. Besides, the communication among relays of making everyday household objects able to commu-
and users occurs in half duplex in the sidelink. In con- nicate autonomously, future 5G networks will have to
trast to relays, transmitters have data to convey to their deal with a tremendously increased number of network
BS. Since the sidelink is integrated into the uplink, trans- nodes [56]. Even though the generated data packets tend
mitters will interfere in the relay-user link. We consider to be small and required data rates are low, for some event-
that our attached BS performs orthogonal scheduling in triggered messages, the network will have to deal with a
the uplink band, that is, that interference from transmit- temporal traffic-spike.
ters within our cell is avoided and therefore we consider From a simulation point of few, that means that a
only inter-cell interference in the relay-assisted link. The considerably larger amount of network nodes has to be
quality of the assisted link is defined by the link with the handled simultaneously in one simulation, also due to
worst SINR of the BS-relay and relay-user link. In order the large concentration of IoT devices. Long generation
to compute the SINR, we consider a noise spectral density cycles for packets require long duration of simulations and
of − 174 dBm/Hz, a bandwidth of 10 MHz, and trans- with relatively uninteresting results when the IoT devices
mit powers PTxb = 10 W and PTxu = 0.2 W per BS are idle.
and user, respectively. We assume a Rayleigh fading for The timeline of the Vienna 5G SL simulator is separated
each link. into chunks that can be used to create a scenario that
With the scenario described above, we perform Monte- only simulates the time instances in which transmissions
Carlo system level simulations with 3000 samples each, take place, without the overhead of simulating the time in
for four different parameter combinations out of the set between. Additionally, activity patterns can be defined to
{λs , λb , λu }. The coverage probability of the direct and mimic the behavior of IoT devices. In this way, e.g., sit-
relay-assisted link over the user density is shown in Fig. 10. uations where event-driven messages flood the channel.
The coverage probability of the direct link is independent Considering the simulation of large amounts of network
of the number of users and decreases as the BS density nodes, we ensured that the Vienna 5G SL simulator is able
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 12 of 17

gain, shadow fading) and the link properties depending

on them, e.g. LOS/NLOS, indoor/outdoor, are constant
over a segment, while the small scale parameters (small
scale fading) change for every TS and only keep their time
correlation over a segment.
Interference region: At the border of the ROI, the lack
of interference from outside of the ROI leads to an over-
estimation of SINR values. This effect can be mitigated
by adding an outer simulation region that produces addi-
tional interference for the network elements close to the
border. In the Vienna 5G SL simulator, the interfering
nodes are simulated with a simplified scheduler and ran-
dom feedback to limit the added computational complex-
ity. Nodes are simulated as interfering nodes, if they serve
no user, that generates simulation results.
Figure 12 illustrates an exemplary spatial base station
distribution used for these simulations; it also illustrates
that the relative overhead of simulating the additional
Fig. 10 Coverage probability. Direct link and relay-assisted link for interference region decreases with increasing size of the
different parameter sets over the user density with a SINR threshold of ROI. Thus, the efficiency of the simulation is enhanced,
T = 0 dB
because more of the simulated area can effectively be
used to generate results, as compared to the smaller ROI.
to cope with this through efficient implementation and Figure 13 shows how the additional interference region
strict usage of OOP programming. shifts the SINR distribution to lower, more realistic val-
To illustrate this, we present an IoT scenario in Fig. 11 ues, for a medium sized and a big ROI. For the efficient
where more than 7000 users are simulated with the Vienna simulation of small ROIs, the Vienna 5G SL simulator
5G SL simulator. Despite the huge number of network will provide the option of a wrap around [57] to mitigate
nodes, the simulation requires less than 16 GB RAM border effects in future releases.
(which is usually the limiting factor here), for a total of 100
simulated TSs.

4.2 Common system level features

4.2.1 General implementation enhancements
To obtain meaningful average values from Monte-Carlo
simulations, many realizations for scenarios with a large
number of network nodes have to be simulated. Therefore,
an efficient implementation is required, where redundant
calculations and the generation of results that are either
invalid or not of interest are avoided. This is ensured in the
Vienna 5G SL simulator by a number of functionalities:
Lite simulation: When the simulator is used, e.g., for
gaining insights into the coverage performance of a spe-
cific scenario, only the computed SINR values are of
interest. Functions such as scheduling and the LPM are
then not necessary. Therefore, the Vienna 5G SL simulator
provides a lite version, where the SINR values are calcu-
lated from the network geometry and the chosen models,
with simplified or no scheduler and LPM functionalities.
Parameter update: To assure that all links are simu-
lated correctly, geometry dependent parameters need to
be adapted when network elements move in the simula- Fig. 11 Simulation of a large IoT scenario. Network geometry with
tion area. At the same time, the recalculation of constant PPP distributed macro (d = 10 km−2 ) and femto (d = 25 km−2 ) BSs,
parameters has to be avoided for an efficient implemen- regular cell users (d = 400 km−2 ) and IoT users (d = 25000 km−2 )
distributed in circular clusters of radius r = 50 m around the femto BS
tation. Thus the MF values (path loss, wall loss, antenna
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 13 of 17

4.2.2 Precise geometry

For SL simulator, there has to be a method that maps from
the network geometry to LSP. As it was mentioned in
Section 2, for shadow fading (SF) and path loss (PL), this
is commonly implemented in form of maps, i.e., the ROI
gets split into a set of pixels of a fixed size and thus, the SF
and PL is represented by two arrays per BS. This method
is chosen because the arrays with finite granularity are
independent of the actual user positions and can thus be
pregenerated. With the finite granularity of the array there
arises the problem that the user positions have to be quan-
tized to pixels, which could lead to a non-smooth behavior
in the resulting curves. For example, consider a simulation
with exactly one BS and one user that moves on a straight
line from one BS to another. This user will experience
jumps in its PL and some region in between the two BSs
where the pathloss is equal. This behavior can artificially
enlarge the assignment region for one BS while shrinking
it for the other. The PL of this user is shown in Fig. 14.
Obviously this problem can be tackled by increasing the
resolution but then also the size of the arrays increase,
which can have a severe impact on the memory efficiency
of the simulator.
The Vienna 5G SL simulator pregenerates the move-
ment trajectories of the users in the preparation of the
simulation (cf. Section 3.1). Those position values are then
used in the setup of every chunk to calculate PL and SF
values for every position in floating point precision. For
the PL, this comes naturally with the definition of most Fig. 12 Downlink simulation with interference region. This figure
models, as they are only distance dependent but for the shows the base station in a small (upper) and big (lower) simulation
SF, this is not the case. In the Vienna LTE-A SL simu- region with an additional interference region (in gray). The absolute
distance between ROI and the outer border of the interference region
lator, the method from [38] is used, which only allows
is constant for both scenario sizes
the generation of correlated Gaussian values for arrays.
In [39], we present an efficient way of generating N-
dimensional arrays of correlated Gaussian values that is
based on linear filtering. In the simulator, we restrict it to
the two-dimensional case. The main steps of the method
can be described as follows:

1. Let r be an array that holds the first period of the

periodic repetition of the desired autocorrelation,
2. Generate an array a of iid Gaussian variables
3. Calculate the spectrum√A := F {a},
4. Design the filter H := F {r},
5. Apply H by element-wise (Hadamard) multiplication
B := H  A,
6. Calculate the spatial domain of B, b := F −1 {B}.

In this description, r, a, A, H and B are still maps with

quantized positions that can be deleted as soon as the cal-
culation of b is finished. From the sixth step, it can be
seen that b need not be a map. It is possible to calcu- Fig. 13 SINR distribution with and without additional interference
late instances of random variables for points that do not region. The SINR is overestimated in the scenarios without an
additional interference region
lie on the grid of quantized map-positions because the
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 14 of 17

we are able to simulate transmissions with all transmit

formats and parameter configurations that are available
in the LL simulator. The link level performance is rep-
resented by SINR to BLER mapping tables in the LPM
of the Vienna 5G SL simulator. These mapping tables
have to be adapted to reflect the efficiencies of the
applied modulation and coding schemes (MCSs). The
SINR to BLER mapping tables are also utilized during
CQI feedback calculation, to select a preferred MCS that
is suitable for the current channel conditions. Supported
modulation methods range from classical cyclic prefix
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) over
filtered OFDM to newly defined schemes such as uni-
versal filtered multicarrier (UFMC) or filter-bank multi-
carrier (FBMC). Implemented coding schemes are turbo,
low-density parity-check (LDPC), polar, and convolu-
tional coding. For any arbitrary MCS, an BLER over
SINR curve can be generated by the Vienna 5G LL sim-
ulator and serve as input to the LPM. This provides
Fig. 14 Illustration of PL calculation with and without maps. In the an extensive freedom for simulating arbitrary combina-
underlying scenario, a user moves on the connecting line of two BSs.
tions of modulation scheme (including modulation order)
The distance between the BSs is 200 m and the PL model is free space
with a pathloss exponent of 2 at a frequency of 2.14 GHz. The plot and coding scheme (including coding rate). An example
shows the respective PL values over the distance to the first BS. When for this different behavior is shown in Fig. 15 for CQIs
using a PL map with a resolution of 5m/pixel there will be a region according to the LTE-A standard and different coding
around the distance of 100 m where the user experiences the same schemes. These results show the necessity for adapting the
PL from both BS, which leads to problems for cell association. With
LPM input.
our precise geometry, this region is confined within a single point

5 Conclusions
inverse discrete Fourier transform can directly be used for
For the increased diversity of scenarios and use cases, that
interpolation. Also, the calculations in this step can be
is anticipated for 5G networks, a vast number of parame-
limited to the necessary points only, i.e., the calculation
ter combinations needs to be employed in SL simulations.
of an entire map is omitted. Thus, b is a set of spatially
correlated random variables where each variable corre-
sponds to the precise position of one user. Due to this
interpolation, it is also not necessary that a is very large.
To give an example for the necessary resolution for the
uncorrelated map a, in [39], we interpolated a map with a
resolution of 2.5m/pixel and 40 × 40 pixel to 97 × 97 pixel.
It is clear that the resulting autocorrelation after interpo-
lation is not precisely the desired autocorrelation but still
the errors are smaller than the errors of the used expo-
nentially decaying model compared to real measurements
[58]. Besides that, the error of the measured autocorre-
lation after interpolation is also smaller than the errors
that are introduced by the approximation of the Cholesky
decomposition in [38]. As in the Vienna LTE-A SL sim-
ulator, it is again possible to calculate different SF values
for different BSs and introducing an inter-BS correlation c
that applies to every position. This is now done by calcu-
lating one additional√spectrum  and replacing the third
√
step by A := c + 1 − cF {a}. Fig. 15 SNR-to-BLER mapping example. This figure shows an
example of SNR-to-BLER mapping for three CQI values that
4.2.3 Input from Vienna 5G LL simulator correspond to OFDM modulation with 4, 16, and 64 quadrature
Thanks to the applied link abstraction within our simu- amplitude modulation (QAM) for three different coding schemes that
use the same coding rate
lator and the capabilities of the Vienna 5G LL simulator,
Müller et al. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking (2018) 2018:227 Page 15 of 17

With the Vienna 5G SL simulator, we developed a tool Authors’ contributions

for researchers to investigate important aspects of future MM contributed to defining the simulator structure, performed the literature
review and wrote the three introductory sections. FA wrote the sections on
networks, with the focus on multi-tier, heterogeneous net- propagation models and heterogeneous networks and is in charge of
works, in combination with a substantial collection of implementing advanced channel models. TD implemented the MAC layer
propagation models. The relation of the path loss model functionality and the shadow fading and contributed the description of
precise geometry implementation. AF contributed the manuscript sections on
choice with the actual link condition further increases the IoT and general implementation and included the interference region, the
versatility of simulations and the range of potential use LQM and the majority of the propagation models in the simulator. BR wrote
cases. the section on D2D and added V2X functionality to the code. AN contributed
the section on channel interfaces that he also defined and implemented. LN
As can be seen from the presented structure of the sim- started the implementation of the simulator and contributed large parts of the
ulator, it is effortlessly possible to enhance the already scenario definition and setup. SS supervises the simulator’s development. MR
existing functionality and also to speed up the simula- initiated the simulator project and supervises the research. All authors read
and approved the final manuscript.
tions through parallelization of the main simulation loop.
Due to efficient implementation, it is possible to simu- Competing interests
late large-scale networks with several BS and user types The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
and several thousand active network nodes in the same
simulation, without the need for specialized simulation Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
hardware. published maps and institutional affiliations.
Since the simulator code is freely available under an aca-
demic license, we encourage active input from researchers Received: 9 May 2018 Accepted: 28 August 2018
around the world, also through our online-forum [59], and
will constantly improve and extend the simulator’s func-
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